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OPEN Analysis of stiffness and damping

performance of the composite leaf
spring
Xiaojun Zou1,2*, Bao Zhang2 & Guodong Yin1

Lightweight design of leaf springs is conducive to reducing fuel consumption and improving vehicle
comfort. The weight of leaf spring can be reduced obviously by using composite material. Stiffness
and damping are the key factors that affect the properties of the leaf spring. The influence of the
glass fiber laying angle and volume content on the stiffness and damping of the composite leaf spring
was analyzed through experiment and simulation. The results show that the stiffness and damping
properties of the leaf springs are related to the fiber laying angle and the fiber volume content. When
the volume content and the number of layers are constant, the stiffness shows a nonlinear decreasing
relationship with the laying angle, and the damping coefficient increases linearly with the laying
angle. When the laying angle and the number of layers are constant, the stiffness increases linearly
with the fiber volume content; the damping coefficient has a nonlinear decreasing relationship with
the fiber volume content. The type of research can provide theoretical basis and reference for the
design, analysis and optimization of composite leaf spring.

Due to the needs of environmental protection, energy saving and emission reduction, lightweight has become the
current trend of automobile development. In addition, lightweight vehicles can also improve power, comfort, save
materials and reduce ­costs1. Automobile lightweight technology is the integrated application of design, material
and manufacturing technology. The two main ways to achieve lightweight are structural optimization design and
the application of new materials. Compared with the steel of the same structure, using composite materials can
greatly reduce the weight, especially the development of low-density composite materials provides more poten-
tial for automobile ­lightweight2. Among many composite materials, glass fiber resin matrix composites have the
characteristics of lower density, higher strength and stiffness, good elasticity and corrosion resistance, etc. And
the composite materials have been widely used in aerospace, automotive industry, machinery manufacturing
and other fi­ elds3,4. Most of the elastic elements in the suspension system of commercial vehicles are leaf springs.
However, the weight of the leaf spring is large and the damping performance is poor, which is not conducive
to the lightweight and comfort of the vehicle. In order to reduce the weight of the suspension and improve the
damping performance of suspension, the composite leaf spring have become the main research ­object5,6.
As one of the effective methods to reduce vibration and noise of automobile chassis, glass fiber reinforced
composite leaf spring has received extensive attention in recent years. Ke et al.7 introduced the method of leaf
spring design method, stiffness calculation and optimization. Guduru et al.8 developed a kind of glass fiber
epoxy resin monolithic composite leaf spring, which reduced the weight by 69.4% compared with the leaf spring.
Through studying the mechanical properties of different composite materials, the most suitable material for pre-
paring single-leaf spring was obtained. Al-Obaidi et al.9 studied the mechanical properties of composite materials
for making leaf springs. The results show that the load-bearing capacity of composite leaf springs is related to
the laying angle and volume content of the fiber, and the type of matrix has a significant effect on the stiffness.
Nishant Varma et al.10 showed that the natural frequency of composite leaf spring is 93% higher than that of leaf
spring. Chavhan et al.11 prepared E-glass fiber epoxy resin composite leaf spring, and studied its mechanical
properties. The results showed that the strength of the composite leaf spring was close to the steel leaf spring,
but the weight of the composite leaf spring was reduced by 79.13%. The authors introduce that composite leaf
spring is simple to manufacture in the paper, but I think this conclusion is not rigorous. The manufacture of
composite leaf spring should consider various factors such as lightweight, stiffness, strength, fatigue, deforma-
tion, etc. And the manufacturing process is also quite complicated, otherwise, the leaf spring sample can not be
used in the actual vehicle. Umanath et al.12 introduced the manufacturing method of the leaf spring with carbon
fiber and pineapple fiber as composite material. The strength and stiffness of the two composite leaf springs were

1
School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China. 2Naveco Automobile Co.,
Ltd, Nanjing 211806, China. *email: [email protected]

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Parameter Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile modulus (MPa) Density (g/cm3) Elongation rate (%)
PPG2026 2650 82,700 2.58 3.2
MAX2 80 2800 1.12 7.5

Table 1.  The property parameters of materials.

compared in the paper. Before comparing the strength and hardness of different types of composite leaf springs,
the fiber layup angle, volume content, and leaf spring stiffness should be controlled the same. At the same time,
the fatigue performance is also an important performance of the leaf spring, and there is no comparative analysis
in this paper. Rajendran et al.13 introduced that under the same design parameters and optimization conditions,
75.6% weight can be reduced by using single leaf spring instead of seven leaf spring. The deformation of the leaf
spring has a great influence on the ride comfort and handling performance of the vehicle. When the authors
optimized the composite leaf spring, the selected optimization targets were the weight, stiffness and strength of
the leaf spring, and the deformation factor of the leaf spring should be considered at the same time. Hajime Kishi
et al.14 introduced the preparation of composite laminates by vacuum pouring molding process, and compared
the mechanical properties of glass fiber laminates with laying angles of ± 60° and ± 45°. Composite laminates
are lightweight and thin-walled structures, and their damping characteristics are easily affected by the mass of
the sensor and air damping. The authors should consider the above factors in the research process. The effects
of different layering methods and chemical treatments on mechanical properties and free vibration properties
of composites were discussed in ­literature15. Margherita Basso et al.16 described the nonlinear behavior of short
glass fiber reinforced polymer composites through tensile creep test and stiffness degradation test.
Fiber reinforced composite leaf spring is composed of more than two kinds of polymer materials with dif-
ferent modulus and strength. By changing the content, type, direction and order of each component material,
the composite spring with different mechanical properties can be obtained. However, due to the anisotropy
and nonlinear characteristics of glass fiber reinforced c­ omposites17, it becomes difficult to study the dynamic
characteristics of composite leaf springs theoretically.
Although there are many related studies, most of them focus on the theoretical analysis and finite element
simulation analysis of the mechanical properties of composite leaf springs. There are few literatures on the experi-
mental research on the mechanical properties of composite leaf springs. In this paper, the stiffness and damping
properties of glass fiber resin matrix composite leaf spring were studied, and the effects of the fiber volume con-
tent and the laying angle on the stiffness and damping were studied in detail. The development of fiber reinforced
composites in the field of automotive lightweight and suspension vibration reduction is promoted in this work.

Materials and methods

Materials and preparation. In this paper, PPG2026 glass fiber is selected as the reinforced material, and
MAX2 polyurethane is selected as the matrix material. PPG2026 glass fiber belongs to E-glass fiber, produced by
PPG Industries, USA. It has excellent mechanical properties and can form an excellent interface with the resin
matrix to improve the fatigue performance of the composite leaf spring. MAX2 polyurethane has the character-
istics of high strength, tear resistance, abrasion resistance, etc., and can form excellent interface bonding with
glass fiber. The property parameters of materials are shown in Table 1.
The composite leaf spring is a multi-layer board structure bonded by multiple single-layer boards according
to a specific laying angle and laying order. Its mechanical properties depend on the performance, content and
laying angle of the glass ­fiber18. The volume content of glass fiber is an important performance parameter of
E-glass fiber/polyurethane laminate. Too small fiber volume content cannot increase the effect. When the matrix
strain is larger, the fiber will break. If the fiber volume content is too high, the strength of the composite material
will be higher, but the fluidity of the resin will deteriorate, and the damping performance of the composite leaf
spring will also ­decrease19. Comprehensively considering the mechanical properties of composite materials, the
composite leaf springs with a laying angle of 0° were prepared, and the volume content of e-glass fiber was 40%,
60% and 80% respectively. According to the distribution of glass fibers in the matrix, composite laminates can
be divided into unidirectional laminates and multidirectional laminates, and unidirectional laminates are fibers
that are laid out in the same direction from multiple unidirectional plies. Multi-directional laminates are fibers
made of multiple unidirectional plies laid in different d ­ irections20. The composite leaf springs with the fiber
volume content of 60% were prepared, and the laying angle was 0°, 45° and 90°, respectively. The composite leaf
spring structure is shown in Fig. 1a.
The composite leaf spring is composed of a leaf spring body, a front connection structure, a rear connection
structure and a middle connection structure. The body of the leaf spring is a parabolic shape, and a boss structure
is designed in the middle of the leaf spring body, and the boss structure is connected with the middle connecting
structure to transmit longitudinal loads and lateral loads. Figure 1b is a front connection structure consisting
of a front metal joint and a rubber bushing, which is connected to the front end of the leaf spring body through
bolts. Figure 1c shows the middle connection structure, which consists of a lower metal plate, an upper metal
plate and a U-bolt metal plate. Figure 1d is a rear connection structure consisting of a front metal joint and a
rubber bushing, which is connected to the rear end of the leaf spring body through bolts.
In this paper, a high-pressure resin transfer molding process (HP-RTM process for short) is used to prepare
E-glass fiber polyurethane composite leaf springs. The HP-RTM process uses high pressure to mix the resin and
inject it into a vacuum sealed mold with fiber reinforced materials and preset inserts in advance. After the resin
flow filling, impregnation, curing and demolding, the molding process of composite products is o ­ btained21,22.

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Figure 1.  The composite leaf spring structure; (a) the 3D model of leaf spring; (b) the front connection
structure; (c) the middle connection structure; (d) the rear connection structure.

Specimen Volume content/% Laying angle/° Length of leaf spring/mm Width of leaf spring/mm Number of layers
1# 60 0 1410 70 58
2# 60 45 1410 70 58
3# 60 90 1410 70 58
4# 40 0 1410 70 58
5# 80 0 1410 70 58

Table 2.  Composite material leaf spring test specimens.

Figure 2.  The finite element model of the composite leaf spring.

In order to optimize the mechanical properties of the polyurethane resin, it is also necessary to use an oven to
post-curing the leaf spring body. The final test specimens of composite leaf springs are shown in Table 2.
Due to the long working cycle and high cost of making composite leaf springs, it is difficult to make more
samples with different laying angles and different volume contents. In order to obtain more data, the finite ele-
ment model of composite leaf spring was established in this paper.
The 3D model of the composite leaf spring was imported into the HYPERMESH software, the model was
divided into solid meshes, and the element type was C3D8I element. Figure 2 is a leaf spring finite element
model with 457,482 elements and 518,750 nodes. The finite element model was imported into the ABAQUS
software in the form of an INP file, and the material properties of the model were set according to the data in
Table 1. The degree of freedom in the Ry direction of the rubber bushing A in the front connection structure
is released, the degrees of freedom in the X and Ry directions of the rubber bushing B in the rear connection
structure are released.
When simulating the static stiffness of the leaf spring, the z-direction displacement excitation is slowly applied
to the middle connected structure C, and the static stiffness is calculated according to the force–displacement
curve of the middle connected structure C. When simulating the dynamic stiffness of the leaf spring, a preload
is applied to the leaf spring, and the Z-direction displacement amplitude is ± 10 mm, and the loading frequency
is 4 Hz. When simulating the damping coefficient of the leaf spring, the transient Z-direction pulse displacement
excitation is applied to the middle connected structure C, and the damping coefficient is calculated according to
the acceleration time-domain curve of the middle connected structure C.

Experimental method. The stiffness bench test of composite leaf spring is shown in Fig. 3a. The lugs at
both ends of the composite leaf spring are respectively installed on the clamp respectively. When the leaf spring
deforms, the clamp can be rolled along the extension direction of the leaf spring on the test-bed to simulate the
actual working state of the compound leaf spring. The actuator of the bench is controlled by a hydraulic servo
system. The load of the actuator during the test is collected by a force sensor in the middle of the leaf spring
specimen, and the vertical displacement of the actuator during the test is measured by a vernier caliper. The

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Figure 3.  Mechanical property test of composite leaf spring; (a) the stiffness test; (b) the damping test.

slope of the load–displacement curve of the actuator is the stiffness of the composite leaf spring. The maximum
dynamic deflection of the composite leaf spring designed in this paper is 140 mm. First, a vertical displace-
ment is applied to the specimen through the actuator, the vertical displacement is gradually increased from 0 to
140 mm, and the vertical load of the actuator is recorded every 5 mm. Second, the vertical displacement imposed
by the actuator on the specimen was gradually reduced from 140 to 0 mm, and the vertical load of the actuator
was recorded every 5 mm.
Because the relative slip between glass fiber and polyurethane matrix consumes a lot of energy and the
inherent viscoelasticity of the Matrix, the glass fiber polyurethane composite has good damping properties. The
damping of the composite leaf spring mainly comes from the viscoelasticity of the composite material itself and
the internal friction of the leaf spring. The damping is usually expressed by the damping coefficient. Due to the
large stiffness of the composite leaf spring, its damping coefficient is difficult to be measured by the bench test
method. In this paper, the leaf spring specimen is installed on the rear axle of the vehicle, and the damping char-
acteristics of the specimen are tested by rolling down method. In order to avoid the impact of the shock absorber
on the test results, the shock absorber in the rear suspension of the vehicle was removed before the damping test.
The damping test uses the LMS TEST.LAB test system and the PCB three-way vibration acceleration sensor. The
sensor is arranged on the frame above the rear axle of the vehicle, as shown in Fig. 3b. The acceleration signal
of the vibration sensor on the frame is collected, and the damping coefficient of the compound leaf spring is
calculated according to the amplitude attenuation ratio of the free vibration attenuation curve.

Results and discussion

Analysis of the influence of laying angle on stiffness. The stiffness of the composite leaf spring is
determined by the mechanical properties of each single-layer plate, and affected by factors such as the volume
content of the glass fiber, the number of layers, the laying angle, and the working temperature. In order to ana-
lyze the influence of the laying angle on the stiffness of the composite leaf spring, the specimens 1, 2 and 3 were
selected for stiffness comparison tests. The stiffness test results are shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 4a–c show the stiffness curves of composite leaf springs with different laying angles when the glass
fiber volume content is 60%. The curves show that the fiber laying angle has a significant effect on the stiffness of
the composite leaf spring. The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop is the work done by the applied load, which
decreases with the increase of the laying angle. Under the same displacement conditions, the larger the area, the
greater the stiffness of the composite leaf spring. The stiffness of specimens 1, 2 and 3 are 118.3 N/mm, 87.8 N/
mm and 70.3 N/mm, respectively. When the laying angle is 0°, the stiffness is maximum, when the laying angle
is 90°, the stiffness is minimal.
Figure 5 is the simulation and experimental curves of leaf spring with different laying angle. When the laying
angle is 0°, the agreement between the test result of static stiffness and the simulation result of static stiffness is
98.5%, when the laying angle is 45°, the agreement is 96.3%, and when the laying angle is 90°, the agreement is
95.8%. The comparison results show that the finite element model of the composite leaf spring is correct. The
dynamic stiffness of the leaf spring is greater than the static stiffness, and the difference between the two data
increases with the increase of plying angle. Experimental data and simulation data show that when the volume
content and the number of layers are constant, the greater the laying angle, the lower the stiffness, and it has a
non-linear decreasing relationship with the laying angle.

Analysis of the influence of glass fiber volume content on stiffness. For a composite leaf spring
with a plying angle of 0°, the glass fiber volume content mainly affects the longitudinal tensile modulus. The
higher the fiber volume fraction is, the higher the longitudinal tensile modulus is, and the greater the leaf spring
stiffness is. In order to quantitatively analyze the relationship between the stiffness of the composite leaf spring
and the volume content of glass fiber, specimens 1, 4 and 5 were selected for stiffness comparison tests. Fig-
ure 6a–c show the stiffness curves of composite leaf springs with different fiber volume content when the laying
angle is 0°. The stiffness of specimens 4, 1 and 5 are 95.7 N/mm, 118.3 N/mm and 137.1 N/mm respectively.
When the fiber volume content is 40%, the stiffness is minimal, when the fiber volume content is 80%, the stiff-
ness is maximum.
Figure 7 is the simulation and experimental curves of leaf spring with different volume content. When the
volume content is 40%, the agreement between the test result of static stiffness and the simulation result of static
stiffness is 92.5%, when the volume content is 60%, the agreement is 98.5%, and when the volume content is
80%, the agreement is 93.5%. The dynamic stiffness of the leaf spring is greater than the static stiffness, and the

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(a)

Force (KN)
Displacement mm
(b) Force (KN)

Displacement mm
(c)
Force (KN)

Displacement mm

Figure 4.  Stiffness curves of leaf springs with different laying angles; (a) Specimens 1 test data; (b) Specimen 2
test data; (c) Specimen 3 test data.
Stiffness (N/mm)

Laying angle degree

Test value of static stiffness Simulation value of static stiffness
Simulation value of dynamic stiffness

Figure 5.  The simulation and experimental curves of leaf spring with different laying angles.

difference between the two data decreases with the increase of volume content. Experimental data and simulation
data show that when the laying angle and the number of layers are constant, the larger the volume content, the
higher the stiffness, and there is a linear increasing relationship with the fiber volume content.

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(a)

Force (KN)
Displacement mm

(b)
Force (KN)

Displacement mm

(c)
Force (KN)

Displacement mm

Figure 6.  Stiffness curve of composite leaf spring with different fiber volume content; (a) specimen 4 test data;
(b) specimen 1 test data; (c) specimen 5 test data.
Stiffness (N/mm)

Fiber volume content degree

Test value of static stiffness

Figure 7.  The simulation and experimental curves of leaf spring with different volume contents.

Analysis of the impact of laying angle on damping. The specimens 1, 2 and 3 were installed between
the rear axle and the frame, and the shock absorbers of the rear suspension were removed, and the leaf spring
damping test was carried out. Figure 8a–c show the free vibration attenuation curves of the composite leaf
spring. The amplitude of adjacent cycles does not change much, which indicates that the damping of the com-
posite leaf spring is small. The damping coefficients of specimens 1, 2 and 3 are 0.024, 0.031 and 0.044 respec-

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(a) 1.0

Acceleration/g
0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Time/second

(b) 1.0
Acceleration/g

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Time/second

(c) 1.0
Acceleration/g

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Time/second

Figure 8.  Variation curve of vibration attenuation of composite leaf springs with different laying angles; (a)
specimen 1 test data; (b) specimen 2 test data; (c) specimen 3 test data.

tively. The damping coefficient of the leaf spring with 0° layer is the smallest, and the damping coefficient of the
leaf spring with 90° layer is the largest.
The fiber laying angles affect the overall stiffness, inter-laminar friction and shear properties of laminates.
When the stiffness of composite leaf spring is too large, the deformation ability of polyurethane will be affected,
and the relative sliding between the reinforcement and the matrix will be impeded, thus reducing the damping
characteristics of composite leaf s­ pring23,24. Specimen 1 is laid at 0°, the fiber layer plays the main bearing role,
and the stiffness of the leaf spring is the largest. Under the same external load, the composite leaf spring consumes
less vibration energy and has the smallest damping coefficient. Specimen 5 is laid at 90°, and the polyurethane
layer plays the main bearing role, resulting in the lowest stiffness of the leaf spring. Under the same external load,
the composite leaf spring consumes more vibration energy and has the largest damping coefficient.
Figure 9 is the damping contrast curves of leaf spring with different laying angles. When the laying angle is
0°, the agreement between the test result and the simulation result is 93.8%, when the laying angle is 45°, the
agreement is 96.6%, and when the laying angle is 90°, the agreement is 95.0%. Experimental data and simula-
tion data show that when the fiber volume content and the number of layers are constant, the larger the laying
angle, the greater the damping coefficient of the composite leaf spring, and it has an approximate linear growth
relationship with the laying angles.

Analysis of the influence of glass fiber volume content on damping. The specimens 1, 4, 5 were
selected for damping tests. Figure 10a–c show the free vibration attenuation curves of the composite leaf spring
specimens. The damping coefficients of specimens 4, 1 and 5 are 0.032, 0.024 and 0.0197, respectively. When
the fiber volume content is 40%. The damping coefficient of the leaf spring is the largest. When the fiber volume
content is 80%, the damping coefficient of the leaf spring is the smallest.
The main contribution of the composite leaf spring damping comes from the polyurethane matrix. Polyu-
rethane is viscoelastic. When a force is applied to the leaf spring, the polyurethane matrix will undergo tensile
deformation, bending deformation and shear deformation, which consumes vibration energy to achieve the

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Damping (%)

Laying angle degree

Figure 9.  The damping contrast curves of leaf springs with different laying angles.

(a) 1.0
Acceleration/g

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Time/second

(b) 1.0
Acceleration/g

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Time/second

(c) 1.0
Acceleration/g

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Time/second

Figure 10.  Vibration attenuation curve of composite leaf spring with different volume contents; (a) specimen 4
test data; (b) specimen 1 test data; (c) specimen 5 test data.

vibration reduction effect. The higher the glass fiber volume content, the lower the polyurethane content, the
worse the viscoelasticity of the composite leaf spring and the lower the damping coefficient.
Figure 11 is the damping contrast curves of leaf springs with different volume contents. When the volume
content is 40%, the agreement between the test result and the simulation result is 95.5%, when the volume content
is 60%, the agreement is 94.1%, and when the volume content is 80%, the agreement is 93.4%. Experimental
data and simulation data show that when the laying angle and the number of layers are constant, the higher the

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Damping (%)

Fiber volume content degree

Test value Simulation value

Figure 11.  The damping contrast curves of leaf springs with different volume contents.

fiber volume content, the smaller the damping coefficient. However, when the fiber volume content increases
to a certain extent, the influence of the fiber volume content on the damping coefficient of the composite leaf
spring will become insignificant.

Conclusion
When the fiber volume content and number of layers of the composite leaf spring remain unchanged, the larger
the laying angle, the smaller the stiffness and the larger the damping coefficient.
When the fiber laying angle and number of layers of the composite leaf spring remain unchanged, the larger
the fiber volume content, the larger the stiffness and the smaller the damping coefficient.
The finite element model of the composite leaf spring is established in the paper, and the stiffness and damp-
ing are simulated and analyzed. The simulation data is in good agreement with the experimental data. The finite
element simulation method is helpful to study the mechanical properties of the leaf spring.
The research results of the stiffness and damping of composite leaf springs provide a theoretical basis and
reference for the performance design of leaf springs.

Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Received: 11 March 2022; Accepted: 15 April 2022

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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Naveco Automobile Co., Ltd (Grant no. HTSP20210302)
for providing the materials and apparatus to carry out the experimental works.

Author contributions
X.Z. is responsible for the design of the composite leaf spring and wrote the main manuscript.B.Z. is responsible
for the stiffness and damping test analysis.G.Y. is responsible for the feasibility analysis of the composite leaf
spring scheme, and sample preparation.

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to X.Z.
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