SCI 401

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
WEEK 1

Laboratory Tools and Equipment

1. Safety Gear
➢ goggles, latex gloves, lab coats
➢ protects you from chemicals you may encounter
2. Electronic Balance
➢ measure mass of a substance or chemical
➢ Consist of a pan
➢ This generates a current proportional to the displacement of the pan due to the pull
of gravity
➢ Simple, most important equipment
3. Ring stand
➢ support to clamp laboratory glassware and other equipment in place
4. Ring clamp
➢ used with ring stand to hold glass wares beaker or funnel
5. Wire gauze
➢ may have a ceramic or fiber glass center
➢ Used to support beaker while it is being heated
6. Bunsen burner
➢ a gas burner consisting of straight tube with small holes at the bottom to produce a
single open gas flame, and is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.
7. Beaker
➢ glass apparatus used to hold mixed liquids or chemicals
8. Beaker tongs
➢ used to handle beaker
9. Crucible
➢ a ceramic pot used to hold chemicals during heating at very high temperatures
10. Clay triangle
➢ a metallic triangle used to support a crucible while heating
11. Crucible tongs
➢ used to hold crucible
12. Evaporating dish
➢ a wide ceramic dish used to heat liquids for evaporation
13. Utility clamp
➢ a metallic clamp used to secure glassware to a ring stand
14. Burette
➢ a long glass graduated tube with a tap around it
➢ Use in dispending an accurate volume of a liquid and measuring its discharge
 15. Conical flask
➢ Erlenmeyer flask
➢ It has a narrow neck that expands towards its base
➢ It is used to hold and mix chemicals

16. Test tube

➢ a glass tube with a round base used to hold and mix liquids in a rack
17. Pipet bulb
➢ A round rubber bulb used to draw liquids into a pipe
18. Forceps
➢ used to pick up small objects
19. Mortar and pestle
➢ used to pound materials
20. Scoopula
➢ used to transfers solid
21. Stirring rod
➢ used for mixing made from glass
22. Funnel
➢ used to transfer liquids or fine-grained materials into containers with small opening
23. Volumetric flask
➢ is a round flask with a long neck and a flat bottom
➢ Used to prepare solutions with accurate volume
24. Volumetric pipet
➢ used to measure an exact volume of liquid
25. Graduated cylinder
➢ used to measure a precise volume of a liquid
26. Wash bottle
➢ used to rinse pieces of glassware

Week 1

Introduction, Lab Safety, and Waste Management

Laboratory Safety Rules and Guidelines

1. Dress appropriately in the laboratory.

➢ Use your personal protective equipment.
➢ Use safety goggles, laboratory gown or coat to minimize skin exposure
➢ Safety glasses- provide eye protection for general working conditions where there
may be dust
➢ Laboratory coat – provides protection of skin and personal clothing from incidental
contact
➢ Chemical-resistant gloves – are used to protect workers from hazardous chemical
substances
2. Wear protective goggles or glasses at all times in the laboratory.
➢ goggles are eye-protection so that when there is liquid that splashes, it will not come
into the eyes
➢ contact lenses increase the risk problems with eye safety even when protective
goggles are worn.
3. Keep your working areas organized and clean as you work.
➢ put your personal belonging like bags and books away from the work areas
➢ also chairs and other obstacles
➢ 5S: Sort, Set in order, Shine, Standardize, Sustain

4. Keep all chemical reagents (solids and liquids) in the assigned dispensing area.
➢ Do not bring the containers of any chemical reagents in your work area
➢ Use test tubes, beakers, weigh boats and other applicable containers to obtain
chemicals from the dispensing area

5. Keep the balance and weighing area clean.

➢ Do not place chemicals directly on the balance pans, instead use weighing papers
or boats
➢ Never weigh hot objects

6. Check the name on the chemical reagent bottles before using them.
➢ Label every beaker, test tubes and containers where chemicals are transferred

7. Avoid contaminating chemical reagents.

➢ Never return unused chemicals to the reagent bottles. This is a possible source of
possible contamination
➢ Use a clean, dry spatula in getting solids out of the reagent bottle
➢ To put solids in a test tube, a folded piece of paper about 2 inches long and slightly
wider than the diameter of the test tube is used. Hold the test tube in a horizontal position
and slide the folded paper with a solid at one end.
➢ The covers of the reagent bottle should not be interchanged
➢ To weigh solid reagents, a clean, dry watch glass can be used as container.

8. Dispose waste properly.

➢ Broken glasses should be pick and return to the stock area for proper disposal
➢ Organic solvents should not be poured into the sink, since it is immiscible; put it into
organic solvent wastes; solutions with heavy metal should be put on containers for “heavy
metal waste.”
➢ Solution poured in the sink should be washed with plenty of water
➢ In order to minimize damage to the environment, chemical wastes must be
separated in categories (General Organic Waste(flammable), Halogenated
Hydrocarbons(nonflammable), Chronic Acid Solutions, Lead, Silver, Other Heavy Metals,
Acids)
9. Avoid all direct contact with chemicals
➢ Wash your hands immediately anytime you get chemicals
➢ Clean immediately all spillage
➢ never use your mouth when using a pipet
➢ never eat or drink in laboratory
➢ do not look directly in open end of a test tube

10. Handle glasses with precautions.

➢ Do not heat graduated cylinders, burets, pipets or bottles with a Bunsen burner
flame
➢ Do not hold a test tube in your hands during chemical reaction
➢ In heating small amount of solid in a test tube, hold the test tube with a test tube
holder then incline it an at angle of 45
➢ Never attempt to force glass tubing through the hole of a stopper
➢ Always fire polish the ends of freshly cut glass tubing

11. Learn the location and proper use of safety equipment (fire extinguisher, eye wash,
safety shower and first aid kits)
➢ To use the fire extinguisher: 1. Pull the pin 2. Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire
3. Squeeze the handle 4. Sweep the fire
➢ Eye wash fountain
➢ Safety shower

12. Be aware of Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

➢ It is a document that provides workers with procedures for safety handling or
working with a particular substance
➢ Boiling points, toxicities, reactivities

13. Never work alone in the laboratory area

14. Report all accidents to your instructor no matter how small it may seem.
15. Do not perform unauthorized experiments.
16. Do not enter the laboratory room without your instructor.
Common Laboratory Glass wares and Materials
Measurements
➢ a quantitative observation
➢ it has two parts: a number and a scale (called a unit)
➢ both parts must be present for a measurement to be meaningful
 ➢ there are two systems: English system (United States) and Metric system
(industrialized world)
➢ 1960, International System or the SI System

Basic Types of Quantity:

1. Fundamental Quantities
➢ Referred to as basic quantities
➢ Are measured by direct method
➢ Units assigned to the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units
➢ Fundamental units are: meter, kilogram and second (MKS)
➢ For smaller quantities are: centimeter, gram, and second (CGS)
2. Derived Quantities
➢ Combinations of fundamental quantities after a set of operations
➢ Area, volume, and density are some examples of derived quantities
Significant Figures
➢ It is very important to realize that a measurement always has some degree of
uncertainty
➢ The uncertainty of a measurement depends on the precision of the measuring
device

Rules for Significant Figures

1. All non-zero numbers are significant. e.g. 34,526 has 5 significant figures

2. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 23, 001 has 5 significant figures

3. Leading zeros are not significant. e.g. 0.0032 has 2 significant figures

4. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal are significant. e.g. 97.0000 has 6 significant
figures

5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown are significant. e.g. 532000. Has
6 significant figures.

6. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal shown are NOT significant. e.g.
54,000 has 2 significant figures

7. For a number in scientific notation, all the digits comprising N are significant by the
first 6 rules.

Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

a. For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is the same
as number in the least precise measurement/ least number of significant figure

b. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places as the
least precise measurement used in calculation

Precision vs Accuracy

➢ Two terms to describe the reliability of measurements

➢ Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value with the true value
➢ Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements of the
same quantity
Dimensional Analysis

UNITS CONVERSION TABLES

Overview
These conversion tables are provided for your reference.

Units Conversion Tables

Table 1 Multiples and Submultiples of SI
Units
Table 2 Length Units
Table 3 Area Units
Table 4 Volume Units
Table 5 Mass Units
Table 6 Density Units
Table 7 Volumetric Liquid Flow Units
Table 8 Volumetric Gas Flow Units
Table 9 Mass Flow Units
Table 10 High Pressure Units
Table 11 Low Pressure Units
Table 12 Speed Units
Table 13 Torque Units
Table 14 Dynamic Viscosity Units
Table 15 Kinematic Viscosity Units
Table 16 Temperature Conversion Formulas

Table 1: Multiples and Submultiples of SI units

Prefix Symbol Multiplying Factor
exa E 1018 1 000 000 000 000 000 000
peta P 1015 1 000 000 000 000 000
tera T 1012 1 000 000 000 000
giga G 109 1 000 000 000
mega M 106 1 000 000
kilo k 103 1 000
hecto* h 102 100
deca* da 10 10
deci* d 10-1 0.1
centi c 10-2 0.01
milli m 10-3 0.001
micro u 10-6 0.000 001
nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001
pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001
femto f 10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001
-18
atto a 0.000 000 000 000 000 001

* these prefixes are not normally used

Table 2: Length Units

Millimeters Centimeters Meters Kilometers Inches Feet Yards Miles
mm cm m km in ft yd mi
1 0.1 0.001 0.000001 0.03937 0.003281 0.001094 6.21e-07
10 1 0.01 0.00001 0.393701 0.032808 0.010936 0.000006
1000 100 1 0.001 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 0.000621
1000000 100000 1000 1 39370.08 3280.84 1093.613 0.621371
25.4 2.54 0.0254 0.000025 1 0.083333 0.027778 0.000016
304.8 30.48 0.3048 0.000305 12 1 0.333333 0.000189
914.4 91.44 0.9144 0.000914 36 3 1 0.000568
1609344 160934.4 1609.344 1.609344 63360 5280 1760 1

Table 3: Area Units

Millimeter Centimeter Meter Inch Foot Yard
square square square square square square
mm2 cm2 m2 in2 ft2 yd2
1 0.01 0.000001 0.00155 0.000011 0.000001
100 1 0.0001 0.155 0.001076 0.00012
1000000 10000 1 1550.003 10.76391 1.19599
645.16 6.4516 0.000645 1 0.006944 0.000772
92903 929.0304 0.092903 144 1 0.111111
836127 8361.274 0.836127 1296 9 1
Table 4: Volume Units
Centimeter Meter Inch Foot US Imperial
Liter US barrel (oil)
cube cube cube cube gallons gallons
cm3 m3 ltr in3 ft3 US gal Imp. gal US brl
1 0.000001 0.001 0.061024 0.000035 0.000264 0.00022 0.000006
1000000 1 1000 61024 35 264 220 6.29
1000 0.001 1 61 0.035 0.264201 0.22 0.00629
16.4 0.000016 0.016387 1 0.000579 0.004329 0.003605 0.000103
28317 0.028317 28.31685 1728 1 7.481333 6.229712 0.178127
3785 0.003785 3.79 231 0.13 1 0.832701 0.02381
4545 0.004545 4.55 277 0.16 1.20 1 0.028593
158970 0.15897 159 9701 6 42 35 1

Table 5: Mass Units

Grams Kilograms Metric tonnes Short ton Long ton Pounds Ounces
g kg tonne shton Lton lb oz
1 0.001 0.000001 0.000001 9.84e-07 0.002205 0.035273
1000 1 0.001 0.001102 0.000984 2.204586 35.27337
1000000 1000 1 1.102293 0.984252 2204.586 35273.37
907200 907.2 0.9072 1 0.892913 2000 32000
1016000 1016 1.016 1.119929 1 2239.859 35837.74
453.6 0.4536 0.000454 0.0005 0.000446 1 16
28 0.02835 0.000028 0.000031 0.000028 0.0625 1

Table 6: Density Units

Gram/milliliter Kilogram/meter cube Pound/foot cube Pound/inch cube
g/ml kg/m3 lb/ft3 lb/in3
1 1000 62.42197 0.036127
0.001 1 0.062422 0.000036
0.01602 16.02 1 0.000579
27.68 27680 1727.84 1

Table 7: Volumetric Liquid Flow Units

Meter Foot Foot US US barrels
Liter/second Liter/minute
cube/hour cube/minute cube/hour gallons/minute (oil)/day
L/sec L/min M3/hr ft3/min ft3/hr gal/min US brl/d
1 60 3.6 2.119093 127.1197 15.85037 543.4783
0.016666 1 0.06 0.035317 2.118577 0.264162 9.057609
 0.277778 16.6667 1 0.588637 35.31102 4.40288 150.9661
0.4719 28.31513 1.69884 1 60 7.479791 256.4674
0.007867 0.472015 0.02832 0.01667 1 0.124689 4.275326
0.06309 3.785551 0.227124 0.133694 8.019983 1 34.28804
0.00184 0.110404 0.006624 0.003899 0.2339 0.029165 1

Table 8: Volumetric Gas Flow Units

Normal meter Standard cubic Standard cubic
cube/hour feet/hour feet/minute
3
Nm /hr scfh scfm
1 35.31073 0.588582
0.02832 1 0.016669
1.699 59.99294 1

Table 9: Mass Flow Units

Kilogram/hour Pound/hour Kilogram/second Ton/hour
kg/h lb/hour kg/s t/h
1 2.204586 0.000278 0.001
0.4536 1 0.000126 0.000454
3600 7936.508 1 3.6
1000 2204.586 0.277778 1

Table 10: High Pressure Units

Bar Kilogram
Pound/square Kilopascal Megapascal force/ Millimeter Atmospheres
inch centimeter of mercury
square
bar psi kPa MPa kgf/cm2 mm Hg atm
1 14.50326 100 0.1 1.01968 750.0188 0.987167
0.06895 1 6.895 0.006895 0.070307 51.71379 0.068065
0.01 0.1450 1 0.001 0.01020 7.5002 0.00987
10 145.03 1000 1 10.197 7500.2 9.8717
0.9807 14.22335 98.07 0.09807 1 735.5434 0.968115
0.001333 0.019337 0.13333 0.000133 0.00136 1 0.001316
1.013 14.69181 101.3 0.1013 1.032936 759.769 1
 Table 11: Low Pressure Units
Meter of Foot of Centimeter of Inches of Inches of
Pascal
water water mercury mercury water
mH2O ftH2O cmHg inHg inH2O Pa
1 3.280696 7.356339 2.896043 39.36572 9806
0.304813 1 2.242311 0.882753 11.9992 2989
0.135937 0.445969 1 0.39368 5.351265 1333
0.345299 1.13282 2.540135 1 13.59293 3386
0.025403 0.083339 0.186872 0.073568 1 249.1
0.000102 0.000335 0.00075 0.000295 0.004014 1

Table 12: Speed Units

Meter/second Meter/minute Kilometer/hour Foot/second Foot/minute Miles/hour
m/s m/min km/h ft/s ft/min mi/h
1 59.988 3.599712 3.28084 196.8504 2.237136
0.01667 1 0.060007 0.054692 3.281496 0.037293
0.2778 16.66467 1 0.911417 54.68504 0.621477
0.3048 18.28434 1.097192 1 60 0.681879
0.00508 0.304739 0.018287 0.016667 1 0.011365
0.447 26.81464 1.609071 1.466535 87.99213 1

Table 13: Torque Units

Newton meter Kilogram force meter Foot pound Inch pound
Nm kgfm ftlb inlb
1 0.101972 0.737561 8.850732
9.80665 1 7.233003 86.79603
1.35582 0.138255 1 12
0.112985 0.011521 0.083333 1

Table 14: Dynamic Viscosity Units

Centipoise* Poise Pound/foot·second

cp poise lb/(ft·s)
1 0.01 0.000672
100 1 0.067197
1488.16 14.8816 1
Table 15: Kinematic Viscosity Units
meter
Centistoke* Stoke Foot square/second
square/second
cs St ft2/s m2/s
1 0.01 0.000011 0.000001
100 1 0.001076 0.0001
92903 929.03 1 0.092903
1000000 10000 10.76392 1
*note: centistokes x specific gravity = centipoise

Table 16: Temperature Conversion Formulas

Degree Celsius (°C) (°F - 32) x 5/9
(K - 273.15)
Degree Fahrenheit (°F) (°C x 9/5) + 32
(1.8 x K) - 459.67
Kelvin (K) (°C + 273.15)
(°F + 459.67) ÷ 1.8