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Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

1.3. Tectonic Deformation of the Earth's Crust

The concept of deformation has an important place in geology. When a force is applied to a
rock mass, it changes its shape and volume, this is called deformation. Since this change in
the earth's crust is mostly caused by tectonic forces, these changes are called tectonic
deformation. Factors affecting the deformation of rocks are time, pressure, temperature, effect
of solutions, void pressure and anisotropic properties of rocks.

As can be understood from the above factors, deformation in rocks increases as we go deeper
into the Earth's crust. Bodies are divided into three in terms of deformation and behavior:
a) Elastic body: When a force is applied to an object, it undergoes deformation. When this
force is removed, the body returns to its original state, such bodies are called elastic bodies,
the behavior is called elastic behavior and the deformation is called elastic deformation. In
the geosciences, elastic bodies are sediments that have not yet solidified and deformation
develops in the form of folding.
b) Plastic body: When a force is applied to an object and when it is removed, if the object
does not return to its original state, the object is called a plastic body, the behavior is called
plastic behavior, and the deformation is called plastic deformation. In the geosciences, a
plastic body is a solid, rigid rock that has undergone diagenesis. Plastic deformation takes
place in the form of fracture, resulting in joints, cracks and faults.
c) Viscous body: If a body deforms without any force being applied to it, the body is called
a viscous body, the behavior is called viscous behavior, and the deformation is called
viscous flow. Mercury and flowing lava are examples of such bodies.

When force is applied to unconsolidated sediments deposited in sedimentation basins, they

curl. In the meantime, rocks solidified by lithostatic pressure (rock pressure) and other factors
caused by the deposition of new sediments cannot respond to these forces by bending and
break. Thus, joints/cracks are formed. If the same forces continue, the displacements along the
joint/crack planes create structural products called faults. As can be understood from this,
each rock undergoes deformations that vary according to its lithological characteristics.

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 Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

1.3.1. Types of Tectonic Regimes

Within the dynamic structure of the Earth's crust, the forces and stresses applied to rocks give
rise to the following tectonic regimes (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3. Types of tectonic regimes

1.3.1.1. Compression Regime (Compressive regime)

In the compression regime, a compressive force is applied to a (h) thick piece of crust/rock in
the same direction and towards each other. While still in the unconsolidated state, the
sediment is folded by elastic deformation. The crust shortens and thickens. Eastern Anatolia
was folded, the crust shortened and a high morphology was formed due to the north-south
compression between the Arabian Plate in the south and the Eurasian plate in the north.

As rock formation continues while the same forces continue to operate, the crust becomes
unable to respond to these forces by folding and undergoes fracture. At this stage of plastic
(irreversible) deformation, the crust breaks and a joint/crack forms. If the same compressive
forces continue (and they continue today), one of the crustal blocks, which is divided into two
blocks, moves relative to the other. This phenomenon is called faulting.
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 Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

The interface where the event takes place is also called a fault. For example; structures such
as Bitlis Suture Zone in Eastern Anatolia, overturned folds, reverse faults etc. are the
structures developed under the effect of compression regime (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4. Development phases of the compression regime (Tutkun, 1999)

1.3.1.2. Tensile Regime (Tensional regime)

In the tensile regime, tensile forces in the same direction but in opposite directions are
effective. During the elastic deformation phase, the crust elongates and thins (Figure 1.5).
While the north-south compressive regime is active in Eastern Anatolia, the north-south
tensile regime is effective in Western Anatolia. Thus, the Aegean Region was stretched in the
north-south direction and formed a low-lying morphology. When the same forces continued,
the crust, which could not respond to these forces by stretching and thinning, was broken and
thus joints were formed. Due to the same regime that continues today, horsts extending
perpendicular to the Aegean Sea and grabens observed as Gediz, Büyük Menderes, Küçük
Menderes etc. plains were formed within the normal fault system.

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 Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

Figure 1.5. Tensile regime (Tutkun, 1999)

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 Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

1.3.1.3. Shear Regime

In this regime, forces that are not in the same direction but towards each other are effective.
As a result, the crust bends during the elastic deformation phase, then breaks and if the same
forces continue, faulting occurs (Figure 1.6). Faults formed in this regime are strike-slip
faults.

Figure 1.6. Shear regime (Tutkun, 1999).

1.3.1.4. Torsion regime

If forces are applied to two different points of an object and in such a way as to cause
rotations in opposite directions, it is seen that the object is twisted, deformed, bent, broken
and fractured (Figure 1.7). We can liken rotational movements in the earth's crust to this.

Figure 1.7. Torsion regime

1.3.1.5. Compression-Compression regime

In this regime, two different regimes operate simultaneously and reverse faults with strike-slip
occur.
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 Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

1.3.1.6. Tensile-Shear regime

In this regime, the final structural product is the strike-slip normal faults.

1.3.2. Tectonic Deformation Structures

The concept of tectonic deformation, which generally means structure and deformation,
occurs as a result of pressure and stresses acting within the earth's crust. The force that creates
tectonic deformation is internal dynamics. As a result of internal dynamic events developing
in the Earth's crust, the layers bend, curl, break, in short, the shape of the Earth's crust begins
to change. Under the influence of internal dynamics, all stratified rocks on the earth's crust
can undergo tectonic deformation and gain horizontal, oblique, curved or fractured structures.
Especially stratified rocks are partially folded and rigid rocks that cannot be folded are
fractured. Rocks that are folded are called folded structures and rocks that are broken are
called fractured structures.

Depending on the degree and direction of the structural forces acting on them, the strata
incline in different directions and to different degrees. During geological studies, strata in the
field can be encountered in 5 different forms as horizontal, oblique, steep, tilted and tilted
strata (Figure 1.8). Horizontal strata do not make an angle with the horizontal plane and are
parallel to this plane. Oblique strata cut the horizontal plane at a certain angle. Perpendicular
layers make an angle of 90o with the horizontal plane. Overturned strata cross the horizontal
plane at an angle, but here the younger strata are located at the bottom and the older strata at
the top. Tilted strata are parallel to the horizontal plane, but here the young strata are at the
bottom and the old strata at the top.

1.3.2.1. Curved Structures

The wave-shaped deformations that stratified rocks acquire under the influence of tectonic
forces are called folds, and the event that occurs is called folding. When tectonic forces act on
a rock, it first undergoes a slight curvature that gradually increases over time (Figure 1.9). As
a result of folding, the rocks lose their original position and gain special dome or bowl shaped
structures.
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 Geothermal Geology-Prof. Dr. Ahmet YILDIZ 2021

Figure 1.8. Layer positions; (a): horizontal, (b): tilted, (c): vertical, (d): tilted and (e): tilted
layers.

Figure 1.9. Development of a folded structure (b, c, d) in a layered rock (a) under
compressive forces.

Folds consist of anticlines or synclines. The dome-shaped humps in the folds are called
anticlinal and the bowl-shaped parts are called synclinal (Figure 1.10). A fold consists of
wings on both sides. These wings can be straight or curved. Depending on the position of the
wings, a fold is either an anticlinal or a synclinal. The line where the wings of a fold meet is
called the fold axis. The fold axis is the stratigraphically highest level of the folded strata
series and may be horizontal or dipping. The plane that joins the fold axes of all strata series
involved in the fold and carries them on itself is called the axis plane (Figure 1.18). The axis
planes can be straight or curved depending on the nature of the fold. In an anticlinal, the
highest topographic point is called the peak point and the line that carries these points is
called the peak line. The plane that connects the crest lines of the various strata involved in
the fold and carries them on itself is called the crest plane (Figure 1.10).

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Figure 1.10. Elements of a fold.

There are many different forms of folds and they are classified into classes and groups
u n d e r different names according to different principles. There is no single pattern in the
classification of folds that has been completely adopted by everyone. The classifications
proposed by different researchers and most commonly used in practice are as follows.
a) Geometric classification
b) Classification according to formation mechanics
c) Morphological classification
d) Classification according to the relationship of the folds to the horizontal
e) Some special shapes of folds

1.3.2.2. Cracks

If one looks closely at any rock seen in outcrops during field studies, it is seen that this rock is
divided in different directions by cracks or, in broad terms, fracture systems. Cracks that
occur as a result of the fracture or splitting of a rock are the result of the breaking of the bond
between the grains that make up that rock. Cracks can develop in sedimentary, igneous or
metamorphic rocks.

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In cracks, the gap between two blocks separated by fractures can be microscopic, and the gap
can sometimes be kilometers long. In general, if the gap (L) between two fracture surfaces is
between 0-1 cm, it is called a crack, and if it is larger than 1 cm, it is called a cleft (Figure
1.11). Cracks can be 40-50 cm in length on average, and can sometimes measure kilometers
along their direction. The length and spacing of the cracks depend on the lithological
characteristics of the rock and the magnitude of the forces acting on it.

Figure 1.11. Crack block diagram.

Different classifications have been developed for cracks. Cracks in the Earth's crust are caused
by various geological and tectonic activities. For this reason, the classification of cracks can
be made by different researchers according to different principles and characteristics. Some of
the classification types of cracks based on different characteristics are given below.

a) By origin;
b) According to their relationship with structural forces;
c) According to their relationship to the folds;
d) According to their relationship with the strata;

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