CSEC PHYSICS MANUAL OF ESSENTIAL NOTES By Kevin Jared Hosein Based purely on syllabus requirements. Worked example questions and practice questions at the back. Complete list of formulae and laws at back.PHYSICS, SECTION A (1/2) : MEASUREMENTS AND STATICS QUANTITIES AND UNITS The SI (Standard International unit system is the most widely used system in measurement and comprises seven fimdamental units A fundamental quantity, aso called a base quautity, is known as one that is independent from the others and uswally eannot be expressed using other quantities. A derived quantity is one that is a combined product of different fundamental ones. eg. ‘speed! is derived fiom distance (length) and time, two base quantities. “Area’ and “volume” are derived from multiple lengths. The table below shows units the seven “fundamental quantities”. Quantity Symbol | UnitName | Measuring Instrument Length 1 Metre (a) Metre rule Measuring tape ‘Vernier caliper Micrometer screw gauge Mass M Kilogram (kg) | Scale balance / Triple beam balance Time T Second (s) Stopwateh, Electronic Current 1 Ampere(A) | Ammeter Temperature Tor@ | Kelvin (K) ‘Thermometer Amount ofa Substance | m ‘Mole (mol) ss Luminous Intensity | Candela (ed) This table shows a few derived quantities. Quantity Unit Unit Breakdown | Measuring Instrument Volume m mxmxm Measuring cylinder / Burette Force D kg ny Force-metre / Spring balance Speed mis ms Ticker tape timer Pressure Pa (kg mvs)? Barometer / Manometer1. Avoiding parallax errors — These occur when the experimenter is not viewing the readings at gxeleve). Not doing this can cause inaccurate data to be recorded. When possible, equipment should always be placed om a level surface, Sometimes perpendicular aids must be constructed fiom set squares in order to read instruments accurately. 2. Avoiding zero errors ~ Before using an instrument, it is important that it is calibrated to read zeta at the statt of the expetinnent, Seales and stopwatchies have an option to reset to zero while the gauges on ammeters and voltmeters must be checked beforehand Accuracy and precision are two different things. © Accuracy refers to how correct the data is, © Precision refers to how consistent the data is when reproduced between trials, vate 3. Human response time ~ When taking readings with stopwatches, for example, the actual time for the experimenter to start and stop the stopwatch causes a delay and accounts for a slight error in measurement. This is why it is important to repeat an experiment multiple times, AY Sy Qi The table below shows a list of some unit prefixes that denote the magnitude (size) of the unit. Prefix Symbol — | Power ST Unit Conversion Example Mega M 10 5.0MJ = 5.0 x 10 J = 50000005 Kilo k 10" Centi c 10? Milli mn 10° 6.8 ms = 6.8 x 10°s = 0.0068 s Micro " 10° 4300 | A= 4500x 10A= 0.0045 ASTANDARD FORM & UNIT CONVERSION. Standard form is a means of expressing large numbers in simple ways using integer powers and ‘usually three significant figures. Note that the decimal point goes after the first significant figure, For e.g, S4880N in standard form (to 3 s.f) will be written as $.49 x 10*N. 0.0064834 in standard form (to 3 s.£) will be 6.48 x 10° J. How to convert km/h to m/s ‘How to convert m/s to km/h Convert 108knv/h to m/s ‘Convert 18m/s to knvh 108,000 == 30 m/s 18 x 3600 = 64.8 km/ 3600s 000 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ‘The scientific method is a process for creating setups of situations to examine factors of the real ‘world and gather data from testing. This data can then be analyzed and replicated by other scientists to farther study the models and draw reasoning fiom them. It was first used by scientists sich as Isaac Newton and Galilei Galileo. The scientific method has FOUR main steps: 1 OBSERVATION - Which can be made visually or through apparatus. 2. HYPOTHESIS - A statement made that has to be proven true or false. It has to be testable 3. METHODOLOGY - Formulating a method to test the hypothesis and gather data. May have to be repeated several times to validate results under various conditions, 4. ANALYSIS - Determining whether or not the results conform to the hypothesis and formulating a theory based on them. PERIOD OF A PENDULUM. One of the first major experiments in Physics was Galileo's determination for the acceleration due to gravity on Earth, also known as g, This was done using a pendulum with strings of varying lengths © The period is defined as the THE TIME TAKEN TO COMPLETE A FULL OSCILLATION © The only factor that affects the period of the pendulum is LENGTH. The mass of the bob and the angle of displacement the bob is held at docs not affect the time for one swing. © Usually 10-20 oscillations are taken because the human response time would create too large of a delay and error just testing for 1 oscillation,Example question: Complete the table and plot a graph of Tvs. L Length, L (m) | Time for 20 oscillations, (5) _| Period, T (5) Period Squared, T° (s') 0.10 12.96 0.65 0.42 0.20 18.00 0.90 O81 0.30 22.00 Lio 121 0.50 28.28 LAL 1.99 0.60 31.10 1.56 2 Graph showing T2vs. L of pendulum Using the graph, find the T? value when the length is 0.40m: 1.60m Calculate the gradient: y2—vl = 2.430 = 4.05 ?/m x2-x1 0.60-0 (The unit for the gradient is always 0.00 0.10 0.20 030 0 ‘Now calculate the acceleration due to gravil AO 0.50 0.60 Lim g. using this formula, Pur the unit for your answer as m/s? as that isthe unit for acceleration. (r=3.14) g=4n'x 1 gradient g=4x (3.14) x (1+ 4.05) = 4x 9.86 x 0.25 9.86 m/s2 (very close to the actual value for ‘g’, which is 9.81 mvs?)SCALARS AND VECTORS Quantity | Definition Examples Scalar | A quantity that has magnitade but NO__| Distance, speed, area, volume, density direction. Veetor | A quantity that has BOTH magnitude | Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force. and direction ‘momentum Parallel and antiparallel vectors: We jst add the vectors to form a single veetor called a RESULTANT. A single vector may also be the resultant of two other vectors, e.g. an airplane’s overall flight direction is a combination of the engines" thrust, gravity and the wind. Opposite direction vectors (antiparallel) are viewed as negative. Draw the resultant vectors for the two examples below. 5N SN 4N 20N aN etme ean < 16N Draw and measure the resultant forces for both diagrams below. Force 1 resultant, resultant Question: Au aixplane is flying east in still air at 921/s. A heavy north-east wind starts to blow at 36nn/s at 45°, Using a scale of Lem:10n/s, draw a vector diagram to show the resultant velocity of the plane, Measure the angle the plane deviated from its original path, 36m/s 7 -—-— Resultant = 12-13 m/s : 4 Angle = 10-12° 7.2 m/sM Ww Quantity Definition Example Mass ‘The amount of matter contained inan | A truck has more mass than a car and thus, object. Iris a measure of an object's _| would resist a change in motion more than a INERTIA of resistance to change in car would. It would take longer to speed up motion, and require more foree on its brakes. Weight The force exerted on a body's mass by | An astronaut on the Moon would have the sravity. ‘samme mass on Earth but Jess weight. because the Moon's gravitational field is weaker Note the formula for weight: ‘Since inertia is defined as an w= Weight (N) object’s resistance to change, the seater the mass, the more force is required to change its motion. Objects balance at a point called the centre of gravity. The centre of gravity of an object can be defined as THE POINT AT WHICH THE WEIGHT OF A BODY ACTS. The foree of weight acts downward from the centre of gravity. Imagine it as a straight line vector pointing down from that position. Objects or systems that are stable tend to have most of their mass deposited much LOWER than unstable ones. They are said to have a low centre of gravity. Observe the shapes below. ‘Stabe cquliriom Unstable egitim Nevtral eu ow om igh (CoG docs not a6) Shang) ‘An irregular lamina’s centre of gravity can be found by boring holes and hanging a plumbline from each hole ‘The purpose of the plumbline is to see which points are vertically below the hole, By marki the lines, aan intersection will be noticed. This is the lamina’centre of gravity FORCES Forces enable masses to overcome inertia ic. they are able to cause a change in an object’s acceleration, deceleration or direction (even shape and size, but NOT mass) Forces are measured in Newtons (N) which can be derived as IN = 1 ke mis Type of Force Description GRAVITY alls objects towards the centre of the Earth. WEIGHT The effect of gravity on an object's mass FRICTION The resistance an object experiences when rubbing a surface, BUOYANCY / UPTHRUST _ | The upward force exerted by a fluid, ELECTROSTATIC Attraction due to charged particles called electrons stored in an object. MAGNETIC An attraction or repulsion caused by north and south poles. REACTION The force that always acts opposite to another, e.g. the forward push from swimming while pushing the water backward. TENSION ‘An upward force exerted on a string or rope attached to a load. CENTRIPETAL The pull towards a central point for an object moving in a circle NUCLEAR The attraction holding the nucleus of an atom together. ‘© Forces may be CONTACT ot NON-CONTACT. They may also be ABSORBED, such as by kneepads wor by athletes, cyclist helmets, bubblewrap packaging and cellphone cases. When a force is absorbed, its impact is decreaset © Allmoving objects on Barth experience some form of resistance. whether from the surface they arc on (fiiction) or the medium that they are in, such as the atmosphere (called air resistance o drag) In this example, the two “resistant forces” som HL are equal to the applied forward thrust of the — ieresitance cat. This will give an overall resultant or net a force of 0 Newtons. nN This doesn’t mean the car will stop. This means that the object is in EQUILIBRIUM and is, moving at a coustant velocity. Therefore, we can say that if a force is absent, there will be no change in motion or direction.NOTE: The car does not require a force to keep moving forward. It only requires a force to accelerate or to overcome the friction of the road. If the resistant forces are greater than the forward thrust, the car will DECELERATE and then stop.| cr —< ~e gly ‘As epens increases No avotteration sedoesenag... Staty T resminal Velocity F¥ity t SU), Sar AM swe | pe 2 again. Theve if 1. Ashe falls, GRAVITY initially pulls him down, AIR RESISTANCE acts upwards, making his ACCELERATION DECREASE (NOT decelerate), 3. Eventually, the air resistance will be equal to his weight. He will then be held at EQUILIBRIUM and fall at a CONSTANT SPEED. Acceleration stops at this point. This balanced velocity is referred to as TERMINAL VELOCITY. 4. When he opens the parachute, he decelerates (velocity decreases) as the parachute has a wide surface area that imereases his air resistance. 5. Ashi velocity decreases, his air resistance also decreases until the forces ate balanced again, He falls at a safe terminal velocity. no longer accelerating, 6. When he hits the ground, the ground causes a sudden deceleration that brings him to rest. The ground hits him back with a REACTION FORCE to stop him. NOTE: An area that has no air or atmosphere is known as a VACUUM. If there is no air, then there is no air resistance. All objects fall or accelerate at the same rate in a vacuum, since only gravity is pulling them down FREEFALL When an object is accelerating due to gravity only. it is said to be in freefall. Ifon Earth, this is to be taken as 10 uy/s* (rounded off from 9.81m/s") this means that with each second, the velocity increases by 10 mm/s. So. after 5s in freefall, the velocity would be 50 ms NOTE: The value for “g’, 10m written as LON/kg. te may also beLEVERS A lever is a type of simple machine, Machines are designed to make work easier, which means that they can either: 1. Modify or transmit forces and motion _—_2, Convert different types of energy into mechanical energy All machines have an input and an output, The input force is usually referred to as the EFFORT and the output as the LOAD. Levers have a point of rotation that these forces will tum about. This point of rotation is referred to as the PIVOT or FULCRUM. ‘The greater the distance from the fulcrum, the greater magnitude of turning force the effort would have. This turning force is sometimes referred to as a MOMENT ot a TORQUE, ‘mtn Less effort would be &} needed to turn the ¥ oe srvench tothe right ‘There are THREE classes of levers, On the diagrams below, label the effort, load and fulcrum and determine which class of lever each is. Class Placement First Fulcrum between effort aud load. Second Load between effort and fulcrum, Third Effort between load and fulcrum, Ist class 2nd class FUL az . F/ ‘a wu Ast class F Upthrust A large boat of great weight is able to float because of two main reasons: Ithas a HOLLOW interior, which decreases its overall density. Only the hul ‘material denser than water, such as steel or zinc. made of Ithas a WIDE SURFACE AREA, which increases the UPTHRUST acting on it. NOTE: The density of pure water is given as 1000 kg/mm? or 1 g/cm’. Since seawater has salt and other substances, its deusity would be slightly higher. 16PHYSICS. SECTION A (2/2): DYNAMICS AND ENERGETICS DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT ‘Distance is the HOW MUCH GROUND AN OBJECT HAS COVERED. The magnitude is of importance, not the direction, therefore distance is noted as a SCALAR quantity. ‘Displacement is the OVERALL CHANGE IN POSITION OF AN OBJECT IN A STRAIGHT LINE BETWEEN ITS ORIGIN AND DESTINATION. Both magnitude and direction are importance. It is therefore a VECTOR, am — destination 5 Looking at the example to the left. if'a e person ran from A to B and then B to C. a ‘sm they would have travelled a distance of 7m origio but a displacement of Si. DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS Displacement-time graph simply show an object's position as time passes. Observe the graph below. It shows that after $ seconds, the object is 25m away ffom the starting position, From $s to 10s, the object has not moved since its position is still 25m away. For the last 2.5s, the object has retumed to its starting position. Calculating the gradient ofa line in the graph gives the object's VELOCITY. Gradient of upward x is slope: Se Nees | x2 = x1 5-0 = 5 n/s (velocity) 01234567 8 9 10111213 Displacement (m) Time (s) 17SPEED AND VELOCITY Quantity Definition Formula Unit Category Speed (3) Distance travelled per unit time s=d mv/sormst | SCALAR time. Velocity (v) | Displacement travetled per unit ns orms* | VECTOR time. ACCELERATION When the velocity of an object is changing, it has an acceleration. It can either speed up or slow down or change direction, A positive acceleration denotes that the velocity has ineteased over time. A negative acceleration (or deceleration) denotes that velocity has decreased over time. Acceleration is therefore defined as the CHANGE IN VELOCITY OVER TIME. It isa VECTOR quantity acceleration (m/s) = final velocity (ms) {= initial velocity (m/s) t= time (3) ‘Note the formula aud unit for acceleration below:| @~Av| OR | a Velocity-time graph of a parachutist These graphs above represent an object's change in velocity as time passes. HOWEVER. note that the lines are straight for the left figure and curved for the right figure. The acceleration in graph A is said to be UNIFORM while graph B is said to be NON-UNIFORM. Since the line is getting less and less steep in the right figure, the acceleration can be said to be at a decreasing rae, 18Observe the LEFT figure for now. Aside from the appearance of the graph and general idea of ‘motion, other quantities can also be deduced and calculated from. the graph: The ACCELERATION can be obtained by calculating the gradient of the slope. © The DISPLACEMENT can be obtained by calculating the area under the required portion of the graph. If the displacement for the entire joumey is required, we need to find the area ofa trapezium in this case, which s given by the following foumular Example Question (Graphwork) =% (a+b) xh 1. Calculate the gradients of B and D, and the displacement of BCD. Gradient B y2- yl = 8-2 =2 m/s x2- x1 4-1 Gradient B y2-yl=0-8= -2.67m/s' x2- x1 10-7 Displacement: Ss (atb) xh Me (3410) x 8 6.5 x 8 = 52m ‘Example question: Plot the events on the graph. Label the points. A~The driver begins at 10m/s and keeps going at constant velocity for 20 seconds. B —He takes 10 seconds to decelerate uniformly until he comes to rest. C —He remains at rest for 10 seconds. D—He accelerates in reverse for 10 seconds until he is at -10mis, E —He reverses at a constant velocity of -10m/s for 20 seconds, F —He decelerates for 10 seconds until he is at rest again.velocity (m/s) time (sNEWTON’! Before Isaac Newton's laws of motion were made known, many people ascribed to Aristotle's Law of Motion, which basically stated that “Nothing moves unless you push it. An object's speed is proportional to the force applied to it” We leamed previously that this is not true becanse: A force is not required to keep an object moving. If there was no fi Newton's Three Laws are stated below: tion, an object would keep moving forever. Law What the Law States Example Ist An object at rest remains at rest, o an object in motion rema in motion at a constant velocity, unless an unbalanced force acts upon it A trolley will stay where it is unless someone pulls or pushes it. It cannot move unless a force is applied to it Similarly ifa trolley is moving, a force ‘will be needed to stop it. This force could be friction, air resistance or the reaction force from a collision. 2nd The force on a body is directly proportional to its acceleration € ma) Atolley with more mass will need a greater foree to get it to accelerate at the same rate as a trolley with Less mass 3rd Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction fore. Ifa Body A acts on Body B, then B exerts an equal and opposite force on A. In order to swim forward, a person inst push the water backwards Pushing the water back is the while the water pushing the body forward is the “reaction” ction” Think about how Newton's Laws apply to the following situations’ A child jumping on a trampoline, Arocket or airplane being able to propel itself upward or forward, Why an astronaut would need to tie themselves to an object while doing repairs in space. Why a loaded truck is harder to stop than an empty one Why seatbelts or deployable airbags are necessary in cars 21LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE Linear momentum is defined as THE PRODUCT OF AN OBJECT'S MASS AND VELOCITY. ‘Momentum is a VECTOR quantity, since it has a direction. The force that produces a change in ‘momentum of a body is called an IMPULSE. Note the formulas and units |P—™™Y Fxt for momentum and impulse: before p momentum (kg m/s or Ns) ‘m= mass (kg) v= velocity (am/s) F=Force(N) t= time (3) Scenario A: The white bal hits the 8-ball transferring all its momentum to it, and comes to a stop. The 8-ball then moves at the same velocity as the white ball. Scenario B: The two balls move at a combined mass. Since the combined mass is exactly twice as lange, the resultant velocity will be halved ‘The law of conservation of linear momentum states that: INACLOSED SYSTEM, THE TOTAL MOMENTUM BEFORE COLLISION IS EQUAL TO THE TOTAL MOMENTUM AFTER COLLISION. 3.0 m/s Som 4.0kg 6.0kg VIVITIVITTTTIOTTT Use the law of conservation of linear momentum to calculate the velocity of the trolleys if they collide and move together: P (before) = p (after) miv1 m2v2 4x3 (446) xv 12 ov v = 12+ 10 1.2 m/s Question; A footballer’s boot is in contact with a ball for 0.05s. The force on the ball is 180N. The ball leaves his foot at 20nv/s. Calculate: (i) the impulse of the force on the ball (ii) the ball’s change in momentum (iii) the mass of the ball (@) p=Fxt 180 x 0.05 9 Ns (ii) 9 NS (444) Pp = mv m=ptv 9 = 20 = 0.45 kgMENTUM N The previous examples dealt with one moving object colliding with a stationary object. However, what would happen if we had a question like this: PROBLEM 1: A car, lieading east at 24nvs, of mass 1200kg collides with a 4000kg truck, heading west at Sm/s. If the wreckage moves as a combined mass, what is the velocity and direction it moves at? (cast) (west) before collision First, calculate the total momentum in the system before collision. This momentum should be equal to the momentum of the wreckage gfler collision. The wreckage’s mass is the sum of both vehicles. (Recall that one of the values for velocity must be negative, since itis in an opposing direction) P (car) + p (truck) P (wreckage) 8800 = $200 v (1200 x 24) + (4000 x -5) = (4000 + 1200) x v 8800 = 1.69 m’s (cast) 3200 28800 0000) = 5200v The direction of the wreckage will move at will be in the direction of whichever vehicle had a higher momentuin. In this case, it will be EAST. PROBLEM 2: Two American football players collide into each other. Calculate the velocity the first player will push the second. 90g), Before collision After collision (00 x 5) + (70 x-4) 170 = 1.06 ms (90+ 70) xv —— 450 + (280) = 160¥ 160 —_—_— — 170 160v —<—EQRMS OF ENERGY y is simply defined as the CAPACITY FOR DOING WORK. The unit for energy is Joule (J). A Joule is defined as the work needed to move IN by a Im distance, so LI= IN The principle of conservation of energy states that ENERGY CAN NEITHER BE CREATED NOR DESTROYED, BUT CAN ONLY BE CONVERTED FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER. The table below describes some of the many different types of energy: Type of Energy Description Example CHEMICAL Released during chemical reactions or Batteries, food, fossil fuels ‘transformation. metabolism. ELECTRICAL The flow and movement of electrons, Power lines, KINETIC or Occurs during physical collisions and Arolling bal. MECHANICAL ‘movement. object ‘The energy possessed by a body by virtme of — | An aisplane in mid-air. A car POTENTIAL (GPE) _| its position, such as its height. ona cliff, ELASTIC Energy that is stored within an object Compressed spring. POTENTIAL experiencing deformation. Slingshot. Catapult ELECTROMAGNETI | Held in waves such as light, X-rays and radio, | Transmitters, TV screens. é NUCLEAR Released during the splitting (fission) of an | Splitting of Uranium in atom or the combining (fusion) or two atoms. | nuclear reactors. soUND Associated with the vibrations of matter to | Vocal cords. Music. Tyres produce various pitches and tones. screeching. THERMAL Energy that can be stored or transferred across | Heat fiom fiction. Wasted molecules through kinetic energy. energy from appliances. ‘Note the energy transfers in the following: (i) a car being driven on a straight road (ti) buming match ii) slingshot (iv) object falling from shelf (v) radio (vi) in a football being kicked (vii) acoustic guitarNOTE: Even though a Joule can be broken down to be a Newton-metre (Nm), Jand Nm should not be used interchangeably. Nm is reserved for moments or wheels after brakes are applf turning forces, while J is reserved for energy.ENERGY AND POWER Energy can either be released or stored. Enetgy that is used ot released to produce some type of change is termed WORK DONE. Work has the same unit as energy. HOWEVER, even though energy can be stored, work cannot, so these terms should not be tsed interchangeably. Note the formula for work below: W = Work (J) d= distance (m) POWER tefers to THE RATE OF ENERGY CONVERSION, OR WORK DONE OVER TIME. For example, if there are two sprinters of the same mass (70kg) who rum the same 100m dash, but sprinter A completes the race in 1 minute, while sprinter B completes it in 1.5 minutes, BOTH sprinters did the same work, but sprinter A had more power than B. since he did the work in less time, N rH wwe = P = Power (Wor J/s) P=E E = Energy (J) t t= time (s) INPUT, OUTPUT & EFFICIEN( EFFICIENCY refers to THE PERCENTAGE OF USEFUL OUTPUT COMPARED TO TOTAL, SUPPLIED INPUT. Most objects will not convert 100% of one type of energy to another type. A fraction of the energy is always lost duc to heat, for example, When these energy losses are reduced, machines are said to be more ‘niergy-efficient. For example, fluorescent lights tend to Lose much less heat than filament lights, which heat up very quickly. As a result, fluorescent lights are more efficient and last muuch longer. Energy transformation ina coal-fired power station Note the formula for efficiency below: Efficiency = Useful output x 100%‘ ati When the pendulum swings from positions 1 to 5. itis converting kinetic to GPE. Note what Pendulum bob, happens at 1 Maximum GPE, minimum KE 2- GPE converting to KE 3 —Minimum GPE, maximum KE 2 5 4 4—KE converting to GPE 5 Maximum GPE, minimum KE Start 7 5 KINETIC ENERGY (KE) This isthe energy possessed by an object IN MOTION OR DURING COLLISION. Note its formula: KE = Kinetic Energy (J) -1,,2 KE = =mv m= mass (kg) 2 v= velocity (m/s) WITATION. NTIALENI This isthe energy possessed by an object BY VIRTUE OF ITS POSITION OR HEIGHT. ‘Note its formu nein cr AGPE=mgAh —._,fraev) g= acceleration due to gravity (N/ke) h=height (m) wei ‘When an object is falling (assuming no air resistance) or sliding down a slope, the following is noted: GPE LOST = KE GAINED For situations that account for resistance or friction, energy loss is accounted for, ¢.. A cyelist and his, cle have a mass of 70kg. They descend a slope from the 2100m point to the 160m point. Assuming that 75% is lost to friction, what is the velocity of the cyclist as he travels down? AGPE = mgAh 10 x 10 x (2100 - 1600) 50 0005 25% of GPE --> KE _ KE = 87500 J £2500 — v=/2500 =50 m/s — 87500 35ALTERNATIVE & RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of decayed microscopic organisms, animals and plants from millions of years ago that have been pressed and subjected to hot temperatures over long periods of time They mainly come in the forms of coal, crude oil or natural gas. Fossil fuels are finite resources that canmot be replaced and are said to be NON-RENEWABLE. In addition, the combustion of fossil fitcls has, however, had negative effects on the environment, such as the GREENHOUSE EFFECT (due to the release of carbon dioxide by combustion) and ACID RAIN (due to the release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere). Energy sources that are infinite and can be replaced are termed RENEWABLE and can be used as viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Note that the Sun is the main source of energy for all ofthese, except GEOTHERMAL and NUCLEAR. Some examples of alternative energy sources include: Source Explanation SOLAR Energy obtained from the Suu are stored in photovoltaic cells in solar panels and converted to electricity. WIND ‘Winds turn the blades that spin a shaft that powers a generator HYDROELECTRIC ‘The gravitational potential and kinetic energy of water flowing down a conduit helps power a generator, TIDAL The kinetic energy from the moving tides helps generate a current, GEOTHERMAL Heat generated by converting hot water fiom deep beneath the earth’s surface can be used as a source of power. ‘NUCLEAR The fission (splinting) of Uranium atoms release energy from their nuclei, which can be hamessed. This is non-renewable but very efficient. BIOFUELS Ona smaller scale, some farmers use the remainder of their harvest to produce ethanol that would act as fuel for their machineryOther things can be done to help conserve fossil fuels or reduce our usage of them, such as carpooling, switching off appliances when not in use, using fuel-based transport less often (bicycles for short distances, for e.g.) and switching to more energy-efficient fluorescent lights in the household. PRESSURE Pressure is simply defined as FORCE ACTING PER UNIT AREA. Note the formula and unit: P=F |? sm] B 3m| A om Calculate the pressure that blocks A and B exert. W=mg = 60 x 10=600N P (block A)= F / A= 600 / (5 x 2) = 60 Pa P (block B)=F / A= 600 / (3 x 2)= 100 Pa = Pressure (Pa or N/m?) F= Force (N) A= Area (m2) Question: Why does your body exert more pressure on the ground if you stand on one foot? Both blocks are the same mass (60kg). Block B is the same as A, but put to stand at a different position. Even though the force (weight) of both blocks would be the same. the pressure will be different because that force is acting down on two different surface areas, PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS: ‘weight of Pressure in a fluid increases as DEPTH increases. This occurs because as the position gets deeper. the more molecules lie above that pointand thus, they will exerta gieater force or weight downwardsP = Pressure (Pa) © = density (kg/m3) g = acceleration due to gravity (N/kg) h = height/depth (m) 30Example question: An aquarium is filled with saltwater of density 1020kg/m’. It is 10m deep. The bottom of the aquarium is to be fitted with a glass window of measurements 2m x 1.5m, The atmosphere above the water surface is 101kPa, Caleulate (i the pressure of the water acting against the base of the glass (i) the TOTAL pressure, in kPa, acting against the base of the glass (iii) the maximum force, in KN. the glass should be able to withstand. @ — P=pgh 020. x 10x 10 (02.000 Pa (ii) P (total) = 102,000 + 101,000 (atm) = 203 000 Pa (ii) | P=F/A F=PxA = 203,000 x (2 1.5) = 609 000 N 31GAS PRESSURE MEASUREMENT L_ BAROMETER + vacuum Hg pressure equal, toairpressure\g ‘Atmospheric \ pressure ig 760m mercury (a) I= The atmospheric pressure acts on the ‘mercury (Hg) in the reservoir container, applying a downward force to it. The mercury is pushed up the bore in the middle and forms a column, The higher the column has, the higher the pressure. 2. MANOMETER Unknown Pressure | P Pe Atmospheric pressure (760 mm) Fluid of interest (Gosin mast cases) An mercury 10 ms"] ([p of mereury = 13,600 kg/m] Mercury is used instead of water because of its high density. Mereury is 13.6x denser than water. This means that if water was used instead, the column would be 13.6x taller. Atmospheric pressure is given as 760 ‘mmHg, but what is this value in Pascals? (iv) P=pgh = 13600 x 10x 0.76m = 103.360 Pa Manometers are used to find pressures of fluids of interest, It docs this by making a comparison to atmospheric pressure (which is already known). Atmospheric pressure is given as either 760mmHg or 101kPa. The difference in height (Ah) of the column is used to calculate the pressure of the gas. (@ If the difference in height of both columns is 30mm, what is the unknown pressure in mmHg? Pressure = 760 + 30 = 790 mmEig (Gi) What is the unknown pressure of the gas, in Pascals? 3P=peh = 13600 x 10x 0.79 = 107 440 Pa 33HYDRAULIC LIFTS Hydraulic press JP Teepistons lager, ram) The diagram above illustrates a hydraulic press model demonstrating the relationship between the pressures of a plunger’piston, liquid and ram, When the plunger is pushed down with a pressure at P,, it exerts the SAME PRESSURE in P This is denoted by Pascal’s Law, which states: THE PRESSURE APPLIED TO A POINT IN AN INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID IS EVENLY DISTRIBUTED TO ALL POINTS IN THAT FLUID. Devices following this model act as force multipliers and can be used for lifting heavy objects by applying small amounts of force. This also explains why a force as small as a foot on a pedal could stop a moving car Example Question: Tha 20N force is applied to the piston: @ ) ii) w Gi) Calculate the pressure exerted on the liquid by the small piston. Determine the pressure on the large piston Calculate the force exerted by the large piston on the load: P=F/A 20/2=10Pa 10 Pa (due to Pascal's Law P=F/A F=PxA=10x10=100NForce on brake fluid by F brake pedal mechanism Fico txt bebe pas against the metal ate So un ponds theron co oop cer <+ —> Force of brake cylinder ‘on brake shoes Brake shoe 1A force is applied on the brake pedal. This acts as a lever to exert a force against the master cylinder 2. The master cylinder has a small surface area, so its pressure is large. Pascal's Law ensures this large pressure is distributed to the brake oil and to the four wheel cylinders. The four wheel cylinders fill with brake oil and expand evenly. 4, The wheel cylinders push against the brake shoes, which press against the brake drum. The friction from this eventually deceleretes or stops the automobile, 35PHYSICS, SECTIO! (1/2) — STUDY ANI ATURE OF HEAT Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from areas of higher temperature to lower temperature until the objects and their surroundings are at equilibrium, the same temperature. CALORIC THEORY “Heat was once believed to be a weightless fluid called “caloric” that could flow from hotter to colder bodies. Ifa gas was compressed, the concentration of caloric ‘would increase in the gas and the gas would become hotter. This theory is now obsolete. KINETIC THEORY HOW WAS THIS DISPROVED? Count Rumford, curing his eannon-boring experiments, was able to generate large amounts of heat to boil water, This occurred due to kinetic energy being converted to heat gy by friction, as later proved by James Joule. This showed that heat could be developed due to the application of mechanical energy and that it was indeed a foum of energy, not a fluid. ener ‘The theory used today is called the Kinetic Theory of Matter. which states that molecules in a gas move freely and rapidly along straight lines. This random molecular bombardment can be observed with light reflecting off dust or smoke particles (BROWNIAN MOTION). Application of heat to molecules is able to add KINETIC energy, allowing the molecules to move and collide more often. Heat is also able to break their intermolecular bonds and change state of ‘matter, e.g. adding heat to a solid weakens its bonds and turns it into liquid. VY @, os Quantity | Bond Density Volume | Other Notes Strength Solid Highest Highest Lowest | Molecules vibrate in place. Fixed shape. Liquid | | Takes shape of container, just like gases, Lowest Lowest HighestGas ‘Most KE. Molecules in haphazard motion. TEMPERATURE AND THE KELVIN UNIT Heat represents the total amount of energy (due to molecular vibrations) in a substance, the temperature represents the average energy pet molecule. A ‘cold’ substance such as an iceberg contains more heat energy in it compared to a lit match, though the lit match’s femperamure would be higher The S.1 unit for temperature is given as KELVIN (K) To find the temperature in Kelvin, we simply add 273 to the Celsius value. Calculate these Temperature Kelvin (K) | Celsius CC) | Equivatent to the temperature of... Lower Fixed Point 23 0 Pure melting ice at 1 atm Upper Fixed Point 373 100 Pure dry steam at 1 atm Absolute Zero 0 Having no intemal energy in system It should be noted that absolute zero is the temperature at which there is no intemal or thermal ‘miergy in a state of matter. Put simply. itis the coldest possible temperature. Therefore, since absolute zero is OK, there are no negative Kelvin values. ‘THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT The main idea of constructing a thermometer is to find a physical property that changes steadily swith temperature and accurately link the fixed changes, e.g. when mercury is heated, it expands proportionately and moves along the bore of the thermometer. LIQUID-IN-GLASS 09¢ 10°C 200¢ 30°C 409 S00C OBC 70°C B97C 900C 1000¢ bulb capillary bore stem millivoltmeter CLINICAL eS wires copper wires large lage ton constriction W thick wire [2 thin bulb constriction DAITOW thick stem keel bore cto etbeetonNOTE: Mercury is preferred to alcohol because it has a much higher boiling point COMPARING THE THREE THERMOMETERS (357°C) whereas alcohol’s is 78°C Thermometer | Response Factor —_| Range ‘Structural adaptation or advantages Liquid-in-glass | Expansion of -10-110°C | Long stem for wide range of readings. mereury Clinical Expansion of 35-45°C ‘Latge_thin bulb conducts heat quickly. mercury Small range. Constriction prevents mercury from returning to bulb quickly. Thermocouple | Voltage -200-1250°C | Quick, accurate readings. Can measure from junctions of small masses. EACTORS THAT AFFECT LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER’S PERFORMANCE Increase range Increase sensitivity Increase responsiveness Longer stem. ‘Narrow bore. More conductive fluid Less expansive liquid Larger bulb Thinner glass around bulb, THERMAL EXPANSION Ina solid, the molecules are held closely together. When they are heated, kinetic energy is added to the molecules, making them vibrate faster. This causes the molecules to move apart and increase their volume. This is known as THERMAL EXPANSION. Ball and Ring ring ball anechastng te This phenomenon can be observed in several everyday situations, such as ereaking roofs, power lines sagging on hot days (due to expansion). running warm water over a jar lid that is too hard to open and even in carbonated beverages. When beverages get wamn, the CO; bubbles expand and escape, leaving it with a ‘flat’ taste. Inthe cold, the bubbles contract and stay within the 3839BIMETALLIC STRIPS ‘The bimetallic strip consists of 2 strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steeV/iron and copper/brass. The different expansions force the flat strip to ‘end one way if heated & in the opposite direction if cooled below its normal temperature, — —— —— Stee! ‘Straight at some Hotter than the reference Colder than the reference reference temperature temperature; brass expands temperature; brass. ‘more and its greater length contracts more and its puts it on the outside of the shorter length puts it on curve. the inside of the curve Te In the circuit, the bimetallic strip (when heated) would bend towards the contact to allow electricity to flow. This effect is used ina range of mechanical & electrical Bimota stp devices, such as thermostats and fire alanns ‘Whether or not radiated heat can penetrate zelass depends on wavelength, Heat is mostly carried by infra-red waves (and some UV). Short wavelengths have higher frequencies and higher amounts of energy, and therefore mote penetrative ability than Jonger wavelengths ‘Waves lose energy as they reflect off surfaces. ‘Therefore. the short wavelengths that were able to penetrate the glass cannot escape once they convert to Jong wavelensths when they are reflected inside, 40EVAPORATION Evaporation requires heat and is a cooting process. If you come out of a pool in a dry sunny day, the water on your skin will use the heat energy from your body to evaporate. This produces the "cooling effect”. At any temperature, the molecules ofa liquid are in continuous random motion with different speeds, Heat is absorbed by the liquid from the surroundings and thus gain KE and move FASTER. At the surface, the more energetic molecules are able to escape into the atmosphere. Since the molecules with the most heat energy escape, this cools the liquid, ¢ é ar It should be noted that evaporation only ttt occurs on the SURFACE of. liquid, so DEPTH has no effect on rate of evaporation. Inwhat order would the vessels evaporate? Other factors that affect evaporation include: HUMIDITY, AIR MOVEMENT, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE HOW IS EVAPORATION DIFFERENT FROM BOIL. Feature Evaporation Boiling Temperature it occurs | Any temperature. At boiling point. Temperature change | Decreases. ‘Remains constant. Location At surface. ‘Throughout liquid. Physical observation | Bubbles absent. Bubbles present. PERSPIRATIO? atmosphere, This shows that evaporation is a When you perspire, heat is conducted into cooling process. your sweat and then moves out of the body vvia the sweat gland and duct. The sweat. with the heat, is then evaporated into the a1229992922 ‘Sweat glandTHERMAL TRANSFER PROCESSES: “Heat can be transferred from one place to the next. When two objects of varying Temperatures are placed together, a transfer of thermal energy occurs from HIGHER to LOWER temperature in an attempt to get oth objects at the same temperature. e.g. cold water left in a 30°C room will gain heat from the room and eventually have a temp. of 30°C. The room loses a little heat. This transfer occurs via three processes: ‘Method Definition Example CONDUCTION The transfer of heat through the vibrations of molecules to adjacent molecules Heat moving along the metallic frame of a frying pan. CONVECTION The transfer of heat through the ‘Smoke particles rising from a ‘movement of the medium itself fire. Water particles rising in a boiling pot. Losing body heat through sweating RADIATION The transfer of heat through the flow | Heat from the Sun reaching, of electromagnetic waves. (can occur in a vactmm) the Earth, Heat leaving the body after vigorous exercise. THERMAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS © Simply put, thermal conductors are materials that allow heat to pass casily. Conductors are materials with fiee electrons (such as metals), which allow the efficient transfer of heat. © Insulators do not have many free electrons and may have structural gaps or air spaces, that do not efficiently transfer heat, such as cloth or polystyrene. Air is a POOR CONDUCTOR of heat. 43VACUUM FLASKS A vacuum flask is a container that is designed to retain the heat in a liquid Shiny inner walls Helps prevent radiated heat from escaping by reflecting it back into the flask. Cov. Prevents heat frome escaping through the top via convection. Vacuum layer Evacuated space between the double walls greatly limits conduction of heat in and out of the flask. ABSORPTION AND REFLECTION OF THERMAL RADIATION “Materials of various textures and colour, absorb, emit and reflect different amounts of heat. Note that good absorbers are also good emitters of heat. Would a Caribbean house roof be a good reflector or emitter? What about a car radiator? Or a car windscreen shade? Good absorbers Good reflectors Black colour White colour Dull “Matt Shiny 7 Glossy Rough texture Smooth texture Small surface area | Large surface area Thermometers a \ Matt —_ Black > SOLAR WATER HEATER glass pane black copper pipes 44The punpose of a solar water heater is convert solar energy into useable heat energy. It consists of a solar panel, water tank and an insulated frame. The black copper pipes absorb any radiated heat from the Sun and conduct the heat into the flowing water. The glass pane mimics the Greenhouse effect and traps heat inside. a5CONVECTION CURRENTS - PERT fecmer) ‘The diagram above shows a metal pan placed on a hot plate, The objective is to illustrate the movement of water molecules inside the pan, To determine this, we must answer the following questions: 1, How do the heated water molecules move? ‘They rise as they spread out and become less dense. 2. When these molecules reach the surface, what happens? The more energetic molecules leave the surface. ‘What happens tothe temperature of the surface after? As heat is lost, the temperature of the surface decreases, 4, How can one prevent heat from escaping from the pan? Place lid, which will prevent heat from escaping to the room. ACTION OF SEA BREEZES Sea breezes are another example of convection currents. Note the diagram below and compare it to the heated metal pan above. Ocean is cooler, so and sinks) air loses tet \ CURRENT Yoon CONVECTION } x \ Heat mass of ‘ir rises over fandPHYSICS, SECTION B P’ (2/2) - RELATIONSHIPS OF HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY mass = Lg SampleA SampleB mass = the temp, before heating — ten, efi hing temp. after heating temp. “fer heating SHC =are n\ FA Beaker 6 Observe the diagrams above. The same mass, Ikg, of two different liquid samples are placed in beakers A and B. Both samples had the same initial temperature (30°C). Both beakers are heated for the same time (60s) with the bummers set atthe same power (70W). However, atthe end, the final temperatures differed ‘Sample A requited more heat to change its temperature. Sample A was thus said to be have a HIGHER SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY. The Specific Heat Capacity is defined as THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF 1KG OF A SUBSTANCE BY IK. Note the formula and unit for Specific Heat Capacity: NOTE: The specific heat capacity of water is given as 4200/(ke K). What this means is that 1kg of water would require 42001 of heat to increase its temperature by IK. Similarly, it would have to lose 4200J of heat to decrease its temperature by 1K. a7HEAT CAPACITY is defined as: THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF A BODY BY IK. Note the formula and unit for Heat Capacity: While SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY is used for materials and is a constant that only accounts perkg, HEAT CAPACITY is used for bodies and is dependent on the mass of that body. For example, while the specific heat capacity of pure water is 4200 /(kg K), the heat capacity of nc). What this means is that 42000] of heat is 4 L0kg body of pure water is 42000 IK (using C required to raise the temperature of that 10kg body of water by IK. The setup is called a CALORIMETER, an apparatus used to measure specific heat capacity. The following must be known to caleuilate specific heat capacity. - Mass of material = Voltage and current ( - Time =I) The metal aluminum block is heated for 3 ‘minutes with a SA, LOV supply. Ifthe initial and final temperatures of the 2kg block are 30°C and 35°C respectively, calculate its specific heat capacity. IVt = $x 10x (3 x60) = 9000 J =meaT + (MAT) = 9000 + 48‘Thermometer, METHOD TWO (METHOD OF MIXTURES) Since the specific heat capacity of pure water is already known (42003/(kg K) or | —Thermometer 4.2 1(@K)), this value could be used to <— Catton threa determine the SHC of another material. The principle to remember is: ——water Heat gained by water = Heat lost by metal By measuring the initial and final temperatures of both the water and metal, the following formula can be used: mcAT (water) = mcAT (substance)Example question: A 50g block is placed in 200g of water. The black was heated to 100°C. The temperature of the block dropped to 30°C and the water rose from 30°C to 35°C. Using 4.25/(¢ K) as the SHC of water, calculate the SHC of the block, in (g K). mcAT (water) = mcAT (block) 200.x4.2x5 =50xex (100-30) 4200 =3500¢ = 4200 + 3500= 12 Jig Example question 2: A piece of iron of mass 21.5g at a temperature of 100.0°C is dropped into an insulated container of water. The mass of the water is 132g and its temperanure rose from 20.0°C to 214°C. The iron’s final temperature is 19.6°C. Using 4.2(g K) as the specific heat capacity of ‘water, calculate the specific heat capacity of iron, mecAT (water) =meAT (iron) 132x42x14 =215xex (100-196) 716.16 =1728.6¢ e =776.16 + 1728.6= 0.45 Ug K 50SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT Temperature !°C Gas 218] SQvanceses Ly being released Igbeing released E\ sou AB - Gas is being cooled. Gon BC - Condensation is occurring. CD - Liquid is being cooled. DE - Freezing is occurring. EF - Solid is being cooled. Observe the sections of the graph where there are no temperature changes, Heat is still being lost at these points, but without temp. change. This type is heat is known as LATENT HEAT. Latent heat is thermal energy being used to either reform intermolecular bonds or break them. ‘This type of heat is lost or gained only during changes in state of matter. ic. feezing. melting condensation, boiling Quantity Definition Formula Specific Latent Heat of | THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY E=mL; mEeN REQUIRED TO CHANGE IKG OF A SOLID TO A LIQUID WITHOUT A E= Energy (J) ‘TEMPERATURE CHANGE. m= mass (kg) 1 =Latent heat (kg) Specific Latent Heat of | THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY E=mL. v =O REQUIRED TO CHANGE IKG OF A LIQUID TOA GAS WITHOUT A ‘TEMPERATURE CHANGE, 51EXAMPLE QUESTION A student heats 200g of ice at 0°C until it turus to steam at 100°C, How much energy was needed to do this? Lspecific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg Ki] 36 10° kg] [specific latent heat of fusion of ice [specific latent heat of vapou ice (0 Celsius) = 0.2 x (3.36 x 10) 7200 J water (0 Celsius) =mcAT 2.x 4200 x 100 = 840005 water (100 Celsius) mL, 0.2 x (2.25 x 10°) = 450 000 J steam (100 Celsius) = mL, + meAT + mL = 110g Twat ne 30°. phone Trrnae 2o'c (Heat Lost by Water) = (Heat Used to Melt Ice) + (Heat Gained by Melted Ice) Caleulate, in order, the following: [SHC of water = 4.2 Mg K)] () The heat energy lost by the water (ii) The heat energy gained by the melted ice (Gli) The heat used to mett the ice (iv) The specific latent heat of fusion of ice E= mest 00 x 4.2.x 10~ 42005 B= mest = 10x42 x20= 8405 AE = 4200-840 ~ 33605 = 7AIR PRESSURE AND THE THREE GAS LAWS. First, itis important to understand what exactly creates air pressure. Air pressure is caused by the random motion of gas molecules (Kinetic Theory of Matter) and their collisions with tie surfaces of objects (not the molecules hitting each other!) the surfaces, the greater the pressure. The greater the frequency of collisions or the greater the force the air molecules collide with There are three quantities that are examined with each of the gas laws: Pressure, Volume and ‘Temperature, For each law. two of these quantities vary while one is kept constant. It can be represented by the equation: P, Boyle's Law states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONST: TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VOLUME ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL. NT The lower the volume, the less ‘space the molecules have when they are moving. Due to this, they collide more ofien, increasing the pressure. Catcutate the pressure in the 20em and 10cm cylinders, in kPa. For 20cm* cylinder: For lem’ cylinder: P,V,=P,V, 2x30 10 = 60+ 10=6 kPa P; =60+20=3KPa Boyle's Law can be graphed as shown below. Qa 53Charles’ Law states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT PRESSURE, VOLUME IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE. It can be represented by the equation: The pressure is made constant by increasing volume. This means that as heat increases, there is more space for the molecules to move, so they don't collide against the surfaces as often, despite moving faster and hitting with greater force, (@) A gas at 27°C was heated, which ‘caused the gas to expand and push, the syringe upwards. Pressure remained constant. If the volume increased from 30cm to Sdem?, what is the final temperature? y= 27+ 273 = 300K (Gi) What would be the temperature to raise the volume to 60em*? Answer = 600 K There are two graphs used to represent Charles’ Law, depending whether or not the Kelvin or Celcius scale is used as the unit for temperature, Vv Vv 0 T(K) 273 TC) 54Pressure Law states that FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS AT CONSTANT VOLUME, PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ARE DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL. It can be represented by the equation: ‘Why does pressure increase with At absolute zero, there will be in the temperature? This is because as the substance. This is because at this molecules arc heated, they gain more kinctic temperature, the molecules have po interna) snergy and collide against the walls ata ‘or kinetic energy and do not move, thus they ‘greater rate and with greater force cannot collide against the walls and create pressure. Two graphs may represent the Pressure Law, depending on whether Kelvin or Celcius is used as ‘the unit for temperature. YL T(kK) -273 TCE wv wv All three gas laws can be combined to form one formula called the General Gas Law. This is employed wien no quantity remains constant. The formula for itis a combination of all three gas laws and is stated as: PV =RW T 86, NOTE: Not to be confused with the IDEAL GAS LAW, which will be learned at A’ Level OR 55WAVE FEATURES ICS, SECTION C (1/1. \VES AND OPTICS Waves cary energy without carrying matter. Some waves must propagate through a medium, They involve oscillations, where there can be just one oscillation (called a PULSE) or a series or succession of oscillations (called a PROGRE! SING WAVE). Waves that require a medium to be transferred are termed MECHANICAL waves, while those ‘that can travel through a vacuum are classed as ELECTROMAGNETIC. Feature of Wave Definition IN PHASE Points on successive waves that lie on the same position WAVELENGTH Distance between two successive crests, troughs or points in phase AMPLITUDE Height of a wave, indicating its maximum displacement FREQUENCY Number of waves passing a point per second (measured in Hz) PERIOD Time taken for a wave's complete oscillation (measured in s) 1 2 3 3 waves = 6m I wave = 2m Frequency 3 Cycles per 3 waves = I second Second = 3 Hz I wave = 1/3 second (period) | | po Pested =) The VELOCITY of the wave can — 1+ be found by the following formula: Second ; v= far i 6m 1 ‘Question: Calculate the wavelength and velocity of the waveform above. Wavelength => 6m = Velocity y= 2m =3x2=6ms Other formulas: Frequency = No. of waves Time Period (T Frequency Frequency57secant [BP of particles cwerpenetatn C= Compression R= Rarefaction 4 NOTE: A compression’s —- molecules are closer displacemfat together (higher pressure). of particles A rarefaction’s (parallel) apart, Transverse Longitudinal Has CRESTS and TROUGHS. Has COMPRESSIONS and Wave Phenomenon Description REFLECTION Allwaves can bounce off a surface. REFRACTION All waves bend or change direction when entering another medium, DIFFRACTION All waves can curve or bend through narrow openings and edges. INTERFERENCE All waves can fuse, increasing or decteasing their amplimde. DISPERSION ‘Light can split into different colours, Note that light waves with, only one frequency (MONOCHROMATIC) cannot do this. TRANSVERSE and LONGITUDINAL WAVES p pagation ( ction) of wave vyavelength ‘A AN A / |Amptitude LL MPU. [transverse wave gh is farther RAREFACTIONS, PERPE Displacement of particles is DICULAR to propagation of wave. _| propagation of wave. Displacement of particles is PARALLEL to Examples: Any wave from the em. spectrum | Examples: Sound and some seismic waves. (radio, visible light, microwaves, gamma rays)SOUND WAVES. Sound is transferred by LONGITUDINAL waves that are MECHANICAL in nature, meaning that they equite molecules ora medium for their transfer: They are uaable to uavel thionsh a ‘vacuum such as in space The presence of more molecules enables Sound to increase its speed. This means that sound will travel faster in denser states of matter, eg Sounds can have different pitches or volumes. The PITCH of a sound is, depenclent on its FREQUENCY while its LOUDNESS is dependent on its AMPLITUDE for e.g, amouse’s squeak has high-freq, low-amp. A loudspeaker’ bass has low-freq, high-amp. State | Medin m “Approx. Speed of Sound in mis Gas [Air 330 Tiga | Water | 1500 d Solid [Steel [5000 The hnman andible range is 20Hz - 20000Hz. Any wave with a frequency higher than that range is termed an ULTRASOUND wave. Ultrasound has numerous practical applications, including the observation of fetuses in their pre-natal stages, ultrasonic cleaning (dental scalers, jewelry cleaning) and probing materials for intemal flaws, ‘SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is a technology that uses ultrasound pulses to determine distances. It does this by measuring the time it takes for a fired sound pulse of known speed to be emitted from a transducer, echo from a surface and be received by a detector. The formula for calculation is given as: -E ‘Question: Ifthe speed of sound in sea water is 1600 m/s and the time taken for the sound pulse to hit the sea bed and return to the detector is 400 ms, calculate the depth of the sea bed. in kin. 2d 2d=sxt t cm] 2d = 1600 x 0.45 = 640m d= 640 +2=320m=0.32kmORD! MAG) M u This is from lowest to highest frequency. The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the range of wavelengths or frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. All of them are transverse and all travel at 3 x 10* m/s in a vacuum. SAV/VVVW Radiaion Type Radio Microwave Infrared Vieible._Uitraviolet_ X-ray Gamma ray Wavelength (m) 108 10% ose10 wo wo? wget tit Wh ‘} LZ ¥e & @ Buildings Humans Buteries. Needle Point Protozoans Molecules Atoms Atomic Nucl (Ta aT 108 08 ww? ws wt ag ORDER FROM SHORTEST TO LONGEST WAVELENGTH SOURCE APPLICATIONS Gamma-rays | Radioactive decay - Penetrates matter. : = Causes fl X-rays Electron bombardment ase esccas against an anode - Gamma-rays are useful in killing cancer cells. Uttra-violet | Ultva-heated bodies (such | - Tanning beds asthe Su) - Fluorescent lights - Used to sterilize medical equipment. Visite ligt | Emission of excited Detected by stimulating nerve endings of human electrons. retina, Incandescent bodies. - Used in optical fibres in telecommunications, as well as in medicine, Infrared | Heated bodies. Our bodies emit this type of wave. - Detection of bodies and matter. Microwaves | Magnetron circuits Radar and telephone communicationRadiowaves | Transmitters - Radio broadcasting or telescopes. ‘DIFFRACTION Diffraction occurs when a wave passes through a narrow aperture (opening) and thus spread out over a large area as it continues to progress, All waves can undergo diffraction, NN) Nh) LargeAperre-LowLavesotOmaeten SmalAperure-HighLaveit action NOTE: It is difficult to observe diffraction of light because of its SMALL WAVELENGTH. Special equipment would be needed for proper observation. ‘THEORIES OF LIGHT Many notable scientists had differing theories of lights over the eras. Scientist Theory Asaac: Newton Light is a stream of particles called corpuscles. Christiaan Huygens | 1 ight is a transverse wave, not particles. Thomas Young: Light is a wave that can undergo interference. AlbentSinstan) Light behaves as both a wave and a particle. (Quantum Theory) Einstein also came up with the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel Prize). The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that produces electrons when light is shone on a metal plate Ideal examples of this are DIGITAL CAMERAS and SOLAR PANELS. é1In digital cameras, the photons are of different strengths, which produces variations of brightness and colour to translate the photograph image.INTERFERENCE Interference occurs when two waves superpose with each other to form a resultant wave that ‘might either raise or lower the amplitude. There are two types of interference: Destructive 1. CONSTRUCTIVE Interference 2. DESTRUCTIVE Interference _| interference has the waves being out of phase by exactly %4 i. The concept of interference proved that ligit experienced properties of a wave. The diagram below shows Thomas Young’s double-sit experiment nterence ‘Where the waves are in phase (CONSTRUCTIVE interference), the crests and troughs are aligned and result in bright fringes (called MAXIMAS). Where the waves are out of phase (DESTRUCTIVE interference), they result in dark fringes (called MINIMAS). ‘Troughs of one wave “cancel” out the crests of another. l a object i. 4, penumbra 63A NORMAL is an imaginary 90° line to any boundary or REELECTION OF LIGHT surface. All angles are measured from the normal TRAVELS IN STRAIGHT LINES. Reflection occurs when a wave bounces off a surfiE-COMPIES ME OHETAIS VEIT normal i flected incident ray 1 rel lectes The ray would 1 ray be reflected 63 = an, | straight up at an incidence 1 ngle of O° Or= angle of reflection ie TWO LAWS OF REFLECTION Law States First The incident ray, nommal and reflected ray all lic on the same plane. Second The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. (@i = @r) Example of a Plane Mirror Ray Diagram @, object image » inane nt > i object image height height L The image that is formed in a minror is called a VIRTUAL image and typically has the following characteristics: xy ave always y 3 SAME HET) N 64Refraction occurs when a wave passes through a MEDIUM OF DIFFERING DENSITY for example: sunlight entering a piece of glass fiom the ait, ot light exiting water In the diagram, the light is reflected off the fish and enters the person’s eye. However, because the light has across a different medium (water to air), it refracts and the image of the fish seems closer than it really is, to move Characteristic of Wave Denser medium Less dense medium Change in direction TOWARDS NORMAL AWAY FROM NORMAL Speed DECREASES INCREASES Wavelength DECREASES INCREASES Frequency NO CHANGE NO CHANGE ‘The diagrams below show refraction of light in two prisms, K lateral displacement Z ‘mergent ray incident ray violet bay ‘As the ray enters the block, it bends TOWARDS the normal. It bends AWAY from, the normal as it leaves. If the block was not there, the ray would not refract. Its change in position as a result of refraction is called its lateral displacement. White light undergoes DISPERSION in a prism and splits into the colours of the rainbow as it refracts. Red fracts as a longer wavelength than violet, so itNOTE: A wavefront is defined as a point of connection for molecules that are all in phase. ¢.g. straight waves on water deep or circular ripples \ \ Wavelength decreases, Speed decreases. shallow Wave bends towards normal. shallow deep ‘Wavelength increases. > ‘Speed increases. deep shallowMIRAGES ‘Mirages occur mostly in hot places. This is because heated aii is less dense than cooler air (which is why heated air rises), The difference in density is important to note, as heated air and cooler air would be considered two separate mediums. As a result, light would refract or bend as it ‘moves from one to the other. Asarresult, it is as ifthe ground acts a ior, showing a reflection of the sky. ecams hes the ight ray deviates from GLARE Upon hitting a surface, light is said to be POLARIZED. Direct light sources are unpolarized. If both a polarized and ‘unpolarized light source enter the eye simultaneously, this results in a blurry visual called glare. LAIES OF REFRACTIO! Law States First ‘The incident ray, normal and refracted ray all lie on the same plane. ‘Second. ‘The refractive index is equal to the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and (also called | tation Snell's Law) | RePresented as the formula: = sini sin 67The critical angle can be defined as: an angle of incidence that produces an CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION. | anzle of refraction of 90° We have now understood the concept that light reffacts away from the normal when entering a less dense medium. However, if the angle of incidence is too LARGE, it will be unable to be reffacted in such a way to escape The point at which the angle of refraction is equal to 90° is called the CRITICAL ANGLE. The angle of reffaction cannot be more than 90°, Instead, TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION will occur, Keeping the light inside the medium. In other words, the insides behave like a mitror. no refracted t= 90? tray 37 i>e (total internal reflection) i f= 60/5 = 12em (i) Principal axis ~ A horizomal line cutting across the optical centre. (ii) Focal length — The distance between the lens’ centre and the focal point. (ay Principal focus ~ The point at which Te Tight Fa converge. Cee eee reerer reper (iv) Focal plane ~ A vertical line cutting the focal pointObject between F and 2F Image is - inverted - real ~ magnified Image is ~ magnified - upright Ss - virtual Image is - Diminished fa ew “Inverted ¥ ? TSR I Object at F ‘The rays are parallel (will never meet) so image forms at = ? = Concave Lens Diagram 73Concave lens forms an image that is ~ Diminished ~ Virtual ~ Upright 74PHYSICS, SECTION D (1 ELECTROSTATICS AND CIRCUITS STATIC ELECTRICITY AND ATTRACTION. Electuostatics isthe study of charges at rest. When two insulators are rubbed together, they can produce electrostatic attraction. Matter is made of atoms which have negatively charged particles called ELECTRONS oxbiting around a small nucleus. In the normal state, the atom has an equal umber of electrons and protons, therefore we say that it is electrically balanced or mncharged. At times, when mbbing a surface, electrons are removed. from the orbit and the object becomes POSITIVELY charged. The object that the electrons rubbed off on then become NEGATIVELY charged. It should be noted that only the electrons will move because they are much lighter than protons. Protons are “areca also bound to the nucleus, which make them unlikely to move due to friction tested ‘sho . Reccaicives © become ate Ifa plastic rod was used, it would gain electrons instead. Q= Charge (C) t= time (s) Note the formuta for charge: Q 1= Current (A) Charge is measured in COULOMBS. One coulomb is equivalent to 6.25 x 10* electrous. Devices that store charge are called CAPACTTORS. and gain current as time passes. It should be noted that time plays a major factor in terms of charge. Example questions: 1. During a certain lightning strike, a current of S x 10* A flows for a time period of 0.15 ms. Calculate the quantity of charge of the lightning strike. t = (SX 104) x (0.15 x 10°) = 2. The makers of a cellphone have upgraded its battery capacity from 4320C to 9000C. Ifa charger detivers 0.64, how much more time will it take to charge the new battery than the old? AQ= 9000 — 4320 = 4680 C At= AQ =1=4680+0.6 = 7800 s (or 130 mins)