Diffraction

Topics
▪ Diffraction and wave theory of light – Fundamentals
▪ Single-slit diffraction
▪ Intensity in single-slit diffraction
▪ Diffraction at a circular aperture
▪ Double-slit interference and diffraction combined
▪ Multiple slits
▪ Diffraction gratings

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 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Newton’s theory Huygen’s theory

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 Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of obstacles or slits, and
hence its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is known as
diffraction.
For diffraction effects to be noticeable, the size of the object causing diffraction
should have dimensions comparable to the wavelength of light falling on the object.

Diffraction pattern
of razor blade
viewed in
monochromatic
light

Color of Birds
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 SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71Rp-jG6Eek
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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
When the path length difference between rays r1 and r2 is λ/2, the two
rays will be out of phase when they reach P1 on the screen, resulting in
destructive interference at P1.

At point P1, path difference between r1 and r2 is (a/2) sin

𝑎 𝜆
So the condition for first minimum, sin 𝜃 =
2 2
𝑜𝑟 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝝀

This is satisfied for every pair of rays, one of which is from upper half
of the slit and the other is a corresponding ray from lower half of the
slit.
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For second minimum (at point P2), divide slit into 4 zones of equal widths a/4
(separation between pairs of rays). Destructive interference occurs when the
path length difference for each pair is l/2.
At point P2, path difference between r1 and r2 is (a/4) sin
The condition for second minimum,

𝑎 𝜆
sin 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟐𝝀
4 2
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4.
In general, the condition for minima / dark fringes is ,
𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌 = 𝒎𝝀 m = 1,2,3 …
There is a secondary maximum approximately half way between each
adjacent pair of minima.

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• With decreasing slit width “a”, there is more flaring or diffraction of waves.

• At a=λ; 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝝀 tells us that 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 1 or 𝜽 = 90o → the central bright fringe covers the
entire screen.

• What happens when a < 𝜽 ?

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 Intensity of a single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern:

I (θ) = Im [
sin (πa sin θ / λ)
(πa sin θ / λ)
] 2

Condition for minima → 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = m𝝀

A plot of light intensity I versus ((π/λ)) a sin θ

for the single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

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The intensity distribution in single-slit diffraction for
three different values of the ratio a/l:

(a) a=l; sinѲ = 1 => Ѳ = 90o

(b) a=5l, 5sinѲ=1 => Ѳ = 11.50

(c) a=10l, 10sinѲ=1 => Ѳ=5.70

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Intensity of Two-Slit Diffraction Patterns

Single slit diffraction pattern (the factor in square brackets) acting

as an “envelope” for a two slit interference pattern (the cosine-
squared factor).

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 Interference
The intensity plot to be expected in a double-slit interference
experiment with vanishingly narrow slits.

Diffraction
The intensity plot for diffraction by a typical slit of width a (not
vanishingly narrow).

In double slit experiment, both interference and diffraction are superposition effects and that often both are
present simultaneously

Interference + Diffraction
The intensity plot to be expected for two slits of width a. The curve of (b)
acts as an envelope, limiting the intensity of the double-slit fringes in (a).

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Problem: 1
A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value of a does
the first minimum for red light (l = 650 nm) fall at θ = 15°?
a sin θ = m λ m=1

ml
a = = 2.51 μm
sin 
In Problem 1, what is the wavelength l' of the light
whose first diffraction maximum (not counting the central
maximum) falls at (θ' =)15°, thus coinciding with the first
minimum of red light?

λ’= 433nm

Sample problem 36.1 , HRK

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Problem: 2

(b) The width of the central maximum is ????? 29

 Resolution of single-slit apertures
The ability of optical systems to distinguish between closely spaced objects is limited because of the wave nature of light.

When the central maximum of one image falls on the first minimum of another image, the images are said to be just
resolved. This limiting condition of resolution is known as Rayleigh’s criterion.

𝝀
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒂

The limiting angle of resolution for a slit of width a is:

𝝀
𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝒂

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Resolution of circular apertures

d
Light The mathematical analysis of diffraction
 by a circular aperture shows that the
first minimum occurs at an angle from
the central axis given by :
𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐
𝒅
; where d is the diameter of aperture.

The factor 1.22 appears since we are

dealing with a circular aperture.

DIFFRACTION
MIT- MANIPAL PATTERN DUE TO A CIRCULAR APERTURE
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Raleigh’s criterion for optical resolution: The images
of two closely spaced sources is said to be just
resolved if the angular separation of the two point
sources is such that the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first
minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other.

a. Well resolved

−𝟏 𝛌 b. Just resolved
Resolvable angular seperation, θ𝐑 = sin 1.22
𝐝 c. Not resolved
R is the smallest angular separation for which we can resolve the
images of two objects.

λ
since θR is very small, it can be appoximated as θR = 1.22
d
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Problem: 4
A converging lens of diameter (d =) 32 mm has a focal length f = 24 cm.
(a) What angular separation must two distant point objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s
criterion? (θR=?) Assume that l = 550 nm.
(b) How far apart (Δx=?) are the centers of the diffraction patterns in the focal plane of
the lens?
Problem: 2
The painting contains small dots (y 2 mm in diameter) of pure
pigment, as indicated in figure. The illusion of colour mixing
occurs because the pupils of the observer’s eyes diffract light
entering them. Calculate the minimum distance an observer
must stand from painting to achieve the desired blending of
colour. (wavelength λ = 475 nm, diameter of pupil d = 4.4 mm)

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 Problem: 1
A converging lens of diameter (d =) 32 mm has a focal length f = 24 cm. (a) What
angular separation must two distant point objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s
criterion? (θR=?) Assume that l = 550 nm. (b) How far apart (Δx=?) are the
centers of the diffraction patterns in the focal plane of the lens?

1.22 λ LINEAR SEPARATION

θR = Δx = f θR
d
= (0.24 m)(2.1x10–5)
ƟR= 2.1x10-5 rad = 5 µm
 9 WAVELENGTHS
f

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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
▪ The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources,
consists of a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
▪ The intensity of the pattern on the screen is the result of the
combined effects of interference and diffraction

▪ A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on a

glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the
grooves are transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits.
▪ A reflection grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on
the surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light from
the spaces between the grooves is specular (mirror like), and the
reflection from the grooves cut into the material is diffuse.

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Diffraction grating spectrometer
Any regular periodic structure can be serve as a diffraction
grating.

Diffraction grating spectrometer set up is as shown in the

figure.

The entire spectrum can be viewed by rotating telescope

through various angles.

In general , gratings may produce several images of spectral

lines, corresponding to m = ±1, ±2, ±3…. in
d sin θ = mλ
m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3

Intensity versus sin  for a diffraction grating

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(4) A certain grating has 104 slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm. It is illuminated with
yellow sodium light (l = 589 nm). Find (a) the angular position of all principal maxima
observed.

ml m(589nm)
Solution : (a) sin  = =
d 2100 nm
which gives
m = 1,  = 16.30 ; m = 2,  = 34.10 and
m = 3,  = 57.3 0

For m = 4, sin   1. Thus m = 3 is the highest order observed ,

which gives a total of 7 principal max ima( a central max ima
and three on each side of the center (3 + 3 + 1))
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 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
5. A diffraction grating has 104 rulings uniformly spaced over 25.0mm. It is illuminated at
normal incidence by yellow light from sodium vapor lamp which contains two closely spaced
lines of wavelengths 589.0nm and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the first order maximum
occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b) What is the angular separation between the first
order maxima of these lines?

Given data;
Width of the grating W = Nd
Spacing b/n slits, d = (25x10-3m) /104
Wavelengths, λ1=589.0nm & λ2= 589.59nm,
Order of diffraction, m =1
a). Grating equation, d sin ө = mλ
ө1 = sin-1 (mλ1/d)
=13.6 degrees
b). ө2 = sin-1 (mλ2/d) = 13.614degree

ө2- ө1 = 0.014 degree

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Diffraction of X-rays by crystals
• In principle, diffraction is possible for any electromagnetic waves provided grating of
the proper spacing is available.
• X-rays are em waves of very short wavelength (of the order of 0.1nm).
• It would be impossible to construct grating with such a small spacing by cutting
process.
• The atomic spacing in a solid is known to be about 0.1nm. Thus, crystals which have a
3-dimensional array of regularly spaced atoms would serve as a grating for X rays.
• The diffraction pattern produced in such a situation is characteristic of the crystal
structure and as such the study of the diffraction pattern helps in the analysis of the
crystal parameters.

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Diffraction of X-rays by crystals

• Let a beam of incident x-ray makes an angle

 with the one set of parallel atomic planes
as shown in fig.
• The beam can be reflected from both the
upper and lower planes.

• However the beam reflected from the lower plane travels farther than the beam reflected
from the upper plane. If the effective path difference 2d sin = ml , m = 1,2,3,…. . the
two beams interfere constructively. The same is true for reflection from the entire family of
parallel planes.
• This condition is called Bragg’s law. Angle  is called glancing angle or Bragg’s angle. The
reflecting planes are called Bragg planes.
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1915

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1915 was awarded jointly to

Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg
"for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by
means of X-rays"

Sir William Henry Bragg William Lawrence Bragg

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 Problems

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6) The first-order diffraction maximum is observed at 12.6° for a crystal
having a spacing between planes of atoms of 0.250 nm. (a) What
wavelength x-ray is used to observe this first-order pattern? (b) How
many orders can be observed for this crystal at this wavelength?

Ans: a)

m=1, λ = 0.109nm

b)

m = 4.6 ≈ 4

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1. If first-order reflection occurs in a crystal at Bragg angle 3.4 deg , at what Bragg angle
does second-order reflection occur from the same family of reflecting planes?

2. X rays of wavelength 0.12 nm are found to undergo second-order reflection at a Bragg

angle of 28 deg from a lithium fluoride crystal. What is the interplanar spacing of the
reflecting planes in the crystal?

3. What is the smallest Bragg angle for x rays of wavelength 30 pm to reflect from reflecting
planes spaced 0.30 nm apart in a calcite crystal?

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