OPTICS

Interference
Coherent and Incoherent waves:

Two waves are said to be coherent when they are of :

• almost same amplitude
• same frequency
• same phase or are of a constant phase difference

Laser light is highly coherent whereas a laboratory monochromatic light source

(sodium vapor lamp) may be partially coherent.
• Coherent Source

• Incoherent source
• Generally division of amplitude(Eg. Newton rings experiment) or division wave-front technique
(Eg. Young double slit expt.) used to produce coherent waves from a given source.
TWO-SOURCE INTERFERENCE

When identical waves from two sources overlap at a point in space, the
combined wave intensity at that point can be greater or less than the
intensity of either of the two waves. This effect is called interference.

• The interference is constructive when the net intensity is greater than the
individual intensities.
• The interference is destructive when the net intensity is less than individual
intensities.
Maximal constructive interference of two waves occurs when their phase difference is
0, 2, 4 , … (the waves are in-phase)
Complete destructive interference of two waves occur when their phase difference is ,
3 , 5 , …(the waves are 180o out of phase)
• Path difference  corresponds to phase difference of 2 .

Phase difference Path difference

=
2 
• Maximal constructive interference of two waves occurs when their phase difference is
0,2,4  …

• This is equivalent to a path difference of 0,λ,2λ…m λ in general, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .

•Complete destructive interference of two waves occur when their phase difference is ,3,5, …

•This is equivalent to a path difference of λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2 .…(m+1/2) λ , in general. m = 0, 1, 2 …
Young’s double slit experiment

https://javalab.org/en/youngs_double_slit_en/
 By assuming L >> d

• Condition for constructive interference :

• Condition for destructive interference :
 • Now, since d >> λ, we can assume θ is very small and hence, tan θ ≈ sin θ

𝑦 𝑦
• Considering ∆ OPQ, We can write; tan θ = → sin θ = → y = L sin θ
𝐿 𝐿

• Now, we know, Condition for constructive interference : δ = d sin θ = mλ

𝝀𝑳
• Therefore , mth maximum is located at ym given by → ybright = m
𝒅
• Similarly, for Condition for destructive interference : δ = d sin θ = (m + ½ ) λ
𝝀𝑳
• Therefore , mth minimum is located at ym given by → ydark = (m+ ½ )
𝒅

• Fringe width / Bandwidth Δ𝑦 = 𝑦𝑚+1 − 𝑦𝑚 = (𝑚 + 1)

𝜆𝐿
− 𝑚
𝜆𝐿
𝑑 𝑑

𝝀𝑳  distance b/w screen and two slits

𝜟𝒚 =  wavelength of monochromatic light
𝒅 1/  distance b/w two slits
Problems
1. The double slit arrangement is illuminated by light of wavelength 546nm. The slits are 0.12mm
apart and the screen on which interference pattern appears is 55cm away.
a) What is the angular position of (i) first minima and (ii) tenth maxima?(excluding central
maximum) and
b) What is the separation between two adjacent maxima?

2. Suppose in the double-slit arrangement, d =0.150 mm, L = 120 cm, λ = 833nm and y =2.00 cm
(a) What is the path difference δ for the rays from the two slits arriving at point P?
(b) Express this path difference in terms of λ .
(c) Does point P correspond to a maximum, a minimum, or an intermediate condition?
3. A light source emits visible light of two wavelengths: λ= 430 nm and λ’= 510 nm. The
source is used in a double-slit interference experiment in which L = 1.50 m and d =0.025 0
mm. Find the separation distance between the third-order bright fringes for the two
wavelengths.

4. Monochromatic light illuminates two parallel slits a distance d apart. The first maximum is
observed at an angular position of 15o. By what percentage should d be increased or decreased so
that second maximum will instead be observed at 15o?

5. If the distance between the first and tenth minima of a double slit pattern is 18mm and the slits
are separated by 0.15mm with the screen 50cm from the slits, what is the wavelength of the light
used.

6. In a double slit experiment, the distance between slits is 5.22mm and the slits are 1.36m away
from the screen. Two interference patterns can be seen on the screen, one due to light of
wavelength 480nm and other due to light of wavelength 612nm. Find the separation on the screen
between the third-order interference fringes of the two different patterns.
Phasors:
• A phasor is a vector that has a
magnitude equal to the amplitude of
the wave and that rotates around an
origin; the angular speed of the phasor
is equal to the angular frequency ω of
the wave.
• We can represent a wave vectorially
with a phasor.

Phasor is a rotating vector

Phasor representation of two waves Phasor representation of two waves and
their resultant
2. Find the sum of the following quantities graphically using phasors;
E1 = 10 sin (ωt),
E2 = 8.0 sin (ωt + 30º).
Ans: THE SUM IS E(t) = ER sin (ωt + ) → ER
 30
t °
when t = 0 ;

ER y1 = 0, x1 = 10 ∴ ER = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦22
y2 y2 = 8 sin 30° = 4
 30° ER = 17.4
x1 x2 x2 = 8 cos 30° =6.93
𝑦2
tan 𝛽 = = 0.2363
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝛽 = tan−1 ( 0.2363) = 13.3°

E = (17.4) sin (ωt + 13.3°) 23

3. Three light waves combine at a certain point where their electric field components are E1=EO sin (ωt);
E2 = E0 sin (ωt + 60o) and E3 = E0 sin (ωt – 30o). Find their resultant component E(t) at that point.
Intensity distribution of the Double-Slit Interference patternv

Let us assume that the electric field components of the two waves at point P vary with time as ;
E1= E0 sin ωt & E2= E0 sin (ωt + )
Where ω is the angular frequency of the waves and  is the phase difference between them.
If the slit separation d is much smaller than the distance L to the screen, the E vectors from two interfering waves
are nearly parallel and we can replace the vector sum of the E field's with sum of their components;
i.e ER = E1 + E2
ER = E sin(ωt +  ) ; where E is amplitude &  is phase angle
 From Fig; 180 - 2β = 180 – φ → β = φ/2

Also, From the geometry of one of the right triangles, we have;

cos  = (E/2)/ E0
➔E = 2 E0 cos  = 2 Eo cos (φ/2)
➔ E2 = 4 Eo2 cos2 (φ/2)

we know that the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude.
Therefore, the waves we are combining in Fig above, whose amplitudes are Eo, each has an intensity Io that is
proportional to Eo2, and the resultant wave, with amplitude E, has an intensity I that is proportional to E2.

2 2
𝐼𝜃 𝐸 2𝐸0 cos (φ/2)
= =
𝐼0 𝐸0 𝐸0

→ 𝑰𝜽 = 4Io cos2 (𝝋/𝟐)

Path difference  corresponds to phase difference of 2.
2π
i.e; Phase Difference = Path Difference
λ

2dsin
 =

𝟐 𝝅𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
I=𝟒 𝜤𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝝀

From above equation,

At maxima :  = 2 m  or d sin  = m
At minima :  = ( 2 m + 1)  or d sin  = (m + 1 ) 
2
where m = 0,  1,  2, . . . 30
Intensity of double-slit interference patterns as a function of the phase difference φ between the waves at the screen.
 INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
➢ A film of thickness of the order of a micrometer

➢ Thickness of the film is comparable with the wavelength

of light involved

➢ Greater thickness spoils the coherence of the light to

produce colour

The region ac looks bright or dark for an observer

depending on the path difference between the rays r1 and r 2.
Phase change due to reflection
Phase changes on reflection at a junction between two strings of different linear mass densities.

❖ If the medium beyond the interface has a higher index of refraction the reflected wave
undergoes a phase change of π (=180°)
❖ If the medium beyond the interface has a lower index of refraction, there is no phase
change of the reflected wave.
 Equations for thin film interference:
n1, n2, n3 are the refractive indices of the medium. Here, n1 = n3
Light wavelength : λ

Possible ways which can introduce a phase difference here:

1. By reflection:
Ray 1, which is travelling in air medium (n1) is reflecting from a medium of refractive index n2.
The phase shift associated with the reflected ray is : λ/2 (half wavelength).

2. By the waves traveling along paths of different lengths :

The additional path travelled by the incident ray upon refraction and before bouncing off from the second
surface is 2L. (Assuming θ is very small).

How do we accommodate for the waves traveling through media of different indexes of refraction ??
The additional distance 2L travelled by the incident ray is in a medium of refractive index n2 > n1. Hence we have
to consider the modified wavelength λn rather than λ.
• First ray is phase shifted by ½ wavelength due to reflection.
• In order to have a bright film, the additional path travelled by ray 2 must produce a phase
difference of 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 .. Wavelengths. Only then there will be net phase difference of integer
number of wavelengths.
• However, since the waves are travelling in medium of refractive index n2, we have to consider the
modified wavelength λn2 rather than λ.

• Thus; condition for a bright film is :

λ
• But λn2 = n →
2

• Similarly for dark film; If, instead, the waves are to be exactly out of phase so that there is fully
destructive interference, the path length 2L must cause either no additional phase difference or a
phase difference of 1,2,3, .. . wavelengths.
• Hence; the condition for a dark film is;

OR;
 Newton’s Rings
• When monochromatic light incident on a plano convex lens of large radius of
curvature kept on flat glass plate produces circular fringes. These fringes are
called Newton’s rings.

• The air film between the glass surfaces varies in thickness from zero at the
point of contact to some value t at point P

• The wave 2 reflected from lower surface undergoes a phase change of 180o ,
whereas, no phase difference is introduced for ray 1. The previous conditions
for bright and dark fringes apply here well.

• Interference pattern of circular rings are produced due to superposition of two

coherent waves which are produced due to division of amplitude of the
incident wave.

• Since the only phase difference is due to reflection for the contact at O, it will always be dark.

• In a newtons ring set up the air film is enclosed below the convex lens. The thickness of the film is constant
over a circle (or concentric circles) having center at the center of the lens.
 Michelson Interferometer
• The interferometer, invented by A. A. Michelson, splits a light beam into two
parts and then recombines the parts to form an interference pattern.
• If a dark circle appears at the center of the target pattern and M1 is then
moved a distance /4 toward M0, the path difference changes by /2. This
replaces dark circle at center by bright circle. Therefore, the fringe pattern
shifts by one-half fringe each time M1 is moved a distance /4.
• Michelson's interferometer can be used to find the unknown wavelength of a
light source and can be also used to measure lengths or changes in length
with great accuracy by means of interference fringes.
• Michelson was able to show, using his interferometer, that the standard
meter was equivalent to I 553 163.5 wavelengths of a certain monochromatic
red light emitted from a light source containing cadmium. For this careful
measurement, Michelson received the 1907 Nobel Pnze in physics
Problem: 1
A soap film (n = 1.33) in air is L= 320 nm thick. If it is illuminated with white
light at normal incidence, what color (=? ) will it appear to be in reflected light?
CONDITION FOR CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE : 2L = (m+½) n

2L = [m + (½)] n
𝑛 L

2L = [m + (½)]
𝑛

2𝐿𝑛 2 320 𝑛𝑚 1.33 851 𝑛𝑚

𝜆 = = =
1 1 1
𝑚+ 𝑚+ 𝑚+
2 2 2

λ = 1702 nm (m=0) infra-red

λ = 567 nm (m=1) visible [yellow-green]
λ = 340 nm (m=2) ultraviolet 44
Problem: 2
Lenses are often coated with thin films of transparent substances such as MgF2
(n = 1.38) to reduce the reflection from the glass surface. What is the minimum
thickness of the coating required (L=?) to produce a minimum reflection at the
center of the visible spectrum? ( wavelength  = 550 nm)

2 L = [m + (½)] n

L = [m + (½)]  / (2n)

𝜆 550 𝑛𝑚
𝐿𝑀𝐼𝑁 = = = 99.7 𝑛𝑚
4𝑛 4 1.38

MIT-MANIPAL 45
Problem 3: A disabled tanker leaks kerosene (nK = 1.20) into the Persian Gulf,
creating a large slick on top of the water (nW = 1.33).
a) If you are looking straight down from an airplane on to a region of the slick
where thickness is d= 460 nm, for which wavelengths of visible light is the reflection
the greatest?
(b) If you are scuba diving directly under this same region of the slick, for which wavelengths
of visible light is the transmitted intensity the strongest?

2 d = m n FOR MAX IN Reflected –Light

2 d = m / nK nK = 1.20
nW = 1.33
 = 2 nKd / m
 = 1104 nm, m=2
 = 552 nm, m=3
 = 368 nm, m=4
MIT-MANIPAL 46
Problem 5: Find the minimum thickness of a film which will strongly
reflect the light of wavelength 589 nm. The refractive index of the
material of the film is 1.25.
• Figure below shows a transparent plastic block with a thin wedge of air at the right. (The wedge thickness is
exaggerated in the figure.) A broad beam of red light, with wavelength 632.8 nm, is directed downward through the
top of the block (at an incidence angle of 0o. Some of the light that passes into the plastic is reflected back up from the
top and bottom surfaces of the wedge, which acts as a thin film (of air) with a thickness that varies uniformly and
gradually from LL at the left hand end to LR at the right-hand end. An observer looking down on the block sees an
interference pattern consisting of six dark fringes and flve bright red fringes along the wedge. What is the change in
thickness ∆L along the wedge?

Page 977 , HRK

• If the wavelength of the incident light is λ= 572 nm, rays A and B in figure are out of phase by δ=
1.50 λ. Find the thickness d of the film.