UNIT

08 Random Variables and Probability

Names of Sub-Units

Introduction to Random Variables, Introduction to Probability Distribution, Discrete Probability

Distribution, Continuous Probability Distribution, Mean Variance and Co-Variance of Random
Variables, Binomial and Normal Distribution, Exponential Distribution.

Overview

This unit begins by discussing about the concept of random variables and probability distribution.
Next, the unit discusses the discrete probability distribution and continuous probability distribution.
Further the unit explains the mean variance and co-variance of random variables and binomial and
normal distribution. Towards the end, the unit discusses the exponential distribution.

Learning Objectives

In this unit, you will learn to:

 Discuss the concept of random variables and probability distribution
 Explain the concept of discrete probability distribution and continuous probability distribution
 Describe the mean variance and co-variance of random variables
 Explain the significance of binomial and normal distribution
 Discuss the importance of exponential distribution
JGI JAIN
DEEMED-TO-BE UNIVERSIT Y
Mathematical Foundation for Computer Application

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you would:

 Evaluate the concept of random variables and probability distribution
 Assess the concept of discrete probability distribution and continuous probability distribution
 Evaluate the importance of mean variance and co-variance of random variables
 Determine the significance of binomial and normal distribution
 Explore the importance of exponential distribution

Pre-Unit Preparatory Material

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution

8.1 INTRODUCTION TO RANDOM VARIABLE

A random variable in field of probability and statistics is a variable of unknown value or a value assigned
by a function in an experiment’s outcomes. It can be either discrete or continuous. Random variable is
generally denoted by X. The classification of random variable is shown in Figure 1:

Random Variable

Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable

Figure 1: Classification of Random Variable

8.1.1 Discrete Random Variable

A discrete random variable can take non-negative integral values. For example, in an experiment
of tossing a coin 4 times. If X represents the number of times tails appear then X is discrete random
variable and can take values 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.

8.1.2 Continuous Random Variable

A continuous random variable can take values between a specific range and we have infinite values for
continuous random variable. For example, if X represents the average height of a group of 35 people,
we will find that the resulting outcome will be of continuous value since height of a person can take any
value like 5 ft, 5.02 ft, 5.0002 ft etc. We have infinite possible values for height.
A random variable has probability distribution that represents the chances of happening of any event.
Example 1: Let Z represent the number on the top of a dice when we roll it once. The possible values of Z
will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Here, the probability of each outcome is 1/6, thus all the events are equally likely.

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Example 2: In an experiment of tossing two coins simultaneously the set of 4 possible outcomes, S = { HH,
TT, TH, HT }. If random variable X denotes the number of head in the experiment, then
X = 0 (for TT)
X =1 (for TH and HT) and
X = 2 (for HH)

8.2 INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency distribution is an important concept in the field of Statistics. Frequency distribution is listing
of frequencies of all the possible outcomes of an experiment. The two types of frequency distribution are
as follows:
 Observed Frequency Distribution
 Theoretical Frequency Distribution

8.2.1 Observed Frequency Distribution

The frequency distribution obtained by actual observation of an experiment is known as observed
frequency distribution.
For example, the data of marks out of 50 of 40 students of a class can be represented as observed
frequency distribution as shown in Table 1:

Table 1: Observed Frequency Distribution

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

No. of Students 6 10 14 5 5

8.2.2 Theoretical Frequency Distribution

The frequency distribution which are not obtained by actual observation of an experiment but
mathematically calculated considering certain assumptions is known as theoretical frequency
distribution. It is also known as probability distribution or expected frequency distribution.
For example, if 2 coins are tossed 100 times and probability of getting tail is considered as success, then
the probability distribution will be shown in Table 2:

Table 2: Probability Distribution

No. of Tails Probability Expected Frequency

(X) (p) E(X)
0 1/4 ¼*100 = 25
1 2/4 2/4*100=50
2 1/4 ¼*100=25
p = 1 100

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8.3 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

A discrete probability distribution represents the probability distribution of discrete random variable
which can take any non-negative integral values. The probability of discrete random variable is always
greater than zero. Discrete probability distribution can be represented in tabular form. Some of the
examples are Bernoulli distribution, Binomial distribution and Poisson distribution.
In discrete probability distribution, we can calculate probability of random variable X exactly equal to
some values.
For example, the probability distribution of tossing of 4 coins having 16 possible outcomes with each
outcome is equally likely and getting a head is considered as success is represented as shown in Table 3:

Table 3: Discrete Probability Distribution

X P(X)
0 1/16
1 4/16
2 6/16
3 4/16
4 1/16
P(X) = 1

The result of above data is shown in Figure 2:

Discrete Probability Distribution

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
P(X)

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 1 2 3
X

Figure 2: Distribution Probability Distribution

8.4 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

In discrete probability distribution, value of each probability must be between 0 and 1. And the sum of
all probabilities of a distribution is 1.

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A continuous probability distribution represents the probability distribution of continuous random

variables like height, weight, intelligence etc. Continuous random variable can take any value between
a specific range i.e. there are infinite possible values for a continuous random variable X and probability
of x can be zero at some specific value of X. Some of the continuous probability distribution are normal
distribution, Chi-Square and exponential distribution.
The probability density function for continuous probability distribution is:
b

F  x   P  a  x  b   f x.dx  0
a

where [a,b] is the range of continuous random variable X.

For example, the probability distribution of weight of adult males between 160 – 170 pounds is represented
as shown in Figure 3:

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean = 180, StDev = 10

0.04

0.03
Density

0.02

0.135905

0.01

0.00
160 170 180
X

Figure 3: Distribution Plot

8.5 MEAN, VARIANCE AND CO-VARIANCE

Mean of a random variable is also called as expectation of X.
For a discrete random variable X with probability density function p(x), the mean or expected value of
X is:

EX    x px 

For a continuous random variable X with probability density function f(x), the mean or expected value
of X is:


E  X    x.f  x  .dx


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

8.5.1 Variance of Random Variable

For a discrete random variable X with probability density function p(x) and mean µ, the variance of X is:
 2 
V  X   E   X       x    2 p  x 
 

For a continuous random variable X with probability density function f(x) and mean µ, the variance of
X is:



V  X  
  x    . f  x  .dx
2



Properties of mean and variance of random variable are as follows:

 E  X  Y  E  X  E  Y  (where X and Y are random variables).

 E  X 1  X 2  X 3   E  X 1   E  X 2    E  X n    E  X i  .

 EXY   E  X  E  Y  . Here, X and Y must be independent.

 E aX
   aE X
  and E X
  a  E X
   a , where a is a constant number.
 For any random variable, X  0, E  X   0.

 E  Y   E  X  where the random variables X and Y are such that Y ≥ X.

 The variance of a constant number is 0.

  
V aX  b  a2 V X , where a and b are constants, X is random variable.

  
V a1 X 1  a2 X 2  an X n  a21V X 1  a22V X 2  a2nV X n .     
8.5.2 Co-Variance of Random Variable
Co-variance of two random variables is calculated to check how strongly they are related to each other.

Co-variance of two random variables X and Y with means X and Y respectively is denoted by Cov(X,Y)
or XY .

Cov X, Y   E  X  X  Y  Y 

When X and Y are discrete random variables with p(x, y) as the joint distribution function, then:

Cov X, Y     x  X  y  Y  p  x, y  

When X and Y are continuous random variables with f(x, y) as the joint distribution function, then:


Cov X, Y     x  X  y  Y  f x, y.dx.dy



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Remarks the following points are as follows:

 If X and Y deviate in same direction, then Cov X, Y   0.
 If X and Y deviate in opposite direction, then Cov X, Y   0.
 If X and Y are not strongly related to each other then, Cov X, Y   0.
The three types of co-relation in shown in Figure 4:

Positive Zero Negative

Correlation Correlation Correlation

Figure 4: Types of Co-relation

The properties of co-variance are as follows:
 Var  X   Cov  X, X 
 Cov cX,
 Y   c Cov  X, Y 
 Cov X,
 cY   c Cov  X, Y 
 Cov X
  Y, Z   Cov X,
 Z  Cov  Y, Z
 Cov  X, Y  Z   Cov  X, Y   Cov  X, Z 
 Cov  X, Y   Cov  Y, X 
 Cov  X, c  0

Example 3: A petrol pump owner sells petrol on an average of ` 60000 on a rainy day and of ` 90000 on
normal day. The probability of rainy day is 0.4 on Saturday. Fine the mean.
Solution: According to question, Random variable X will take two possible values i.e. 60000 and 90000.

X P(X) X.P(X)
60000 0.4 24000
90000 1 – 0.4 = 0.6 54000

EX    x px 

E(X) = 24000 + 54000 = 78000

Example 4: In a competitive examination 100 questions each with 4 multiple choices are asked. Four
marks are given for each correct answer and one mark is deducted for wrong answer. Find the expected
value if examiner gives the exam without preparation.

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Solution: Let the random variable be X.

Marks for Correct answer = 4 * 100 = 400
Marks deducted for incorrect answer = (-1) * 100 = -100
Hence, X = 400, – 100
As every question has choices, probability for correct answer = 1/4
Probability for incorrect answer = 3/4

X P(X) X.P(X)
400 1/4 100
–100 3/4 –75

EX  x px

E(X) = 100 + (-75)
= 25

Example 5: A bag contains 3 blue and 2 green balls. Three persons Shyam, Rohan and Sohan draw one
ball each and do not replace it. The person who draws first green ball gets ` 150. Find their expectation.
Solution: First, Shyam draws a ball.
P(Blue ball) = 3/5 and P(Green ball) = 2/5
2
If Shyam draws Green ball, expectation for Shyam =  150 = ` 60
5
But, if Shyam draws a blue ball then Rohan will draw next ball.
3 2 6
Probability of Green ball drawn by Rohan =  
5 4 20
6
Expectation for Rohan =  150 = ` 45
20
But, if Rohan draws a blue ball then Sohan will draw next ball.
3 2 2 12
Probability of Green ball drawn by Sohan =   
5 4 3 60
12
Expectation for Sohan =  150 = ` 30
60
Example 6: Find the Mean and Variance of the following discrete probability distribution:

x 0 1 2 3 4

p(x) 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5

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Solution: We have to find mean and variance,

X P(X) X.P(X)
0 1/5 0
1 1/5 1/5
2 1/5 2/5
3 1/5 3/5
4 1/5 4/5

EX    x p x
1 2 3 4
 0   
5 5 5 5
10
 2
5

 2 
For, V  X   E   X       x    2 p  x 

 
X P(X) x–µ (x – µ)2 (x – µ)2 p(x)
0 1/5 -2 4 4/5
1 1/5 -1 1 1/5
2 1/5 0 0 0
3 1/5 1 1 1/5
4 1/5 2 4 4/5

4 1 1 4
V  X   0 
5 5 5 5

=2
Example 7: Calculate the variance and the standard deviation for the following data:

X 0 1 2 3 4

Number of Prisoners 80 265 100 40 15

P(X) 0.16 0.53 0.2 0.08 0.03

Solution: Here,

X P(X) X.P(X)
0 0.16 0
1 0.53 0.53
2 0.2 0.40

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X P(X) X.P(X)
3 0.08 0.24
4 0.03 0.12

EX    x p x

= 0 + 0.53 + 0.4 + 0.24 + 0.12

= 1.29
 2 
For, V  X   E   X       x    2 p  x 

 
X P(X) x–µ (x – µ)2 (x – µ)2 p(x)

0 0.16 -1.29 1.6641 0.2662

1 0.53 -0.29 0.0841 0.0445

2 0.2 0.71 0.5041 0.1008

3 0.08 1.71 2.9241 0.2339

4 0.3 2.71 7.3441 0.2203

V(X) = 0.2662 + 0.0445 + 0.1008 + 0.2339 + 0.2203

= 0.8567
 0.87

S.D  0.87

 0.93

8.6 BINOMIAL AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Binomial distribution is one of the important discrete probability distributions. It was published in
1713. The binomial distribution represents the probability of two main outcomes success or failure. This
distribution has been extremely used in many fields of businesses in real life applications.
The conditions to apply binomial distribution are as follows:
 The number of trials are fixed and finite.
 The outcomes of each trial are success or failure.
 Success is denoted by p and failure is denoted by q = 1 – p.
 The trials are independent i.e. outcomes of one trial does not have any effect on the outcomes of
other trials.

The Probability function of binomial distribution is defined as:

P(x) = Cxn pxqnx

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where
n – number of trials
p – probability of success
q – probability of failure
P(x) – probability of x success in n trials

Some of the characteristics of binomial distribution are as follows:

 For n number of trials, a binomial distribution consists of (n + 1) terms and the coefficients of
successive terms are nC0,nC1,nC2,nCn-1, and nCn.
 For finding all the probabilities in binomial distribution, we need only two parameters n and p.
 The binomial distribution is symmetrical if p = q = 1/2, and the expected frequencies on either side
of the central value would be same. Thus, when 4 fair coins are tossed 64 times, the frequencies
for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 number of heads would be 4, 16, 24, 16 and 4 respectively, which shows that there is
symmetrical distribution. Sometimes if p ≠ q, even then the distribution might be symmetrical only
if n is increased sufficiently, otherwise the distribution would be skewed, or asymmetrical.
 A binomial distribution would be positively skewed, if p< 1/2 and negatively skewed if p>1/2.
 A binomial distribution can be represented graphically. The values of random variable are
represented on horizontal axis and the probabilities are represented on vertical axis as shown in
Figure 5:

Binomial Distribution
n = 1, p = 0.5
0.30

0.25

0.30
P(X)

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Successes X

Figure 5: Binomial Distribution

 The mean of binomial distribution is np and mode is also np.
 A binomial distribution is unimodal, if np is an integer.
 Binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution.

 The variance of binomial distribution is npq and the standard deviation is npq.
 The variance of binomial distribution is less than mean of binomial distribution.

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Example 8: A fair coin is tossed five times. What is the probability of getting:
i. exactly 3 heads
ii. 3 or 4 heads
iii. atleast 3 heads
1
Solution: Probability of head, p =
2
1 1
q=1–p=1– 
2 2
and, n = 5 , Using probability function of binomial distribution:

P(x) = Cxn pxqnx

3 53
1 1
i) P(3 heads) = C5    
3  2   2 
3 2
1 1
 10    
 2   2 
10

32
3 53 4 54
1 1 1 1
5
ii) P(3 or 4 heads)  C5      C    
3  2   2  4  2   2 
3 2 4 1
1 1 1 1
 10      5    
2 2 2 2
       
10 5
 
32 32
15

32
3 53 4 54 5 55
1 1 1 1 1 1
5 5
iii) P(at least 3 heads) = C5      C      C    
3  2   2  4  2   2  5  2   2 

3 2 4 1 5
1 1 1 1 1
 10       5       1 
2 2 2 2  
         2 
10 5 1
  
32 32 32
16

32

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Example 9: The mean of binomial distribution is 16 and its S.D. is 3. Find n, p and q.
Solution: In a binomial distribution
Mean = np

S.D. = npq
Variance = npq
Here, Mean = np =16 ...(1)

S.D. = npq  3
 Variance = npq = 9 ...(2)
Dividing (2) by (1), we get:
npq 9

np 16

9
 q
16
9 7
p=1–q= 1 
16 16

On substituting value of p in (1), we get:

7
n  16
16

256
n
7

8.6.1 Fitting of Binomial Distribution

Example 10: 8 coins are tossed at a time, 256 times. Find the expected frequencies of getting tails and
tabulate the results obtained.
Also calculate mean and variance of number of tails.
Solution: Given N = 256, n = 8
1 1 1
p = P( getting a tail) = , q = P(getting a head) = 1 

2 2 2 8
1 1
for fitting binomial distribution, we have to expand 256   
 2 2 
By expanding, we get expected frequencies of 0, 1, 2, 3, ……., 8 tails. As,

P(x)  Cxn pxqnx

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Expected frequency for x = N[P(x)] = NCn pxqnx 

 x 


Number of Tails Probability, P(x) Expected Frequency

 8
0
1 1
8
 1
8
1
0

C    
0 256 C8     1
0  2   2 
 02 2
  
 
 8
1
1 1
7  1
1
1
7

C    
1 256 C8     8
1  2   2  2 2
 1    
 
 8
2
1 1
6
 1
2
1
6

C    
2 256 C8       28
2  2   2 
 2 2 2
  
 
 8
3
1 1
5  1
3
1
5

C    
3 256 C8       56
3  2   2 
 3  2 2
  
 
 8
4
1 1
4
  1   1  
4 2

C    
4 256 C8       70
4  2   2  2 2
 4     
 
 8
5
1 1
3
  1   1  
5 3

C    
5 256 C8       56
5  2   2 
 5  2  2  
 
 8
6
1 1
2
 1
6
1
2

6 C        28
256 C  
8
 
6  2   2 
 6  2 2
  
 
 8
7
1 1
1
 1
7
1
1

7 C      8
256 C  
8
 
7  2   2  2 2
 7    
 
 8
8
1 1
0  1
8
1
0

C    
8 256 C8     1
8  2   2 
 82 2
  
 
1
For binomial distribution, mean = np = 8  4
2
1 1
Variance = npq = 8   2
2 2

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8.6.2 Normal Distribution

Normal distribution is one of the important continuous probability distributions. It was developed in
1733. The normal distribution represents the probability of continuous variables like height, weight,
intelligence etc. This distribution has been extremely used in many economic and business problems.
The normal distribution is also known as Normal Curve, Normal Frequency Distribution, Normal Curve
of Error. Normal distribution is an important statistical method for modern statistics and indispensable
tool of analysis of sampling theory.
The conditions to apply normal distribution are as follows:
 The events should be affected by independent casual forces.
 Deviation above the population mean should be equal to deviation below the population mean.
 The casual forces should be safe for all the samples of one event but can vary from one event to
other.

The probability density function of normal distribution is given by:


 x 2
1
PX   e 22 ,   X  
 2

Where,
X – Value of continuous random variable
µ – Mean of random variable
 – Standard deviation of random variable
The normal distribution plot is shown in Figure 6:

Inflection Inflection
Point Point
 

µ - 3 µ - 2 µ -  µ µ +  µ + 2 µ + 3

Figure 6: Normal Distribution Plot

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Some of the characteristics of normal distribution are as follows:

 The curve of normal distribution is bell shaped and it has symmetry at center i.e. around the mean.
 The total area under the curve is 1.
 It is a continuous probability distribution curve.
 The mean, median and mode of normal distribution are equal.
 In the curve half values lie at left of the center and half value lie at right of the center.
 The maximum probability occur at mean value and the probability decreases as x increases.

The standard normal variate of normal distribution is given by:

2
Z
1

P Z  e 2

2

x
where Z  ,   Z  


How to Find Area between Two Points?

To find the area between two values, we will divide it into two pieces.
For example, if we want to find the area between Z = -2.43 and Z = 1.81.

–2.43 1.81 Z

Figure: 7(a)
We will find the area left of 1.81, and then subtract the area left of -2.43. Like this:

–2.43 1.81 Z
–

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–2.43 1.81 Z
=

–2.43 1.81 Z

Figure: 7(b)

So, using the table of standard normal variate, the area between -2.43 and 1.81 = 0.9649 - 0.0075 = 0.9574

Example 11: Find the area to the right of Z = +1 and to the left of Z = -1.

Z = –1 0 Z = +1

Figure: 7(c)

Solution: Required Area = Total area – (Area from Z = -1 to 0) – (Area from Z = 0 to 1)

= 1 – 0.3413 – 0.3413
= 1 – 0.6826 = 0.3174

Example 12: A normal curve has   20 and   10 . Find the area between X1 = 15 and X2 = 40.
Solution: Here,   20 and   10 . We have to find area between X1 = 15 and X2 = 40.
15  20 5
For X1 = 15, Z1 =   0.5
10 10
40  20 20
For X2 = 40, Z2 =   2.0
10 10

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–0.5 Z=0 +2

Figure 7: The area between the two points is shown in 7(a), 7(b), 7(c)
Required Area = (Area from Z = -0.5 to 0) + (Area from Z = 0 to2)
= 0.1915 + 0.4772
= 0.6687

8.7 EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION

Exponential distribution is one of the mostly used continuous probability distribution. It is used to model
the time passed between events. For example, the amount of time (beginning now) until an earthquake
occurs; the length, in minutes, of business telephone calls, and the time, in months, a car battery lasts.
The exponential distribution is mostly used in the field of reliability. Reliability considers the amount of
time a product lasts.
The probability distribution function is given by:

e
ëx
P(x)  , x 0

0
 , x0

where,  – rate parameter

x – value of continuous random variable
The graphical representation of exponential distribution is shown in Figure 8:

1.50
 = 0.5
=1
1.25
 = 1.5

1.00
P(x)

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
x

Figure 8: Graphical Representation of Exponential Distribution

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Remarks the following points are as follows:

 The graph of exponential distribution has only one shape.
 The exponential curve is convex always.
 The stretchiness of the curve depends upon the value of . The curve stretches to right with decrease
in value of .

8.7.1 Mean of Exponential Distribution

The mean or expectation of exponential distribution is:


  E  X   x ex .dx
0

1  y
 0
 ye .dy

1  y 
 e  yey  
 0

1





E    x e
X2
0
2 x
.dx

1 2 y

2 0
 y e .dy

1  
 2ey  2yey  y2ey  
2  0

2

2

Now, variance of exponential distribution is:

 
V  X   E X 2  E  X  
2

2 1
 2

 2

1

2

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8.7.2 CDF for Exponential Distribution


1  e x , x  0
F (x) 
x 
0
 , x0

For example, a bank clerk spends average of 4 minutes on every customer.

X – Time spent by a bank clerk on customer
µ – average of 4 minutes
1 1
As     0.25
 4


P x  0.25e0.25x

So, P(5) = 0.25e–0.25*5 = 0.0716

P(1) = 0.25e–0.25 = 0.194
The value of P(x) decreases with decreasing x.

Example 13: On the average, a certain computer part lasts ten years. The length of time the computer
part lasts is exponentially distributed. What is the probability that a computer part will work for more
than 7 years?
Solution: Let x = the amount of time (in years) a computer part lasts.
1 1
μ = 10, so    0.10
 10

We have to find P(x > 7).

P(x > 7) = 1 – P(x < 7).


Since, P(X < x) = 1  ex then P(X > x) = 1 – 1  ex e x

0.1 7
P(x > 7) = e = 0.4966.

The probability that a computer part will work for more than seven years is 0.4966.

Conclusion 8.8 CONCLUSION

 A random variable in field of probability and statistics is a variable of unknown value.

 A discrete random variable can take non-negative integral values.
 A continuous random variable can take values between a specific range and we have infinite values
for continuous random variable.
 Frequency distribution is an important concept in the field of Statistics.
 Co-variance of two random variables is calculated to check how strongly they are related to each
other.

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 Binomial distribution is one of the important discrete probability distributions.

 The normal distribution represents the probability of continuous variables like height, weight,
intelligence etc.
 Exponential distribution is one of the mostly used continuous probability distribution used to model
the time passed between events.

8.9 GLOSSARY

 Random variable: It is a field of probability and statistics is a variable of unknown value.

 Discrete random variable: It is a non-negative integral value.
 Continuous random variable: It can take values between a specific range and we have infinite
values for continuous random variable.
 Frequency distribution: It is an important concept in the field of Statistics.
 Co-variance of random variables: It is calculated to check how strongly they are related to each
other.
 Binomial distribution: It is one of the important discrete probability distributions.
 Normal distribution: It represents the probability of continuous variables like height, weight,
intelligence etc.
 Exponential distribution: It is one of the mostly used continuous probability distribution used to
model the time passed between events.

8.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Essay Type Questions

1. Random variable can be either discrete or continuous. What is the concept of random variable?
2. In discrete probability distribution, we can calculate probability of random variable X exactly equal
to some values. Explain the significance of discrete probability distribution.
3. Continuous random variable can take any value between specific ranges. Describe the concept of
continuous random variable.
4. The binomial distribution represents the probability of two main outcomes success or failure. What
is the importance of binomial distribution?
5. The exponential distribution is mostly used in the field of reliability. Discuss the concept of exponential
distribution.

8.11 ANSWERS AND HINTS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

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A. Hints for Essay Type Questions

1. A random variable in field of probability and statistics is a variable of unknown value or a value
assigned by a function in an experiment’s outcomes. Refer to Section Introduction to Random
Variable
2. A discrete probability distribution represents the probability distribution of discrete random
variable which can take any non-negative integral values. Refer to Section Discrete Probability
Distribution
3. A continuous probability distribution represents the probability distribution of continuous random
variables like height, weight, intelligence etc. Refer to Section Continuous Probability Distribution
4. Binomial distribution is one of the important discrete probability distributions. It was published in
1713. Refer to Section Binomial and Normal Distribution
5. Exponential distribution is one of the mostly used continuous probability distribution. It is used to
model the time passed between events. Refer to Section Exponential Distribution

@ 8.12 POST-UNIT READING MATERIAL

 https://www.cuemath.com/learn/mathematics/probability-in-real-life/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_distribution#:~:text=The%20probability%20density%20
function%20%28pdf%29%20of%20an%20exponential,distribution%20is%20supported%20on%20
the%20interval%20%5B0%2C%20%E2%88%9E%29.

8.13 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION FORUMS

 Discuss with your friends and classmates about the concept of random variable and probability
distribution. Also, discuss about the types of probability distribution and exponential distribution.

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