Defining and non-defining relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun, Reminder -+ J1-JS

which can sometimes be omitted:

0 We went to a beach {which I that) Ali had recommended to us.
Here the relative pronoun refers to 'a beach', and the subject of the relative clause is 'Ali'. Compare:
I know a ma n who I that ran in the New York Marathon last year.
where the relative pronoun refers to 'a man', and the subject of the relative clause is also 'a man'.
In this case, the relative pronoun can't be omitted.

Relative pronouns are used to add information in defining relative clauses as follows:
adding information about things
subject which that
object which that no relative pronoun

adding information about people

subject who that

object who that no relative pronoun whom
1 When we add information about things, we can use that (or no relative pronoun) as object in
conversation and w hich in more formal contexts:
Decorating's a job {that) I hate. (rather than ' ... which .. .' in this informal context)
When we add information about people, we generally prefer that (or no relative pronoun) as object
in informal contexts rather than who or whom:
He's t he man {that) I met at Aisha's party (rather than ... who I whom I met ... )
-tr whom is very forma l and rarely used in spoken English:
The boy whom Elena had shouted at smiled. (less formally that, no relative pronoun or who)
'fr We use that as subject after: something and anything; words such as all, little, much, and none
used as pronouns; and noun phrases that include superlatives. Which is also used as subject after
something and anything, but less commonly:
" These walls are all that remain of the city. (not ... which remain of the city.)
fl Note that we can use that {or no relative pronoun) as object after something I anything; all, etc.;
and noun phrases with superlatives. For example:
She's one of the kindest people (that) I know. (not ... one of the kindest people who I know.)

Relative pronouns are used to add information in non-defining relative clauses

as follows:
adding information about things adding information about people
subject which t hat subject who
object which t hat object who whom

* Note that we must include a relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause.

* We can use who or whom as object, although whom is very formal:
'--' Professor Johnson, who(m ) I have long admired, is to visit the university next week.
fl When we add info rmation about things, we can use which as subject or object. That is sometimes
used instead of which, but some people think this is incorrect:
) The Master's course, which I took in 2001, is no longer taught. (or ... t hat I took ... )
Exercises
Put brackets around the italicised relative pronoun if it can be omitted. fJ
1 We talked about the party which Natalia wants to organise for my birthday.
2 To get to Maxim's house, take the main road that bypasses the village.
3 The paintings which Mr Flowers has in his house are worth around £100,000.
4 Let's go through the main points that he made in his lectu re.
5 He received a low mark for his essay, which was only one page long.
6 Mrs Yang, who is 42, has three children.
7 Dev is a friend who we stayed with in Australia.
8 In the shop window there's a sign that says '10% off'.
9 The couple who live next t o us have 16 grandchildren.
10 There was little that we could do to help her.

Rewrite these sentences including the information in brackets as relative clauses (defining or
non-defining). Give alternative relative pronouns if possible. (Use (- )to indicate 'no relative
pronoun'.) CID
1 Oliver said something. (I couldn't hear it clearly) .... ... so44 SO_l)"l_tj:h_i.t'.lg _thaj(. f Wbi.c:h .J .
. . .-::. L.(..()u.(41'.''t c:Wµ:4J, .
2 Eva's father has just come back from a skiing holiday. (he is over 80)

3 The problems faced by the company are being resolved. (I'll look at these in detail in a moment)

4 She was greatly influenced by her fathe r. (she adored him)

5 He pointed to the stairs. (they led down t o the cellar)

6 These drugs have been withdrawn from sale. (they are used to treat stomach ulcers)

7 The singer had to cancel her concert. (she was recovering from flu)

8 The minister talked about the plans for tax reform. (he will reveal them next month)

9 I have two older sisters. (I love them very much)

- If necessa ry, correct or make improvements to these sentences. If they are already correct,
write ./. t.D
1 There's something which I should tell you.
2 The doctor whom Ingrid went to see was very thorough.
3 Yesterday was the hottest day I can remember.
4 There isn't much can go wrong with the machine.
5 Thieves whom stole paintings from Notford art gallery have been arrested in Paris.
6 It may be the most important decision w hich you will ever take.
7 The boy took the photograph was paid £100.
8 I heard many different accents in the room, but none which I could identify as Polish.
9 He just said anything which came into his head.
10 There's this dream w hich I have every night about falling downstairs.

Additional exercise 11 (page 247) 107

 J1-JS
We use a relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun whose + noun, particularly in written
English, when we talk about something belonging to or associated with a person, animal or plant:
C: Stevenson is an architect whose designs have won international praise.
C Suzy was taking care of a dog whose ears were badly damaged in a fight with a cat.
We can use whose in both defining and non-defining relative clauses.
We generally avoid using whose to talk about something belonging to or associated with a thing:
U I received a letter, and its poor spelling made me t hi nk it was written by a child. (more natural
than I received a letter, w hose poor spelling made me think ... )
However, we sometimes use whose when we talk about towns, countries, or organisations:
CJ The film was made in Botswana, whose wildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.
8 We need to learn from companies whose trading is healthier than our own.
In academic writing whose is used to talk about a wide variety of 'belonging to' relationships:
C Students have to solve problems whose solutions require a knowledge of calculus.
Clauses with when, whereby, where and why
We can begin relative and other clauses with when (referring to time), whereby {method or means;
used mainly in formal contexts), and where {location). In formal English in particular, a phrase with
preposition + which can often be used instead of these:
" The camera records the t ime when the photo is taken. (or ... the time at which ... )
Do you know the date when we have to hand in the essay? (or ... the date on I by which ... )
C We need to develop a system whereby workers and management can communicate more
effectively. (or ... the system in I by which workers ... )
C This was the place where we first met. (or ... the place at I in which we ... )
In academic English, we can also use where to refer to features other than location, particularly after
words such as case, condition, example, situation, system:
2 Later in this chapter we will introduce cases where consumer complaints have resulted in
changes in the law. (or more formally ... cases in which ... )
We can also use a I the reason why or a I the reason that or just a I the reason:
C I didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't the reason why I left. (or ... the reason {that) I left.)

I
c Clauses with who and what; whatever, whoever and whichever
Some clauses beginning with a wh-word are used like a noun phrase in a sentence. These are
sometimes called nominal relative clauses:
" Can you give me a list of who's been invited? (=the people who have been invited)
--, I didn't know what I should do next. (= the t hing that I should do next)
Note that we can't use what in this way after a noun:
'-- I managed to get all the books that you asked for. (not .. . all the books what you asked for.)
We use clauses beginning with whatever (= anything or it doesn't matter what), whoever (= the
person I group who or any person I group who), or whichever (= one thing or person from a limited
number), to talk about things or people that are indefinite or unknown:
'-' I'm sure I' ll enjoy eating whatever you cook.
0 Whoever wins will go on to play Barcelona in the final.
("' Whichever one of you broke the window will have to pay for it.
Exercises
--"""- Combine a sentence from (i} with a sentence from (ii) to make new sentences with whose. D
(i) (ii)

1 Dr Rowan has had to do all her own typing. a Its chairperson is Miss jiu Kim.
2 The newspaper is owned by the Mears b Their diets contain high levels of protein.
group. c Their flowers are attractive to bees.
3 Parents are being asked to take part in the d Her secretary resigned hvo weeks ago.
survey. e Her first job was filling shelves in a
4 Children do better in examinations. supermarket.
5 My aunt is now CEO of a department store. f Their children are between four and six.
6 I enjoy growing plants.

1+ d Pr. Gl.,99, hAA. J.p .411. ,.aj+ bey QW.l'.I

... . ...

-
CID Define the words using whose (1-3} and in which (4-6}. You may need to use a dictionary.
1 A lexicographer is a person
2 A widow is a woman ......
3 An actuary is a person
.. tQ. . ..

4 A furnace is a container
5 A gazebo is a small garden building
6 Polo is ........ .. ..............................

..,.....,. Complete these sentences using phrases from the box and when, whereby, where or why. Q
the area an agreement a condition a method the moment the reason

Sunset is defined in astronomy as . ............ ............... .. ............... ...... . ....... the whole of the sun's disc
disappears below the horizon .
2 In 1951, China and the Soviet Union signed .. . . ... ........... . ............. China provided
uranium ore in exchange for technical assistance.
3 The coastline is ............ ...................... the land meets the sea or ocean.
4 The river is prone to sudden flooding which is ..... ........................... ........... ...... there are no major
towns along its banks.
5 Freeze-drying is .... ............................................. wat er is rapidly evaporated from frozen food in
order to preserve it.
6 Hypoglycaemia is ...... the level of sugar in the blood drops suddenly.

-...-.. If the italicised word is correct, write./. If not, suggest another word. Cl
1 I think whatever was responsible for damaging the trees should be fined or sent to prison.
2 Do they really understand that they are doing?
3 I don't envy whoever buys that house. It's in a terrible condition.
4 Now that I no longer have to wear a school uniform, I'll be able to wear which I want.
5 I think the government should improve the health service, whichever the cost.
6 It 's a question that I've been asking for many y ears.
7 The clock makes a noise what keeps me awake at night.
8 I'm su re that Rashid will do well at university, which one he goes to.

-+ Additional exercise 11 (page 247) 109

In formal styles noun + of which is often preferred to - Reminder-+ J1-JS
* whose + noun:
U A h uge amount of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still being felt. (or ... whose effects
are still being felt.)
* that I which ... of in relative clauses:
C) The school of which she is head is closing. (less formally The school (that I which) she is head
of is closing.)
After both we can use of which and of whose, but not usually which or whose:
0 Lotta was able to switch between German and
Russian, both of which she spoke fluently. Also after: all, each, many, most,
(not ... both which she spoke fluently.) neither, none, part, some, a number
(one, two, etc.; the fi rst, the second,
etc.; half, a third, etc.), and superlatives
(the best, the biggest, etc.)

In formal, mainly written, English whose can come after a preposition in a relative clause. Putting the
preposition at the end of the clause is more natural in informal and spoken English:
I now turn to Freud, from whose work the following quotation is taken. (less formally ...
Freud, whose work the following quotation is taken from.)

When a preposition is needed with the relative pronouns which and whom we usually put it before
the relative pronoun in formal styles:
0 The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.
0 There are 80 teachers in the Physics Department, among whom are 24 professors.
After a preposition we usually use whom rather than who in formal styles:
0 Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public to
whom they are accountable? (rather than .. . the public t o who they are accountable.)
and we don't use that or no relative pronoun:
The valley in which the town lies is heavily polluted. (not The valley in that the town lies is
heavily polluted.; not The valley in the town lies is heavily polluted.)
In less formal English we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause:
The office that Juan took us to was filled with books. (rather than The office to which Juan
took us ... )
and we prefer who (or that) rather than whom (see also Unit 26A):
" The playground wasn't used by the children who it was built for.

If the verb in the relative clause is a two-word verb (e.g. come across, fill in, look after, take on) we
don 't usually put the preposition before the relative pronoun:
The Roman coins, which a local farmer came across in a fie ld, are now on display in the
National Museum. (not ... coins, across which the local farmer came, are ... )
W ith three-word verbs, we only put the preposition before the relative pronoun in a very formal or
literary style, and many people avoid this pattern:
She is one of the few people to whom I look up. (or less formally ... who I look up to.)
Exercises
El::llJ• Rewrite these sentences so that they are more appropriate for formal written English. Use
preposition +which or preposition +whose, as appropriate. ml)
Fleming's discovery of penicillin, which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for, had a major
influence on the lives of people in the 20th century. Fleming's d.µ;cover!i gf pen.i.cil4.!'l, fur
... wni.c.n ne wo..s o..wp,r.4&4, tne o.. major . 9..!'! tne Llxes. of
. people in tne Z.Oft.l...
2 He was the uncle of Anne Boleyn, whose execution in 1536 he lost power after.
3 It is her unmarried name which she is better known by.
4 Mr Wang, whose land the road will be built across, is unhappy about the plans.
5 The election result, which there can be no doubt about, is a great disappointme nt.
6 The bui lding which Marcus emerged from was little more than a ruin.
7 It is a medieval palace, whose tower the king hid in during the civil war.
8 I am grateful to Aarav Basu, whose book on the history of the bicycle this information comes
from.

Complete the sentences using the endings from the box and which or whom after an
appropriate preposition. Cl
the furniture is to be delivered. she was divorced in 2005. he had shown his novel.
I had great respect. it was named. the printer was supplied.
most world trade was conducted. you should be aware.

1 My Maths teacher, Mr Kato, was someone for w_r1om I no.4 9reo..t respect..
2 Until 1914 the pound sterling was the currency ...

3 They have changed the date . ..... . .................... ...... . .. .... . ........ ................. . .................

4 Pasteurisation was discovered by the French chemist Louis Pasteur, ........................

5 He was persuaded to stay in England by Charles Dickens,

6 There are a number of safety procedures

7 Details are in the instruction manual

8 Ms Park was left the money by her former husband,

- Rewrite the sentences from 55.2 in a less formal way, putting the preposition at the end of the
relative clause. D
1 .. Md . . .. wh<? ./ .. ftlaj;_/.-:::.J .. fur_,

- If necessary, s uggest corrections or improveme nts to these sentences or write ./ if they are
already correct. ( l i;i1)
1 The house into which the thieves broke is owned by Caleb Cruz.
2 The school has been given 20 laptops, half of which are brand new.
3 JKL Motorbikes sells six different models, the first which they started making in 1985.
4 The party, to which I've been looking forward all week, is at Maxine's house.
5 The water t hat she fell into was freezing cold.
6 I have heard her on the violin and clarinet, both which she plays extremely well.
7 The film was made atTulloch Castle, part which dates back to 1466.
8 The college is home to 30 students from Nepal, almost all of who are studying economics.

-+ Additional exercise 11 (page 247) 111

We sometimes add information about a person or thing referred to in one noun phrase by talking
about the same person or thing in a different way in a following noun phrase:
0 A hooded cobra, one of the world's most dangerous snakes, has escaped from Dudley Zoo.
fJ Dr Alex Parr, director of the State /vfuseum, is to become the government's arts adviser.
In writing, the items are usually separated by a comma, and in speech they are often separated by a
pause or other intonation break. However, when the second item acts like a defining relative clause,
w hen it is usually a name, there is usually no punctuation in writing or intonation break in speech:
0 fvfy friend fvfia has moved to Sweden. (rather than My friend, Mia, ... )
0 The current champion is expected to survive her first-round match with the Italian Silvia
Farina . (rather than ... the Italian, Silvia Farina.)

We can add information to a noun phrase with a conjunction such as and or or:
0 Kurt Svensson, her teacher and well-known concert pianist, thinks that she has great talent.
(=her teacher is also a well-known concert pianist)
0 Phonetics or the study of speech sounds is a common component on courses in t eaching
English as a foreign language.

The adverb namely and the phrase that is are used to add details about a noun phrase:
0 This side effect of the treatment, namely weight gain, is counteracted with other drugs.
0 The main cause of global warming, that is the burning of fossil fuels, is to be the focus of
negotiations at the international conference.

We can also add information to a noun phrase using a participle clause beginning with an -ing, -ed or
being+ -ed verb form . These are often similar to defining relative clauses:
_..) The people living next door come from Italy. (or The people who are living next door ... )
0 The weapon used in the murder has now been found. (or The weapon that was used ... )
0 The prisoners being released are all women. (or The prisoners who are being released ... )
Note that -ing participle clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with an active verb, while -ed
and being+ -ed clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with a passive verb.
We can also use a to-infinitive clause, as in:
0 Have you brought a book to read ?
L' My decision to resign from the company was made after a great deal of thought.
(J I thought that the management's offer, to increase staff holidays, was a good one.

In written English, particularly in newspapers, -ing and -ed clauses are also used instead of non-
defining relative clauses. These are usually written between commas or dashes (- ):
0 The men, wearing anoraks and hats, made off in a stolen Volvo estate.

0 The proposals - expected to be agreed by ministers - are less radi cal than many employers had
feared.
We can use an it-clause with be to focus attention on the information that immediately follows
it+ (be) . A sentence like this is sometimes called a cleft sentence. The clause after the it-clause
(usually a that-clause) contains information that is already known or considered to be less important:
0 'Lea bought the car from Olav.' ' No, it was Olav that bought the car from Lea.'
l I don't mind her criticising me, but it's how she does it that I object to.
r It was to show how much I cared for her that I bought her the necklace.
We sometimes use which or who instead of that; when and where can also be used, but usually only
in informa l English; and note that how or why can't replace that:
Karl was always there to help her, and it was to him that I who she now turned for support.
( 'Ida's seriously ill in hospital.' 'But it was only last Sunday when / that I was playing tennis
with her.'
0 It was in Warsaw where I that the film was made.
( 'Was it by cutting staff that he managed to save the firm?' 'No, it was by improving
distribution that he made it profit able.' (not ... how he made it profitable.)

Focusing with what-clauses

We can also use a what-clause followed by be to focus attention on certain information in a
sentence (=another form of cleft sentence). This pattern is particularly common in conversation. The
information we wa nt to focus attention on is outside the what-clause. Compare:
,...., We gave them some home-made cake. and
' What we gave them was some home-made cake.
We often do t his if we want to introduce a new topic; to give a reason, instruction or explanation; or to
correct something that has been said or done. In the following examples, the informat ion in focus is in
italics:
What I'd like you to work on is the revision exercise on the website.
( Isa a rrived two hours late: what had happened was that his bicycle chain had broken.
( 'We've only got this small bookcase - will t hat do?' 'No, what I was looking for was
something much bigger and stronger.'
We can often put the what-clause either at the beginning or the end of the sentence:
What upset me most was his rudeness. or
His rudeness was what upset me most.
To focus attent ion on an action performed by someone, we use a sentence with what + subject + do
+ be + to-infinitive clause. We can't use an it-clause to do this (see A):
Luis lost his job and was short of money, so what he did was {to) sell his flat and move in
with his brother. (not ... so it was (to) sell his flat that he did.)

The pattern in B is only usually used with what-clauses. Instead of placing other wh-clauses
(beginning how, when, where, who, why) at the beginning of the sentence we prefer to use a noun
which has a meaning related to the wh-word (e.g. reason rather than why; place rather than where)
followed by a that- or wh-clause. Here are some examples:
0 The only reason {why I that) I left t he party early was that I was feeling unwell. (rather than
Why I left the party early was ... )
( The place (where I that) you should play football is the playground, not the classroom.
( Somebody {who I that) I enjoy reading is Peter Carey.
l. The time {when I that) I work best is early morning.
 Exercises
Complet e t he rewritten sentences to focus attent ion on the underlined informat ion. Start with
a
-..ii.:.a.i•

it + be and use an appropriate wh-word or that.

1 Mark's known for ages that his parents are coming to stay with us this weekend, but he only told
me yesterday. Mark's known for ages that his parents are coming to stay with us this weekend,
but ... U;. wa..s on41.. J 11e. j;oLd, me..
2 Helena has been feeling a bit depressed for some t ime, so I booked a holiday in Amsterdam to
cheer her up. Helena has been feeling a bit depressed for some time, so ...
3 It's not that I don't want to have dinner with you tonight; I can't come because I've got so much
work to do. It's not that I don't want to have dinner with you tonight; ...
4 I had my wallet when I went into the sports hall, so I lost it somewhere in there. I had my wallet
when I went into the sports hall, so ...
5 She doesn't find learning languages very easy, and she improved her Spanish only by studying
very hard. She doesn't find learning languages very easy, and ...
6 I have had a great deal of help from my parents and two brothers in my research, and I dedicate
this thesis to my family. I have had a great deal of help from my parents and two brothers in doing
my research, and .. .
Write B's responses beginning No, what ... , correcting what w as said in A's question. Use the
notes in brackets. a
1 A: Did you say that Rudi was going to live in Austria? (holiday I Austria)
s: No.., I .\"<?-:$ thaj;__ 11e. wa..s or.i . ...
2 A: Do you hope to sell your Picasso paintings? (be put into I public art gallery)
B: ............ ......... ·························
3 A: Did it annoy you that Carla came so late? (not apologise)
B:
4 A: Did you mean to give Ella your bike? (could borrow it I until needed again)
B:

Now give sim ilar responses which focus on t he action.

5 Did you watch the football on TV last night? (get brother I record it I watch tonight)
A:
s: No., w.ba.t. I c:44 wo...s.. (tQ.L g.e.t. mH brother to r.ea:?r<i i1; a,n<i 1.'IL wajpl i1; toni.g11t;.
6 A: This steak tastes delicious. Did you fry it ? (put oil and soy sauce on I grill)
B:
7 A: Did you buy Megan t he coat she wanted? (give I money towards it)
B:
8 A: Did you fly from Sydney to Brisbane. (hire a car I drive all the way)
B:

.,..,;,,;;,. Complete B's responses using one of the phrases from sect ion C opposite and the information
in brackets. Put t he information in t he right order and add an appropriate form of be. Cl
1 I suppose Paul got the job because of his qualifications. (uncle owns company)
A:
e: Well, actually, I think .. . ...H1e..rea..son w11,H/ H-iaj;. PP,Mt got. tJ:ie. job wa..s. H-ia.t. 1-li.5
tAt\4e... th!?. c.ompo..n.!:j ......
2 A: Do you know anyone who could mend my computer? (might be able I help I Petra)
s: I don't know if she's free, but . . ......... .... ........ ..........................

3 A: You grew up in this village, didn't you? (between this village and next)
s: lnfact

4 A: In what period of your life do you think you were happiest? (lived Australia)
e: I suppose

197