1

Corresponding Author: Okegbola, Oluwatosin Mary

Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
+2347030242383
Quality of domestic water consumed by households in Ile-Ife, in South-western Nigeria.

Abstract

The quantity and quality of water consumed by a household which has to do with its
occurrences, distribution pattern as well as availability are the main problems being
contended with in many water-scarce countries, including Nigeria. The present study aims
at assessing the quality of potable water in a typical medium-size urban area in southwest
Nigeria. Specific objectives were to characterise sources of domestic water in the study
area as well as to assess the quality of selected drinking water and perception of the
residents of the area on the management of drinking water before consumption. Thirty-
eight households (representing low, medium and high socio-economic status) were
systematically selected from a 0.5km by 0.5km nested-grid that was laid on a map of the
study area. A representative of each of the selected household, mostly mother (wife; based
on the notion of their responsibility for domestic arrangements) was purposively
administered a structured questionnaire to before samples of drinking water in the
household were collected in 2L polyethylene bottles. Water samples were analyzed for pH,
conductivity, Pb, As, Cd, and Mn as well as selected bacteriological indices (total bacteria
count, TBC and number of E coli) in the chemistry and microbiological laboratories,
respectively. Data from questionnaire were analyzed using percentage distribution while
laboratory data were analyzed using average distribution and simple linear regression.
Results showed that sources of domestic water supply in the area (borehole wells, hand-
dug wells, tap water and streams) were averagely characterised by high pH (8.4), high
temperature (34.1oC), 468.1 mg/l of total dissolved solids and 33.2µScm-1 of electrical
conductivity. Also 47.4% of water sources contained E. coli bacteria, with 101-1000 bacteria
count. Mean concentration of Pb, As, Cd, Mn varied between 0.006 and 0.03 mg/l. The
result also indicated that the level of pH (8.2 - 8.5) and concentration of manganese and
bacteria count were greater than the recommended levels of the World Health Organization
making the water of low quality. In addition, results showed that majority of the selected
parameters (As, Cd, Mn) marginally increased with increasing level of topography (b ≤ 0.002,
p< 0.05). Lastly, 78.9% of the respondents in the study area perceived the water supply as
sufficient and 47.4% do not treat their water before consumption. The study concludes that
domestic water supply in the study area is of low quality, when compared with international
water quality requirements, and that this situation may be a replica of locations having the
same characteristics with the study area. The study recommends an integrated and
intensive evaluation of domestic water at regional/national level to minimise potential
threat to human life.

Keywords: Domestic water source; household water use; Water quality; Water supply
1. Introduction
Water is an important resource for human sustenance, and its availability is being
threatened by demand, drought, depletion and contamination across communities all over
the world, the sub-Saharan Africa being the worse hit (Miller, 2006; and Olanrewaju, 2021).
Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in relation to a
set of standards, and it is often considered in relation to drinking water, safety of human

[Type here]
 2

contact, as well as in the health of ecosystems. Water quality assessment is the process of
analysis, interpretation and communication of the water quality characteristics within the
wider context of human activity and use, and the conservation of the natural environment
(Bartram and Balance, 1996). Such assessment is meant to investigate the influences of
direct and indirect uses of water, and/or the influence of natural processes on water
sources, provide insight to future trends of water quality with the intent of controlling or/and
regulating it. It is also a means of assessing the effectiveness of certain water management
practice (Bartram and Balance, 1996). Water quality and quantity assessment for drinking
purposes is one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which
stipulates the need for access to safe and affordable drinking water for people by 2030 (UN,
2018). The United Nations publication on sustainable development goals indicated that
water scarcity affects over 40% of the people around the world as at present, and this will
likely be exacerbated by climate change and poor water infrastructure in many developing
countries, among others in the future (UN, 2018).
In the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Guideline Values for chemical
contaminants are based on the assumption of a 60 kg adult consuming 2 litres per day from
drinking water, which would be equivalent to 3 litres per capita per day including food
consumption (if the ratio cited by Kleiner were applied). Where specific guidance is needed
for vulnerable populations, a figure of 1 litre per day for a 10 kg child or 0.75 litre per day for
a 5 kg child are used (WHO, 2017).
Water demand in Nigeria, as is the case in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa, far
outstrips the supply. According to Olorunsogo (2006), Nigeria ranks amongst the countries
with the lowest level of water supply in the world, despite the fact that Nigeria was a
signatory to the International Water Decade (1981-1990). The status of urban and rural
water supply is characterized by low level of coverage. Public water provision sourced from
the government is generally irregular or unreliable thus inadequate to meet the needs of the
households (Adepoju, 2009). The main sources of water for households are piped supply
from treated water sources, untreated piped water from ground water sources, shallow
boreholes, wells and pond, springs, lakes, rivers, and streams (Nwankwoala, 2011). Water
harvesting for domestic use has become increasingly popular as the availability of good
water is declining (Chukwuma et al. 2012). In a developing country like Nigeria, there is a
need to investigate the quality of water consumed by communities, hence this study.
Scores of studies exist on water quality globally, and tens in Ile-Ife including Ako et al.
(1990), Eludoyin et al., (2004), Adediji (2005), Adesakin et al. (2005), Ogunfowokan et al.,
(2005), Oluyemi et al., (2010), Oyekunle et al., (2012), Bisi-Johnson et al., (2013), Igheneghu
and Lamikanra (2014), Jeje and Oladepo (2014), Olanipekun (2014) among others. These
studies can effectively be categorised to focus on potable water sources in relation to use
and quality, identification of pollutant sources in surface and groundwater sources, as well
as bacteriological assessments. Majority, if not all the existing studies however tend to give,
at best, little recognition to spatial influences particularly in terms topographical variations
and influences, which is important to geographers. They also do not often consider issues
relating to socio-economic characteristics and relief, hence this study. Consequently, this
study aims at assessing domestic water supply and the quality of drinking water in a local
government area in Nigeria, and assuming that this will provide an insight into water
situation in many similar areas in the country.

2. Materials and Methods

The study area is Ile-Ife in Southwestern Nigeria, and the focus was the residents of
Ife central local government, which due to the citing of two Universities (Obafemi Awolowo
University and Oduduwa University) can be considered to be the most urbanised among the

[Type here]
 3

four local government areas (Ife East, South, Central and North) in Ife region (Figure 1).

IFE CENTRAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA

Figure 1: Map of Ife Central Local Government Area

Source: Landsat Imagery

Copies of questionnaires were administered across the sample sites and water
samples were collected from each respondent. Households were selected using a
purposive and systematic sampling procedure. The imagery of Ife Central Local
Government Area was downloaded from Short Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) which
was used to generate Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for the area. From the SRTM, the
highest elevation value was 449 m and the lowest was 215 m. The elevation difference was
calculated to be 234 m. The contour interval of the digital elevation model was 26 metres.
This was used to enhance visibility of the contour lines and ensure proper delineation into
three different categories of elevation, that is, low, medium and high. There were nine (9)
different classes of elevation obtained from this delineation. In order to be able to sample
across three distinct topographical strata and based on the characteristic of the area as

[Type here]
 4

being virtually a lowland region (300 m), the classes 1 to 2 were selected to be the low
elevation areas for the study, 3 to 5 were selected to be the middle elevation areas and 6-9
as the high elevation areas (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Sampling Sites

Source: Short Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM)

A 0.5 km by 0.5 km grid (Figure 2) was overlaid on the digitized map of Ile-Ife so as to
aid the sampling of each of the strata. A total of three hundred and eighty-one (381) full
squares were obtained and this was the population. Ten percent (10%) of the total full
squares (the population), that is, thirty-eight (38) locations, (three hundred and eighty-one
divided by ten), were sampled, although forty-seven (47) of the locations in the boxes from

[Type here]
 5

the digitized map are eligible to be sampled (that is, the sampling frame). Thus, the thirty-
eight locations were picked randomly based on accessibility and the availability of the
respondents. It was on this premise that thirty-eight (38) questionnaires were administered.
One household was selected within the grid to represent the different residential or
economic status within the areas (i.e. low, medium and high elevation). Figure 2 shows the
sample sites with their respective elevation classes. The L’s represented those of low
elevation, the M’s represented the medium elevation and the H’s represented the high
elevation areas (Table 1). Study approach was a mixed-method, involving the use of both
qualitative and quantitative data. For the qualitative data, 38 key informants were
purposively selected (based on 5 by 5 m gridding of study area) from the household in the
region (Figure 2). A female (wife or the eldest) in selected household was preferred because
of the belief that they hold better information on family feeding and water supply.

Also, 2-litre polyethylene bottles were used to collect samples of drinking water from
available water (drinking) source in every household where the questionnaire was
administered and they were labelled accordingly. Having determined the physical
characteristics (pH, temperature, conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS)) of the water
samples on site, the filled polyethylene bottles were further taken to the chemistry
laboratory (for heavy metal characteristics) along with sterilized 100ml filled glass bottles
which were intended to take water samples for bacterial counts from each household. Thus,
chemical characteristics (Pb, As, Cd, Mn) whose presence is greater than 0.5mg/l portends
toxicity. Bacteria count and number of E coli were meant to provide information on
vulnerability to bacteria contamination in each of the 38 samples, following appropriate
protocol and precautions. When not immediately analysed, the water samples (contained in
100ml glass bottles) were stored in a refrigerator to reduce the influence of microbial
activities.
Data from questionnaire was analysed using descriptive statistics (Graphs and
Charts) and inferential statistics (Regression). Sources of domestic water in the study area
were characterized by running a frequency test in the SPSS environment based on the
respondents’ responses to questions about their water sources for domestic uses, drinking
and for flushing toilets (this consumed more water for those using the water system). The
results of the laboratory analysis was further taken into the SPSS environment using
measures of central tendency to determine the mean, minimum and maximum values of the
water characteristics for the study area. Frequency tests were carried out in SPSS
environment on the responses concerning the availability of water, household treatment
options, water supply infrastructure and their preferences for better sources of water for
various uses.

Table 1: Some specific information about the sample sites

Sampling Site Population density Type of building

1 2/3 bedroom
Lagere Medium flat
2 SDA Low Hospital
3 Opp Oduduwa College Medium Shared house
4 37, Oranmiyan Grammar School Medium Self-contained
5 35, Behind Methodist Church, Sabo High Shared house
6 7, Odo Ogbe, St.Peter's Anglican Church, New
Market. High Shared house

[Type here]
 6

7 31, Ayibiowu Str., Ilara. Low Shared house

8 Music Department, O.A.U Medium Office
9 Eatery/restaura
Kings and Queens Restaurant, PG Hall Medium nt
1 2/3 bedroom
0 5, Ife Girls High School, Eleyele Low flat
1 2/3 bedroom
1 Tonda Omole Estate, Beulah. Medium flat
1 2/3 bedroom
2 44B, O.A.U.Quarters Low flat
1 Eatery/restaura
3 A1 Restaurant, New Bukka, O.A.U. High nt
1
4 Center for Space Medium Office
1
5 OAU Press Medium Office
1
6 CERD, O.A.U. Medium Office
1 2/3 bedroom
7 Alawode Medium flat
1
8 Aserifa Low Shop
1
9 GOFAMINT Medium Self-contained
2 2/3 bedroom
0 Opp UEBC Medium flat
2 Hall of
1 Ebenezer Hostel, Maintenance, O.A.U. Medium residence
2
2 O.A.U. Staff School High School
2
3 Ogunbanjo Hall, Medium Resort centre
2
4 O.A.U.Conference High Resort centre
2
5 Faculty of Agric Medium Laboratory
2
6 Computer Medium Office
2 2/3 bedroom
7 N2, Ondo Road, Modakeke High flat
2
8 No 84, Ajigbonna Street, Modakeke Medium Shared house
2 2/3 bedroom
9 2, Waleade Olawoyin Avenue, Parakin Low flat
3 2/3 bedroom
0 Living Hope Street,Parakin Medium flat
3
1 136, Opp Oluorogbo Sec. School Medium Shared house

[Type here]
 7

3
2 CCC Oluwalose Qaurters Medium Self-contained
3
3 Road 7 Gate Medium 2_3bedroom flat
3
4 Mayfair Garage Branch 3 Medium Office
3 Hall of
5 Moremi Hall of Residence High residence
3 Hall of
6 Akintola Hall of Residence High residence
3
7 Biological Sciences Medium Laboratory

3
8 God's Love Tabernacle High Church

3. Results
3.1 Household and population characteristics

Most of the heads of families in the study area (respondents) were adults (84.2%),
were at least 41 years old and have acquired at least a primary education. Majority of the
respondents are public office holders – either as teacher/lecturers or health workers or civil
servants, and only 28.9% were self-employed. Greater than half of the people (52.6%) earned
above one hundred thousand naira (#100,000) or US $272.82 in a monthly and the rest
earned below the dollar equivalent. All the respondents have lived in the area for at least
one year before the interview (Table 2). In addition, the study area were categorised into low,
medium and high population densities and majority (60.5%) lived in the medium population
density area; most of which are within the growth pole influence of the University (Obafemi
Awolowo University). This is similar to the result from the analysis carried out by
Ogunfowokan et al., (2005)
Table 2. Attributes of respondents

Socio-demographic Characteristics Freq. %

Age of Head of family 18-30 2 5.3

31-40 4 10.5
41-60 22 57.9
61 and above 10 26.3
Level of Education of Head of family No formal Education 0 0
Primary 2 5.3
Secondary 8 21.1
Tertiary 28 73.7
Occupation of Head of family Teaching: 2 5.3
Secondary/Primary

[Type here]
 8

Schools
Teaching: Tertiary 5 13.2
level
Health worker 1 2.6
Transport worker 4 10.5
Self-employed 11 28.9
Private organization; 5 13.2
including banks
Other public services 9 23.7
Student 1 2.6
Monthly income of Head of family Below #15,000 0 0
#15,001 - #30,000 5 13.2
#30,001 - #50,000 6 15.8
#50,001 - #100,000 7 18.4
Above #100,000 20 52.6
Length of stay in the present Less than one year 1 2.6
location
1 -5 years 8 21.1
At least five years 28 73.7
Indifferent 1 2.6

3.2. Water supply and quality condition

Responses on water supply in the study area tends to reveal topographic influences.
Most (64.3% and 66.7%) households in medium (268 - 346m) and low topography (below 268
m) possessed machine-drilled, covered and protected wells while only 47.1% of the
households in high (higher than 346m) possessed same (machine-drilled, covered and
protected wells) water source (Table 4). Furthermore, majority (> 80%) of the households
did not agree to be suffering from any water-related diseases as at the time of study. The
few proportion that suffered from water-related diseases reported dysentery, typhoid fever
and cholera as prominent water-related diseases. In all, majority of the respondents rated
the domestic water sources as ‘excellent’ to ‘good’, except at the high altitude where 52.9%
perceived the quality of water they consume as of ‘fair; quality (Table 4). Based on the
perception of the domestic water as relatively pristine, only 47.4% of the respondents treat
their water before consumption in the study area, and they do so without the use of alum
and chlorine before drinking (Table 5).
Table 3: Sources of Domestic Water Supply in Ife Central Local Government Area, Osun
State, Nigeria based on elevation area Elevation.

[Type here]
 9

Variable Option Elevation

Lowlands Middle Area Highlands

(268-346m)
(< 268m) (> 346m)

Freq % Freq % Freq %

Borehole wells 4 28.6 2 15.4 0 0

Hand-dug Wells 3 21.4 7 53.8 5 45.5

Source of domestic
water Stream 0 0 0 0 1 9.1

Tap water 7 50 4 30.8 5 45.5

Less than 30 minutes 13 92.9 11 84.6 10 90.9

Length of time spent
fetching water daily 30 Minutes - 1 Hour 1 7.1 0 0 0 0

More than 1 hour 0 0 2 15.4 1 9.1

Government produced pipe-borne

water 3 21.4 3 23.1 3 27.3

Borehole 2 14.3 3 23.1 2 18.2

Well water 3 21.4 4 30.8 2 18.2

Source of drinking water Stream 0 0 0 0 0 0

Packaged water 6 42.9 3 23.1 4 36.4

Source of water for Government produced pipe 5 35.7 5 38.5 5 45.5

flushing the toilet borne water
Borehole 4 28.6 1 7.7 2 18.2
Well Water 3 21.4 7 53.8 2 18.2
Stream 0 0 0 0 0 0
Packaged water 0 0 0 0 0 0
None 2 14.3 0 0 2 18.2

Table 4. Type, condition of water sources perception on health implication

Variable Option Elevation

Lowlands Middle Area Highlands

(268-346m)
(< 268m) (> 346m)

Freq % Freq % Freq %

Condition of the Machine-drilled, covered and 4 66.7 9 64.3 8 47.1

well protected

[Type here]
 10

Hand-dug, covered, often locked, and 2 33.3 4 28.6 5 29.4

users are only members of the hose

Hand-dug, covered not in good 0 0 0 0 3 17.6

condition, and users are not only
members of the house

No well 0 0 1 7.1 1 5.9

Family member Yes 1 16.7 2 14.3 2 11.8

suffering from any
water-based No 5 83.3 12 85.7 15 88.2
diseases
Prevalent water- Cholera 0 0 0 0 2 11.8
related disease
Typhoid Fever 0 0 2 14.3 7 41.2

Hepatitis 0 0 0 0 0 0

Schistosomiasis 0 0 0 0 0 0

Dysentery 1 16.7 1 7.1 0 0

Diarrhoea 0 0 1 7.1 0 0

None 5 83.3 10 71.4 8 47.1

Quality of potable Excellent 2 33.3 1 7.1 2 11.8

water supply
Good 3 50 11 78.6 10 58.8

Fair 1 16.7 1 7.1 3 17.6

Poor 0 0 1 7.1 2 11.8

Perception about Excellent 2 33.3 1 7.1 2 11.8

water quality
Very good 0 0 1 7.1 0 0

Good 2 33.3 6 42.9 4 23.5

Fair 2 33.3 4 28.6 9 52.9

Poor 0 0 2 14.3 2 11.8

Water quality is fair, with little 0 0 0 0 0 0

treatment, it is good for domestic and
cooking purposes

Table 5. Perception of households on water quality and treatment options

Freq. %

Treatment of water before use Yes 18 47.

4

[Type here]
 11

No 20 52.
6

Water treatment before Addition of alum 4 10.

consumption 5

Addition of chlorine 7 18.

4

None of A or B 18 47.
4

Both of A and B 6 15.

8

We purchase already treated water 1 2.6

(packaged)

Boiling 2 5.3

Preferred water source for drinking Bore Hole 12 31.

6

Table Water 7 18.

4

Sachet Water 7 18.

4

Well Water 0 0

None 12 31.
6

Tap water 0 0

Not applicable 0 0

Preferred water source for bathing Bore Hole 11 28.

9

Table Water 0 0

Sachet Water 0 0

Well Water 11 28.

9

None 12 31.
6

Not Applicable 4 10.

5

Preferred water source for washing Bore Hole 11 28.

9

Table Water 0 0

[Type here]
 12

Sachet Water 0 0

Well Water 10 26.

3

None 12 31.
6

Not Applicable 5 13.

2

3.3. Chemical and microbiological characteristics of water samples

Results of laboratory analysis of selected toxic metals, physiochemical parameters
and E.coli reveal that the water samples that were obtained from systematically selected
water sources (indicated in Table 3) are contaminated (Table 6). The water samples were
generally alkaline, beyond the World Health Organisation (2017)’s recommended limit, and
contained manganese ion of more than 0.4ppm as well as abnormally high concentration of
E.coli. Studies have shown that whereas slightly high pH as observed in the study may not
possess significant effect, manganese, like many metals in abnormally high concentrations
may cause cerebral relapse in children and foetal-umbilical dysfunction (Joode et.al, 2016;
Eludoyin et al, 2019). Abnormally high E-coli in drinking water is also associated with
cholera and typhoid.

Table 6. Comparison of water samples with World Health Organisation (2017) limit guidelines for
drinking water
Variables W.H.O. Low density Medium density High density Remark
Standard (Mean ±SD) (Mean ±SD) (Mean ±SD)
pH (no unit) 6-8 8.5±0.8 8.5±0.9 8.2±0.8 Polluted
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) <600 512.5±520. 420.7±397 537.6±767.2 Acceptable
0
Conductivity (uS/cm) Not stated 26.9±1.3 36.8±51.9 26.6±0.9 Unknown
Lead (µg/l) 10 0.01±0.004 0.01±0.002 0.01±0.003 Acceptable
Arsenic (ppm) 0.01 0.01±0.01 0.01±0.003 0.01±0.003 Acceptable
Cadmium (ppm) 0.003 0.01±0.01 0.01±0.01 0.01±0.01 Acceptable
Manganese (ppm) 0.4 0.03±0.01 0.03±0.01 0.02±0.01 Acceptable

E.Coli (/100 ml) 0.00 13703± 440271± 3993±9054 Polluted

2618 2083986

Table 7. Attribute of drinking water in the Study Area with respect to Elevation.
Variables High (Mean ±SD) Medium (Mean ±SD) Low (Mean ±SD) Overall (Mean ±SD)
pH 8.136±0.7659 8.508±0.9895 8.493±0.7488 8.395±0.8373
Temperature 74.409±16.3353 79.577±2.0294 74.593±14.0796 76.245±12.2082
Total Dissolved Solids 471.818±568.2438 461.308±317.8725 457.357±631.8686 462.895±510.2521
Conductivity 26.446±0.9822 45.485±68.9678 26.131±0.8066 33.024±40.8956
Lead 0.006±0.0018 0.006±0.0027 0.006±0.0028 0.006±0.0025
Arsenic 0.009±0.0015 0.005±0.0026 0.006±0.0031 0.006±0.0028
Cadmium 0.010±0.0047 0.009±0.0048 0.010±0.0055 0.010±0.0049
Manganese 0.026±0.0105 0.028±0.0091 0.027±0.0112 0.027±0.0101
Plate Count 915650.820± 4225.381± 8378.570± 269589.180±

[Type here]
 13

3012968.4690 11692.8280 18222.6220 1621208.8130

Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Variables W.H.O. High Medium Low Remark

Standard (Mean ±SD) (Mean ±SD) (Mean ±SD)
pH <8 8.136±0.7659 8.508±0.9895 8.493±0.7488 Not
acceptable
Temperature Cool 74.409±16.3353 79.577±2.0294 74.593±14.0796 Not
acceptable
Total <600 mg/l 471.818±568.2438 461.308±317.8725 457.357±631.8686 Acceptable
Dissolved
Solids
Conductivity 26.446±0.9822 45.485±68.9678 26.131±0.8066
Lead 10µg/l 0.006±0.0018 0.006±0.0027 0.006±0.0028 Acceptable
Arsenic 0.01ppm 0.008±0.0015 0.005±0.0026 0.006±0.0031 Acceptable
Cadmium 0.003 0.010±0.0047 0.010±0.0047 0.010±0.0055 Acceptable
Manganese 0.4ppm 0.026±0.0105 0.028±0.0091 0.027±0.0112 Acceptable
Plate Count 0.00 per 915650.820± 4225.380± 8378.570± Not
100ml 3012968.4690 11692.8280 18222.6220 acceptable
Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Figure 3: Relationship between elevation and plate count

Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)
Table 7: Heavy metal concentrations and elevation in the Study Area
Elevation Lead Arsenic Cadmiu Manganes
m e
Low (241- 257.00) Minimu 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.011
m
Maximu 0.012 0.007 0.021 0.042
m
Medium (258.00 - Minimu 0.003 0.001 0.002 0.011
273.00) m

[Type here]
 14

Maximu 0.011 0.012 0.020 0.043

m
High (274.00+) Minimu 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.012
m
Maximu 0.008 0.011 0.018 0.043
m
Total Minimu 0.003 0.001 0.002 0.011
m
Maximu 0.012 0.012 0.021 0.043
m
Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Table 8: Regression Analysis of heavy metal concentration against elevation

Constant (Slope)b1 R2 F Sig.
Lead 0.010 - 0.00 0.30 0.58
0.000016 8 5 4
Arsenic -0.014 0.000076 0.14 6.16 0.01
6 1 8
Cadmium 0.008 0.00 0.00 0.93
0.000005 0 8 0
Manganes 0.019 0.000030 0.00 0.06 0.80
e 2 4 1
Source: Field Survey

Table 9 Presence of E. Coli. in the water samples

Presence of E. Coli Frequenc Percent (%)

y
Present 18 47.4
Absent 20 52.6
Total 38 100
Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Table10: Total Coliform count

Plate Count Frequenc Percent (%)
y
<= 100 7 18.4
101 - 1000 15 39.5
1001 - 5000 9 23.7
5001+ 7 18.4
Total 38 100
Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Y= 0.01 -0.000016x…………… (Equation 1)

[Type here]
 15

Figure 4: Relationship between Elevation and Lead Concentration

Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Y= -0.014 + 0.000076x ………….. (Equation 2)

Figure 5: Relationship between elevation and Arsenic concentration

Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

The equation for cadmium concentration is given as:

Y = 0.008 +.000005x…………… (Equation 3)
Where Y is Cadmium concentration (dependent variable); and
x = Elevation (Independent variable)
This can be interpreted as “cadmium concentration increased by 0.000005 for every unit
increase in height. The graph of the equation is displayed in Figure 6.
The equation for manganese concentration is given as:
Y = 0.019+0.00003x ………………. (Equation 4)
Where Y is Manganese concentration (dependent variable); and
x = Elevation (Independent variable)
This can be interpreted as “manganese concentration increased by 0.00003 for every unit
[Type here]
 16

increase in height. The graph of the equation is displayed in Figure 7.

Y = 0.008 +.000005x…………… (Equation 3)

Figure 6: Relationship between elevation and Cadmium concentration

Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

Y = 0.019+0.00003x ………………. (Equation 4)

Figure 7: Relationship between elevation and Manganese concentration

Source: Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis. (2019)

4. Conclusion
Dominant source of domestic water supply in the study area was tap water (Table 3),
majority of which were within the University campus, followed by hand-dug wells. Dominant
sources of drinking water was packaged water, followed by wells and public pipe-borne
water (Table 3). There was a wide disparity in the lifestyles, particularly with respect to
water consumption and usage of people living within the same local government area. The
study also shows that the chemistry as well as the physical characteristics of the water
supply across the three distinctive elevation categories fell within the World Health
Organization’s acceptable standard for drinking water (Table 6). It was also discovered after
the regression analysis shown in table 8 that the relationship between heavy metal contents

[Type here]
 17

of the water supply and elevation (results in table 7) was positive, save lead which reduced
with increasing elevation. Coliform count was also discovered to increase with increasing
elevation (Figure 4). This could mean that sanitation practices of the residents in the study
area reduced as one goes higher. Furthermore, majority of the residents in the study area
did not engage in household water treatment but had preferences for their water sources
(Table 5); borehole water was preferred for drinking and cooking, particularly for the
respondents residing off-campus. There were equal levels of preferences for bathing water
between borehole water and well water, and this was also majorly among those in the off-
campus areas, reflecting their dissatisfaction at their standard of living (Table 5). For
washing water however, majority of the respondents were satisfied. This can probably be
attributed to the notion that one could not be infected with diseases. The study concluded
that water quality and water supply infrastructure were not satisfactory enough going by the
responses from the respondents and that most of the residents in the study area had
preferences for the sources of potable water supply. It is, therefore recommended that the
Government should provide adequate infrastructure for high quality water supplies as the
residents were not satisfied as the current level of supply and had preferences for better
sources of potable water supply. Also, further research works should be carried out to test
for physical characteristics of water on the field as this could not be ascertained for all the
locations that were sampled due to the physical barriers of unfair weather and
unwillingness by the respondents to spare some time for such tests to be carried out.

References

Adediji, A. (2005), Reservoir Sedimentation: The Case of the Opa Reservoir Catchment,
Southwestern Nigeria, South African Geographical Journal, 87:2, 123-128.
Adepoju, A.A. (2009) and Omonona, B.T. (2009); Determinants of Willingness to Pay for
Improved Water Supply in Osogbo Metropolis; Osun State, Nigeria. Research
Journal of Social Sciences 4, 1-6.
Adesakin, T. A., Adedeji A. A., Aduwo A. I. and Taiwo Y. F. (2017); Effect of Discharge from Re
- channelled Rivers and Municipal Run-off on Water Quality of Opa Reservoir, Ile-
Ife, Southwest, Nigeria; African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology11(1), 56-70.
Ako, B. D., Adeniyi, F. I. and Adepoju, J. F. (1990); Statistical Tests and Chemical Quality of
Shallow Groundwater from a Metamorphic Terrain, Ile-Ife/Modakeke, Journal of
African Earth Science, 10 (4); 603-613.
Bartram, J. and Helmer, R. (1996), Water Quality Monitoring: A Practical Guide to the Design
and Implementation of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes.
Bartram, J. and R. Balance (Eds.), United Nations Environmental Programme and
the World Health Organization, Rome, Italy, pp: 1-6.
Bisi-Johnson, M. A, Adediran K.A., Akinola, S.A. and Oyelade, H. A. (2+013); Physicochemical
and Microbiological Assessment of Source and Stored Domestic Water from
Three Local Governments in Ile-Ife, Nigeria; International Journal of Environmental,
Chemical, Ecological, Geological and Geophysical Engineering 7(11): 762-769
Chukwuma E. C., Nzediegwu C., Umeghalu E. C. and Ogbu K. N (2012), Quality Assessment of
Direct Harvested Rainwater in parts of Anambra State, Nigeria; Special Publication of
the Nigerian Association of Hydrological Sciences, 2012.

[Type here]
 18

Eludoyin, A.O., Ofoezie I. E. and Ogunkoya O. O. (2004); The effect of Oja-titun Market Effluent
on the Chemical Quality of Receiving Opa Reservoir in Ile-Ife, Nigeria; Journal of
Environmental Management 72:249-259.
Eludoyin, A. O. and Olanrewaju O. E. (2021), Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan
Africa, Research Gate Journal p 3
Igbeneghu, O. A. and Lamikanra, A. (2014); The Bacteriological Quality of Different Brands of
Bottled Water Available to Consumers in Ile-Ife, South-Western Nigeria.
Jeje, J.O. and Oladepo, K.T. (2014); Assessment of Heavy Metals of Boreholes and Hand Dug
Wells in Ife North Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria; International
Journal of Science
Miller, G. W. (2006), Integrated concepts in water reuse: managing global water needs;
Water Reuse Association, 635 Slaters Lane, Alexandria, VA, USA, Elsevier.
Nwankwoala, H.O. (2011); Localizing the Strategy for Achieving Rural Water Supply and
Sanitation in Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 5
(13) 1170-1176.
Ogunfowokan, A.O., Okoh, E.K., Adenuga, A.A. and Asubiojo, O.I. (2005); An Assessment of
the Impact of Point Source Pollution from a University Sewage Treatment
Oxidation Pond on a Receiving Stream-A Preliminary Study; Journal of Applied
Sciences 5(1): 36-43.
Olanipekun E. A. (2014), Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment of Drinking Water
Sources in Ile- Ife and Environs; American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER),
Vol.-3, Issue-8, pp 90-100.
Oluyemi, E.A., Adekunle, A.S., Adenuga, A.A. and Makinde W.O. (2010); Physico-chemical
Properties and Heavy Metal Content of Water Sources in Ife North Local Government
Area of Osun State, Nigeria; African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology 4(10): 691-697.
Oyekunle, J. A. O., Okpu, R. C., Ogunfowokan, A. O., Olutona G. O. and Durosinmi, L. M. (2012),
Total and Exchangeable Metals in Ground Water in Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria.
Hydrology for Disaster Management, Special Publication of the Nigeian Association
of Hydrological Sciences, 2012.
United Nations (2018), Sustainable Development Goals.
WHO and UNICEF (2000), Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report,
WHO/UNICEF, Geneva/New York.
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation, (2010);
Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water (2010) Update. Bos R. (WHO) and
Brocklehurst C. (UNICEF), Stockholm.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2004). Inheriting the World: The Atlas of Children’s
Health and the Environment, World Health Organization, Geneva.
World Health Organization (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition
incorporating the first addendum. Geneva: Licence: CC BY-NC-SA3.0 IGO.

[Type here]