Introduction:

Design methods
a. Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
General Format: 𝝓𝑹𝒏
b. Allowable stress design (ASD)
𝑹𝒏
General Format: 𝛀
Load Combinations
a. Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
1) 1.2D + 1.6L
2) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0W
3) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0E
b. Allowable stress design (ASD)
1) D + L
2) 0.75[D + L + 0.6W] g
bgross
3) 0.75[D + L + (E/1.4)] g
Material Properties
Steel Grade Yield Stress, Tensile Stress,
Fy (MPa) Fu (MPa)
s s
A-36 248 400 𝒔𝟐
∑ = 𝟎 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝟒𝒈
A-50 345 448 a. Welded Connection:
1) If weld is both in transverse and longitudinal
Tension Members: direction:
𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔
Types of Failure due to tension:
2) If weld is in transverse direction only:
1. Yielding
𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑳𝒆 𝒂
𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭𝒚 𝑨𝒈
3) If weld is in longitudinal direction only:
𝝓𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎, 𝛀𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔
2. Rapture
Shear Lag Factor:
𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭𝒖 𝑨𝒆
Bolted Connection:
𝝓𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓, 𝛀𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎
1) Plate:
Where:
𝑼 = 𝟏. 𝟎
Ag= Steel Gross Area
2) W-section:
Ae = AnetU;
𝑑 𝑑
Net Area: 𝑼 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 for ≤ 1.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝑖𝑓 > 1.5
𝑏𝑓 𝑏𝑓
a. Bolted Connection:
Welded Connection:
𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒃𝒏𝒆𝒕 × 𝒕
1) If weld is in transverse direction only:
𝒔𝟐
𝒃𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒃𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − ∑ 𝒅𝒅𝒉 + ∑ 𝑼 = 𝟏. 𝟎
𝟒𝒈
2) If weld is both in longitudinal direction only:
𝑖𝑓 𝐿 ≥ 2𝑤; 𝑼 = 𝟏. 𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒉 = 𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓𝟏𝟎. 𝟑. 𝟑
𝑖𝑓 2𝑤 > 𝐿 ≥ 1.5𝑤; 𝑼 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕
+ 𝟐𝒎𝒎
𝑖𝑓 1.5𝑤 > 𝐿 ≥ 𝑤; 𝑼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓

Steel Design Reviewer

 𝝓𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎, 𝛀𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕
7. For Design:
T a. Compare Capacity vs. Demand (D/C
w
ratio): Pc vs. Pu
b. If D/C >1, Go back to Step 1.
For Analysis:
a. Pc = Pu to get maximum value of P.
L
Shear Center:
Compression Members: 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑤 2 2
𝑒𝑜 = (𝑏𝑓 − ) (𝑑 − 𝑡𝑓 )
1. Assume a section. Get from the tables A, rx, ry. 4𝐼 2
If the member composes of more than one bf
section, radius of gyration must be computed,
H
𝑰𝒙 𝑰𝒚 tf
𝒓𝒙 = √ ; 𝒓𝒚 = √
𝑨 𝑨 V

2. Lx ➔ kxLx/rx ; Ly ➔ kyLy/ry eo d
V

H
tw
Plastic Analysis for Beams:

3. Determine critical kL/r (largest)

4. Solve for Fe Plastic Moment, Mp
𝝅𝟐 𝑬 𝑴𝒑 = 𝑴𝒏 = 𝑭𝒚 𝒁𝒙
𝑭𝒆 = 𝝓𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎, 𝛀𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕
𝑲𝑳 𝟐
(𝒓 ) Plastic Section Modulus, Z
5. Compare Fe vs. 0.44Fy ̅ − 𝒚|
𝒁𝒙 = ∑ 𝒂|𝒚
a. When 𝐹𝑒 ≥ 0.44𝐹𝑦
𝑭𝒚 Shape Factor, f
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = [𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟖𝑭𝒆 ] 𝑭 𝑀𝑝 𝑍𝑥
𝒚 𝑓= =
𝑀𝑦 𝑆𝑥
b. When 𝐹𝑒 < 0.44𝐹𝑦 Analysis Method:
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟕𝑭𝒆 a. Virtual Work Method
6. Solve for Pc Internal Work = External Work
𝑷𝒄 = 𝝓𝒄 𝑷𝒏 = 𝝓𝒄 𝑭𝒄𝒓 𝑨𝒈 for LRFD Internal work – is the summation of all Plastic Moments
𝑷𝒏 𝑭𝒄𝒓 𝑨𝒈 multiplied by the angle of rotation caused by that
𝑷𝒄 = = for ASD moment.
𝛀𝒄 𝛀𝒄

Steel Design Reviewer

External Work – is the summation of all applied loads on Plastic Analysis for Frames:
the beam multiplied by the deflection caused by that
load. In case of a uniformly distributed load, the Collapse Mechanism in Frames:
external work is equal to the distributed load multiplied 1. Beam Mechanism
by the area of the collapse mechanism diagram under
that load.
Example:

2. Portal Mechanism
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
= 𝑤 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
1 1
= 𝑤 × 𝐿Δ = 𝐿Δw
2 2
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ∑ 𝑀𝑝 𝜃
= 𝑀𝑝 𝜃 + 𝑀𝑝 2𝜃 + 𝑀𝑝 𝜃 = 4𝑀𝑝 𝜃
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
1
𝐿Δw = 4𝑀𝑝 𝜃
2
w𝐿Δ 𝐿 3. Combined Mechanism
8𝜃
= 𝑀𝑝 ; Δ = 2 𝜃
𝐰𝑳𝟐
𝑴𝒑 = 𝟏𝟔
b. Equilibrium Method by FBD
This method is done by making Free-Body Diagrams
(FBD) the beam cut in the location of the plastic hinges.
Using the same example for the Virtual Work Method:
The plastic hinges of the example are in the supports and
in the middle for three reasons:
1. The loading is symmetrical.
2. The beam span is symmetrical.
3. The beam is prismatic. Instantaneous Center:
For the same reasons, only the half of the beam is
needed to be analyzed. a b
  e
w


A C c
• ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
d
2
𝑤(𝐿⁄2) 
𝑀𝑝 + 𝑀𝑝 =
2 
Mp Mp
wL2
2M𝑝 =
8
wL𝟐
A B 𝑴𝒑 =
16

Steel Design Reviewer

Use the relationships to solve the angles and Limits for Lb
deflections:
When Lb ≤ Lp – No Lateral-Torsional Buckling
𝛿1 = aα = bβ
Mn = Mp = ZxFy
𝛿2 = dϵ = eβ
When Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
𝑐𝑏
𝑒= 𝐿𝑏 −𝐿𝑝
𝑎 𝑀𝑛 = 𝐶𝑏 [𝑀𝑝 − (𝑀𝑝 − 0.7𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥 ) (𝐿 )] ≤ 𝑀𝑝
𝑟 −𝐿𝑝
*since the values of angles are unknow, it will be easier
When Lb > Lr
to express the other angles in terms of one of the angles
or by just setting one of the angles equals to 1 (Ex. 𝑀𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑆𝑥 ≤ 𝑀𝑝
=1).Then after letting one of the angles equal to 1, you
can now solve for the other angles. Where :

Plastic analysis of frames must be solved using Virtual 𝐶𝑏 𝜋 2 𝐸

𝐹𝑐𝑟 =
Work Method. 𝐿 2
(𝑟 𝑏 )
𝑡𝑠

𝐸
Lateral-Torsional Buckling: 𝐿𝑝 = 1.76𝑟𝑦 √
𝐹𝑦
Illustration of Lateral-Torsional Buckling
𝐸
𝐿𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟𝑡𝑠 √
0.7𝐹𝑦

12.5𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝑏 = 𝑅 ≤ 3.0
2.5𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑀𝐴 + 4𝑀𝐵 + 3𝑀𝐶 𝑚
Rm = 1.0

Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the

unbraced segment

MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the

unbraced segment
Illustration of Unbraced Length, Lb
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the
unbraced segment

MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point

of the unbraced segment
Lb

Lb

Lb

Lb

Steel Design Reviewer

Composite Beam:
be be

Ledge < L/8 S1/2< L/8 S1/2< L/8 S2/2< L/8

S1 S2

CASE 1:

Neutral Axis on Concrete Slab, Df < ts.

ts Df 0.85fc’bea
N.A
tf . 𝑑 − 𝑎 + 2𝑡𝑠
2
d AsFy

𝑑 − 𝑎 + 2𝑡𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝐹𝑦
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠 𝐹𝑦 ( ); 𝑎 =
2 0.85𝑓𝑐 ′𝑏𝑒
CASE 2:

Neutral Axis on Beam Flange, ts < Df < ts + tf

t 0.85fc’be
Df ts
s tf N.A Fybfy
.
d Where:
Fy(As- bf y)
y=Df - ts

𝑡𝑠 𝑑 𝐴𝑠 𝐹𝑦 − 0.85𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑠
𝑀𝑛 = 0.85𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑠 ( + 𝑦) + 𝐹𝑦 𝑏𝑓 𝑦 2 +𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑠 ( − 𝑦) ; 𝑦 =
2 2 2𝐹𝑦 𝑏𝑓

Steel Design Reviewer

CASE 3:

Neutral Axis on Beam Web, ts + tf< Df

t 0.85fc’bet
s
tf Df
Cb
N.A.
d
Where:
Tb
y=Df - ts

𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑓 𝑦 − 𝑡𝑓 𝑑 − 𝑦 − 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓
𝑀𝑛 = 0.85𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑠 ( + 𝑦) + 𝐶𝑓 (𝑦 − ) + 𝐶𝑤 ( ) + 𝑇𝑤 ( ) + 𝑇𝑓 (𝑑 − 𝑦 − )
2 2 2 2 2

Where:
𝐶𝑏 −𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑠 𝐹𝑦 −0.85𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑠
𝑦= 𝐹𝑦 𝑡𝑤
+ 𝑡𝑓 , 𝐶𝑏 = 2
, 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓 = 𝐹𝑦 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 , 𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶𝑏 − 𝐶𝑓 , 𝑇𝑏 = 𝐴𝑠 𝐹𝑦 − 𝐶𝑏 ,

𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑓

Composite and Non-Composite Loadings: Strength of Stud Shear Connector, Qn

Unshored Shored 𝑄𝑛 = 0.5𝐴𝑠𝑐 √4700𝑓𝑐 ′1.5 ≤ 𝐴𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝑢

const. const.
Beam wt. NC NC Where:
Slab wt. NC C Asc – Cross-sectional area of stud
Superimposed DL C C Fu – Specified minimum tensile strength of stud
- floor finish
- ceiling loads Strength of Channel Shear Connector, Qn
- partition loads
Live loads C C 𝑄𝑛 = 0.3(𝑡𝑓 + 0.5𝑡𝑤 )𝐿𝑐 √4700𝑓𝑐 ′1.5

Shear Connectors: Where:

tf – flange thickness of channel
- Concrete Crushing and Rebar Yielding tw – wed thickness of channel
V’= 0.85fc’Ac Lc – length of channel
V’= fyAsr

- Tensile Yielding of the steel section

V’= FyAs

Where:

Ac – Area of Slab within the effective depth

As – Area of steel cross section
Asr – Total area of rebars

Steel Design Reviewer

Steps:

For Mn:

For Positive Moment:

1) Solve for be.
2) Check for Case 1:
Assume a=ts. Compute for C and T.
C=0.85fc’bets & T= AsFy
If C> T, proceed to Step 4 - Case 1. If C < T, proceed to step 3.
3) Check for Case 2:
Assume Df=ts+tf. Compute for C and T.
C=0.85fc’bets + bftfFy & T= AsFy- bftfFy
If C> T, proceed to Step 4 - Case 2. If C < T, proceed to step 4 -Case 3.
4) Case 1: Case 2: Case 3:
a. Solve for actual a. a. Solve for y. a. Solve for needed values listed above.
b. Solve for Mn. b. Solve for Mn b. Solve for Mn.

For Negative Moment: -

1) For negative moment, concrete is in tension, therefore, it was no contribution to the moment
capacity of the composite beam. Only the rebar was in tension.
2) Do the same assumptions in solving for positive moment to locate the plastic neutral axis.
3) Find all the forces acting on the composite beam and sum up moments at the neutral axis to get
the capacity.

For Shear Connectors:

Part A:
1) Solve Concrete V’ and Steel V’. Use the least of the two as the value for V’.
2) Solve for Qn.
3) Solve for number of shear connectors. The no. of shear connectors that will be solve here is just
for half of the beam.
Part B: (if only dealing with the positive moment, skip this part)
1) Solve Rebar V’ and compare with Steel V’. Use the least of the two as the value for V’.
2) Solve for number shear connectors.
Part C:
1) Get the total shear connectors.
2) Solve the Spacing of connectors.
For Deflection:
1) Solve for n.
2) Solve for the non-composite loads and calculate for its deflection.
3) Solve for the transformed slab width, btr=be/n.
4) Solve for the transformed moment of inertia, Itr.
5) Solve for the composite loads and calculate for its deflection.
6) Add the deflections for non-composite action and composite action to get the total deflection of
the beam.

Steel Design Reviewer

Combined Bending and Compression
Adequacy of the Column: (D/C ratio)
𝑷𝒓 𝑷𝒓
𝑭𝒐𝒓 ≥ 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑭𝒐𝒓 < 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑷𝒄 𝑷𝒄

𝑷𝒓 𝟖 𝑴 𝒓𝒚 𝑴 𝑷𝒓 𝑴 𝑴
+ 𝟗 (𝑴𝒓𝒙 + 𝑴 ) ≤ 𝟏. 𝟎 𝒓𝒚
+ (𝑴𝒓𝒙 + 𝑴 ) ≤ 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑷𝒄 𝒄𝒙 𝒄𝒚 𝟐𝑷𝒄 𝒄𝒙 𝒄𝒚

P
Where: 𝑃𝑟
1
Pr – required (ultimate, Pu, for LRFD or allowable, P, for ASD) axial 𝑃𝑐
compressive strength Inadequate
Pc – available axial compressive strength
Mr – required (ultimate, Mu, for LRFD or allowable, M, for ASD)
flexural strength. 1
M
Mc – available flexural strength.
x – subscript relating to strong axis. 𝑀𝑟
y – subscript relating to weak axis. 𝑀𝑐

Determination of Pc: Determination of Mc:

From Section 505.3 of NSCP, From Section 506.2.1 of NSCP,
𝑷𝒄 = 𝝓𝒄 𝑷𝒏 = 𝝓𝒄 𝑭𝒄𝒓 𝑨𝒈 for LRFD Yielding:
𝑷𝒏 𝑭𝒄𝒓 𝑨𝒈 𝑴𝒄 = 𝝓𝑴𝒏 = 𝝓𝑭𝒚 𝒁𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒚 for LRFD
𝑷𝒄 = = for ASD 𝑴𝒏 𝑭𝒚 𝒁𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒚
𝛀𝒄 𝛀𝒄 𝑴𝒄 = = for ASD
𝛀𝒄 𝛀𝒄
Value for Z
- Determination of Fcr:
𝒁𝒙 if 𝑴𝒄𝒙
𝝅𝟐 𝑬
𝑭𝒆 = 𝒁𝒚 if 𝑴𝒄𝒚
𝑲𝑳 𝟐
(
𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝒙
) 𝝓𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎, 𝛀𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕
8. When 𝐹𝑒 ≥ 0.44𝐹𝑦 Reminder: 𝝓𝒄 𝛀𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟓 always. Just
𝑭𝒚
remember one of the two then get
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = [𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟖𝑭𝒆 ] 𝑭 𝒚
the other by using this relationship.
9. When 𝐹𝑒 < 0.44𝐹𝑦
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟕𝑭𝒆

Steel Design Reviewer

 A
Column Moment of Inertia could be Ix or Iy based on the orientation of the bending.

Column radius or gyration could be rx or ry based on its critical axis on buckling.

Beam Moment of Inertia is always Ix since beams are always oriented so that the
bending is about the strong axis.

Steel Design Reviewer

Steps:
1) Obtain values for Column I, Beam I, Column r, Column Z, and Column A from the steel table.
2) Compute for the GA and GB of the target column and get the value of K from the nomograph
above. In a load combination without lateral loadings, the frame can be assumed to be side
sway prevented even it is unbraced.
3) Axial Capacity:
a. Compute for Pr using the load combinations based on the design method.
b. Compute for the slenderness ratio, KL/r, elastic critical buckling, Fe, and flexural buckling
stress, Fcr.
c. Compute for Pc.
4) Moment Capacity:
a. Compute for Mr using the load combinations based on the design method.
b. Compute for Mc.
5) Determine the value of Pr/Pc. Use the proper formula based on the value of Pr/Pc to determine
the adequacy of the target column.

Bolted Connections
Type of Bolts:
A-307 - ordinary bolt
A-325 & A-490 – high strength bolts

head

T
T
nut

thread head
s

Failure
T T shear plane

stem
Threads Threads
included excluded

N X
N for not excluded(included) and X for excluded are put at the end of the bolt type e.g. A-490N

Steel Design Reviewer

Type of Connections:
Bearing- Type Connections: Assumed that the loads to be transferred are larger than the frictional
resistance caused by tightening the bolts, hence, sliding will occur. Almost all bolted connections with
standard size are designed in this manner.
Slip-Critical Connections: Assumed that the loads to be transferred are smaller than the frictional
resistance caused by tightening the bolts, hence, sliding is prevented. It should only be used when the
engineer feels that slipping will adversely affect the serviceability of a structure i.e. in bridges where the
member forces can reverse in direction since it carries moving live loads.

High-Strength Bolts:
For bearing-type connections, the bolts are permitted to be installed in snug-tight condition only.
Snug-tight condition is defined as the tightness attained by either a few impacts of an impact wrench or
the full effort of a worker with an ordinary spud wrench that brings the connected plies into firm contact.
For slip-critical connections, since sliding should be prevented, Table 510.3.1 of the NSCP gives
the minimum bolt pretension:

Table 510.3.1 Minimum Bolt Pretension, Tb in kN*

Methods for Fully Pretensioning High-Strength Bolts.

1. Turn-of-the-Nut Method
2. Calibrated Wrench Method
3. Direct Tension Indicator
4. Alternative Design Fasteners

Sizes of Bolt Holes

washer

Standard Oversized Short Long slotted

hole hole slotted

Steel Design Reviewer

Minimum spacing – 2 2/3 of nominal diameter, d. 3d is preferred.
Minimum Edge Distance:

Steel Design Reviewer

Maximum Spacing and Edge Distance – 12 times the thickness of the connected part but not more than
150mm.

Tension members:
For tensile yielding:
𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭𝒚 𝑨𝒈
𝝓𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎, 𝛀𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕
For tensile rapture

𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭𝒖 𝑨𝒆
𝝓𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓, 𝛀𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎
Where:

Fu = 400MPa for A-36 and 448MPa for A-50.

Ae = AnetU; Use Cochrane’s Formula if there’s a

staggered bolt to get the net width.
𝑑 𝑑
𝑼 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 for ≤ 1.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝑖𝑓 > 1.5
𝑏𝑓 𝑏𝑓

Bearing Strength in Bolt Holes:

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Tension or Shear Strength of Bolts and
Threaded Parts:

𝑹𝒏 = 𝑭𝒏 𝑨𝒃
𝝓𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓, 𝛀𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎
Fn = nominal tension stress Fnt, or shear stress Combined Tension and Shear:
Fnv.
Ab = nominal unthreaded body area of the bolt.

Design Slip Resistance in Slip- Critical

Connections:

𝑹𝒏 = 𝝁𝑫𝒖 𝑭𝒏 𝒉𝒔𝒄 𝑻𝒃 𝑵𝑺 T
P

V
P
Combined Tension and Shear in Bearing-
Type Connections:

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Combined Tension and Shear in Slip- Block Shear:
Critical Connections:

Eccentric Bolted Connections:

P

Fig.2
Fig. 1

When a bolted connection is loaded eccentrically

(the load does not pass through the bolt group’s
center of gravity) as show in Fig. 1, the load must
be resolved in a way that it will pass through the
bolt group’s center of gravity as shown in Fig. 2.

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Recall from Statics the concept of resolution of a force into a force and a couple. If a force does not pass
through the body’s centroid, it can be resolved into a force that passes through the centroid, and a couple.

P P P P
e e

P
M=Pe

Stresses Acting on a Bolt Group in an Eccentric Bolt Connections:

As discussed above, the eccentric loading produces a force and a torsion. Thus, the bolt group is
subjected in combined shearing and torsional stresses. From strength of materials, the general formula
for shear and torsion is as follows:
𝑷
Shear: 𝝉 = 𝑨
𝑻𝝆
Shear due to Torsion: 𝝉 = 𝑱
Where:
A = nAb
J = Polar moment of inertia of the bolt group= AbΣρ2
ρ = Distance of a single bolt center to the centroid of bolt group.
Σρ2 = Σ(x2+y2)
n= number of bolts

Combining the two stresses and substituting J:

𝑷 𝑻𝝆
Combined Shearing and Torsional stress: 𝝉 = 𝒏𝑨 ± 𝑨 𝟐
𝒃 𝒃 𝚺𝝆
𝑷 𝑻𝝆
Hence, the combined shearing force on a single bolt is: 𝒇 = 𝑨𝒃 𝝉 = 𝒏
± 𝚺𝝆𝟐
It is more convenient to break down f into components fx= fcosθ and fy= fsinθ.
𝑃 cos 𝜃 𝑇𝜌 cos 𝜃 𝑷𝒚 𝑻𝒚
Horizontal component: 𝒇𝒙 = 𝑓 cos 𝜃 = 𝑛
± Σ𝜌 2 = 𝒏
± 𝚺𝝆𝟐
𝑃 sin 𝜃 𝑇𝜌 sin 𝜃 𝑷 𝑻𝒙
Vertical component: 𝒇𝒚 = 𝑓 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
± Σ𝜌2 = 𝒏𝒙 ± 𝚺𝝆𝟐

Resultant shearing force: 𝒇 = √𝒇𝟐𝒙 + 𝒇𝟐𝒚

*note: these forces are reactions of the bolts to the applied load. Hence, it acts opposite to the applied
load. Θ is different for Shear and Torsion. Θ for shear is the angle of inclination of the actual applied
eccentric load measured from the vertical. Also, θ for torsion varies depending on the bolt into
consideration.

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 𝑻𝝆
P 𝚺𝝆𝟐

y θ
ρ
𝑷 𝑷 𝑻𝝆 x
y
𝒏 𝒏 𝚺𝝆𝟐
+ c.g.
T 𝑻𝝆 θ
𝚺𝝆𝟐 + x
c.g.
𝑷 𝑷
𝑻𝝆 𝒏
𝒏
𝚺𝝆𝟐
Instantaneous Center of Rotation.
Instantaneous Center of Rotation is a point where the equivalent pure rotation of the connection is
concentrated. The distance of the instantaneous center of rotation from the center of gravity of the bolts
𝚺𝝆𝟐
is defined by 𝑒 ′ = where e is the eccentricity of the eccentric load to the bolt group’s center of gravity.
𝐧𝐞
The exact location of the instantaneous center may not be calculated since the shearing forces in the bolts
are calculated using the method above which does not use instantaneous center for calculation. Instead,
just make an approximation of its location. The importance of I.C. is to determine the critical bolt(s) among
the bolt group. The bolt that is farthest to the I.C. is the most stressed bolt.
P

e’ e

R1 R4

+ R5
+ + R2
I.C.
I.C. c.g.
R6
R3

There is no typical step-by-step procedure in solving for bolted connections since there can be a lot of
problem combinations that is possible for this topic, but the general 1st step is to determine the type of
connection and solve for the Rn based on this type of connection. The type of connection is usually implied
in the question or in the given data. (i.e. clean mill scale finish is a slip-critical connection)

Steel Design Reviewer

Welded Connections
Types of Weld metals/processes
1. SMAW = shielded metal arc welding ←common (E)
2. GMAW = gas metal arc welding
3. SAW = submerged arc welding ←superior quality (F)
Types of Welds:
Groove or butt Basic Weld Symbols for Groove or Butt

Plug or Slot Basic Weld Symbols for Plug or Slot

plug
Basic Weld Symbol for Fillet

Standard Location of Elements of a Welding Symbol

slot
Fillet
Other
Side

Both Sides

a L
Specification
Arrow
Side

Weld All Around Symbol

Basic Weld Symbol

L is the length of the weld and a is the leg of the weld. L

remains on the right and E remains on the left side when
the arrow and tail are reversed.

Steel Design Reviewer

Strength: Effective Area of Weld:
For Plug and Slot:
𝑨𝒘 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑷𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒕

For Fillet:
𝑨𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟏𝑳𝒆 𝒂

Minimum a

Maximum a
For base metal with thickness less than 6mm
For base metal: 𝒂 ≤ 𝒕𝑩𝑴
The base metal tensile rapture and yielding shall For base metal with thickness equal or greater
be determined using the formulas for tension than 6mm
members presented in the bolted connections. 𝒂 ≤ 𝒕𝑩𝑴 − 𝟐𝒎𝒎

For shear, Weld Metal Tensile Strength, FEXX:

E60 - 414MPa
E70 - 483MPa
E80 - 552MPa
E90 - 621MPa
E100 - 690MPa

Design of Plug and Slot Welds:

For weld metal:
1. Get the design (LRFD) or allowable
𝑭𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝑭𝑬𝑿𝑿 (ASD) tensile strength of the base
𝝓 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓, 𝛀 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 metal.
For fillet welds and plug and slot welds. 2. Equate the tensile strength of the
base metal to the shear capacity of
the weld metal to get the design
diameter of the weld.

Steel Design Reviewer

Design of Fillet Welds:
1. Get the design (LRFD) or allowable 2. Equate the governing strength of the
(ASD) tensile strength and/or shear base metal to the shear capacity of
strength of the base metal and the the weld metal to get the design
shear strength of any know welds. length and the leg of the weld.
The smaller governs. Compare the leg with its minimum
and maximum values. If a is greater
than its maximum limit, redesigning
is needed.

Eccentric Welded Connections:

Designing or analyzing eccentric welded connections uses the same principles as to eccentric
bolted connections. The differences are that J= ΣIx + ΣIy and Ab in bolted connection now
corresponds with the effective area of weld Aw. Now, combined shearing and torsional stresses
𝑷 𝑻𝝆
is 𝝉 = 𝑨 ± 𝑱 . The most stress portion of the weld, as discussed in the bolted connections, is the portion
𝒘
farthest to the I.C. Therefore, this portion should be used in designing since it is the critical one.

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Base Plates:
P
Anchor
Rods W shaped
Column

Base Plate
bf n N

Concrete d m
Pedestal
M

𝑚 = 0.95𝑑 With the same manner:

𝑛 = 0.80𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑝 𝑀
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 = (𝑁 − 𝑛)2
8
𝑷𝒏
Designing Base Plate: 𝒕=√ (𝑵 − 𝒏)
𝟐𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝒚
1. Plate Area:
Get the greater value for t.
𝑨
Nominal Bearing Stress, 𝒇𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝒇𝒄 ′√𝑨𝟐 b. For small moment
𝟏
𝑷𝒏 4e
Where: 𝒇𝟏 = (𝟏 + )
𝐴2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑨𝟏 𝑴
𝑷𝒏 4e
𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝒇𝟐 = (𝟏 − )
𝑨𝟏 𝑴
𝑨
Since A1 is unknow and √ 𝟐 ≤ 𝟐, assume that ∗ 𝒇𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝟐 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
𝑨 𝟏
Otherwise, the moment is large and is
𝐴
√𝐴2 = 2. From that assumption, fp can be complicated to design.
1

obtained and from fp, A1 can be obtained since 𝒇𝟏 − 𝒇𝟐 𝑴 − 𝒎

𝒇𝟑 = 𝒇𝟏 − ( )
𝑷 M 𝟐
𝒇𝒑 = 𝑨𝒏 . 𝝓𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓, 𝛀𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟑.
𝟏
2. Plate Thickness: (𝑴 − 𝒎)𝟐
𝑴𝒏 = 𝑴𝒑 = (𝒇𝟑 + 2f𝟏 )
𝟒𝑴𝒏 𝟐𝟒
𝒕=√
𝑵𝑭𝒚 𝟒𝑴𝒏
𝒕=√
𝑵𝑭𝒚
𝟒𝑴𝒏
𝒕=√
𝑴𝑭𝒚 (𝒇𝟑 + 2f𝟏 )
𝒕=√ (𝑴 − 𝒎)
a. For zero moment 𝟔𝑵𝑭𝒚
𝑓𝑝 𝑁
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 = (𝑀 − 𝑚)2
8 Solve for the other direction using the equations
𝑷𝒏 on zero moment and take fb as the average of f1
𝒕=√ (𝑴 − 𝒎) and f2. Get the greater value for t.
𝟐𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝒚

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