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Spices production and marketing in Ethiopia: A

review

Tsegaye Shimelis |

To cite this article: Tsegaye Shimelis | (2021) Spices production and marketing in Ethiopia: A
review, Cogent Food & Agriculture, 7:1, 1915558, DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2021.1915558

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Shimelis, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2021), 7: 1915558
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2021.1915558

FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | REVIEW ARTICLE

Spices production and marketing in Ethiopia: A
review
Tsegaye Shimelis1*

Received: 12 November 2020

Abstract: This paper attempts to describe the status, challenges and opportunities
Accepted: 07 April 2021 of spices production and marketing in Ethiopia. Ethiopia has enormous potential to
*Corresponding author: Tsegaye produce and export various spice crops. The country mainly produces and exports;
Shimelis, School of Plant Sciences, chillies, turmeric, ginger, black pepper, cumin, fenugreek, coriander and so forth.
College of Agriculture &
Environmental Sciences, Haramaya Inspite of the fact that the country has tremendous potential for various spices
University, P.O. Box 138, Dire Dawa,
Ethiopia.
production, the subsector of spices had remained untapped and neglected and
E-mail: [email protected] subsequently the level of production and share of spice crops of the total export
Reviewing editor: earning of the country is at considerably low level. Hence, it is essential to describe
Manuel Tejada Moral, University of
Seville, Seville, SPAIN
the status, challenges and opportunities of spices sector in Ethiopia, for best uses of
the potential and untapped spice crop resources. Among the various spices crops,
Additional information is available at
the end of the article chilli/hot pepper is the most commonly produced spices in Ethiopia. However, the
production of ginger has devastated in 2013 on wards due to bacterial wilt epidemic
and hence, turmeric occupies the large share of its production and exports.
Similarly, the Ethiopian spice exports has showed a declining trend from 2013 on
wards. This is mainly due to the disease that considerably affect ginger production
and the rapid increasing domestic demand of spices. Hence, the share of spices
export has been remained low compared to the country’s total export earnings.
Therefore, intervention and provide awareness for spices growers on using improved

ABOUT THE AUTHOR PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Tsegaye Shimelis Hordofa obtained his BSc in The sub-sector of spices is among one of the
Plant Sciences and MSc in Horticulture from critical components of the agricultural sector in
Haramaya University, Ethiopia, in the year 2015 Ethiopia as it contributes to the enhancement of
and 2018, respectively. Currently he is Lecturer the Ethiopian economy and ensuring food
and Researcher at the School of Plant Sciences of security. In Ethiopia, the spices sub-sector had
Haramaya University. His key research interest is remained under-utilized and neglected and sub­
on development of improved production tech­ sequently the level of production in the country is
nologies, soil fertility management, organic far below the global standard. Similarly, the
farming, horticultural crops improvement and share of spices export has been very low com­
postharvest management of horticultural pared to the country’s total export earnings.
Tsegaye Shimelis
crops. Conventional way of cultivation, poor use of
mechanized technology, lack of agricultural
inputs, unavailability of advanced handling (dry­
ing) technology, adulteration, lack of spices
marketing regulation and proclamation com­
monly and mostly influence production and
marketing of spices in Ethiopia. Hence, it is
greatly recommended to intervene and provide
awareness for spices growers on alleviating var­
ious production and marketing challenges asso­
ciated with these crops to improve the
smallholder production systems, profits and
economic development of the country.

© 2021 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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production and processing technology, training across all value chains, formulating
strong marketing regulations and proclamation is of paramount importance to
increase the production, profits and export values.

Subjects: Agriculture & Environmental Sciences; Agriculture; Crop Science; Horticulture;

Agriculture and Food; Agronomy; Food Additives & Ingredients

Keywords: Export; challenges; ginger; chilli; opportunities; technology

1. Introduction
The agriculture sector is the pillar in the Ethiopian economy as it contributes 34.1% to the gross
domestic product (GDP) and offers about 79% of foreign exchange earnings and creating job
opportunity for about 79% of the population (Diriba, 2020). Next to coffee, the Ethiopian pulses,
oilseeds and spices sectors are among one of the critical components of the agricultural sector
contributing to high foreign exchange revenue as reported by the Ethiopian Ministry of Industry
(EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). As a cash crop, the spice sub-sector has immense
potential for income generation of the farming community, creation and development of business
opportunities and poverty reduction in Ethiopia (Hordofa and Tolossa, 2020; Tesfa et al., 2017). In
Ethiopia, spices have been utilized for different purposes such as to flavor foods and beverages (to
improve flavor, aroma and color), to make medicine and perfumes (ITC (International Trade
Centre), 2010 and Tesfa et al., 2017). In addition, complex or secondary effects such as salt and
sugar reduction and improved texture for certain foods can be achieved by using spices (EMI
(Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015).

The total global spice production was amounted to 12.8 million tons in the year 2018. Chilli was
the most commonly produced spices, with a total production of 4.1 million tons in the year 2018
(32%) according to Titus and Wojtek (2020). The top five spices producer countries in the world are
India, China, Turkey, Bangladesh and Indonesia, in that order (FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Database), 2019). With long history of spices produc­
tion (Kifelew et al., 2017; Tesfa et al., 2017), Ethiopia is one of the East African countries that
produce and export various spices (Dessie et al., 2020) with production reaching 244,000 tons
per year (GIT (Gatefarms International Trade), 2016). Spices production in Ethiopia was expanded
between 1995 and 2011 from 107,000 to 153,000 tons with annual growth rate of 9.5% (EMI
(Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). In Ethiopia, more than 50 spice crops are grown and a total
potential for growing low land spices is estimated to be 200,000 hectares (GIT (Gatefarms
International Trade), 2016; ITC (International Trade Centre), 2020).

The total spice production in Ethiopia increased from 234,000 tons in 2013 to 356,000 tons in
2018, while the area under spice cultivation increased from 150,000 ha to 207,000 ha (Titus &
Wojtek, 2020). Chilli pepper is the most commonly produced spice (ITC (International Trade
Centre), 2010; Herms, 2015; EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015; Dessie et al., 2019)
accounts for over 80% of total spice produced in the country (Titus & Wojtek, 2020). Ginger is
the second most produced spice crop until 2013 (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015; Herms,
2015). However, ginger production has devastated in 2013 on wards due to bacterial wilt epidemic
and hence, turmeric occupies the large share of its production and exports (Titus & Wojtek, 2020).
According to Kifelew etal. (2017) among the total seed spices grown in Ethiopia; black cumin,
ajwain or bishop’s weed (netch azimud), fenugreek and coriander were known to have around 36
and 17% share in area and production, respectively. It was estimated that the Ethiopian spice
export trade was below 1% of the country’s total export earnings (Yimer, 2010). However, the
share of spice exports was 1.1 and 1.4% in volume and value, respectively, during the crop year
2003/04 and 2004/05. It was reported that the average annual growth rate of spices was 25.6 and
25.3% in volume and value, respectively, between 1998 and 2010 (Yimer, 2010). The total value of

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spice exports earnings was estimated at US$ 18.568 million in 2009/10 alone. Export earning of an
approximately US$ 50 million per year was achieved in 2015, mainly from black cumin, ginger and
turmeric, thereby showing an increasing trend compared to the previous years in export spice
market (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010). Ginger was the most commonly exported spice
accounting for the lion’s share of 60.75% in volume during the years 2007/08-2012/13, followed by
turmeric (11.47%), pepper (9.26%) and cumin (8.85%) (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015).
From 2013 on wards, the Ethiopian spice exports have shown a declining trend due to the bacterial
wilt epidemic that considerably affect ginger production (Titus & Wojtek, 2020). As a result, the
export of ginger was almost entirely disappeared in 2015 (Herms, 2015). In 2017, ginger exports
from Ethiopia had a value of just only US$10,000 and was thus responsible for a negligible share of
Ethiopian spice exports (Titus & Wojtek, 2020)

Ethiopia has favorable or conducive environments for various spices production due to the
presence of varied climatic and agro-ecological conditions, abundant cultivable and irrigable
land, with encouraging government policy environment (Goshme & Ayele, 2019; Herms, 2015;
Hordofa and Tolossa, 2020). However, inspite of the suitable agro-ecology base for spice produc­
tion and a long history of spice cultivation and marketing in Ethiopia, the status of spice production
and export in the country is far below expectation. So far, studies related to the production and
marketing of spices in Ethiopia are very limited. Even the existing research works and literature
have not been well organized and documented in a way it can give enough information for policy-
makers and researchers in the country for best use of the potential and untapped spice crop
resources. Hence, it is essential to review the status, challenges and opportunities in spice
production and marketing in Ethiopia for end users, including policy-makers, researchers, students,
farming communities and enterprises involved in the spice business or trade, especially processers
and exporters.

2. Spices production and marketing in Ethiopia

2.1. An overview on status of spices production in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has tremendous potential for growing many spice crops (Herms, 2015; Hordofa and
Tolossa, 2020; Titus & Wojtek, 2020). The country mainly produces; chillies, turmeric, ginger,
cumin, fenugreek, coriander, black pepper, cardamom and so forth (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of
Industry), 2015; Herms, 2015; ITC (International Trade Centre), 2020; Titus & Wojtek, 2020). More
than 50 spice crops are grown in Ethiopia and a total potential for cultivating lowland spices is
estimated at 200,000 hectares (GIT (Gatefarms International Trade), 2016; ITC (International
Trade Centre), 2020). According to GIT (GIT (Gatefarms International Trade), 2016), the annual
average land covered by spices and annual production is around 222,700 ha and 244,000 tons
per year, respectively. The production of spices in Ethiopia was expanded during the years from
1995 to 2011 from 107,000 to 153,000 tons with annual growth rate of 9.5%, following global and
domestic consumption (FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2013; EMI
(Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). Inspite of the fact that the country has favourable or
conducive environments for various spices production, the production of spices in Ethiopia is
mostly performed on little plot of land by small holder farmers conventionally (Herms, 2015;
Tesfa et al., 2017). As a result, the level of spices production and productivity in the country is
far below the expectations.

During the year, 2005 to 2013, black cumin, cardamom, chillies, ginger and turmeric accounted for
97% volume of the national annual average spice production in Ethiopia (ENTAG (Ethiopia-
Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018; Herms, 2015). The average spice production shares
in Ethiopia during the production years from 2005 to 2013 is shown hereunder (Figure 1). Inspite of
the reality that the country is rich in having suitable and diverse agro-ecological zones over its whole
regions, 94% of the production comes particularly from Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s

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Figure 1. Average spices pro­

duction shares from 2005 to
2013 in Ethiopia.

Source: (Herms, 2015)

(SNNP), Oromia and Amhara regions (ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth),
2018; Herms, 2015). The SNNP, Oromia, Amhara regions contributed 37, 32, and 25%, respectively, to
the average annual spice production during the cropping years 2010 to 2014. The major spice crops
produced in these regions mostly comprised of black cumin, cardamom, chillies, coriander, fenugreek,
ginger, hot pepper and turmeric (Herms, 2015). The Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s
Regional State (SNNPRs) is the major producer of cardamom, ginger and turmeric (Herms, 2015) with
the highest share of total spices produced in the country (Girma et al., 2016). The Oromia and Amhara
regions are mostly producers of black cumin and chilies (Herms, 2015). In Ethiopia, the total area and
production of spices was estimated at 150,000 hectares and 234,000 tons in 2013, which was
increased to 207,000 ha and 356,000 tons in 2018 (Titus & Wojtek, 2020). The share of Ethiopian
spice production in 2018 is depicted hereunder (Figure 2). The share of chilli peppers and turmeric
increased in 2018 (Figure 2) while that of ginger significantly reduced as compared to average spices
production shares shown in 2005 to 2013 in Figure 1.

Figure 2. The share of Ethiopian

spice production in 2018.

Source: (Titus & Wojtek, 2020)

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The major seed spices producing regions include the Amhara and Oromiya regions, whereas
SNNPRs and Gambella region are dominant producers of lowland spices (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of
Industry), 2015). Out of the total seed spices grown in Ethiopia, black cumin, ajwain or bishop’s
weed, fenugreek and coriander were known to have around 36 and 17% share in area coverage
and production, respectively (Kifelew et al., 2017). The mean annual production of spices in
Ethiopia from cropping year 2005 to 2018 is also indicated hereunder (Table 1).

Among the various spices cultivated in Ethiopia, chilli pepper was the most commonly produced
and consumed spice crop in Ethiopia (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010; Herms, 2015; EMI
(Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015; Dessie et al., 2019). Chili pepper accounts for over 80% of
total spice produced in the country (Titus & Wojtek, 2020). The crop is cultivated throughout the
SNNP, Amhara and Oromia regions, with centers of production in Ghion, Bako and Harar areas.
Ethiopia has good climatic and soil conditions for growing chillies. The most commonly grown chilli
variety is the mareko fana (a pungent long chilli of dark-red appearance) and smaller mitmita
chillies, an even hotter, red, small pepper (Herms, 2015). In the long run, Ethiopian chillies will have
promising potential for a smallholder-driven investment model as smallholder farmers need to
build experience with intensive post-harvest treatment and local traders need to gain expertise in
product grading, whereas commercial production holds the largest prospects in the short run
(Herms, 2015). In Ethiopia, production of chilli was estimated to be 234,000 tons in 2014
(Herms, 2015). Likewise, Ethiopia’s dry chilli production was estimated at 290,000 tons in 2018
production year (Titus & Wojtek, 2020). In Ethiopia, the over all chilli production shows an
increasing trend (Figures 1 and 2).

Ginger was the second most produced and consumed spice crop, followed by fenugreek in
Ethiopia until 2013 (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015; Herms, 2015). However, the ginger
production has devastated due to bacterial wilt epidemic, which spread throughout the country in
2014. As a result, the Ethiopian government has been implementing soil remediation programs in
the SNNP region and Jimma Agricultural Research Center (JARC) has been making research effort
in developing resistant seed material against this disease (Herms, 2015). Ginger is grown in many
countries in the world. In Ethiopia, the major ginger producing regions include SNNPRs, Oromia,
Amhara, Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz (Zakir et al., 2018). However, Eighty-one (81%) percent
of ginger was mainly produced in the SNNP region in 2013 (Herms, 2015). According to Buke et al.
(2016), Wolaita Zone (SNNPR) shared more than 50% area coverage of ginger production in
the year 2011/12. Generally, the production and productivity of ginger in Ethiopia is lower than
other ginger producing countries of the world (Girma et al., 2016). In Ethiopia, the ginger

Table 1. Mean annual production of spice crops in Ethiopia from cropping year 2005 to 2018
Mean annual production of important spice crops in Ethiopia from the cropping year 2005 to
2018
List of spice crops Production (Tons)
Anise, badian, fennel and coriander 2,983.29
Chillies and peppers, dry 182,421.2
Ginger 9,897.14
Hops 31,411.07
Mustard seed 2,561.07
Nutmeg, Mace and cardamom 135.5
Other spices 29,690.8
Source: FAOSTAT (FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Database), 2019) and
own sketch.

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production from the cropping year 2013 to 2018 shows a considerable declining trend (Figures 1
and 2) which is mainly due to bacterial wilt disease.

The bulk of the turmeric produced in Ethiopia is consumed domestically. Only a small portion is
exported to China, Djibouti, Egypt, Europe, India, Kenya, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tanzania,
USA and Yemen (Girma et al., 2016). The SNNP region accounted for 76% of Ethiopia’s turmeric
production, which was increased from 2,000 tons in 2008 to 12,000 tons in 2013 and 2014,
respectively (Girma et al., 2016; Herms, 2015). The production and productivity of turmeric has
not been expanded as anticipated in Ethiopia. The production and productivity of turmeric was
about 22.75 thousand tons and 3.50 tons per hectare, respectively, in the cropping year 2014/15.
As there are wide suitable areas and possibility of adoption of the improved cultural practices for
turmeric cultivation, there is a high opportunity to enhance the productivity from the existing 3.5
tons per hectare to more than 10.0 tons per hectare (Girma et al., 2016). According to Addisu
(2014), the national productivity of turmeric in Ethiopia was estimated at 2.4 tons per hectare
compared to 4.0 tons per hectare for India. From the year 2014 on wards turmeric production and
productivity in Ethiopia has been increasing (Figures 1 and 2). This is mainly due to the the impact
of bacterial wilt disease had on ginger in 2014 and hence, farmers are shifted to the production of
turmeric (Titus & Wojtek, 2020).

In Ethiopia, black cumin is used to flavor bread and sauces as well as an ingredient in the
berbere (hot pepper) spice mix. The crop is cultivated in Amhara, Oromia and SNNP regions at an
altitude ranging between 1500 and 2500 m.a.s.l., often intercropped with cereals. The crop is not
prevalent in western markets, where the white cuminum cynimum is favored (Herms, 2015). At
Tepi (Southwestern Ethiopia), the national average productivity of black cumin was estimated at
0.79 tons per hectare (Kifelew et al., 2017).

2.2. An overview on major challenges in spices production in Ethiopia

According to the Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth (ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands
Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018), the cultivation of spices by smallholder farmers was typically
performed on little plots of land (< 0.5 ha) around and inside natural forests. Smallholder farmers
barely utilize agricultural inputs, such as pesticides, fertilizers/manures and improved seeds.
Farmers mostly utilize traditional drying techniques, which might be a source of contamination
by foreign matter, such as dirt and dust as well as the infestation by insect pests and rodents. Most
of the smallholders are the least fortunate farmers with low level of education and training. In
addition, the spices production system in Ethiopia is mostly rain dependent. Planning and imple­
mentation ability of smallholder farmers is poor since they do not allocate reasonable land for the
cultivation and development of the spice sector. As reported by Tesfa et al. (2017) with the
exception of certain spice crops, like Capsicum and Allium spp., fenugreek, and black and white
cumin, farmers do not set up their farm lands well. In general, farmers give little consideration for
spice crops, while concentrating mainly on food crops.

Conventional way of farming characterized by the absence of improved seeds/varieties, absence

of planting materials, lack of properly recommended seed rate and fertilizer types and rates are
among the challenges smallholder farmers are facing. Moreover, high frequency of weeding, lack
of effective weed management practices, different plant diseases and insect pests as well as wild
animal competition also contributed to the low productivity of spice crops. The problems are
further exacerbated by high input requirement, poor harvest and post-harvest management, and
a lack of modern drying facilities that led to long time of drying. Most importantly, the addition of
lack of access to credit and extension, poor quality of outputs, lack of irrigation facilities affects the
production, productivity, and quality of spices in Ethiopia (Gebreazgaabher & Negash, 2015;
Goshme & Ayele, 2019; Lupi et al., 2016; Tariku et al., 2016).

Lack or shortage of planting material has been also reported as one of the critical problems of
ginger production in Ethiopia (MoARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), 2008). Also,

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Geta and Kifle (2011) indicated that high weeding infestation and high input requirements,
including purchasing costs of seed and fertilizers, the high cost of production and absence of
improved drying techniques reduce ginger production and productivity in southern Ethiopia.
Similarly, a study conducted in two districts, namely Nekemte and Shambu, of Wollega Zone, in
western Ethiopia, recorded that 86, 74.5, 41, 35.95, 62.10, 52.25, and 32.75% of sampled farmers
affirmed that insufficient fertilizer/manure supply, planting materials, lack of access to credit, wild
animal competition, price setting, scale and demand, respectively, were the main factors that
negatively influenced korarima (cardamom) production (Gebreazgaabher & Negash, 2015).

According to Kifelew et al. (2017), inadequate production technologies developed so far have yet not
expanded and not advocated to farmers. As indicated by Yimer (2010), weak role of private business
investors in spice production, irregular supply and variable nature of spices produced from forest and
agricultural landscape, lack of the use of appropriate modern technologies in farm management,
drying, storage and absence of proper spices development strategic interventions were some of
factors affecting production of spice crops in Ethiopia. According to Melanie and Michael (2011),
smallholder farmers hardly get improved spice crop seeds adapted to their agro-ecological conditions.
Farmers are using unimproved spice seeds, which have low production and also that encourage the
spread of plant diseases. Counterfeit/unimproved spice seeds sold by corrupt broker’s traders is
a major problem in various regions of Africa. Small-scale farmers regularly purchase seeds from
informal uncertified sources. The commercial formal seed system may advertise a range of hybrid
varieties not necessarily best suited to local conditions but are at the expense of traditional varieties.

Yousif (2008) pointed out that several problems, including lack of improved seed, recom­
mended fertilizer rate, poor postharvest handling and marketing systems, constrain black cumin
production and productivity. According to Kifelew et al. (2017), plant diseases, like fusarium wilt,
black cumin blight and powdery mildew, are the most significant constraining factors to black
cumin production. Aphids and mites are also reported as the major insect pests attacking black
cumin. However, Tesfa et al. (2017) reported that both black and white cumin are rarely affected
by rust, root rot, aphid, and boll and cut worms in South Wollo, Ethiopia. Pressure on the natural
habitat, unimproved variety, non-adapted agronomic practices and losses caused due to biotic
and a biotic stresses were also previously reported to affect the genetic diversity of cardamom
(Korarima) in Ethiopia (Girma et al., 2016). Similarly, Gobie (2019) currently reported that lack of
improved seeds to satisfy producers demand, lack of advice and technical support, non-timely
distribution of fertilizer(s), lack of training for experts and shortage of manuals, publications and
guidelines for spice production mainly affect the red pepper production in Ethiopia. According to
Dessie et al. (2019) the main red pepper production constraints include inadequate agricultural
inputs, occurrence of disease, lack of improved and high yielding varieties and and shortage of
land. The production problem faced by pepper producers at Northwest Ethiopia is depicted
hereunder (Figure 3).

Production of the Ethiopian cardamom and long pepper are going on relatively well though long
pepper is only being produced by a few farmers. However, Indian cardamom and black pepper face
many challenges, mainly due to drought, light intensity and destruction by wild animals, large
distances to the forests and the lack of knowledge on plant care, processing and storage (Agize &
Zouwen, 2016). According to Mulatu & Gadisa (2020) the major constraints in production of
korarima (Ethiopian cardamom) in the Kafa zone includes disease, animal and pest damage,
climate change effect, low productivity of existing varieties, lack of improved korarima cultivation
practices and inappropriate post-harvest handling techniques.

2.3. An overview on status of spices marketing in Ethiopia

Despite the fact that Ethiopia is being a homeland of numerous spice crops and favorable agro-
ecologies and long history of spices production, so far the country is not recognized as a major
exporter of spices and, hence, the share of spices of the country’s total export earnings is at low
level (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015; Herms, 2015; ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade

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Figure 3. Production problems

faced by pepper producers at
Northwest Ethiopia.

Source: (Dessie et al., 2019).

for Agricultural Growth), 2018; Titus & Wojtek, 2020). Internationally, there are more than 109
varieties of spices that are traded commercially (ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for
Agricultural Growth), 2018). Ethiopia exports ginger, pepper (crushed or ground), turmeric, corian­
der, cumin, fenugreek, cardamom, Cinnamon, clove and so forth (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of
Industry), 2015). Export trend (tons) for different spices crops in Ethiopia from the cropping year
2005 to 2012 is depicted hereunder (Table 2).

The share of spice export out of the total export earnings of the country generally remained
below 1% of total export earnings except for the cropping years 2003/04 and 2004/05, in which the
share of spice exports was increased to 1.1 and 1.4%, respectively (Yimer, 2010). During the
cropping years from 1997/98 to 2009/10, the cumulative average growth rates of export of spices
were 25.6 and 25.3% in volume and value, respectively (Yimer, 2010). The country earned US$
11.128 and 18.568 million in the consecutive two cropping years of 2008/09 to 2009/10, respec­
tively (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010). Cumin, ginger and turmeric were the leading export
spices in 2009/10 crop year with an export earning share of 8.4, 64.9, and 15.4%, respectively,
followed by cardamom, fenugreek and pepper and other spice exports (Yimer, 2010).

Spice exports in the year 2013 and 2014 amounted to 15,000 tons per annum, with a value of US
$ 26 million. During this year, ginger was the most exported spice, responsible for nearly 50% of
the total export value (ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018; Herms,
2015). The export of ginger had a share of 60.75% volume out of the total spice export during the
cropping years from 2007/08 to 2012/13, followed by turmeric (11.47%), pepper (9.26%) and
cumin (8.85%) (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). Likewise, ginger was Ethiopia’s most
exported spice until 2013, with an export value of US$ 12,000,000 in 2013 and was responsible for
45% of total export value (Herms, 2015; Titus & Wojtek, 2020). Chillies came in second order,
followed by turmeric and black cumin in export of spices in 2013 (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of
Industry), 2015; ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018; Herms, 2015)
with a value of US$ 6.1 million and were also the first in 2015 due to decimation of ginger exports.
The chillies are mainly exported to some African and the middle east countries (EMI (Ethiopian
Ministry of Industry), 2015). Ethiopia’s total spices export in 2009/10 and export volume and value
of Ethiopia spice from 2007/08 to 2012/13 are presented hereunder (Table 3; Figure 4).

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Table 2. Export trend (tons) for different spices in Ethiopia in the cropping years from 2005 to
2012
Type of Year
Spice
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Ginger 6990.18 5115.78 9859.17 10,436.33 10,751.33 10,267.95 7144.75 10,032.45
Pepper 320.47 358.48 415.07 114.4 194.7 458.81 2818.4 3849.4
crushed or
ground
Turmeric 802.8 349.73 718.12 644.27 1253.1 1196.3 1792.4 1494.5
Spice 1.68 19.16 3.73 1.45 39.22 1.14 0.41 0.94
mixture
Other spice 632.06 234.67 496.56 1318.6 1329.1 583.01 240.1 402.17
nes
Coriander 390.96 336.66 493.82 204.81 452.56 262.85 422.08 491.79
Cumin 147.55 498.12 1560.7 1219.4 1164.4 746.27 1845.7 2532.7
Fenugreek - 239 49 192 1171 588 - -
Cardamom 26.54 16.7 33.8 58.41 36.98 167.98 172.37 103.38
Cinnamon 1.94 0.44 0.034 216.73 276.55 48.69 1.36 0.154
Clove 0.645 0.65 1.23 0.44 0.05 0.081 0.19 0.2
Source: Ethiopian Ministry of Industry (EMI, 2015).

Table 3. Ethiopia’s total spices export by commodity in the cropping year 2009/10
Type of Spice 2002EC(2009/10) Share of Share of Top Ranking
Volume (%) Value (%)
Volume Fob Value
Ginger 10,270 11,999 66.22 64.93 1
Turmeric 2932 2840 18.91 15.37 2
Cumin Seed 801 1555 5.16 8.41 3
Cardamom 116 567 0.75 3.07 4
Fenu Greek 588 508 3.79 2.75 5
Pepper 133 486 0.86 2.63 6
Others 667 526 4 3
Source: Yimer (2010).

Export earnings of approximately US$ 50 million per year were achieved by 2015 mainly from
ginger, turmeric and black cumin, thereby showing an increasing trend compared to the previous
years (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010). However, the export of ginger was almost entirely
disappeared in 2015 due to the bacterial wilt epidemic (Herms, 2015). Consequently, ginger
exports from Ethiopia had a value of just only US$10,000 in 2017 and was thus responsible for
a negligible share of Ethiopian spice exports. Currently, turmeric occupies the major share of ginger
exports with export volume increased by 64% in the year 2013 to 2017. As the export price of
turmeric is lower, the production of turmeric does not fully compensate the negligible share of
ginger exports (Titus & Wojtek, 2020).

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Figure 4. Export volume and

value of Ethiopian spice crops
from the cropping year 2007/08
to 2012/13.

Source: EMI (EMI (Ethiopian

Ministry of Industry), 2015).

The Ethiopian spice exports in the year 2011 and 2017 amounted to an average of 17,000 tons
per annum, representing a value of US$29 million. From 2013 onwards, Ethiopian spice exports has
been showing a declining trend, stabilizing at a volume of 13,000 tons, with a value of US
$21 million in 2017 (Table 5; Titus & Wojtek, 2020). This decrease is mainly due to bacterial wilt
disease that considerably affect ginger production (Titus & Wojtek, 2020). The trend of Ethiopian
spices export in volume and value from 2011 to 2017 is depicted hereunder (Figure 5).

During the cropping year 2009/10, Sudan was the leading importer of spice crops with a 38.4%
share of value of total spices export from Ethiopia, followed by India (10.4%) and Yemen (8.6%).

Figure 5. The trend of Ethiopian

spices export in volume and
value from 2011–2017.

Source: (Titus & Wojtek, 2020)

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Other importers of spice crops from Ethiopia were UAE (8.3%), Saudi Arabia (6.7%), Morocco
(5.8%), while Singapore and Jordan had a share of 3.2 and 3.1%, respectively (ITC (International
Trade Centre), 2010). In the cropping years 2011/12 and 2012/13 likewise, Sudan was the major
export destination of spices from Ethiopia with 52 and 64%; and 29.8 and 37.5% in volume and
value, respectively (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). In 2017 likewise, Sudan was the
leading importer of spices with share of 40% of total export value from Ethiopia. Other important
export destinations are Egypt, USA and Djibouti. The export of spices to Asia is increasing with
share a 15% to 24% in the year 2013 to 2017. The export of spices to europe has a share of 10%
in 2017, compared to 4% in 2013. This increasing trend is expected to continue, since the
European market for spices is expected to expand. However, the exports of spices to the
Middle East decreased by 53% in the 2013 to 2017 period (Titus & Wojtek, 2020).

On the other hand, in the cropping year 2013/14, cinnamon, cloves, ginger and crushed/ground
pepper were the main imported spice crops in Ethiopia. During this year, cinnamon was the major
imported spice crop with 22.8% share of value of total imported spice crops. The major origin of
imports of these spices into Ethiopia is found out to be mainly China, followed by India (EMI
(Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). Import of spices in Ethiopia from 2005 to 2009 is illustrated
hereunder (Figure 6)

The southwestern part of Ethiopia is a region where several spice crops are produced and
major trading activity is situated. Especially in and around Tepi, many spice crops are being
produced and traded (Agize & Zouwen, 2016). The supply chain of spice crops in Ethiopia is made
up of numerous actors whose relationships are loosely coordinated through short or long-term
business transactions (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). In Ethiopia, spices purchasing
at the farmers level is done by small traders and, hence, they either buy for their own or they are
liaised to large processors in Addis Ababa or Adama. The supply chain of spice crops, such as
ginger and turmeric, is short; as these spice crops are mainly cultivated for export they pass only
few steps to reach the export companies (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010; EMI (Ethiopian
Ministry of Industry), 2015). Smallholder farmers, local traders, center market retailers and
center market whole sellers or exporters, spice processor enterprises, input suppliers and con­
sumers are the main actors and participants in the Ethiopian spices market (EMI (Ethiopian
Ministry of Industry), 2015).

According to Geta and Kifle (2011), the concern of marketing is of great importance for ginger
growers in the SNNP (Major spice growing regions) as almost all the total amount of ginger
produced in the region is supplied to markets with little portion locally consumed. In the region,
the market price of ginger is highly unstable and variable and/or fluctuating (Geta & Kifle, 2011).
When the quality increases, the ginger prices goes high and then after a certain period producers

Figure 6. Ethiopia’s import of

spices during the years from
2005 to 2009.

Source: Yimer (2010).

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Table 4. Minimum, maximum and most frequent price (Birr kg ¹) of some prices at Kombolcha,
Mekane-Selam and Segno Gebeya Markets
Market Frequency Fenugreek White Black Basil Coriander
name cumin cumin
Kombolcha Minimum 14.00 5.25 7.00 1.75 2.10
(Kalu)
Mode 15.75 7.00 8.75 2.63 2.80
Maximum 17.50 9.63 10.50 3.50 2.80
Mekane- Minimum 2.63 1.40 3.50 1.40 0.70
Selam
Mode 5.25 2.63 5.25 2.45 1.40
(Debresina)
Maximum 7.00 5.25 8.75 3.50 1.75
Segno Minimum 3.00 1.75 5.25 1.75 1.75
gebeya
Mode 4.60 3.50 7.00 3.50 2.63
(Were Ilu)
Maximum 6.00 5.25 8.75 5.25 3.50
Source: Tesfa et al. (2017)

decrease the quality, then the price decreases (Buke et al., 2016). The minimum, maximum and
most frequent price of spices at Kombolcha, Mekane-Selam and Segno Gebeya Markets, in South
Wollo, is indicated for illustration of the reality (Table 4).

In Ethiopia, large portion of red peppers are supplied to the national markets as farmers mostly
grow it as a cash crop (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010; Dessie et al., 2019). The chilli
peppers value chain starts at the farm gate. Farmers use traditional drying techniques (sun) to
dry the pods and to reduce moisture content to 25–30%. After drying, farmers then group their
harvest and offer the volume to traders (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010). The main
receivers of red pepper output are district wholesalers, district retailers and district assemblers
(collectors) (Dessie et al., 2019). According to Gobie (2019), the major red pepper value chain
actors involved in Ethiopia are input suppliers, producers, collectors/assemblers, brokers, mostly
processors, wholesalers, retailers, and final users or consumers.

2.4. An overview on major challenges in spices marketing in Ethiopia

Regarding challenges in marketing of spices in Ethiopia, farmers and traders face challenges due
to low prices, difficulty in finding good markets and problems of long distance transport, lack of
capital for transport and extending production, lack of marketing information and small ammount
to sell at a time (Agize & Zouwen, 2016). As indicated by Herms (2015) and ENTAG (ENTAG
(Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018), transaction costs in the local spice
trade are high. In spite of the large number of consecutive intermediaries, smallholders sell little
amounts, frequently just a couple of kilograms, to nearby local collectors and village traders.
Moreover, these traders do not regularly have access to proper storage and packaging materials
and may resort to some malpractices, such as adulteration with low-value materials. In cases
where preliminary washing is performed by local collectors and village traders, the quality of the
water used is generally poor and further reduces the product quality.

According to Yimer (2010) and Negera (2015), keeping spices in storage for a long time with the
desire or ambition for fetching higher or best prices, increasing role of unlicensed intermediaries in
the trading of spices in the market, price instability due to changes in demand and supply, lack of
organized market information service to the different actors in the spices farm to market chain were
reported marketing constraints of spices. As per Yimer (2010), poor quality of spices traded due to
highly unimproved cultivation and postharvest handling practices, adding less quality water for the
purpose of increasing weight and color/appearance, weak organizational capacity of cooperatives/

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unions, weak market research and promotion in potential overseas markets for natural and pro­
cessed spices products were marketing considerable constraints of spices in Ethiopia.

Weak marketing system not stimulating production and marketing based on enforceable quality
standards, lack of value addition in major agro-processing activities in spices, lack of structured
market information service to the different actors in the spices were reported to affect marketing
of spices in Ethiopia (Hibistu, 2020; Vijayalaxmi & Sreepada, 2014; Yimer, 2010). In addition,
according to the report of Vijayalaxmi and Sreepada (2014), unbalanced supply and variable
nature of spices produced from forest and agricultural landscape, weak business linkage among
stakeholders in the value chain actors, including farmers, traders, processors and meso-level
support institutions and macro level regulatory and enforcement institutions are also the market­
ing constraints of the spice sector in Ethiopia.

Moreover, Negera (2015) also reported that poor training programs and quality deterioration due
to limited commercial investors in spice production, poor access to credit facilities, absence of
capacity building, like training program, lack of transport in remote markets, especially during wet
seasons and difficulties from unlicensed dealers in the cardamom markets, are constraints
reported by cardamom traders at Bench Maji Zone of SNNPR, Ethiopia.

Gebreazgaabher and Negash (2015) made analysis of major factors affecting production and
marketing of korarima in Ethiopia and reported that 92.7, 88.3, 86.1, 77.50, 75.2, 70.6, 57.8, 40.4
and 35% of the sampled traders reported adulteration problems, quality problems, capital short­
age, demand problems, lack of government support, supply shortage, administrative problems,
theft problem and absence of government control on unlicensed traders, respectively, were the
nine determinant factors of Aframomum corrorima marketing. According to Dessie et al. (2019) red
pepper marketing in Ethiopia is constrained by lack of government support, problem of storage
facilities, lack of credit service, lack of market information, problem of price setting and natural
quality problem. The marketing problem of red pepper producers in Northwest Ethiopia is depicted
hereunder (Figure 7).

2.5. Opportunities of spices production and marketing in Ethiopia

The major opportunities of spices, herbs, and aromatic crops in Ethiopia include the appropriate or
suitable environment for introduction and cultivation of different spice crop varieties, increasing local
markets and demand by international hotels, medicinal factories, spa and massaging services (EMI
(Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). Ethiopia has suitable and conducive environment for spice

Figure 7. Marketing problem

faced by pepper producers in
Northwest Ethiopia.

Source: (Dessie et al., 2019)

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crop production due to presence of varied climatic conditions and agro-ecologies, vast cultivable and
irrigable land and encouraging government policy environment (Goshme & Ayele, 2019; Herms, 2015;
Hordofa et al., 2020). For instance, the suitable agro-ecological conditions permit the highest advan­
tage in Wolayitta Zone, SNNPRS to grow ginger. In addition, the emergence of new market opportu­
nities in the Middle East countries, like United Arab Emirates (UAE, Dubai) and Yemen, will encourage
increased production and the result in benefits from this crop (Asale & Ashango, 2017). Due to the low
levels of inputs and the use of virgin lands, the spices production in Ethiopia is near organic standards.
Nowadays, international markets for organic products are growing, real opportunities can be identi­
fied and some foreign companies are already investigating the possibilities for setting up an organic
chain in Ethiopia (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015).

Truly speaking, spice crops have huge potential for income generation of the farming commu­
nities in Ethiopia (Tesfa et al., 2017). According to Herms (2015), spices are one of the traditional
promising horticultural crops of Ethiopia. Kifelew et al. (2017) indicated that spice crops are small
in size and so cheap to transport and of high value per unit area although most of the spice works
are labour intensive. Hence, spice crops provide a special opportunity to hasten both the rural and
the urban community development (Kifelew et al., 2017). The country is geographically better
located towards the EU than India or Indonesia, which will support spices export ambitions and
feasibility (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010).

In Ethiopia, spice crops are used not only to flavor bread, butter, meat, soups and vegetables,
but also to make medicines and perfumes (ITC (International Trade Centre), 2010; Tesfa et al.,
2017; ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018). Ethiopia is currently one
of the largest consumers of spices in Africa since over 90% spice crops produced in the country are
consumed domestically. Fortunately, the domestic consumption has been growing fast due to
increases in income, rapid population growth and greater urbanization (ENTAG (Ethiopia-
Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2018).

The government of Ethiopia is promoting agro-industrial projects and has declared spice crops
as focus area for development as spices have a wide possibility of being cultivated in diverse agro-
ecological zones of the country and have also a high potential for expansion and diversification of
export earnings of Ethiopia (Vijayalaxmi & Sreepada, 2014). The Ethiopian government has devel­
oped a package of incentives under Regulations No. 84/2003 for investors to encourage private
investment engaged in new enterprises and expansions, across a range of sectors, including the
spice subsector (EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015; ITC (International Trade Centre), 2020).
3. Conclusions and recommendation
The spice subsector, is among the critical component of the agricultural sectors in Ethiopia.
However, the country has not well utilized its huge potential and opportunities for spice crops
production, marketing and revenue generation. The spice subsector is largely neglected and
under-utilized and, hence, the level of production and share of spice crops of the total export
earning of the country is at considerably low level. The country mainly produces and exports;
chillies, turmeric, ginger, cumin, fenugreek, coriander, black pepper, cardamom and so forth.
Among the various spices crops, chilli/hot pepper is the most commonly produced spices with
the highest share of the total spices produced in the country. Likewise, ginger was the second
most produced spices crops in Ethiopia until 2013. However, the production of ginger has
devastated in 2013 on wards due to bacterial wilt disease and hence, currently, turmeric
occupies the large share of its production and exports. The Ethiopian spice exports has showed
a declining trend from 2013 on wards. This is mainly due to the disease that considerably affect
ginger production and the rapid increasing domestic demand of spices market. Hence, the share
of spices export has been remained low compared to the country’s total export earnings. The
poor mechanized technology, lack of adequate agricultural inputs, poor cultivation and post­
harvest handling practices, product adulteration, lack of marketing regulation(s) and decrees
mostly affect the production and marketing of spice crops in Ethiopia.

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For the foreseeable future, the demand for spice crops utilization in the country is expected to
outstrip domestic supplies, which might be due to rapid population growth and expansion of
urbanization and industrialization. Therefore, the governmental organizations and all other stake­
holders should focus on increasing and promoting production and productivity levels of spice crops
to satisfy the anticipated ever-rising domestic markets and international trade demand. Likewise,
intervention and regular awareness creation on using improved production, postharvest handling
and processing technologies of spices, such as providing training across all value chains and
formulating strong marketing regulations and promulgation of proclamation with reference to
introduction, production, postharvest handling, processing, storage and exportation is also vital to
increase production level of smallholder farmers and economic development of the country.
Moreover, researchers should focus on developing and disseminating improved spice varieties
and processing technologies for sustainable production and productivity.

Funding ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural

The author received no direct funding for this research. Growth). (2018). Reopening the European spice mar­
ket for Ethiopian exporters. (pp. 1–18).
Author details FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Tsegaye Shimelis1 Nations). (2013). The state of food insecurity in the
E-mail: [email protected] world: The multiple dimensions of food security.
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0418-1852 FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
1
School of Plant Sciences, Haramaya University, P.O. Box United Nations, Statistics Database). (2019). Food
138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. and agriculture organisation of the UN (FAO) statistics
database: Production, trade, supply.
Competing Interests Gebreazgaabher, F. G., & Negash, Z. M. (2015). Analysis of
The author declares no competing interests. major factors affecting production and marketing of
Korarima (Aframomum Corrorima (Braun) PCM
Citation information Jansen) in Ethiopia. Journal of Economics and
Cite this article as: Spices production and marketing in Sustainable Development, 6(19), 72–79.
Ethiopia: A review, Tsegaye Shimelis, Cogent Food & Geta, E., & Kifle, A. (2011). Production, processing and
Agriculture (2021), 7: 1915558. marketing of ginger in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of
Horticulture and Forestry, 3(7), 207–213.
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