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12th Maths Book-Chapter-7

This document discusses vectors and their fundamental operations. It defines a vector as having both magnitude and direction, unlike a scalar which only has magnitude. It introduces the geometric representation of a vector as a directed line segment with an initial and terminal point. It then covers key vector concepts such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication of vectors, as well as position vectors and parallel vectors.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
79 views23 pages

12th Maths Book-Chapter-7

This document discusses vectors and their fundamental operations. It defines a vector as having both magnitude and direction, unlike a scalar which only has magnitude. It introduces the geometric representation of a vector as a directed line segment with an initial and terminal point. It then covers key vector concepts such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication of vectors, as well as position vectors and parallel vectors.

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CHAPTER

7 Vectors

Animation 7.1: Cross Product of Vectors


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
7.1 INTRODUCTION (iii) If terminal point B of a vector AB coincides with its initial point A, then magnitude

AB = 0 and AB = 0 , which is called zero or null vector.
In physics, mathematics and engineering, we encounter with two important quantities,
(iv) Two vectors are said to be negative of each other if they have same magnitude but
known as “Scalars and Vectors”.
opposite direction.
BA = - AB = - v
A scalar quantity, or simply a scalar, is one that possesses only magnitude. It can   
If AB = v , then
be speciied by a number alongwith unit. In Physics, the quantities like mass, time, density,
and BA = - AB
 
temperature, length, volume, speed and work are examples of scalars.
A vector quantity, or simply a vector, is one that possesses
both magnitude and direction. In Physics, the quantities like displacement, velocity, 7.1.2 Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar
acceleration, weight, force, momentum, electric and magnetic ields are examples of vectors.
In this section, we introduce vectors and their fundamental operations we begin with We use the word scalar to mean a real number. Multiplication of a vector v by a scalar
a geometric interpretation of vector in the plane and in space. ‘k’ is a vector whose magnitude is k times that of v. It is denoted by kv .
(i) If k is +ve, then v and kv are in the same direction.
(ii) If k is -ve, then v and kv are in the opposite direction

(a) Equal vectors



Two vectors AB and are said to be equal, if
they have the same magnitude and same direction

i.e., AB = CD
 

7.1.1 Geometric Interpretation of vector (b) Parallel vectors


 Two vectors are parallel if and only if they are non-zero
Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment AB with A its initial scalar multiple of each other, (see igure).
point and B its terminal point. It is often found convenient to denote a vector by an arrow

and is written either as AB or as a boldface symbol like v or in underlined form v.
 7.1.3 Addition and Subtraction of Two Vectors
(i) The magnitude or length or norm of a vector AB or v, is its absolute value and is

written as AB or simply AB or v . Addition of two vectors is explained by the following two laws:
(ii) A unit vector is deined as a vector whose magnitude is unity. Unit vector of vector
(i) Triangle Law of Addition
v is written as v̂ (read as v hat) and is deined by vˆ =
v
v

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If two vectors u and v are represented by 7.1.4 Position Vector


the two sides AB and BC of a triangle such
that the terminal point of u coincide with The vector, whose initial point is the origin O and whose
the initial point of v, then the third side AC of terminal point is P, is called the position vector of the point P
the triangle gives vector sum u + v, that is 
and is written as OP .
AB + BC= AC ⇒ u = + v AC
   
The position vectors of the points A and B relative to the
= by OA a=
 
origin O are deined and OB b respectively.
(ii) Parallelogram Law of Addition In the igure, by triangle law of addition,
OA + AB =
If two vectors u and v are represented by two adjacent   
OB
a + AB =
sides AB and AC of a parallelogram as shown in the 
b
igure, then diagonal AD give the sum or resultant
⇒ -=

  AB b a
of AB and AC , that is
AD = AB + AC =+
  
u v
7.1.5 Vectors in a Plane
Note: This law was used by Aristotle to describe the combined action of two forces.
Let R be the set of real numbers. The Cartesian plane is deined to be the R2 = {(x, y) : x,
(b) Subtraction of two vectors y d R}.
 
The diference of two vectors AB and AC is deined by An element (x, y) d R2 represents a point P(x, y) which
AB - AC= AB + (- AC )
   
is uniquely determined by its coordinate x and y. Given a
u - v = u + ( -v ) vector u in the plane, there exists a unique point

P(x, y) in the plane such that the vector OP is equal to u
(see igure). So we can use rectangular coordinates (x, y) for P to
associate a unique ordered pair [x, y] to vector u.
We deine addition and scalar multiplication in R2 by:

vectors u [ x, y ] and v [ x′, y′] , we have


In igure, this diference is interpreted as the main diagonal of the parallelogram with
sides AB and - AC . We can also interpret the same vector diference as the third side For any two=
=
 

u + v = [ x, y ] + [ x′, y′] = [ x + x′, y + y′]


(i) Addition:
 
of a triangle with sides AB and AC . In this second interpretation, the vector diference
AB - AC = CB points the terminal point of the vector from which we are subtracting the For u = [x, y] and a d R, we have
  
(ii) Scalar Multiplication:
second vector. au = a[x, y] = [ax, ay]
Deinition: The set of all ordered pairs [x, y] of real numbers, together with the rules of
addition and scalar multiplication, is called the set of vectors in R2.

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For the vector u = [x, y], x and y are called the components of u. 7.1.6 Properties of Magnitude of a Vector
Note: The vector [x, y] is an ordered pair of numbers, not a point (x, y) in the plane.
Let v be a vector in the plane or in space and let c be a real number, then
(a) Negative of a Vector (i) v ≥ 0, and v =
0 if and only if v = 0
In scalar multiplication (ii), if a = -1 and u = [x, y] then (ii) cv = c v
au = (-1) [x, y] = [-x, -y]
which is denoted by -u and is called the additive inverse of u or negative vector of u. Proof: (i) We write vector v in component form as v = [x, y], then
v= x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 for all x and y.
(b) Diference of two Vectors
We deine u - v as u + (-v) Further v = x 2 + y 2 = 0 if and only if x = 0, y = 0

=
= u [ x, y ] and v [ x' , y′], then
In this case v = [0,0] = 0

( cx ) + ( cy )=
If
u - v = u + (-v) cv= cx, cy= c 2 x 2 + y=
2 2

[ x, y ] + [ - x′ - y′]= [ x - x′, y - y′]


2
(ii) c v
=
7.1.7 Another notation for representing vectors in plane
(c) Zero Vector
Clearly u + (-u) = [x, y] + [-x, -y] = [x - x, y - y] = [0,0] = 0. We introduce two special vectors,
0 = [0,0] is called the Zero (Null) vector. = =
i [1,0], j [0,1] in R 2

(d) Equal Vectors As magnitude of i = 12 + 02 = 1


Two vectors u = [x, y] and v = [x ’, y ’] of R2 are said to be equal if and only if they have the magnitude of j= 02 + 12 = 1
same components. That is,
[x, y] = [x ’, y ’] if and only if x = x ’ and y = y ‘ So i and j are called unit vectors along x-axis, and along y-axis respectively. Using the
and we write u = v deinition of addition and scalar multiplication, the vector [x, y] can be written as
= u [ x=
, y] [ x,0] + [0, y ]
= x[1,0] + y[0,1]
(e) Position Vector

= xi + y j
For any point P(x, y) in R2, a vector u = [x, y] is represented by a directed line segment

OP , whose initial point is at origin. Such vectors are called position vectors because
Thus each vector [x, y] in R2 can be uniquely represented by
xi + y j .
they provide a unique correspondence between the points (positions) and vectors.

u [ x, y ] and v [ x′, y′] is written as


(f) Magnitude of a Vector In terms of unit vector i and j , the sum u + v of two vectors
For any vector u = [x, y] in R2, we deine the magnitude or norm =
=
or length of the vector as of the point P(x, y) from the origin O u+v= [ x + x′, y + y′]
∴ Magnitude of OP = = = + = ( x + x′ ) i + ( y + y′ ) j
 
OP u x2 y 2
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7.1.8 A unit vector in the direction of another given vector. Example 3: Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector
(i) v= 2i + 6 j (ii) v =[-2,4]
A vector u is called a unit vector, if u = 1
Now we ind a unit vector u in the direction of any other given vector v. Solution: (i) v= 2i + 6 j
We can do by the use of property (ii) of magnitude of vector, as follows: v= ( 2) + (6) = 4 + 36 =
2 2
40

∴ A unit vector in the direction of v =


= + i = + i
= =
v 2 6 1 3
1 1 j j

[ -2, 4] =-2i + 4 j
v 1 v 40 40 10 10
v=
v v
(ii)
∴ the vector v =
( -2 ) + ( 4 ) = 4 + 16 = 20
1
v=
v is the required unit vector 2 2
v
-2 -1
∴ A unit vector in the direction of v = + i = j + i
It points in the same direction as v, because it is a positive scalar multiple of v. v 4 2
j
v 20 20 5 5
Example 1:
Example 4: If ABCD is a parallelogram such that the points A, B and C are respectively
For v = [1, -3] and w = [2,5] (-2, -3), (1,4) and (0, -5). Find the coordinates of D.
(i) v + w = [1, -3] + [2,5] = [1 + 2, -3 + 5] = [3,2]
(ii) 4v + 2w = [4, -12] + [4,10] = [8,-2] Solution: Suppose the coordinates of D are (x, y)
(iii) v - w = [1, -3]- [2,5] = [l - 2, -3 -5] = [-1,-8] As ABCD is a parallelogram
(iv) v - v = [l -1, -3 + 3] = [0,0] = 0 ∴ AB = DC and AB  DC
v= (1) 2 + (-3) 2 = 1 + 9= ⇒ AB =
 
(v) 10 DC
∴ (1 + 2)i + (4 + 3) j =(0 - x)i + (-5 - y ) j
Example 2: Find the unit vector in the same direction as the vector v = [3, -4]. ⇒ 3i + 7 j =- xi + (-5 - y ) j

v = [3, -4] = 3i - 4 j
Equating horizontal and vertical components, we have
Solution: -x = 3 ⇒ x = -3
v= 32 + (-4)=
2
25= 5 and -5 - y = 7 ⇒ y = -12

= = [3, -4]
Hence coordinates of D are (-3, 12).
1 1
Now u v (u is unit vector in the direction of v)
v 5
 3 -4 
7.1.9 The Ratio Formula
= , 
5 5 
Let A and B be two points whose position vectors (p.v.) are a and b respectively. If a
 3   -4 
Veriication: u =   +  = + = 1
2 2
9 16 point P divides AB in the ratio p : q, then the position vector of P is given by
5  5  25 25

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qa + pb Now 2OC= a + b

r=
p+q ⇒ OC + OC = OA + OB
   

⇒ OC - OA = OB - OC
Proof: Given a and b are position vectors of the points A and B respectively. Let r be    

⇒ OC + AO = OB + CO
the position vector of the point P which divides the line segment AB in the ratio p : q. That is    
m AP : mPB = p : q
⇒ AO + OC = CO + OB
   

= ∴ AC =
m AP p  

( ) ( )
So CB
Thus m AC = mCB
mPB q  
⇒ q m AP = ⇒
( ) ( )
p mPB
C is equidistant from A and B, but A, B, C are collinear.
Thus q AP = p PB
 
Hence C is the mid point of AB.
⇒ q (r - a ) = p (b - r )
⇒ qr - qa = pb - pr Example 6: Use vectors, to prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
⇒ pr + qr = qa + pb
other.

⇒ r ( p + q ) = qa + pb
qa + pb
Solution: Let the vertices of the parallelogram be A, B, C and D (see igure)
⇒ r= = AB + AD , the vector from A to the mid point of diagonal AC is
   
q+ p
Since AC

Corollary: If P is the mid point of AB, then p : q = 1 : 1 = v (


AB + AD
1  
)
a+b
2
∴ positive vector of P = = = AB - AD , the vector from A to the mid point of diagonal DB is
   
r Since DB

( )
2
w= AD + AB - AD
 1  
2
= AD + AB - AD
7.1.10 Vector Geometry  1  1 

( )
2 2
= AB + AD
Let us now use the concepts of vectors discussed so far in proving Geometrical 1 
 
Theorems. A few examples are being solved here to illustrate the method. 2
=v
Since v = w , these mid points of the diagonals AC and DB are the same.
 
Example 5: If a and b be the p.vs of A and B respectively w.r.t. origin O, and C be a point

a+b
on AB such that OC =
Thus the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
, then show that C is the mid-point of AB.
2

= a = b and OC
= ( a + b)
   1
Solution: OA , OB
2
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EXERCISE 7.1 (i) Point C with position vector 2i - 3 j and point D with position vector 3i + 2 j in
the ratio 4 : 3
Write the vector PQ in the form xi + y j . (ii) Point E with position vector 5 j and point F with position vector 4i + j in ratio 2 : 5

1.
(i) P(2,3), Q(6, -2) (ii) P(0,5), Q(-1, -6) 13. Prove that the line segment joining the mid points of two sides of a triangle is
2. Find the magnitude of the vector u: parallel to the third side and half as long.
(i) u= 2i - 7 j (ii) u= i + j (iii) u = [3, - 4] 14. Prove that the line segments joining the mid points of the sides of a quadrilateral
3. If u =2i - 7 j , v =i - 6 j and w =-i + j . Find the following vectors: taken in order form a parallelogram.

u+v-w 2u - 3v + 4w u+ v+ w
1 1 1
(i) (ii) (iii)
2 2 2
7.2 INTRODUCTION OF VECTOR IN SPACE
Find the sum of the vectors AB and CD , given the four points A(1, -1), B(2 ,0 ),
 
4. In space, a rectangular coordinate system is constructed
C(-1, 3) and D(-2, 2). using three mutually orthogonal (perpendicular) axes, which
Find the vector from the point A to the origin where AB= 4i - 2 j and B is the point

5. have orgin as their common point of intersection. When
(-2, 5). sketching igures, we follow the convention that the positive
6. Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector given below: x-axis points towards the reader, the positive y-axis to the
right and the positive z-axis points upwards.
v= 2i - j = i+ -v =- i
1 3 3 1
(i) (ii) v j (iii) j
2 2 2 2

7. If A, B and C are respectively the points (2, -4), (4, 0) and (1, 6). Use vector method
to ind the coordinates of the point D if: These axis are also labeled in accordance with the right
(i) ABCD is a parallelogram (ii) ADBC is a parallelogram hand rule. If ingers of the right hand, pointing in the direction
8. If B, C and D are respectively (4, 1), (-2, 3) and (-8, 0). Use vector method to ind of positive x-axis, are curled toward the positive y-axis,
the coordinates of the point: then the thumb will point in the direction of positive z-axis,
(i) A if ABCD is a parallelogram. (ii) E if AEBD is a parallelogram. perpendicular to the xy-plane. The broken lines in the igure
If O is the origin and OP = AB , ind the point P when A and B are (-3, 7) and (1, 0)
  represent the negative axes.
9.
respectively.
10. Use vectors, to show that ABCD is a parallelogram, when the points A, B, C and D
are respectively (0, 0), (a, 0), (b, c) and (b - a, c).
A point P in space has three coordinates, one along

If AB = CD , ind the coordinates of the point A when points B, C, D are (1, 2), (-2, 5),
  x-axis, the second along y-axis and the third along z-axis. If the
11.
distances along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively are a, b,
(4, 11) respectively.
and c, then the point P is written with a unique triple of real
12. Find the position vectors of the point of division of the line segments joining the
numbers as P = (a, b, c) (see igure).
following pair of points, in the given ratio:

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7.2.1 Concept of a vector in space f) Magnitude of a vector: We deine the magnitude or norm or length of a vector u
in space by the distance of the point P(x, y, z) from the origin O.

∴ OP = u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2

The set R3 = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z d R} is called the
3-dimensional space. An element (x, y, z) of R3 represents
a point P(x, y, z), which is uniquely determined by its Example 1: For the vectors, v = [2,1,3] and w = [-1,4,0], we have the following
coordinates x, y and z. Given a vector u in space, there (i) v + w = [2 - 1, 1 + 4, 3 + 0]= [l,5,3]
exists a unique point P(x, y, z) in space such that the
 (ii) v - w = [2 + 1,1 - 4, 3 - 0]= [3, -3, 3]
vector OP is equal to u (see igure). (iii) 2w =2[-1, 4, 0] = [-2, 8, 0]
v - 2w = [ 2 + 2,1 - 8,3 - 0] = [ 4, -7,3] = ( 4) + ( -7 ) + ( 3) = 16 + 49 + 9 =
Now each element (x, y, z ) d P3 is associated to 2 2 2
(iv) 74
a unique ordered triple [x, y, z], which represents the

vector u = OP = [x, y, z].
We deine addition and scalar multiplication in R3 7.2.2 Properties of Vectors

Addition: For any two vectors u = [x, y, z] and v = [ x′, y′, z′] , we have
by:

[ x, y, z ] + [ x′, y′, z′] = [ x + x′, y + y′, z + z′]


(i) Vectors, both in the plane and in space, have the following properties:
u+v= Let u, v and w be vectors in the plane or in space and let a, b d R, then they have the

For u = [x, y, z] and a d R, we have


following properties
(ii) Scalar Multiplication:
au =a[x, y, z] = [ax, ay, az]
(i) u+v=v+u (Commutative Property)
(ii) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (Associative Property)
(iii) u + (-1)u = u - u = 0
Deinition: The set of all ordered triples [x, y, z] of real numbers, together with the rules
(Inverse for vector addition)
of addition and scalar multiplication, is called the set of vectors in R3.
(iv) a(v + w)=av + aw (Distributive Property)
For the vector u = [x, y, z], x, y and z are called the components of u.
(v) a(bu) = (ab)u (Scalar Multiplication)
The deinition of vectors in R3 states that vector addition and scalar multiplication are
Proof: Each statement is proved by writing the vector/vectors in component form in

The negative of the vector u =[ x; y, z ] as - u =- [ x, - y , - z ]


to be carried out for vectors in space just as for vectors in the plane. So we deine in R3:
( 1) u =-
R2 / R3 and using the properties of real numbers. We give the proofs of properties (i) and (ii)

v [ x′, y′, z′] and w [ x′′, y′′, z′′]


a)
==
as follows.
diference
v - w = v + ( - w ) = [ x′ - x′′, y′ - y′′, z′ - z′′]
b) The of two vectors as (i) Since for any two real numbers a and b
a + b = b + a, it follows, that
for any two vectors u = [x, y] and v = [ x′, y′] in R2, we have
v [ x′, y′, z′] and w [ x′′, y′′, z′′] by v w if and only
c) The zero vector as 0 = [0,0,0]
d) Equality of two = = =
vectors v [ x, y ] + [ x′ + y′]
u +=
=x′ x= ′′, y′ y′′ and=z′ z′′ . =[ x + x′, y + y′]
e) Position Vector =[ x′ + x, y′ + y ]
For any point P(x, y, z) in R3, a vector u = [x, y, z] is represented by a directed line
 = [ x′, y′] + [ x, y ]
segment OP , whose initial point is at origin. Such vectors are called position vectors =v+u
in R3. So addition of vectors in R2 is commutative
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(ii) Since for any three real numbers a, b, c, 7.2.4 Distance Between two Points in Space
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) , it follows that
=
for any three vectors, u [ x= , y ], v [ x′, y′] and w [ x′′, y′′] in R 2 , we have
=  
(u + v) + w = [ x + x′, y + y′] + [ x′′, y′′]
P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
If OP1 and OP2 are the position vectors of the points

=[( x + x′) + x′′,( y + y′) + y′′]


=[ x + ( x′ + x′′), y + ( y′ + y′′)]


= [ x, y ] + [ x′ + x′′, y′ + y′′]
The vector PP1 2 , is given by

1 2 = OP2 - OP1 = [ x2 - x1 , y2 - y1 , z2 - z1 ]
  
=u + (v + w)
PP

∴ Distance between P1 and P2 = PP



So addition of vectors in R2 is associative 1 2

= ( x2 - x1 ) 2 + ( y2 - y1 ) 2 + ( z2 - z1 ) 2
The proofs of the other parts are left as an exercise for the students.

7.2.3 Another notation for representing vectors in space This is called distance formula between two points P1 and P2 in R3,

As in plane, similarly we introduce three special Example 2: If u = 2i + 3 j + k , v = 4i + 6 j + 2k and w = -6i - 9 j - 3k , then


vectors (a) Find
= =
i [1,0,0], =
j [0,1,0] and k [0,0,1] in R 3 . (i) u + 2v (ii) u-v-w

As magnitude of i = 12 + 02 + 02 = 1
(b) Show that u, v, and w are parallel to each other.

magnitude of j = 02 + 12 + 02= 1
Solution: (a)
(i) u + 2v = 2i + 3 j + k + 2(4i + 6 j + 2k )
= 2i + 3 j + k + 8i + 12 j + 4k
=10i + 15 j + 5k
and magnitude of k = 02 + 02 + 12 = 1 So i, j and k are called unit vectors along
(ii) u - v - w
= (2i + 3 j + k ) - (4i + 6 j + 2k ) - (-6i - 9 j - 3k )
= (2 - 4 + 6)i + (3 - 6 + 9) j + (1 - 2 + 3)k
x-axis, along y-axis and along z-axis respectively. Using the deinition of addition and scalar

= 4i + 6 j + 2k
multiplication, the vector [x, y, z] can be written as
u = [ x, y , z ] = [ x,0,0] + [0, y,0] + [0,0, z ]
= x[1,0,0] + y[0,1,0] + z[0,0,,1] (b) v = 4i + 6 j + 2k = 2(2i + 3 j + k )

=xi + y j + zk ∴ v= 2u

Thus each vector [x, y, z] in R3 can be uniquely represented by xi + y j + zk .
u and v are parallel vectors, and have same direction
Again w=-6i - 9 j - 3k
= -3(2i + 3 j + k )
u [ x, y, z ] and v [ x′, y′, z′] is written as
In terms of unit vector i , j and k , , the sum u + v of two vectors
=
=
∴ w= -3u
u+v= [ x + x′, y + y′, z + z′] ⇒
= ( x + x′ ) i + ( y + y′ ) j + ( z + z′ ) k
u and w are parallel vectors and have opposite direction.
Hence u, v and w are parallel to each other.
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7.2.5 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines of a Vector EXERCISE 7.2

Let A = (2, 5), B = (-1,1) and C = (2, -6). Find


Let r = OP =xi + y j + zk be a non-zero vector, let a, b and
 1.
2AB - CB 2CB - 2CA
    
g denote the angles formed between r and the unit coordinate (i) AB (ii) (iii)
2. Let u =i + 2 j - k , v =3i - 2 j + 2k , w =5i - j + 3k . Find the indicated vector or number.
u + 2v + w (ii) u - 3w (iii) 3v + w
vectors i, j and k respectively.
such that (i)
0 ≤ a ≤ p , 0 ≤ b ≤ p , and 0 ≤ g ≤ p , 3. Find the magnitude of the vector v and write the direction cosines of v.
(i) the angles a , b , g are called the direction angles and (i) v = 2i + 3 j + 4k (ii) v =i - j - k (iii) v= 4i - 5 j
(ii) the numbers cos a, cos b and cos g are called direction 4. Find a, so that a i + (a + 1) j + 2k =
3.
Find a unit vector in the direction of v =+
i 2j-k.
cosines of the vector r.
5.
6. If a = 3i - j - 4k , b =-2i - 4 j - 3k and c =+
i 2j-k.
Find a unit vector parallel to 3a - 2b + 4c .
Important Result:
Prove that cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1
7. Find a vector whose
(i) magnitude is 4 and is parallel to 2i - 3 j + 6k

r =[ x, y, z ] =xi + y j + zk
Solution:
(ii) magnitude is 2 and is parallel to -i + j + k
If u = 2i + 3 j + 4k , , v =-i + 3 j - k and w =+
i 6 j + zk represent the sides of a triangle.
Let

∴ r= x +y +z =
8.
2 2 2
r Find the value of z.
The position vectors of the points A, B, C and D are 2i - j + k , 3i + j ,
x y z
=  , ,  is the unit vector in the direction of the vector r = OP .
 9.
2i + 4 j - 2k -i - 2 j + k
r 
r r r
then
r and respectively. Show that AB is parallel

It can be visualized that the triangle OAP is a right triangle with ∠A = 900.
to CD .
10. We say that two vectors v and w in space are parallel if there is a scalar c such that
Therefore in right triangle OAP,
v = cw. The vectors point in the same direction if c > 0, and the vectors point in the

= a
=
OA x opposite direction if c < 0
Find two vectors of length 2 parallel to the vector v =2i - 4 j + 4k .
cos , similarly
OP r (a)
= cos b =
y
, cos g
z (b) Find the constant a so that the vectors v =-
i 3 j + 4k and w = ai + 9 j - 12k are
r r parallel.
The numbers cos a = , , cos b = and cos g = Find a vector of length 5 in the direction opposite that of v =-
i 2 j + 3k .
x y z
are called (c)
Find a and b so that the vectors 3i - j + 4k and ai + b j - 2k are parallel.
r r r
 (d)
the direction cosines of OP .

x2 y 2 z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 r 2
∴ cos a + cos b + cos g = 2 + 2 + 2 =
2 2 2
= 2 =1
r r r r2 r
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11. Find the direction cosines for the given vector: 7.3.1 Deductions of the Important Results
(i) v = 3i - j + 2k (ii) 6i - 2 j + k
(iii) =
=

PQ , where P (2, 1, 5) and Q (1, 3, 1) . By Applying the deinition of dot product to unit vectors i, j , k , we have,
=
= =
=
12. Which of the following triples can be the direction angles of a single vector:
(a) i.i i i cos 0 1 (b) i. j i j cos 90 0
=
= =
=
(i) 450, 450, 600 (ii) 300, 450, 600 (iii) 450, 600, 600
j. j j j cos 0 1 j.k j k cos 90 0
7.3 THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS =
=k .k k k cos 0 1 =
=k .i k i cos 90 0
(c) u.v = u v cosq
We shall now consider products of two vectors that originated in the study of Physics = v u cos( - q )
= v u cosq
and Engineering. The concept of angle between two vectors is expressed in terms of a scalar
⇒ u.v =
product of two vectors.
v.u

Deinition 1:
Let two non-zero vectors u and v, in the plane or in space, have same initial point. The ∴ Dot product of two vectors is commutative.
dot product of u and v, written as u.v, is deined by
u.v = u v cosq

7.3.2 Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors

Deinition: Two non-zero vectors u and v are perpendicular if and only if u.v = 0.

p p
Since angle between u and v is and cos =0

p
2 2
where q is the angle between u and v and 0767p so u.v = u v cos
2

Deinition 2:
(a) If+ u = a1 i b+1 j =
u.v = 0
and v a2 i b2 j .
are two non-zero vectors in the plane. The dot product u.v is deined by Note: As 0 . b = 0, for every vector b. So the zero vector is regarded to be perpendicular
u.v = a1a2 +b1b2
(b) If u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k .
to every vector.

are two non-zero vectors in space. The dot product u.v is deined by 7.3.3 Properties of Dot Product
u.v = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
Let u, v and w be vectors and let c be a real number, then
u.v = 0 ⇒ u = 0 or v = 0
Note: The dot product is also referred to the scalar product or the inner product.
(i)
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(ii) u.v = v.u (commutative property) By law of cosines,


(iii) u . (v + w) = u.v + u.w (distributive property) v - w = v + w - 2 v w cosq
v [ x1 , y1 ] and w [ x2 , y2 ], then
2 2 2
(1)
=
=
(iv) (c u ).v = c (u.v), (c is scalar)

[ x1 - x2 , y1 - y2 ]
if
v-w=
The proofs of the properties are left as an exercise for the students.

So equation (1) becomes:


7.3.4 Analytical Expression of Dot Product u.v
(Dot product of vectors in their components form)
x1 - x2 + y1 - y2 = x12 + y12 + x2 2 + y2 2 - 2 v w cosq
2 2

Let u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k 2 v w cosq


- 2 x1 x2 - 2 y-1 y2 =
⇒ x1 x2 += = q v.w
be two non-zero vectors.
y1 y2 v w cos
From distributive Law we can write:

∴ u.v = (a1 i + b1 j + c1 k ).(a2 i + b2 j + c2 k )


If u =3i - j - 2k and v =i + 2 j - k , then
= a1a2 (i.i ) + a1b2 (i. j ) + a1c2 (i.k )
Example 2:
u.v = (-3)(1) + (-1)(2) + (-2)(-1) = 3
 =
i.i j=
. j k=
+b1a2 ( j.i ) + b1b2 ( j. j ) + b1c2 ( j.k )
.k 1
i.=
j j.=
k k= If u =2i - 4 j + 5k and v =-4i - 3 j - 4k , then
+c1a2 (k .i ) + c1b2 (k . j ) + c1c2 (k .k )
.i 0 Example 3:
=
u.v (2)(4) + (-4)(-3) + (5)(=
-4) 0
⇒ u.v = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 ⇒ u and v are perpendicular
Hence the dot product of two vectors is the sum of the product of their corresponding
components. 7.3.5 Angle between two vectors
Equivalence of two deinitions of dot product of two vectors has been proved in
the following example. The angle between two vectors u and v is determined from the deinition of dot
product, that is
= ≤q ,
(a) u.v u ≤v cos where 0 q p
Example 1: (i) If v = [x1, y2] and w = [x2, y2] are two vectors in the plane, then
v=
.w x1 x2 + y1 y2
∴ cosq =
u.v
(ii) If v and w are two non-zero vectors in the plane, then u v
v.w = v w cosq (b) u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k , then
where q is the angle between v and w and 0 7 q 7 p. u.v = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
u= a12 + b12 + c12 and v = a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2
Proof: Let v and w determine the sides of a triangle then the third side, opposite to the
angle q, has length v - w (by triangle law of addition of vectors) cosq =
u.v

u v

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⇒ (2i + a j + 5k ) . (3i + j + a k ) =
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
0
∴ cosq = ⇒ 6 + a + 5a =
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2 ∴ -a =
0
1

Corollaries:
If q = 0 or p, the vectors u and v are collinear.
Example 6:
Show that the vectors 2i - j + k , i - 3 j - 5k and 3i - 4 j - 4k form the sides of a right
(i)

p
(ii) If q = , cosq =0 ⇒ u.v =0. triangle.
2 Solution:
Let AB =2i - j + k and BC =i - 3 j - 5k
The vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal.  

Now AB + BC = (2i - j + k ) + (i - 3 j - 5k )
 
Example 4: Find the angle between the vectors
u =2i - j + k and v =-i + j =3i - 4 j - 4k =AC

(third side)
∴ AB , BC and AC form a triangle ABC.
  
Solution: u . v= (2i - j + k ) . (-i + j + 0k )
=(2)(-1) + (-1)(1) + (1)(0) =-3 Further we prove that rABC is a right triangle

∴ u = 2i - j + k = (2) 2 + (-1) 2 + (1) 2 = AB . BC = (2i - j + k ).(i - 3 j - 5k )


 

= (2)(1) + (-1)(-3) + (1)(-5)


6

v = -i + j + 0k = (-1) 2 + (1) 2 + (0) 2 = 2


= 2+3-5
and
=0
cosq =
u.v
∴ AB ⊥ BC
Now  
u.v
-3 Hence rABC is a right triangle.
⇒ - q ==
3
cos

5p
6 2 2
∴q=
7.3.6 Projection of one Vector upon another Vector:
6
In many physical applications, it is required to know

Find a scalar a so that the vectors


“how much” of a vector is applied along a given direction.
Example 5:
2i + a j + 5k and 3i + j + a k are perpendicular.
For this purpose we ind the projection of one vector
along the other vector.
= Let OA u=
 
and OB v
Let q be the angle between them, such that
Solution:
u = 2i + a j + 5k and v = 3i + j + a k
0 7 q 7 p.
Let
It is given that u and v are perpendicular
∴ u .v= 0

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Draw BM ⊥ OA . Then OM is called the projection of v along u.


Solution: Let the vectors a, b and c be along the sides BC, CA and AB of the triangle ABC as
shown in the igure.

= cosq , that is,
OM a+b+c=0
⇒ a = -(b + c)
Now
OB
= = cosq v cosq Now a.a = (b + c).(b + c)

OM OB (1)
= b.b + b.c + c.b + c.c
By deinition, cosq =
u.v

(2)
u v a2 = b2 + 2b.c + c2 ( b.c c.b)
From (1) and (2), OM = v .
u.v ⇒ a2 = b2 + c2 + 2bc.cos(p - A)
u v ∴ a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A

∴ Projection of v along u =
u.v (ii) a + b + c = 0
u ⇒ a = -b - c

Similarly, projection of u along v =


Take dot product with a
a.a = -a.b - a.c
u.v

= - ab cos(p - C) - ac cos(p - B)
v

a2 = ab cos C +ac CosB


⇒ a = b cos C + c CosB
Example 7: Show that the components of a vector are the projections of that vector
along i , j and k respectively.
Prove that: cos(a - b) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b
Solution: Let v = ai + b j + ck , then
Example 9:

Let OA and OB be the unit vectors in the xy-plane making angles a and b
 

Projection of v along i = = (ai + b j + ck ).i = a


Solution:
v.i
with the positive x-axis.
So that ∠AOB = a - b
i

Projection of v along j = = (ai + b j + ck ). j = b Now= OA cos a i + sin a j


v. j 

and=OB cos b i + sin b j


j 
Projection of v along k = = (ai + b j + ck ).k = c
v.k
k
∴ OA.OB =(cos a i + sin a j ).(cos b i + sin b j )
 
Hence components a, b and c of vector v = ai + b j + ck are projections of vector v along

⇒ OA OB cos(a=
- b ) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
i, j and k respectively.  

∴ cos(a=
- b ) cos a cos b + sin a sin b ( )
∴ OA = OB = 1
 
Example 8: Prove that in any triangle ABC
(i) a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A (Cosine Law)
(ii) a = b cosC + c cosB (Projection Law)
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EXERCISE 7.3 u×v =( u v sin q ) nˆ


1. Find the cosine of the angle q between u and v: where q is the angle between the vectors, such that 0 7 q 7 p and n̂ is a “unit vector
u = 3i + j - k , v = 2i - j + k (ii) u =i - 3 j + 4k , v =4i - j + 3k
perpendicular to the plane of u and v with direction given by the right hand rule.

[ 3,=
5] , v [ 6, - 2] [ 2, 3, 1=
] , v [ 2, 4, 1]
(i)
(iii) - u = (iv) u -=
2. Calculate the projection of a along b and projection of b along a when:
(i) a-=i k+=
, b j k (ii) a =3i + j - k , b =-2i - j + k
3. Find a real number a so that the vectors u and v are perpendicular.
(i) u =2a i + j - k , v =i + a j + 4k
(ii) u= a i + 2a j + 3k , v= i + a j + 3k
4. Find the number z so that the triangle with vertices A(1, -1, 0), B(-2, 2, 1) and C(0, 2, z)
is a right triangle with right angle at C.
5. If v is a vector for which
=v.i 0,=
v. j 0,=
v.k 0, find v. .
6. (i) Show that the vectors 3i - 2 j + k , i - 3 j + 5k and 2i + j - 4k form a right angle. Right hand rule
(ii) Show that the set of points P = (1,3,2), Q = (4,1,4) and P = (6,5,5) form a right triangle. (i) If the ingers of the right hand point along the vector u and then curl towards the
7. Show that mid point of hypotenuse a right triangle is equidistant from its vertices. vector v, then the thumb will give the direction of n̂ which is u x v. It is shown in the igure (a).
8. Prove that perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent. (ii) In igure (b), the right hand rule shows the direction of v x u.
9. Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
10. Prove that the angle in a semi circle is a right angle. 7.4.1 Derivation of useful results of cross products
11. Prove that cos(a + b) = cos a cos b - sin a sin b (a) By applying the deinition of cross product to unit vectors i, j and k , we have:
12. Prove that in any triangle ABC. (a)=i × i i i=
sin 0 nˆ 0
=j× j j =
(i) b = c cos A + a cos C (ii) c = a cos B + b cos A
(iii) b2 = c2 + a2 - 2ca cos B (iv) c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C.
j sin 0 nˆ 0
=
k × k k k=
sin 0 nˆ 0
7.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT OR VECTOR =
(b) i × j i j=
sin 90 k k
PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS =j×k j k=
sin 90 i i
=k ×i k =
i sin 90 j j
The vector product of two vectors is widely used in Physics, particularly, Mechanics and
Electricity. It Is only deined for vectors in space. (c) u × v =u v sin q nˆ =v u sin(-q ) nˆ =- v u sin q nˆ
Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. The cross or vector product of u and v, written as ⇒ u × v =-v × u
u x v, is deined by (d)=
u × u u u=
sin 0 nˆ 0

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i j k
a1 b1 c1 = (b1c2 - c1b2 )i - (a1c2 - c1a2 ) j + (a1b2 - b1a2 )k
a2 b2 c2
Note: The cross product of i, j and k are written in the cyclic pattern. The
given igure is helpful in remembering this pattern. The terms on R.H.S of equation (i) are the same as the terms in the expansion of the above
determinant
i j k
Hence u × v =a1 b1 c1 (ii)
7.4.2 Properties of Cross product a2 b2 c2

which is known as determinant formula for u x v.


The cross product possesses the following properties:
(i) u=
×v 0 = =
if u 0 or v 0
u × v =-v × u
Note: The expression on R.H.S. of equation (ii) is not an actual determinant, since its entries
(ii) are not all scalars. It is simply a way of remembering the complicated expression on R.H.S.
(iii) u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w (Distributive property)
u × (kv)= (ku ) × v= k (u × v) ,
of equation (i).
(iv) k is scalar
(v) u×u = 0 7.4.4 Parallel Vectors
The proofs of these properties are left as an exercise for
the students. If u and v are parallel vectors, ( q =

0 sin=
0 0) , then
u × v =u v sin q nˆ
u=× v 0 or v= ×u 0
7.4.3 Analytical Expression of u x v
And if u × v =
(Determinant formula for u x v)
0 . then
sin q 0=
either= or u 0 =
Let u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k , then
or v 0
If sin q = 0 ⇒ q = 0 or 180 , which shows that the vectors u and v are parallel.
u × v= (a1 i + b1 j + c1 k ) × (a2 i + b2 j + c2 k )
(i)
If u = 0 or v = 0, then since the zero vector has no speciic direction, we adopt the
= a1a2 (i × i ) + a1b2 (i × j ) + a1c2 (i × k )
(ii)
(by distributive property) convention that the zero vector is parallel to every vector.
+b1a2 ( j × i ) + b1b2 ( j × j ) + b1c2 ( j × k ) ∴ i × j =k =- j × i
+c1a2 (k × i ) + c1b2 (k × j ) + c1c2 (k × k ) i×i = j× j = k ×k = 0
Note: Zero vector is both parallel and perpendicular to every vector. This apparent
contradiction will cause no trouble, since the angle between two vectors is never applied
= a1b2 k - a1c2 j - b1a2 k + b1c2 i + c1a2 j - c1b2 i when one of them is zero vector.

⇒ u ×=
v (b1c2 - c1b2 )i - (a1c2 - c1a2 ) j + (a1b2 - b1a2 )k (i)
Example 1: Find a vector perpendicular to each of the vectors
a = 2i + j + k and b = 4i + 2 j - k
The expansion of 3 x 3 determinant

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Solution: A vector perpendicular to both the vectors a and b is a x b So that ∠AOB = a +b


Now= OA cos a i + sin a j
i j k 

∴ a × b =2 -1 1 =-i + 6 j + 8k
and OB = cos(- b )i + sin(- b ) j

2 -1
= cos b i - sin b j
4

= (cos b i - sin b j ) × (cos a i + sin a j )


Veriication:
∴ OB × OA
 
a.a × b= (2i + j + k ).(-i + 6 j + 8k ) = (2)(-1) + (-1)(6) + (1)(8)= 0
b.a × b= (4i + 2 j - k ).(-i + 6 j + 8k ) = (4)(-1) + (2)(6) + (-1)(8)= 0 i j k
OB OA sin(a + b =
)k cos b - sin b
and

 
0
cos a sin a
Hence a x b is perpendicular to both the vectors a and b.
0
Example 2: If a = 4i + 3 j + k and b = 2i - j + 2k .. Find a unit vector perpendicular to ⇒ sin(a +=b )k (sin a cos b + cos a sin b )k
both a and b. Also ind the sine of the angle between the vectors a and b. ∴ sin(a=+ b) sin a cos b + cos a sin b

i j k Example 4: In any triangle ABC, prove that


a×b = 4 1 = 7i - 6 j - 10k
= =
Solution: 3 a b c
2 -1 2 (Law of Sines)
sin A sin B sin C
and a=
×b (7) 2 + (-6) 2 + (10)
= 2
185 Proof: Suppose vectors a, b and c are along the sides BC, CA and AB respectively of the
a×b

triangle ABC.
a×b ∴ a+b+c =
A unit vector nˆ perpendicular to a and b =
0
⇒ b + c =-a
= (7i - 6 j - 10k )
1 (i)
Take cross product with c
a= (4) 2 + (3) 2 + (1) 2 = b×c + c×c = - a×c
185
Now 26
= (2) 2 + (-1) 2 + (2)
= 2 b×c = c×a (∴ c × c = 0)
⇒ b×c = c×a
b 3
If q is the angle between a and b, then a × b =a b sin q
sin(p - A) - c a sin(p
b c = B)
a×b
⇒ sin q = =
185
a × b 3 26
⇒ bc sin A = ca sin B ⇒ b sin A = a sin B
Example 3: Prove that sin(a + b) = sin a cos b +cos a sin b ∴
a
=
b
(ii)
sin A sin B
Let OA and OB be unit vectors in the xy-plane making angles a and -b with the
  similarly by taking cross product of (i) with b, we have
Proof:
positive x-axis respectively
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=
a c
(iii)
sin A sin C i j k
AB × AC = 1 - 2 = (2 + 4)i - (1 - 4) j + (2 + 4)k = 6i + 3 j + 6k
 
= =
a b c Now 2
-2
From (ii) and (iii), we get
sin A sin B sin C 2 1
 
7.4.5 Area of Parallelogram The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides AB and AC is given by

AB × AC = 6i + 3 j + 6k = 36 + 9 + 36 = 81 = 9
 
If u and v are two non-zero vectors and q is the angle between
∴ Area of triangle = AB × AC = 6i + 3 j + 6k =
u and v, then u and v represent the lengths of the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, (see 1   1 9
2 2 2
igure)
AB × AC 1
 
A unit vector ⊥ to the plane ABC =  = (6i + 3 j + 6k= (2i + j + 2k )
1
AB × AC 9
We know that: )
3
Area of parallelogram = base x height
= (base) (h) = u v sin q
∴ Area of parallelogram = u × v Example 6: Find area of the parallelogram whose vertices are P(0, 0, 0), Q(-1, 2, 4),
R(2, -1, 4) and S(1, 1, 8).

Solution: Area of parallelogram = u × v


7.4.6 Area of Triangle
where u and v are two adjacent sides of the parallelogram
From igure it is clear that
PQ =(-1 - 0)i + (-2 - 0) j + (4 - 0)k =-i + 2 j + 4k


Area of triangle = (Area of parallelogram)


1
PR = (2 - 0)i + (-1 - 0) j + (4 - 0)k = 2i - j + 4k

2 and
∴ Area of triangle = ×
1
u v i j k
PQ × PR = -1 4 = (8 + 4)i - (-4 - 8) j + (1 - 4)k
2  
where u and v are vectors along two adjacent sides of the triangle. Now 2
2 -1 4

∴ Area of parallelogram = PQ × PR = 12i + 12 j - 3k


Example 5: Find the area of the triangle with vertices  
A(1, -1, 1), B(2, 1, -1) and C(-1, 1, 2)
Be careful!:

= 144 + 144 + 9
Not all pairs of vertices give a
Also ind a unit vector perpendicular to the plane ABC. 
side e.g. PS is not a side, it is
= 297 diagonal since PQ + PR =
  
Solution: AB = (2 - 1)i + (1 + 1) j + (-1 - 1)k = i + 2 j - 2k
 PS

AC =(-1 - 1)i + (1 + 1) j + (2 - 1)k =-2i + 2 j + k



Example7: If u = 2i - j + k and v = 4i + 2 j - k , ind by determinant formula
(i) uxu (ii) uxv (iii) v x u
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Solution: u = 2i - j + k and v= 4i+ 2 j- k


5. Which vectors, if any, are perpendicular or parallel
(i) u =5i - j + k ; v =j - 5k ; w =-15i + 3 j - 3k
By determinant formula
p p
i j k (ii) u =i + 2 j - k ; v =-i + j + k ; w =- i - p j + k
= =
u×u 2 -∴
2 2
(i) 1 1 0 ( Two rows are same)
2 -1 1 6. Prove that: a x (b + c) + b x (c + a) + c x (a + b) = 0
7. If a + b + c = 0, then prove that a x b = b x c = c x a
Prove that: sin(a - b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
i j k
u × v =2 1 =(1 -2)i -( -2 -4) j +(4 +4)k =-i +6 j +8k
8.
(ii) -1
9. If a x b = 0 and a.b = 0, what conclusion can be drawn about a or b?
4 2 -1

i j k 7.5 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS


(iii) v×u = 4 2 -1 = (2 - 1)i - (4 + 2) j + (- 4 - 4)k = i - 6 j - 8k
2 -1 1 There are two types of triple product of vectors:
(a) Scalar Triple Product: (u × v).w or u.(v × w)
(b) Vector Triple product: u × (v × w)
EXERCISE 7.4
In this section we shall study the scalar triple product only
1. Compute the cross product a x b and b x a. Check your answer by showing that each Deinition
Let u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k , v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k and w = a3 i + b3 j + c3 k
a and b is perpendicular to a x b and b x a.
(i) a =2i + j - k , b =i - j + k (ii) + a =
i- j=
, b i j
(iii) a =3i - 2 j + k , b =+ (iv) a =-4i + j - 2k , b =2i + j + k
be three vectors
i j The scalar triple product of vectors u, v and w is deined by
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b. Also ind sine of the u.(v x w) or v.(w x u) or w.(u x v)
angle between them. The scalar triple product u.(v x w) is written as
(i) a = 2i - 6 j - 3k , b = 4i + 3 j - k (ii) a =-i - j - k , b =2i - 3 j + 4k u.(v x w) = [u v w]
(iii) a =2i - 2 j + 4k , b =-i + j - 2k (iv) + a = i- j= , b i j
3. Find the area of the triangle, determined by the point P, Q and R. 7.5.1 Analytical Expression of u.(v x w)

u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k , v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k and w = a3 i + b3 j + c3 k
(i) P(0, 0, 0) ; Q(2, 3, 2) ; R (-1, 1, 4)
(ii) P(1, -1, -1) ; Q(2, 0, -1) ; R (0, 2, 1) Let
4. ind the area of parallelogram, whose vertices are:
i j k
v×w =
(i) A(0, 0, 0) ; B (1, 2, 3) ; C (2, -1, 1) ; D (3, 1, 4)
(ii) A(1, 2, -1) ; B (4, 2, - 3) ; C (6, - 5, 2) ; D (9, - 5, 0) Now a2 b2 c2
(iii) A(-1, 1, 1) ; B (-1, 2, 2) ; C (-3, 4, - 5) ; D(-3, 5, - 4) a3 b3 c3

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⇒ v × w= (b2c3 - b3c2 )i - (a2c3 - a3c2 ) j + (a2b3 - a3b2 )k Note: (i) The value of the triple scalar product depends upon the cycle order of the

∴ u.(v × w
=) a1 (b2c3 - b3c2 ) - b1 (a2c3 - a3c2 ) + c1 (a2b3 - a3b2 )
vectors, but is independent of the position of the dot and cross. So the dot and cross, may
be interchanged without altering the value i.e;
(ii) (u × v) . w= u . (v × w)= [u v w]
(v × w) . =u v . ( w × u=
a1 b1 c1
⇒ u.(v × w) = ) [v w u ]
( w × u ) .=
v w . (u × v=
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 ) [ w u v]
which is called the determinant formula for scalar triple product of u, v and w in (iii) The value of the product changes if the order is non-cyclic.
component form. (iv) u.v.w and u x (v.w) are meaningless.
a1 b1 c1
Now u.(v × w) =
a2 b2 c2 7.5.2 The Volume of the Parallelepiped
a3 b3 c3
The triple scalar product (u x v).w
a2 b2 c2
= - a1
represents the volume of the parallelepiped
b1 c1 Interchanging R1 and R2
having u, v and w as its conterminous edges.
a3 b3 c3
As it is seen from the formula that:
u v w cosq
(u × v).w =×
a2 b2 c2
= a3
Hence (i) u × v = area of the parallelogram
b3 c3 Interchanging R2 and R3
a1 b1 c1
∴ u.(v × w) = v.( w × u )
with two adjacent sides, u and v.
(ii) w cosq = height of the parallelepiped
u v w cosq =
(u × v).w =×
a2 b2 c2
v.( w × u ) =
(Area of parallelogram)(height)
Now a3 b3 c3
= Volume of the parallelepiped
a1 b1 c1
Similarly, by taking the base plane formed by v and w, we have
a3 b3 c3
= - a2
The volume of the parallelepiped = (v x w).u
b2 c2 Interchanging R1 and R2 And by taking the base plane formed by w and u, we have
a1 b1 c1 The volume of the parallelepiped = (w x u).v
a3 b3 c3 So, we have: (u x v).w = (v x w).u = (w x u).v
= a1 b1 c1 Interchanging R2 and R3
a2 b2 c2 7.5.3 The Volume of the Tetrahedron:
∴ v.( w × u )= w.(u × v)
u.(v × w) =v.( w × u )= w.(u × v)
Volume of the tetrahedron ABCD
Hence

= (∆ABC ) (height of D above the place ABC )


1
3

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2 -4 5
= . u × v ( h)  AB AC AD = 2 - 3 6 = 2(3 + 6) + 4(-2 - 0) + 5(-2 - 0)
1 1   
 
0 -1 -1
3 2
= (Area of parallelogram with AB and AC as adjacent sides) (h)
1
6 = 18 - 8 - 10 = 0
= (V olume of the parallelepiped with u , v, w as edges)
1 As the volume is zero, so the points A, B, C and D are coplaner.

Thus Volume = (u × v).w = [u v w]


6
1 1
Example 3: Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are
6 6
A(2, 1, 8), B(3, 2, 9) , C(2, 1, 4) and D(3, 3, 0)
Solution: AB =(3 - 2)i + (2 - 1) j + (9 - 8)k =i + j + k
Properties of triple scalar Product: 
1. If u, v and w are coplanar, then the volume of the parallelepiped so formed is zero
AC = (2 - 2)i + (1 - 1) j + (4 - 8)k = 0i - 0 j - 4k

i.e; the vectors u, v, w are coplanar ⇔ (u × v).w =
0
AD =(3 - 2)i + (3 - 1) j + (0 - 8)k =i + 2 j - 8k

2. If any two vectors of triple scalar product are equal, then its value is zero i.e;

∴ Volume of the tetrahedron =  AB AC AD 


[u u w] = [u v v] = 0
1   
6

0 - 4 = [ 4(2 - 1) ] = =
Example 1: Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by
u =i + 2 j - k , v =i - j + 3k , w =i - 7 j - 4k
1 1 1
= 0
1 1 4 2

2 -8
6 6 6 3
1
1 2 -1
Solution: V olume of the parallelepiped = u.v × w = 1 - 2
Example 4: Find the value of a, so that a i + j , i + j + 3k and 2i + j - 2k are coplaner.
3
1 -7 -4
⇒ Volume = 1 (8 + 21) - 2(-4 - 3) -1 (-7 + 2) Solution: Let u = a i + j , v =i + j + 3k and w =2i + j - 2k
= 29+ 14 + 5 = 48 Triple scalar product
a
[ u v w] =
1 0
1 3 = a (-2 - 3) - 1(-2 - 6) + 0(1 - 2)
Example 2: Prove that four points
A(-3, 5, -4), B(-1, 1, 1), C(-1, 2, 2) and D(-3, 4, -5) are coplaner.
1
2 1 -2
Solution: AB =-( 1 + 3)i + (1 - 5) j + (1 + 4)k =2i - 4 j + 5k

= -5a + 8
AC =-( 1 + 3)i + (2 - 5) j + (2 + 4)k =2i - 3 j + 6k


AD = (3 - 3)i + (4 - 5) j + (-5 + 4)k = 0i - j - k = - j - k


 The vectors will be coplaner if -5a + 8= 0 ⇒ a=
8
5
  
Volume of the parallelepiped formed by AB , AC and AD is

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Example 5: Prove that the points whose position vectors are A(-6i + 3 j + 2k ) ,
In igure, a constant force F acting on a body, displaces it from A to B.
B (3i - 2 j + 4k ) , C (5i + 7 j + 3k ) , D(-13i + 17 j - k ) are coplaner. ∴ Work done = (component of F along AB) (displacement)
== ( F cosq )( AB) F . AB

Solution: Let O be the origin.
∴ OA = -6i + 3 j + 2k ; OB = 3i - 2 j + 4k
 

∴ OC =+ 5i 7 j + 3k ; OD- = + 13i - 17 j k
 
Example 6: Find the work done by a constant force F= 2i + 4 j ,, if its points of application
∴ AB= OB - OA= (3i - 2 j + 4k ) - (-6i + 3 j + 2k )
  
to a body moves it from A(1, 1) to B(4, 6).
∴ =9i - 5 j + 2k (Assume that F is measured in Newton and d in meters.)
AC= OC - OA= (5i + 7 j + 3k ) - (-6i + 3 j + 2k )
  
Solution: The constant force F= 2i + 4 j ,
∴ = 11i + 4 j + k
The displacement of the body = d = AB

AD = OD - OA = (-13i + 17 j - k ) - (-6i + 3 j + 2k )
  
= (4 - 1)i + (6 - 1) j = 3i + 5 j
∴ =-7i + 14 j - 3k
-5 ∴ work done = F . d
+
= (2i 4 j )+. (3i 5 j )
9 2
AB.( AC × AD) = 11
  

=(2)(3) + (4)(5) =26 nt. m


Now 4 1
-7 14 -3
= 9(-12 - 14) + 5(-33 + 7) + 2(154 + 28)
-= - + =0
The constant forces 2i + 5 j + 6k and - i + 2 j + k act on a body, which is
234 130 364
∴ AB, AC , AD are coplaner
   Example 7:
⇒ The points A, B, C and D are coplaner. displaced from position P(4,-3,-2) to Q(6,1,-3). Find the total work done.

7.5.4 Application of Vectors in Physics Solution: Total force = (2i + 5 j + 6k ) + (-i + 2 j + k )


and Engineering ⇒ F =+
i 3 j + 5k
The displacement of the body = PQ = (6 - 4)i + (1 + 3) j + (-3 + 2)k


⇒ d =2i + 4 j - k
(a) Work done.


If a constant force F, applied to a body, acts at an
angle q to the direction of motion, then the work done
work done = F . d
=(i + 3 j + 5k ) . (2i + 4 j - k )
by F is deined to be the product of the component of
F in the direction of the displacement and the distance =2 + 12 - 5 =9 nt. m
that the body moves.

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2. Verify that
(b)
Moment of Force a . b × c= b . c × a= c . a×b
if a = 3i - j + 5k , b = 4i + 3 j - 2k , and c = 2i + 5 j + k

Let a force F ( PQ) act at a point P as shown in the igure,
then moment of F about O. 3. Prove that the vectors i - 2 j + 3k , - 2i + 3 j - 4k and i - 3 j + 5k are coplanar
= product of force F and perpendicular ON . nˆ 4. Find the constant a such that the vectors are coplanar.
=
= ( PQ)(ON )(nˆ ) ( PQ)(OP )sin q . nˆ (i) i- j+k , i - 2 j - 3k and 3i - a j + 5k .
= OP × PQ =r × F i - 2 a j - k , i - j + 2k ai - j + k
 
(ii) and

(iv) [i i k ]
5. (a) Find the value of:
2i × 2 j.k 3 j.k × i  k i j 
(b) Prove that u.( v × w ) + v.( w × u ) + w.( u × v=) 3 u.( v × w )
(i) (ii) (iii)

Example 8: Find the moment about the point M(-2 , 4, -6) of the force represented by
AB , where coordinates of points A and B are (1, 2, -3) and (3, -4, 2) respectively.
 6. Find volume of the Tetrahedron with the vertices
(i) (0, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1), (1, 2, 1) and (5, 5, 6)
(ii) (2, 1, 4) and (3, 3, 10) .
AB = (3 - 1)i + (-4 - 2) j + (2 + 3)k = 2i - 6 j + 5k
 (2, 1, 8), (3, 2, 9),
Solution: 7. Find the work done, if the point at which the constant force F = 4i + 3 j + 5k is applied
MA = (1 + 2)i + (2 - 4) j + (-3 + 6)k = 3i - 2 j + 3k to an object, moves from P1 (3,1, -2) to P2 (2,4,6) .


Moment of AB about ( - 2, 4, - 6) = r × F = MA × AB A particle, acted by constant forces 4i + j - 3k and 3i - j - k , is displaced from


  
8.
A(1, 2, 3) to B(5, 4, 1). Find the work done.
A particle is displaced from the point A(5, -5, -7) to the point B(6, 2, -2) under the
i j k
= 3 -2
9.
action of constant forces deined by 10i - j + 11k , 4i + 5 j + 9k and -2i + j - 9k . Show that
3
2 -6 5
= (-10 + 18)i - (15 - 6) j + (-18 + 4)k
the total work done by the forces is 102 units.
A force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2i - 2 j + k displaces, the point of
=8i - 9 j - 14k
10.
application from (1, 2, 3) to (5, 3, 7). Find the work done.
Magnitude of the moment = (8) 2 + (-9) 2 + (-14) 2 = 341 11. A force F =3i + 2 j - 4k is applied at the point (1, -1, 2). Find the moment of the force
about the point (2, -1, 3).
EXERCISE 7.5 12. A force F= 4i - 3k , passes through the point A(2,-2,5). Find the moment of F about
the point B(1,-3,1).
1. Find the volume of the parallelepiped for which the given vectors are three edges. 13. Give a force F = 2i + j - 3k acting at a point A(1, -2, 1). Find the moment of F about the
(i) u =3i + 2k ; v =
i +2 j +k ; w =-j +4k point B(2, 0, -2).
(ii) u =i - 4 j - k ; v =i - j - 2k ; w =2i - 3 j + k 14. Find the moment about A(1, 1, 1) of each of the concurrent forces i - 2 j , 3i + 2 j - k ,
(iii) u =i - 2 j - 3k ; v =2i - j - k ; w=j+k 5 j + 2k , where P(2,0,1) is their point of concurrency.
15. A force F =7i + 4 j - 3k is applied at P(1,-2,3). Find its moment about the point Q(2,1,1).
version: 1.1 version: 1.1

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