Avionics Systems Integration

1. Avionic Equipment Fit

Avionic equipment fit would comprise:
• Radar – target acquisition in all weather conditions.
• Doppler – accurate ((4 knots) velocity sensor for DR navigation.
• Attitude heading reference system (or master reference gyro system – UK terminology) –
attitude and heading information for pilot’s displays, navigation computer, weapon aiming
computer, autopilot.
• Air data computer – height, calibrated airspeed, and true airspeed, Mach number information
for pilot’s displays, weapon aiming, reversionary DR navigation, and autopilot.
• Radio altimeter – very low level flight profile during attack phase and all weather operation.
• Navigation computer – essential for mission.
• Autopilot – essential for reduction of pilot work load.
• Weapon aiming computer – essential for mission.
• HUD – all the advantages of the HUD plus weapon aiming for low level attack; for example,
‘toss’ bombing.
• Stores management system – control and release of the weapons.
• Electronic warfare (EW) systems – radar warning receivers, radar jamming equipment.
Essential for survivability in hostile environment.
• Identification system (identification friend or foe – ‘IFF’) – essential to avoid attack by
friendly forces.
• Radio navigation aids – location of parent ship on return from mission.
• Communications radio suite – essential for communicating to parent ship, co-operating
aircraft, etc.

A significant degree of integration was required between the avionic sub-systems. For example,
the weapon aiming system required the integration of the HUD, weapon aiming computer,
AHRS, air data computer and the radar system.

2. Data Bus Systems

Data bus systems are the essential enabling technologies of avionic systems integration in both
federated and integrated modular avionics architectures. They can be broadly divided into
electrical data bus systems where the data are transmitted as electrical pulses by wires, and
optical data bus systems where the data are transmitted as light pulses by optical fibres.
Serial digital data buses are used for interconnecting sub-units and sub-systems. Parallel data
buses are used within a unit or rack for interconnecting the individual modules

2.1 Electrical Data Bus Systems

There are several electrical serial digital data bus systems in use in avionics systems. These
systems can be broadly divided into two categories in terms of their data rate transmission
capabilities, namely, data bus systems operating with a maximum throughput of 1 to 2 Mbits/s
and high speed data bus systems with a throughput of 50 Mbits/s to 100 Mbits/s.
Space constraints have restricted the coverage of the lower speed systems to the MIL STD
1553B data bus system. This system is very widely used in military air-craft worldwide. It
transmits and receives data at 1 Mbit/s and is also a relatively sophisticated data bus system.
The ARINC 629 data bus system has many similarities with the MIL STD 1553 B system; the
main difference is that it is an autonomous system, whereas the ‘1553’ system is a ‘command

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response’ system operated through a Bus Controller, It also operates at 2 Mbits/s as opposed
to 1 Mbits/s for ‘1553’ The ARINC 629 data bus system is installed in the Boeing 777 airliner.
There are two standard high speed data buses which have been developed inthe US for military
applications. These are the ‘Linear Token Passing Bus’, LTPB, which operates at 50 Mbits/s
and the ‘High Speed Ring Bus’, HSRB, which operates at 100 Mbits/s.
The high speed data bus system, however, which is becoming widely adopted, particularly in
new civil aircraft (for example, the Airbus A380 airliner), is a sys-tem based on the ‘Ethernet’
data bus. The Ethernet data bus system is very widely used in commercial computing system
applications. It has a data rate transmission capability of 100 Mbits/s and is mainly used for
data file transfer.

The version which has been adapted for airborne applications is known as the ‘Avionics Full
Duplex Switched Ethernet’, which has been shortened to ‘AFDX Ethernet’ network. It meets
the civil aircraft avionic system requirements in all aspects and its commercially sourced
components make it a very competitive system. Its adoption in military aircraft avionic systems
would appear to be a likely future development because of its cost advantages.

2.2 Optical Data Bus Systems

The transmission of light signals along any optical fibre depends on the optical property of total
internal reflection.

This property is illustrated in Figure, which shows four rays of light travelling through a
medium of refractive index n1 to a medium of lower refractive index n2. Ray 1 is refracted in
passing through the second medium, the relationship between the angle the incident ray makes

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with the normal, i, and the angle the refracted ray makes with the normal, r, being given by
Snell’s law:

At the critical incidence angle, icrit, ray 2 is refracted through an angle of 90◦ and does not pass
through the second medium (icrit=sin−1n2/n1). All rays with incident angles greater than icrit such
as rays 3 and 4 are thus reflected back into the first medium. This condition is known as total
internal reflection and is effectively a loss free process.
An optical fibre basically comprises a central core of a suitable glass material (for example
pure silica) with a very low optical transmission loss and with an outer cladding of a material
with a slightly lower refractive index than the core.

In multi-mode fibres, as shown in Figure, the diameter of the core is large compared with the
wavelength of the light being transmitted. For example, a typical core diameter is around 100
µm and the operating wavelength around 1µm. A ray entering the fibre at an incident angle θ
to the axis of the fibre less than the critical angle, θcrit = cos−1n2/n1, will undergo total internal
reflection at the core/cladding interface.
This ray will then undergo total internal reflection at the lower interface and will thus be guided
through the core by repeated internal reflections as shown in Figure.
There are, however, a large number of different ways or modes by which light can be guided
along the fibre depending on the incident angle θ. Hence the term multi-mode fibre. The time
taken by a ray to travel along a fibre of length L is thus a function of θ and is equal to n1L/(c
cosθ), where c is the velocity of light.

3. Communications
Frequency Spectrum:
The radio frequency (RF) spectrum extends from 10 kHz (1×104Hertz) up to 10 GHz
(1×1010Hertz), and is shown in a simplified form in Figure 9.1. This spectrum, stretching over
five spectral decades, covers the range in which most of the civil aircraft communications and

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navigation equipment operate. For military aircraft the spectrum will be wider, as attack radars,
electronic warfare (EW) and infra-red sensors also need to be included. The wide frequency
coverage of this spectrum, and the nature of radio wave propagation, means that the
performance of different equipment varies according to the conditions of operation. The figure
distinguishes between communications and navigation aids

Communication systems comprise the following equipment and capabilities:

 High frequency (HF) radio transmit/receive;
 Very high frequency (VHF) radio transmit/receive and aircraft communications and
reporting system (ACARS);
 Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio transmit/receive, mainly used in military
communications;
 Satellite communications (SATCOM) including passenger telephone communications.
UHFSATCOM may be used on some civil derivative platforms used in a military
context;
 Aircraft transponder and air traffic control (ATC) mode A/C and S (also known in the
military environment as identification friend or foe/secondary surveillance radar
(IFF/SSR));
 Traffic collision and avoidance system (TCAS);

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 Communications control system (CCS).

Very low frequency (VLF), LF, and medium frequency (MF) waves have relatively long
wavelengths and utilize correspondingly long antennas. Radio waves produced at these
frequencies ranging from 3kHz to 3mHz are known as ground waves or surface waves. This is
because they follow the curvature of the earth as they travel from the broadcast antenna to the
receiving antenna. Ground waves are particularly useful for long distance transmissions.
Automatic direction finders (ADF) and LORAN navigational aids use these frequencies.[
High frequency (HF) radio waves travel in a straight line and do not curve to follow the earth’s
surface. This would limit transmissions from the broadcast antenna to receiving antennas only
in the line-of-sight of the broadcast antenna except for a unique characteristic. HF radio waves
bounce off of the ionosphere layer of the atmosphere. This refraction extends the range of HF
signals beyond line-of-sight. As a result, transoceanic aircraft often use HF radios for voice
communication. The frequency range is between 2 to 25 MHz These kinds of radio waves are
known as sky waves.

Above HF transmissions, radio waves are known as space waves. They are only capable of
line-of-sight transmission and do not refract off of the ionosphere. Most aviation
communication and navigational aids operate with space waves. This includes VHF (30-
300MHz), UHF (300MHz-3GHz), and super high frequency (SHF) (3Ghz-30Ghz) radio
waves.

Satellite Communications: Satellite communications provide a more reliable method of

communications using the International Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMARSAT)
satellite constellation which was originally developed for maritime use. Now satellite
communications, abbreviated to SATCOM, form a useful component of aerospace
communications.

The principles of operation of SATCOM are shown in Figure. The aircraft communicates via
the INMARSAT constellation and remote ground earth station by means of C-band uplinks.and
downlinks to/from the ground stations and L-band links to/from the aircraft. In this way,
communications are routed from the aircraft via the satellite to the ground station and on to the
destination. Conversely, communications to the aircraft are routed in the reverse fashion.

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Therefore, provided the aircraft is within the area of coverage or footprint of a satellite,
communication may be established.
The airborne SATCOM terminal transmits on frequencies in the range 1626.5–1660.5 MHz
and receives messages on frequencies in the range 1530.0–1559.0 MHz.Upon power-up, the
radio-frequency unit (RFU) scans a stored set of frequencies and locates the transmission of
the appropriate satellite. The aircraft logs on to the ground earth station network so that any
ground stations are able to locate the aircraft. Once logged on to the system, communications
between the aircraft and any user may begin. The satellite to ground C-band uplink and
downlink are invisible to the aircraft, as is the remainder of the earth support network

Data Links: The use of voice was the original means of using RF communications.
However, the use of speech has severe limitations; it is slow in terms of conveying information
and prone to misunderstanding, whereas high bandwidth data links can deliver more
information, if necessary incorporating error correction or encryption.
Typical data packages that may be delivered by data links include:
 Present position reporting;
 Surveillance;
 Aircraft survival, EW and intelligence information;
 Information management;
 Mission management;
 Status.

Air Traffic Control (ATC) Transponder:

As a means to aid the identification of individual aircraft and to facilitate the safe passage of
aircraft through controlled airspace, the ATC transponder allows ground surveillance radarsto
interrogate aircraft and decode data which enables correlation of a radar track with aspecific
aircraft. The principle of transponder operation is shown in Figure A ground-based primary
surveillance radar (PSR) will transmit radar energy and will be able to detect an aircraft by
means of the reflected radar energy–termed the aircraft return. This will enable the aircraft
return to be displayed on an ATC console at a range and bearing commensurate with the aircraft
position. Calculations are made in a receiver to determine the direction and distance of the
aircraft from the transmitter. Coincident with the primary radar operation, A secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) is used by ATC to verify the aircraft’s position and to add the third
dimension of altitude to its location. a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) will transmit a series
of interrogation pulses that are received by the on-board aircraft transponder. The transponder
aircraft replies with a different series of pulses which give information relating to the aircraft,
normally aircraft identifier and altitude.

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ATC can also ask the pilot to ident. By pressing the IDENT button on the transponder, it
transmits in such a way that the aircraft’s target symbol is highlighted on the PPI to be
distinguishable. The ATC/aircraft transponder system described is known as Air Traffic
Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS). To increase safety, Mode S altitude response has
been developed. With Mode S, each aircraft is pre-assigned a unique identity code that displays
along with its pressure altitude on ATC radar when the transponder responds to SSR
interrogation. Since no other aircraft respond with this code, the chance of two pilots selecting
the same response code on the transponder is eliminated.

Traffic Collision and Avoidance System:

The traffic collision and avoidance system (TCAS) was developed in prototype form during
the 1960s and 1970s to provide a surveillance and collision avoidance system to help aircraft
avoid collisions. The TCAS is based upon a beacon interrogator and operates in a similar
fashion to the ground-based SSR The TCAS detects the range bearing and altitude of aircraft
in the near proximity for display to the pilots. The TCAS is unable to detect aircraft that are
not carrying an appropriately operating transponder or that have unserviceable equipment. A
transponder is mandated if an aircraft flies above 10 000 ft or within 30 miles of major airports;
consequently, all commercial aircraft and the great majority of corporate and general aviation
aircraft are fitted with the equipment.

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Identification Friend or Foe (IFF):

There are two ways in which IFF equipment may be used:

 Providing 360 coverage in order to be able to respond to interrogation and receive

transponder returns from friendly aircraft in any direction. In this respect the operation
is very similar to the airborne operation of ATC mode S when used in association with
the TCAS.
 Used in association with a primary radar sensor in order to be able specifically to
identify targets appearing within the radar scan. This operates in the same way as a
groundsurveillance radar interrogating aircraft in the vicinity of an airfield.

Navigation.
The Aerospace platform needs to be able to navigate with sufficient accuracy to a target,
rendezvous point, waypoint, or initial point as dictated by the mission requirements. The
increasingly busy skies, together with rapid technology developments, have emphasised the
need for higher-accuracy navigation and the means to accomplish it. Navigation is no longer a
matter of merely getting from A to B safely, it is about doing this in a fuel-efficient manner,
keeping to tight airline schedules, and avoiding other air traffic – commercial, general aviation,
leisure and military. Navigation of military aircraft has to comply with the same regulations as
civil traffic when operating in controlled airspace.

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The main methods of navigation as practiced today may be summarized and simplified
as follows:
i. Classic dead-reckoning navigation using air data and magnetic, together with
Doppler or LORAN-C;
ii. Radio navigation using navigation aids–ground-based radio-frequency beacons and
airborne receiving and processing equipment;
iii. Barometric inertial navigation using a combination of air data and inertial
navigations (IN) or Doppler;
iv. Satellite navigation using a global navigation satellite system (GNSS), more usually a
global positioning system (GPS);
v. Multiple-sensor navigation using a combination of all the above.

i. Classic dead-reckoning navigation:

The classic method of navigation which has been in used for many years is to use a combination
of magnetic and inertial directional gyros used together with airspeed information derived from
the air data sensors to navigate in accordance with the parameters shown in Figure. This is
subject to errors in both the heading system and the effects of en-route winds which can cause
along-track and across-track errors.

ii. Radio navigation:

Radio navigation routes defined by VHF omniranging/distance measuring equipment
(VOR/DME) beacons as shown in Figure. By arranging the location of these beacons at major
navigation or crossing points, and in some cases airfields, it was possible to construct an entire
airway network that could be used by the flight crew to define the aircraft flight from take-off
to touchdown. Other radio frequency aids include distance measuring equipment (DME) and
non-distance beacons (NDB).

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iii.Inertial Navigation
flight crew were able to navigate by autonomous means using an on-board INS with inertial
sensors. By aligning the platform to earth-referenced coordinates and present position during
initialisation, it was now possible to fly for long distances without relying upon LORAN,
VOR/DME or TACAN beacons. Waypoints could be specified in terms of latitude and
longitude as arbitrary points on the globe, more suited to the aircraft’s intended flight path
rather than a specific geographic feature or point in a radio beacon network

iv.Satellite Navigation:
The use of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), to use the generic name, offers a cheap
and accurate navigational means to anyone who possesses a suitable receiver. Although the
former Soviet Union developed a system called GLONASS, it is the US global positioning
system (GPS) that is the most widely used.
GPS receivers may be provided for the airborne equipment in a number of ways:

1. Stand-alone GPS receivers, most likely to be used for GPS upgrades to an existing system.
These are multichannel (typically, 12-channel) global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
receivers–the B777 utilises this approach.
2. GPS receivers integrated into a multifunction receiver unit called a multimode receiver
(MMR).

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Integrated Navigation:
An integrated navigation solution using a multisensor approach blends the perfor-mance of all
the navigation techniques already described together with GPS to form a totally integrated
system. In this case the benefits of the GPS and IN derived data are blended toprovide more
accurate data fusion,

GPWS and EGPWS

The GPWS/TAWS uses radar altimeter information together with other information relating to
the aircraft flight path. Warnings are generated when the following scenariosare unfolding:

 Flight below the specified descent angle during an instrument approach;

 Excessive bank angle at low altitude;
 Excessive descent rate;
 Insufficient terrain clearance;
 Inadvertent descent after take-off;
 Excessive closure rate to terrain–the aircraft is descending too quickly or approaching
higher terrain

Weather Radar
There are three common types of weather aids used in an aircraft flight deck that are often
referred to as weather radar:
 Actual on-board radar for detecting and displaying weather activity;
 Lightning detectors; and
 Satellite or other source weather radar information that is uploaded to the aircraft from
an outside source.

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On-board weather radar systems can be found in aircraft of all sizes. They function
similar to ATC primary radar except the radio waves bounce off of precipitation instead of
aircraft. Dense precipitation creates a stronger return than light precipitation. The on-board
weather radar receiver is set up to depict heavy returns as red, medium return as yellow and
light returns as green on a display in the flight deck. Clouds do not create a return. Magenta is
reserved to depict intense or extreme precipitation or turbulence

Lightning detection is a second reliable means for identifying potentially dangerous weather.
Lightning gives off its own electromagnetic signal. The azimuth of a lightning strike can be
calculated by a receiver using a loop type antenna such as that used in ADF

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A third type of weather radar is becoming more common in all classes of aircraft. Through
the use of orbiting satellite systems and/or ground up-links, such as described with ADS-B
IN, weather information can be sent to an aircraft in flight virtually anywhere in the world.
This includes text data as well as real-time radar information for overlay on an aircraft’s
navigational display(s). Weather radar data produced remotely and sent to the aircraft is refined
through consolidation of various radar views from different angles and satellite imagery. This
produces more accurate depictions of actual weather conditions. Terrain databases are
integrated to eliminate ground clutter

4. Radar Systems

The performance and application of radar is highly dependent upon the frequency of operation.
these cover the frequency range from 400 MHz to 94 GHz, as shown in Figure.

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The four our key frequency bands used by some of the weapons systems of today:
o Surveillance radar operating at 3 GHz;
o Fighter radar radiating from 10 to 18 GHz;
o Attack helicopter operating at 35 GHz;
o Anti-armour missile transmitting at 94 GHz.

4.1 Principle used by radar

The energy radiating from a radar transmitter propagates in a similar fashion to the way ripples
spread from an object dropped in water. If the radiated energy strikes an object–such as an
aircraft –a small proportion of that energy is reflected back towards the radar. The transmitted
energy effectively has a double journey: out to the target and back again. Radar uses this
principle to measure the distance to the target; knowing that the speed of light is 3x108m/s, and
by measuring the time taken for the reflection to arrive, makes it possible to calculate the target
range:

Where R is the range of the target, cis the speed of light 3x108m/s andt is the time taken for the
radar energy to perform the round trip.
Radar energy may also be transmitted in a number of ways. Following Figure shows two
situations; one where the RF energy is sent in pulses and the other where RF energy is
radiated continuously–also known as a continuous wave.

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4.2 Classifications of radars

 Classification based on specific function

1. Primary Radar: A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals toward the targets.
The transmitted pulses are reflected by the target and then received by the same radar
2. Secondary Radar: Secondary radar units work with active answer signals. In addition
to primary radar, this type of radar uses a transponder on the airborne target/object.
 Pulsed Radar: Pulsed radar transmits high power, high-frequency pulses toward the
target. Then it waits for the echo of the transmitted signal for sometime before it
transmits a new pulse.
o MTI (Moving Target Indicator) Radar:The MTI radar uses low pulse
repetition frequency (PRF) to avoid range ambiguities, but these radars can have
Doppler ambiguities.
o Pulse Doppler Radar: Contrary to MTI radar, pulse Doppler radar uses high
PRF to avoid Doppler ambiguities, but it can have numerous range ambiguities
 Continuous Wave Radar: CW radars continuously transmit a high-frequency signal and
the reflected energy is also received and processed continuously. These radars have to
ensure that the transmitted energy doesn’t leak into the receiver (feedback connection). CW
radars may be bistatic or monostatic; measures radial velocity of the target using Doppler
Effect.
CW radars are of two types
o Unmodulated: The transmitted signal of these equipments is constant in amplitude
and frequency. CW radar transmitting unmodulated power can measure the speed
only by using the Doppler-effect. It cannot measure a range and it cannot differ
between two reflecting objects.
o Modulated: This is achieved in modulated CW radars using the frequency shifting
method. In this method, a signal that constantly changes in frequency around a fixed
reference is used to detect stationary objects.

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 Classification based on applications

 Air Traffic Management Radars

Radars commonly used for air traffic management are
o En-route radar systems: These radars usually operate in L-Band, detect and
determine the position, course, and speed of air targets in an area up to 250 nautical
miles.
o Air Surveillance Radar systems:These radars usually operate in E-Band, and
are used to detect and display an aircraft's position in the terminal area. They can
reliably detect and track aircrafts at altitudes below 25,000 feet and within 40-60
nautical miles of the airport
o Precision Approach Radar (PAR) systems:This radar helps the aircraft to
land in bad weather. Using Precision Approach radar, the guidance information is
obtained by the radar operator and passed to the aircraft.
o Surface movement radars:Surface Movement Radar (SMR) uses very narrow
pulse widths and is used to scan the airport surface and locate the positions of
aircraft as well as ground vehicles
o Tracking Radars:Also called fire control radars, they are used to provide range
and bearing information of a single target continuously. These radars use very high
PRF, very narrow pulsewidth as well as beamwidth.

 Meteorological Radars: Also known as weather radars, they are primarily used to
observe hydrometeors in the atmosphere. Radar is probably the only way to map the spatial
distribution of precipitation over large areas. Radar can be used to forecast flash flooding and
severe thunderstorms.
 Imaging Radar: Imaging radar sensors measure two dimensions of co-ordinates to
create a map-like picture of the observed object or area. Imaging radars have been used to map
the Earth, other planets, and celestial bodies and also to classify military targets

 Air-defence Radars: Air-Defence Radars are employed to detect air targets and to
determine target range, velocity, etc. in a relatively large area. They are able to detect threats
at great distances and hence act as early warning devices.

4.3 Major Radar Modes

Examining the operation of some basic radar modes helps to understand how beam width and
other factors such as pulse width, scan patterns, dwell time and pulse repetition frequency
(PRF) are important to radar operation. The main modes that are described are:
 Air-to-air search;
 Air-to-air tracking;
 Air-to-air track-while-scan (TWS);
 Ground mapping
Air-to-Air Search:

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One of the functions of a fighter aircraft is to be able to search large volumes of air space to
detect targets. Many scan patterns are able to accomplish this function, but perhaps the most
common is the four-bar scan shown in Figure. This scan comprises four bars stacked in
elevation, and the radar mechanically scans from side to side in azimuth while following the
four-bar pattern. The pattern shown begins in the top left-hand corner and finishes in the bottom
left-hand corner before recommencing another cycle. The scan might typically cover 30 in
azimuth centred about the aircraft centre-line and about 10–12° in elevation.
Alternatively, sector scans may be used, say +/-10° skewed left or right off the centre-line if
that is where the targets are located. The beamwidth in the air-to-air search mode will probably
be 3°, and the scan bars will usually to be positioned one beamwidth or 3 dB
apart to ensure that no target falls between bars. The search pattern is organised such that a
target may be illuminated several times during each pass, as indicated by the overlapping

It should be recognised that, when the radar is operating in this air-to-air search mode, enemy
targetsfitted with a radar warning receiver (RWR) or other detection equipment will know that
they are being illuminated or‘painted’ by the searching radar. Furthermore, by categorising
radar signal parameters such as radiated frequency, pulse width and PRF, the enemy target will
be able to identify what type of radar and what aircraft type is being bencountered. The RWR
will also give a bearing to the illuminating radar, and the‘blip/scan’ ratio will indicate
whereabouts in the radar scan pattern it is located.

Air-to-Air Tracking
On occasions the radar may need to obtain more pertinent data regarding the target, perhaps
in order to prepare to launch an air-to-air missile. To attain this more specific target
information, the radar needs to ‘lock on’ to the target. When this occurs the scan pattern
changes and the radar antenna tracks the target in azimuth and elevation. The target is also
locked in terms of range using a range gate. The radar is now able to track the precise
movements of the target. In some tracking modes the PRF may be switched to higher
frequency to increase the target data update rate .The target dataset will include the following
data:
 Range;
 Azimuth;
 Azimuth rate;
 Target identification;
 Range rate;

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 Elevation;
 Elevation rate;
 Target classification.
The accompanying changes in the radar characteristics detected by the potential target
following lock-on is a warning that the engagement is becoming more serious. At this point the
target may attempt evasive tactics –deploy countermeasures or chaff or jam the target radar.

Air-to-Air Track-While-Scan
Track-while-scan automates the process of deciding which target to engage .As TWS is under
way, the radar processor progressively builds up a history of theflight path of targets within the
scan. If successive measurements disagree, then the track is rejected; if the data agree, then the
track is maintained. Gates are initiated that assign angular information, range and range rate to
each track and predict where the target will be at the time of the next observation. If the track
is stable, then the forecast gates will become more accurate and statistical filters will establish
that the predicted fit is good. Techniques are used to arbitrate when gates overlap or where
more than one target appears in the same gate perimeter.

The advantages of TWS are as follows:

1. Accurate digitised tracking data are established on each track within the antenna scan
pattern without alerting potential targets that they are being tracked.
2. The automation process allows many targets to be tracked accurately and independently.
3. A typical radar using TWS will be able to track 20 or more targets in three-dimensional
Space.
While using the ground-mapping mode, the antenna sweeps from side to side as shown in
Figure
Ground Mapping:
While using the ground-mapping mode, the antenna sweeps from side to side as shown in
Figure

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The area illuminated by the mapping beam equates to the dotted boundary shown in the figure.
Whereas the air-to-air modes use a narrow pencil beam, a fan beam is used for ground
mapping.T hat is, a beam where one dimension is narrow 2or3° –while the other is relatively
broad, say 10 to 15° . The figure shows that the ground-mapping beam is narrow in azimuth
and wide in elevation; this represents the optimum shape for the mapping function.
Pulsed Radar Components
The diagram shows the major elements which are:
 Modulator;
 Transmitter;
 Antenna;
 Receiver;
 Video processor

Modulator: The modulator determines the pulse shape and the nature of the radar modulation.
Although pulsed transmission is the most elementary form of radar operation, the modulation
in a modern multimode radar may take many forms depending upon the nature of information
being sought. The operation of the modulator is controlled by the synchroniser which dictates
when a pulse should be initiated. The modulator uses the superheterodyne (‘super-het’)
principle of modulation to superimpose the modulating signal upon the high-frequency carrier
to provide a composite waveform.
Transmitter: The transmitter amplifies the modulated carrier signal and feeds it to the antenna
via a duplexer. This serves the function of directing the transmitter energy to the antenna
waveguide system to be fed by the antenna elements for transmission into the atmosphere.
It also routes the reflected target energy to the receiver.

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Antenna: The antenna, as has been described, directs the radar energy towards the target and
receives the reflected energy from the target. Along with the target echo, a substantial amount
of clutter from ground returns is also received. The antenna beam is focused according to the
shape of the antenna and the nature of the beam required. Unwanted radar energy enters through
the antenna sidelobes as well as the main beam. The antenna also receives noise from a variety
of external sources that can help mask the true target signal.Returning energy is passed through
a receiver protective device which blocks the large amounts of transmitted power that would
cause severe damage to the receiver, but also at the appropriate time allows the reflected target
energy to pass through.
Receiver: The receiver amplifies the reflected target signal and performs the demodulation
process to extract the target data from the surrounding noise, and the resulting target video data
are passed to the video processor.
Video Processor: The video processor is also controlled by the synchroniser in order that
transmitted pulse and target return pulses are coordinated and that a range measurement may
be made. The resulting data are coordinated and displayed on the radar display.

5. Electronic Warfare

Signals Intelligence (SIGINT)

Intelligence is collected from a number of different sources to form a strategic picture. These
sources include:
 ELINT or electronic intelligence;
 COMINT or communications intelligence.
Confirmation of electronic warfare intelligence is usually performed by comparison with
local information collection and photographic evidence, including:
 HUMINT or human intelligence;
 IMINT or image intelligence;
 PHOTINT or photographic intelligence.

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The first two items on this list are often gathered by high-flying EW aircraft on long duration
patrols, usually flying a patrol on the friendly side of a border and beyond missile.

Communications intelligence (COMINT) which is achieved by the interception of

communication signals of all types – telegraphy, voice or data – and obtaining intelligence on
a prospective enemy’s intentions, capabilities and military preparedness. Frequently, the text
of messages is enciphered and cannot be read immediately. However, there is still a great deal
of intelligence to be derived from signals traffic analysis and direction finding which can
provide both tactical and strategic advantages. Patterns of communication can be used to
identify the state of readiness and location of participants.
Sudden communication activity may indicate battle readiness or changes of plan. Silence can
indicate departure of forces from an area, or deliberate radio silence prior to an attack. A
database of such communications activity is useful in establishing a potential enemy’s radio
discipline and movements. Selective or broad band jamming can be deployed to restrict useful
communications.
2. Radar intelligence (RADINT) which uses standard or special-purpose radar systems to
obtain intelligence on an enemy’s capabilities, deployments and intentions. These radar
systems may be space, air, sea or land based. RADINT is collected by an electronic support
measures (ESM) system employing a number of sensitive antennas that are able to detect radar
signals in different bands. As well as detecting the signal, the ESM also establishes a precise
direction of arrival of the signal. Analysis of the signal character-istics such as frequency, pulse
duration, amplitude and the spacing of main power lobes and side lobes will identify a
particular type of radar. Continued collection of analysed data mapped onto the types of
platform carrying different radar systems enables an experienced EW operator to identify a
particular ship, aircraft or land-based system type.
There are claims that experienced operators can even identify an individual platform by its
radar transmitter characteristics. A successfully managed EW campaign can identify radar
types and their exact locations for subsequent database update or for selective jamming. This
technique is known as ‘fingerprinting’ and it requires some very clever waveform analysis
equipment.
3. ELINT Electronic Intelligence involves the interception and analysis of non-communication
radio-frequency signals, usually radar, to obtain many aspects of a nation’s intentions and
capabilities such as technological progress, military preparedness,
orders of battle, military competence, intentions etc.

Electronic Countermeasures
Electronic countermeasures or jamming are a commonly used form of electronic warfare used
to disrupt communications or defence radars. In noise jamming, radio frequency at the same
frequency as a target emitter/receiver is modulated and transmitted at the target.
Depending on the transmitted power level, it is capable of denying range information to the
target or degrading communications to an unacceptable level. As the jamming power increases,
or the range between the jammer and the receiver reduces, the jamming can become sufficiently
strong to break down the directional properties of the target antenna. In this case both range
and directional information can be denied.
Deception jamming is a more subtle form of countermeasure, where the intention is to confuse
the enemy as to the correct bearing, range and number of targets. It has major implications in

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the countering of weapon guidance systems, where the technique of range gate or velocity gate
stealing can be particularly effective.
Chaff is a passive ECM application, in which the transmitter energy of a threat radar is reflected
to create false targets. Chaff can be used in a distraction sense by dispensing small discrete
bundles to create an impression of specific small targets to confuse a radar or seduce a missile
guidance system. Large clouds of chaff can be dispensed in a confusion sense completely to
obscure one’s own position.
Jamming is a key tactical role on the battlefield and is often carried out by fast jets equipped
with jamming equipment. These aircraft are known in the United States as Wild Weasel
squadrons.

Electronic Support Measures

Electronic support measures (ESM) comprise the division of electronic warfare involving
actions taken to intercept, locate, record and analyse radiated electromagnetic energy for the
purpose of gaining tactical advantage. An important advantage of ESM when used as a
sensor is that they are completely passive. They also provide the potential for detecting enemy
radars at much greater ranges than the detection ranges of these radars. Signals of ESM interest
are usually radar systems. However, they can also include communications, guidance or
navigational emissions in the radio-frequency spectrum, as well as laser emissions and infrared
radiation in the electrooptics field.
Electronic intelligence information is required for both short- and medium-term planning and
also for immediate tactical use in support of offensive and defensive EW operations.
ESM are primarily used to support activities such as:
1. Threat warning–the short-term or tactical activity of ESM concerned with detecting
transmissions that pose a physical threat. A typical example is the use of radar warning
receivers (RWR) to provide an indication of impending attack byfighter or surface-to-air
missiles.
2. Target acquisition–the presence of radar systems can indicate the existence of a target, or
can assist in the identification of a radar-defended target. An example of this is a maritime
patrol aircraft detecting and classifying surface ships by ESM.
3. Homing–an attack radar homing passively onto land or naval base radar-defended
targets.

6. Fire-control systems
Fire-control systems are often interfaced with sensors (such as sonar, radar, infra-red search
and track, laser range-finders, anemometers, wind vanes, thermometers, etc.) in order to cut
down or eliminate the amount of information that must be manually entered in order to
calculate an effective solution. Sonar, radar, IRST and range-finders can give the system the
direction to and/or distance of the target. Alternatively, an optical sight can be provided that an
operator can simply point at the target, which is easier than having someone input the range
using other methods and gives the target less warning that it is being tracked. Typically,
weapons fired over long ranges need environmental information — the farther a munition
travels, the more the wind, temperature, etc. will affect its trajectory, so having accurate
information is essential for a good solution. Sometimes, for very long-range rockets,

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environmental data has to be obtained at high altitudes or in between the launching point and
the target. Often, satellites or balloons are used to gather this information.
Once the firing solution is calculated, many modern fire-control systems are also able to aim
and fire the weapon(s). Once again, this is in the interest of speed and accuracy, and in the case
of a vehicle like an aircraft or tank, in order to allow the pilot/gunner/etc. to perform other
actions simultaneously, such as tracking the target or flying the aircraft. Even if the system is
unable to aim the weapon itself, for example the fixed cannon on an aircraft, it is able to give
the operator cues on how to aim. Typically, the cannon points straight ahead and the pilot must
maneuver the aircraft so that it oriented correctly before firing. In most aircraft the aiming cue
takes the form of a "pipper" which is projected on the heads-up display (HUD). The pipper
shows the pilot where the target must be relative to the aircraft in order to hit it. Once the pilot
maneuvers the aircraft so that the target and pipper are superimposed, he or she fires the
weapon, or on some aircraft the weapon will fire automatically at this point, in order to
overcome the delay of the pilot. In the case of a missile launch, the fire-control computer may
give the pilot feedback about whether the target is in range of the missile and how likely the
missile is to hit if launched at any particular moment. The pilot will then wait until the
probability reading is satisfactorily high before launching the weapon

7. Avionics Architectures
The key architectural steps have been:

•Distributed analogue architectures

•Distributed digital architectures

•Federated digital architectures

•Integrated modular avionics architecture.

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Distributed Analogue Architecture:

The distributed analogue architecture is shown in Figure. Distributed analogue avionics
architectures are characterised as a set of discrete or ‘point-solutions’ to individual avionics
subsystems, each designed and implemented in relative isolation from one another and
certificated separately.

The subsystems equipments are interconnected by hardwiring and results in a huge amount of
aircraft wiring. The system function is implemented in hardwired circuitry and
interconnections, and hence the system is extremely difficult to modify. This wiring is
associated with power supplies, sensor excitation, sensor signal and system discrete mode
selection and status signals. The most common means to signal angular position is by means
of an electromagnetic synchro that uses a 3-wire transmission system.
Analogue computing techniques do not provide the accuracy and stability offered by the
later digital systems. The performance of analogue systems is subject to component tolerances,
bias, temperature variation and long-term drift.
Typical aircraft architected in this manner include: the Boeing 707; VC10; BAC 1-11; DC-9;
and early Boeing 737s. Many of these types are still flying; some such as the VC-10, the
KC-135 and E-3/E-4/E-6 (Boeing 707 derivatives) fulfilling military roles

Distributed Digital Architecture

The maturity of digital computing devices suitable for airborne use soon saw digital computers
replace their earlier analogue equivalents. The digital computers as installed on these early
systems were a far cry from today, being heavy, slow in computing terms and having very
limited memory capacity.
Initially the avionics systems architecture remained relatively unchanged, except data bus
technology replaced analogue communication between computers. However, the greater speed
of computation, greater accuracy and elimination of variation in performance due to component
tolerance and drift problems soon led to digital computers being applied ever wider in aircraft
control systems, well beyond the original narrow confines of the traditional avionics systems.

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A simplified version of the distributed digital architecture is shown in Figure.

Major functional units contained their own digital computer and application software stored in
their internal memory. They were task-oriented, embedded computers. The functionality of a
digital computer is defined by its application software, not by its detailed circuitry, so changes
and modifications can be effected by changing the application software. Aircraft architected in
this manner include the Boeing 737, 757 and 767; and the Airbus A300, 320 and 330 series
and some business jets. The key characteristics of this type of architecture are described below.
A significant development accompanying the emergence of digital processing was the adoption
of serial unidirectional digital data buses – ARINC 429 being the most popular for civil
transport aircraft – which allowed important system data to be passed in digital form between
the major processing centres on the aircraft. Although slow by today’s standards (100 kbps for
ARINC 429), the introduction of these data buses represented a major step forward, bestowing
major performance improvements on navigation and electronic flight instrument systems by
adopting this technology.
At this stage systems were still dedicated in function, although clearly the ability to transfer
data between the units had significantly improved. The adoption of data buses, particularly
ARINC 429, spawned a series of ARINC standards which standardised the digital interfaces
for different types of equipment. Data buses offered a great deal of flexibility in the way that
signals were transferred from unit to unit. They also allowed architectures to be constructed
with a considerable reduction in inter-unit wiring and multi pin connectors. This led to a
reduction in weight and cost, and also eased the task of introducing large and inflexible wiring
harnesses into the airframe.
This in turn led to reductions in the non-recurring cost of producing harness drawings, and
the recurring cost of manufacturing and installing harnesses. Data buses greatly simplified
upgrades. The ARINC 429 data bus allows new equipment to be added to the data bus, up to
a maximum of 20LRUs. Overall the adoption of even the early digital technology brought great
advantages in system accuracy and performance, although the development and maintenance
of these early digital systems was far from easy.

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Federated Digital Architecture:

The next development, federated digital architecture, is shown in Figure

The federated avionics systems architecture recognises that the total aircraft avionics systems
functions are interrelated and interdependent. The commonality of approach facilitates the
sharing of information between previously disparate systems, enhancing the whole
functionality of the avionics system.
A federated architecture generally uses dedicated task-oriented, line-replaceable computers,
each with their own embedded processor and application memory. The capabilities and
technologies employed .The significant advances made in computer technology meant that this
architecture could be applied to other aircraft systems that were not traditionally avionics
systems such as fuel systems, landing gear systems and other vehicle management systems.
The military were the first to adopt a federated architecture based around the MIL-STD-1553B
1 Mbps bidirectional data bus. It evolved through two iterations from a basic standard finally
culminating in the 1553B standard,.MIL-STD-1553B has been widely used across most
military platforms for over two decades.
It utilises a ‘command: response’ protocol that requires a central control entity called a bus
controller. Along with the developing maturity of electronic memory devices, in particular non-
volatile memory, the federated architecture was able to support software re-programming of
the various system LRUs via the aircraft-level data buses. This is a significant improvement in
maintain-ability and facilitates operational improvements and updates to be speedily
incorporated.
Integrated Modular Avionics

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Powerful microprocessor technology, ever-increasing integrated circuit capability and

decreasing costs have led to a revolution in avionics architectures known as integrated modular
avionics (IMA). Instead of dedicated, distributed (federated) task-oriented computing, IMA
principles pro-mote a general-purpose centralised computing resource comprising a set of
common hardware computing modules. The avionics application software previously
embedded in proprietary
Task-oriented computers in a federated architecture is now hosted on the general-purpose
processors in the common core computing resource. Application software is provided and
certificated by the subsystem developer, independently of the IMA hardware platform. Data
are exchanged between applications via a dual redundant network based on COTS Ethernet
technology with enhancements to provide real-time features needed for safety-critical avionics
applications.

8. MIL STD 1553 Bus System

MIL STD 1553B is a US military standard which defines a TDM multiple-source multiple-
sink data bus system which is in very wide scale use in military aircraft in many countries. It
is also used in naval surface ships, submarines, and land vehicles such as main battlefield tanks.
The system is a half-duplex system that is operation of a data transfer can take place in either
direction over a single line, but not in both directions on that line simultaneously.
The basic bus configuration is shown in Figure.

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The system is a command-response system with all data transmissions being carried out under
the control of the bus controller. Each sub-system is connected to the bus through a unit called
a remote terminal (RT). Data can only be transmitted from one RT and received by another RT
(or RTs as there may be more than one sub-system requiring the same data) following a
command from the bus controller (BC) to each RT.
The protocol exercised by the bus controller hence ensures that there are no data clashes on the
bus as only one RT is transmitting at any time. The bus controller thus initiates all data transfers
and monitors the status of all transfers. It is generally incorporated in one of the sub-systems –
usually the one generating the most traffic. The bus is formed as a single twisted cable pair
with one layer of shielding and jacketing and with a maximum length of 100 m (328 ft).
Although direct coupling to the bus is allowed, this is generally not used in order to avoid the
risk of one terminal shorting out the bus. The bus connection is typically via a transformer
coupled stub so that shorting of the stub is isolated from the bus. The maximum stub length
allowed is 6 m (20 ft). The data are transmitted at 1 Mbit/s. The data word size is 20 bits so
that the maximum data transmission rate is 50,000 words/s.
A maximum of 31 terminals can be connected to the bus. The bus operation is asynchronous,
each terminal having an independent clock source for transmission. Decoding is achieved in
receiving terminals using clock information derived from the messages.
The technique adopted for data encoding is known as ‘Manchester bi-phase’ en-coding where
there must be an active transition for every bit, i.e. for ‘0’ and ‘1’ signals. This is shown in
Figure

Apart from the SYNC bits all data bits must conform to these requirements. This eliminates
‘stuck high’ or ‘stuck low’ faults as there must be a transition during one clock period.

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The above Figure shows the data encoded waveform. The standard requires the transmission
rate to be 1 Mbit/s with a combined ac-curacy and long term stability of 0.01% (i.e.±100 Hz).
The short term stability (i.e. stability over a 1.0 second period) is required to be at least 0.001%
(i.e.±10 Hz) The word size is 16 bits plus the SYNC waveform and the parity bit for a total of
20 bit times. There are three types of words transferred; command words, status words and
data words. The formats for these words are illustrated in following Figure

A command word comprises six separate fields. These are briefly explained be-low:
• The SYNC signal field is an invalid Manchester waveform so that it cannot be ‘confused’
with any data bits.
• The RT address field occupies 5 bits, each RT being assigned a unique 5 bit address. Decimal
address 31(11111) is not assigned as a unique address and is a broadcast address.
• The T/R bit is 0 if the RT is to receive, and 1 if the RT is to transmit.
• The sub-address/mode field, comprising 5 bits, is used for either an RT sub-address or mode
control. The sub-address is used to route data to and from a location in the RT. A code of all
zeros (00000) in the sub-address/mode field indicates that the contents of the word counts/mode
field are to be decoded as a five bit mode command.

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The data word count/mode code field, comprising 5 bits, is generally used for data transfers.
The word count field indicates the number of data words to be transferred in any one message
block, the maximum number being 32 (indicated by all zeros).
• The parity bit is 1 if there is an odd number of bits in fields 1–19.

A status word is the first word of a response by an RT to a BC command. It provides:

(a) A summary of the status/health of the RT.
(b) The word count of the data words to be transmitted in response to a command.
The fields are briefly described below:
• The SYNC signal field is the same as with a command word.
• The RT address field (5 bits) confirms the correct RT is responding.
• The status field comprises 11 bits. The message error bit is set if the previous command was
not correctly understood. The instrumentation bit =0 to distinguish the word from a command
word.
• The parity bit is set by the RT in the same sense as a command word.
Data words contain the actual data transmitted between stations. The data field is 16 bits. For
commands which imply a data content, data words are transmitted corresponding to the word
count in the command or status word.
The SYNC signal is the inverse of the command and status word syncs. The most significant
bit of the data is transmitted after the SYNC bits.

There are ten possible transfer formats, but the three most commonly used
Formats are:
• BC to RT
• RT to BC
• RT to RT
These are shown in following Figure.

An intermission gap time of at least 2µsisprovided by the bus controller between messages. A
status word gap time of at least 2µsbut not more than 10µs is provided by the RT before
transmitting a status word.

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