Delay Lock Loop
Delay Lock Loop
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ABSTRACT
by
Sok-kyu Lee
method is proposed to evaluate the autocorrelation and its power spectrum density
(PSD) of the cross-correlated terms in the presence of multirate multiple access inter-
ference (MMAI) under additive white gaussian noise (AWGN) and fading channel
of the phase estimator error and code tracking jitter is evaluated by solving the
Among many linear multiuser detectors which decouple the multiple access
interference from each of the interfering users, one-shot window linear decorrelating
detector (LDD) based on a one bit period to reduce the complexity of the LDD
The selection diversity scheme at the input of the Hybrid SD/MRC LDD is based
on choosing the branch with the maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of all filter
outputs. The MR Combining scheme at the output of the Hybrid SD/MRC LDD
adopts to maximize the output SNR and thus compensates for the enhanced output
noise. The Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD with PLL is introduced to track its
phase error and to improve the demodulation performance. The probability density
functions of the maximum SNR of the SD combiner , the near-far resistance (NFR)
combiner for Hybrid SD/MRC LDD are evaluated, and the bit error probability is
obtained from these pdfs. The performance of Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD is
by
Sok-kyu Lee
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Faculty of
New Jersey Institute of Technology
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical Engineering
January 2001
APPROVAL PAGE
iv
To my father and mother
To my father-in-law and mother-in-law
To my wife, Eunhwa Roh
To my son, Brian Taehyun Lee
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
His advice, guidance and insight helped me enormously throughout this research.
My gratitude is extended to Dr. Nirwan Ansari, Dr. Joseph Frank, Dr. Yun-
Qing Shi, and Dr. Eliza Michalopoulou for serving as members on the dissertation
Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology. Their help and suggestions are
Finally, I would like to sincerely thank my father, mother, brother, and sisters
for always being there when I most needed them. Also, I would like to thank my
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 PHASE-LOCKED LOOP 19
3 DELAY-LOCKED LOOP 41
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Chapter Page
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
fading) environment 39
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
(Continued)
Figure Page
3.2 The variable of the tracking jitter as a function of the power gain 53
3.3 PDF of the tracking jitter when both data channels are active with pilot 54
3.4 The difference between the PDFs of the tracking jitter and Gaussian .. 55
3.5 The variance comparison of the low and high rate interferences with same
power gain 56
3.8 Bit error probability for chip synchronization in Rayleigh fading channel
3.9 Bit error probability for chip synchronization in Rayleigh fading channel
4.3 The comparison of Verdu's LDD and Hybrid SD/MRC LDD in asynchronous
CDMA systems 69
4.6 Hybrid SD/MRC One-shot LDD with PLL for first user 77
Figure Page
4.9 BER of Conventional matched filter (Cony. MF) with SD (L=2, L=4),
LDD without SD/MRC, LDD with MRC scheme, and Hybrid
SD/MRC LDD with L = 2,4 in Rayleigh fading channel 87
4.10 bit error probability with comparison of analytical and simulated results
as a function of the number of users in Rayleigh fading channel
environment 88
4.11 pdf of the inversed value of diagonal component of R -1 for first user's
left version (N = 128, and 8„ = 0) 89
4.12 pdf of the phase estimator error in AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels 90
4.13 Comparison of BER between LDD with PLL and LDD without PLL in
xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The origins of spread spectrum are in the military field and navigation systems.
Techniques developed to counteract intentional jamming have also proved suitable for
we highlight the milestones for CDMA development starting from the 1950s after
multiplexing system in which a common medium carries coded signals that need not
multiple access system. Claude Shannon and Robert Pierce introduced the basic
ideas of CDMA in 1949 by describing the interference averaging effect and the
spread spectrum system and introduced the processing gain equation and noise multi-
plexing ideas. In 1956, Price and Green filed for the antimultipath 'RAKE' patent.
spread spectrum signal and combined by the RAKE receiver. The near-far problem
(i.e, a high interference overwhelming a weaker spread spectrum signal) was first
nications in the form of the narrowband CDMA IS-95 standard in July 1993.
has been subject of extensive research since 1986 when Verdu formulated an optimum
1
2
multiuser detection scheme for the additive white gaussian noise (AWGN) channel,
more have been studied intensively throughout the world, and several trial systems
have been built and tested. These include FRAMES Multiple Access (FRAMES
Association I and II (TTA I and TTA II) schemes in Korea. Introduction of third-
spread over a wide frequency band, much wider than the minimum bandwidth
required to transmit the information being sent. It employs a waveform that for
all purposes appears random to anyone but the intended receiver of the transmitter
waveform. Actually, for ease of both generation and synchronization by the receiver,
precise rules, but statistically it nearly satisfies the requirements of a truly random
sequence. In spread spectrum CDMA all users use the same bandwidth, but each
For more than a decade, research has been ongoing to find enabling techniques
have been aligned with efforts in the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
and other bodies to find standards and recommendations which ensure that mobile
• Packet data
• Complex spreading
• Multiuser detection
cation Union (ITU) have been under intense research and development recently.
One of the main objectives for the IMT-2000 air interface is that the system will
be designed to support the multimedia services at data rates as high as 2Mb/s [5].
The most promising candidate is the code division multiple access (CDMA) system.
As is well known, each user in a CDMA system is assigned a unique code, called
pseudo-random (PN) codes. The PN codes must be generated at the receiver as well
4
and must be synchronized to coincide perfectly with the timing of the received trans-
mission. The tracking process, which should be refined after synchronization, is the
focus and thus, we approach the code jitter tracking process with the delay-locked
the users are permitted to transmit simultaneously, operate at the same nominal
frequency, and use the entire system bandwidth. Recently, extensive investigations
for effective operation of multirate signals have been carried out into the application
of a code division multiple access (CDMA) system as an air interface multiple access
Wideband CDMA systems are designed to accommodate a higher data rate for
better multimedia service. Since the spreaded signal bandwidth is the same for all
users, the transmitter needs multiple spreading factors (SF) to support a variable
rate code in the physical channel. Variable Length Orthogonality (VLO) presented
in [8] is necessary for channelization and the Gold code is used as a PN code for
research efforts provided in the past[3] [4]. It is evident that the performance of the
the signal-to-noise and interference power ratio (SNIR) and the frequency difference
between the desired signal and the interference signal. Among the many behaviors
5
which can explain the performance of the PLL, our main concern is the steady-state
PDF of the phase estimate error as a function of the number of the simultaneous
users.
systems and their applications. The need for considering the aperiodic crosscorre-
lation properties of the code sequence is shown in papers [10] [11] [12]. However,
they did not treat asynchronous multirate code sequences nor evaluate the
Our approach is first to derive the carrier phase estimate of the pilot signal
that allows the receiver to extract and to synchronize its local oscillator to the
integrated structure of DLL and PLL for receiving the desired signal effectively and
simply since noncoherent code tracking performance will not be influenced directly
gaussian noise and MMAI components using the Dynamic Partial Correlation (DPC)
method to solve the cross-correlation terms and the corresponding power spectral
Since a linear analysis yields a large deviation between the analytical results and
actual performance in a low SNR environment [1], [2], here the effect of these sources
adopt a pilot signal for coherent demodulation. Thus, the steady-state PDF and
variance of the phase estimator error of the PLL under various fading environments
environment.
6
technique after the considerable research efforts provided in the past[3] [4]. The
Although its output S-curve is very useful to track the PN code phase of the desired
user, it is not perfect since several noise factors distort it. The noncoherent DLL
is the most popular technique. It suffers from tracking jitter due to the noise
enhancement arising from the square-law detector (squaring loss). The coherent
DLL overcomes this problem and improves the transmission performance. However,
do in fast fading. Fortunately, the chip synchronization process can take advantage
of the pilot channel in both the forward and the reverse link of the third-generation
systems.
In this paper we model the system that can be characterized by new capabilities
such as asynchronous operation, multirate service and pilot aided operation. In the
asynchronous system each user or cell site is assigned to a distinct Gold or Kasami
code for scrambling. To meet the requirment of multimedia services, variable length
orthogonal (VLO) code is necessary for channelization [7]. For coherent operation,
the channel estimator supports DLL. Therefore, various effects of noise and inter-
ference in our system will be distinguished from the result shown in publications as
[6], [10]-[12]. The scrambing PN code of different users or cell sites occurs to the DLL
codes for CDMA in [12], the result was extended to multirate CDMA [34]. As
they examined only the mean and the variance, we can't extend to evaluate the
performance of DLL and it will be mentioned in detail later. The interferences of the
output of the ELG device are the time function consisting of the cross-correlations.
7
After we determine the autocorrelation and its PSD of the time functions, we evaluate
are several kinds of phase-locked receivers on the market for a variety of appli-
synchronization, tracking, and ranging. Its application is more useful in low SNR
of the importance of the application of the phase-locked loop (PLL), there has been
a tremendous amount of work done in this area. There are several books [1],[2] which
look into the analysis and design of the PLL in one way or the other.
A PLL is a device which continuously tries to track the phase of the incoming
The basic operation requirement for the loop is to track the phase of the input
to the phase difference between the input signal and VCO signal. This error signal
is then amplified, filtered to remove excess noise and other undesirable components,
and applied to the VCO to effect input signal phase tracking. Consider an input
signal of form
where A is the peak signal amplitude (a constant), w i is the input signal center
frequency, and øi is the input signal phase. Assume that the VCO output signal is
of the form
where ø(t) is the VCO phase estimate. A particular form of VCO signal is chosen,
with the main feature being the quadrature relationship between the input and the
VCO output. A secondary feature is the 2/A amplitude, chosen solely as a matter
of convenience. Both characteristics stem from the multiplier form of the phase
If we neglect the upper sideband component (the first term in (1.3)), or assume
that it is subsquently rejected by the loop filter, the filter output becomes
where K2 is the baseband amplifier gain, f(t) is the impulsive response of the filter,
9
and ® denotes convolution. This baseband voltage is applied to the VCO, and
control voltage,
Once receiver timing has been synchronized to within a fraction of a chip time, the
relative motion of transmitter and receiver and the instability of clocks, corrections
received spreading waveform C(t — . The function will denote the receiver
estimate of τ(t) and τ(t) and τ(t) are always functions of time, whether or not
this dependence is written explicity. The received signal consists of the spreading
waveform C(t — 'T) and additive white gaussian noise. That is,
phase discriminator, a loop filter, a voltage controlled oscillator, and a code waveform
generator
and retarded version C(t — T — (0/2)T) of the local PN code generator sequence.
Parameter A is the total normalized time difference between the advanced and
measuring device in a noiseless environment. That is, let T and ii be fixed and
-
determine the output of the discriminator. This output will contain a component
The delay-locked discriminator output is the difference of x 1 (t) and x 2 (t) and
is
The dc component of this signal is used for code tracking. The dc component
of E(t, 7, 'T) is denoted D o (T, f) and the time average of E(t, 'r, f ). Thus
-
written
where
The filter output is the convolution of the input signal and the impulse response.
That is,
12
Finally, considering the VCC, the nonlinear integral equation representing the
There has been great interest in improving DS-CDMA detection through the use of
of multiple users are jointly used to better detect each indivisual user. The important
assumption is that the codes of multiple users are known to the receiver a priori.
Verdú's seminal work [30] proposed and analyzed the optimum multiuser
tunately, this detector is much too complex for practical DS-CDMA systems.
Therefore, over the last decade or so, most of the research has focused on finding
Most of the proposed detectors can be classified in one of two categories: linear
Among many suboptimal detectors proposed, Lupas and Verdu's linear decor-
relating detector (LDD) [28],[29] has attracted wide attention. The LDD achieves the
same near-far resistance as the optimum detector while its complexity is linear in the
number of users. Although the LDD is much simpler than Verdu's optimum detector,
it is still too complicated and will lead to unacceptable detection delay while dealing
with asynchronous CDMA. Therefore, another scheme, also proposed by Lupas [33],
called one-shot LDD, where the detection of data is based on the signal observed in
13
one bit length period, the detection of an asynchronous CDMA is transformed into
that of synchronous CDMA. One-shot LDD is synchronized with one of the users,
must be solved for the detection of one user, and a total of U different (2U-1)-user
synchronous CDMA problems must be solved for the detection of the total U users.
and the receiver can vary from simple line-of-sight to one that is severely obstructed
Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable, radio channels are
extremely random and do not offer easy analysis. Even the speed of motion impacts
14
how rapidly the signal level fades as a mobile terminal moves in space. Modeling the
radio channel has historically been one of the most difficult parts on measurements
Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
area of a transmitter and are called large-scale propagation models, since they charac-
terize signal strength over large Tx-Rx separation distances (several hundreds or
thousands of meters). On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the
rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short travel distances
(a few wavelengths) or short time durations (on the order of seconds) are called
From now on, we will consider only small-scale fading models ignoring the
distance. In the fading model, depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband
15
signal changes as compared to the rate of change of the channel, a channel may be
classified either as a fast fading or slow fading channel. In the fast fading channel, the
channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. That is, the
coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted
signal. On the other hand, a slow fading channel is one whose impulse response
describe the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat fading
signal is made up of multiple reflective rays plus a significant line-of-sight (no faded)
component, the envelope amplitude due to small-scale fading has a Rician pdf
where r is the envelope amplitude of the received signal, and σ2 is the predetection
mean power of the multipath signal. The Rayleigh faded component is sometimes
called the random, or scatter, or diffuse component. The Rayleigh pdf results from
having no specular component of the signal; thus, for a single link it represents the
pdf associated with the worst case of fading per mean received signal power.
Figure 1.7 PDF (Histogram) of envelope of Lognormal fading with zero mean
magnetic fields of the received signal at the mobile are deduced from scattering [9].
Fig.1.4 shows the envelope of Rayleigh faded signal as a function of time from the
Fig.1.5 illustrates the probability density function (PDF) of the Rayleigh faded
controlled, the signal powers are log-normally distributed [3]. Fig.1.6 shows the
envelope of Lognormal faded signal as a function of time and Fig.1.7 shows the pdf
- Performance analysis via the PDF and variance of phase estimator error
multiuser detection.
environments.
18
deep faded signal by the selection of the largest instantaneous SNR from
the SD combiner.
- Adopt the maximal ratio (MR) Combining scheme to maximize the output
conventional LDD.
- Apply the Phase-Locked Loop to the Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD for
system.
- Evaluate the pdfs of the maximum SNR at the SD combiner output, the
near-far resistance (NFR) of LDD, and the maximum SNR at the Hybrid
- Obtain the bit error probability by using the pdfs, analyze the performance
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
carrier cos w e t. The signal s u (t) with the pilot and multirate data is expressed by
°
where the pilot signal and its channelization code sequence W is assumed to be all
-1 [5] and Gr is the power gain and r = l, h denote low-rate and high-rate signals,
respectively. Defining a rectangular pulse by h T (t) = 1 for 0 <= t <= T and hT (t) =
0, otherwise, the data sequence with r rate, dru (t), can be written as
with consecutive data bits {dru (n)} taking on values of +1 with equal probability.
Since the two different data channels should share the same channel bandwidth,
19
20
For variable sequence length synchronization, we shall denote the bit interval of
the low-rate data as T1 and the number of bits of channelization code corresponding
to T1 as N1 . The high-rate data will be transmitted data with bit intervals of duration
Th and channelization code length Nh. The channelization code waveform, Wr(t),
where T„, = Tl/Nl = Th /Nh and Wr(n) is a periodic sequence with length N, chosen
As shown, for example, in Fig.2.2, each bit of the low rate data dul is spread by a
code of length N1 = 2'2 , where n is an abitrary integer. Since the bit duration of high
rate data Th is half the duration of a bit in the low rate T1 , we need a spreading code
and SFs is necessary for multirate multiuser detection to be accomplished. Thus the
where Cu (n)is a periodic sequence with length N chosen in Gold or Kasami code
set. If we assume that the length of the PN code is the same as TI , then T1 = NT,.
corrupts them by adding gaussian noise. Hence, the incoming signal r(t) to the
where A(t) and ø u(t) are the received envelope and the carrier phase delay due to
the channel, respectively, U indicates the number of users, 'n u is the code phase delay,
and n(t) is additive white gaussian noise having a zero mean and a one-sided PSD
Without loss of generality, we will assume that the signal to be tracked belongs
to the pilot signal of the first user. The locally generated code and phase sequence
where Tl and .. 1 (t) are the estimates of the code and phase delay of the local oscillator
for user one determined by the DLL and PLL estimator signal, respectively. When
the one-sided loop bandwidth B L is much less than the PN code chip rate 1/Tc , the
effect of the PN code self-noise on the loop performance can be neglected [15].
Assuming that the PN code of the desired user was tracked well, T i = 0 and
the output of the Integrate-and-Dump operations after multiplying the input r(t) by
The error signal to the loop filter is multiplied by the term of the estimated
From Fig.2.3, the instantaneous phase delay estimate of the PN code generator
where Kp is an overall closed loop gain including the gain of the voltage controlled
clock which drives the carrier generator. The coherent integro-differential equation
where
24
We will now find the probability density function (PDF) as a function of the number
of simultaneous users for investigating the behavior of the phase estimate error. We
have to evaluate the power spectrum density (PSD) of the corresponding MMAI and
terms with asynchronous multirate signals clearly since the method cannot treat
with a multirate signal. Therefore, we will introduce a new method called Dynamic
multirate signals.'
where the magnitudes pru(l) and qur (l) taking on values of +1 can be found by multi-
plying a code bit of the desired user and a delayed code bit of the 0 1 user and
where B(a,b) = 1 for a> b and B(a,b) = 0, otherwise. Therefore, equation (2.19)
Eqns. (2.25)-(2.27) have the constant terms and first order terms for a
The sequences of the channelization code with pilot signal are all l's. Therefore,
where
Next, we will find the PSD of R. /67; (m) due to multiple access interferences with
different data rate. The autocorrelation function of the low-rate MAI is represented
by DPC terms as
where
28
subscript, -1,0, and 1 denote the last previous data bit, the present data bit, and the
where
29
where
where 6 constant terms, Js, not depending on m are following with 71 = 1, 2, 3 and
where
with
2.3.4 Case of AWGN
Assuming that the AWGN has zero mean and that the in-phase term and quadrature-
AWGN is represented by
The solution of a nonlinear stochastic differential equations such as (2.17) for the
steady-state probability density function (PDF), p(0), may be accomplished via the
Fokker-Planck method [4], [11], [14], [17]. From here on, we will use 0 = 0 1 for
convenience and simplicity. To illustrate the theory, we shall consider the case of
a first-order loop (i.e., F(s) = 1) and also assume d(ø1)/dt = 0. The PDF, p(0),
32
where
From (4.28), using the well-known method of [1],[4], [22], we get the PDF of
using the aymptotic formula I0 (v) ,c:-., exp(v) / V2R v that p(0) approaches a Gaussian
-
density function with zero mean and variance o ?.. Parameter v represents the loop
-
where the loop bandwidth B L = KpT l / 4 for the loop transfer function
By using the PDF of the phase estimator error given by expression (3.42), the
distribution for a large equivalent loop SNIR, and the variance becomes
33
environment. The transmitter has three different channels which can be separated
by channelization codes. The transmitter signal for each user is despreaded by Gold
code with length N=128. At first, the PDF of the steady-state phase estimator
AWGN environment without fading channel is investigated. Next, the PDF and
various aspects.
Fig.2.5 illustrates the behavior of the phase estimator error PDF, p(0), as a
function of the number of simultaneous users U, power gain of low-rate data, and
power gain of high-rate data. The peak height of the PDF clearly increases with
a reduction of the power gain of low-rate and high-rate data (in other words, the
tracking ability of the phase-locked loop is degraded), and decreases as the number of
simutaneous users increases. As shown in Fig.2.5, if the power gain of the multirate
data signal increases by approximately the power of the pilot signal, the variance of
the phase estimator error decreases rapidly; therefore, a tradeoff exists between the
power limitations imposed by the pilot signal, low-rate data signal, and high-rate
data signal.
Fig.2.6 shows the variance of the phase estimator error as a function of the
number of simultaneous users with the power gain of multirate signals as a parameter.
Note that the variance increases with a reduction of the power gain of multirate data
signals. The signal-to-AWGN ratio is fixed at 6dB. For example, when the number
of users is U = 60, the variance of phase tracking error for G I = 0.3 and Gh = 0.5 is
required about 0.125 while the variance for G 1 = 0.1 and Gh = 0.2 is required 0.09.
This means that the larger the power of multirate signal, the larger the variance and
thus the PLL can not track the phase error of the pilot signal exactly.
Fig.2.7 shows the behavior of the phase estimator error PDF, p(0), as a function
The peak height of pdf decreases as the number of users increases. For example, the
peak height for 20 active users is around o.6 much higher than that for 60 active
users at the fixed multirate signal powers G 1 = Gh = 0.1. The tracking ability of
PLL may be degraded quickly with the increase of the number of active users.
Figure 2.8 PDF of Phase Estimator Error with Comparison of Unfaded and Faded
Channel Environment
Fig.2.8 shows the PDFs of phase estimator error in unfaded channel and faded
phase-locked loop in faded channel is worse than that in no fading channel for no
of simultaneous users and AWGN. The variance increases as the number of the users
increases, but is not influenced greatly by AWGN. When the variance for 5 active
37
users is 0.035 at SNR 10 dB, the variance for 80 active users is 0.35 at the same SNR
and for 40 active users is 0.75. The number of users effects the tracking ability of
PLL since the multiple access interference increases as the number of users increases.
estimator error between fading and unfading channel environment increases with an
increase of the number of simultaneous users. And the variance of phase estimator
Since the performance of Rayleigh faded received signals are degraded rapidly,
adaptation of power control system can mitigate near-far effect and improve the SNIR
performance. Assuming the power control of real system is imperfect, the power
controlled received signal with fading channel has log-normally distributed envelope
38
under the variance 2-3[dB] in log scale. As see in the Fig.2.10, the variances of all
the channels do not change above the SNR of 6 dB. This means that the multiple
access interference and faded signal effect much more than the AWGN channel. For
example, the variances for all the cases are 0.77, 0.38, 0.16, and 0.09, respectively,
at the SNR 6 dB, the variances did not more decrease with the reduction of SNR.
Figure 2.10 Variance of Phase Estimator Error with comparison of unfaded and
faded channel environments
Fig.2.11 illustrates the behavior of the phase estimator error PDF, p(0), as
seen in the simulated results, the Log-normal faded environment with variance 2-3
[dB] almost equals to Rayleigh faded environment while the received signal average
powers are same. If the power of multirate data increases, the peak height of pdf will
39
be decreases deeply since the multirate data channels are also invoking the multiple
Figure 2.11 PDF of Phase Estimator Error in imperfect power control (Log-Normal
fading) environment
Finally, Fig.2.12 shows the variance of phase estimator error in imperfect power
variance does not effect greatly the performance, especially, for a lot of active users.
For example, when the variances for 10 active users with the variance of the fading
envelopes of 2 and 3 dB at an SNR 10 dB, are 0.22 and 0.35, respectively, the
variances for 40 active users with the fading envelopes 2 and 3 dB, are 0.16 and 0.17,
respectively. These results are almost the same for 80 active users.
40
was, as expected, degraded when there is a phase delay error of the received signal
in wideband CDMA systems, the PLL was used to mitigate the degradation of
that the performance of receiver with PLL improved the pdf and variance of phase
estimator error.
DELAY-LOCKED LOOP
The coherent DLL receiver consists of the ELG for spread PN code tracking and the
channel estimator for coherent tracking and several filters [5]. The block diagram of
Without loss of generality, we will assume that the signal to be tracked belongs
41
42
user. Since the tracking begins after successful code acquisition, the code delay of a
The incoming baseband signal r(t) to the coherent DLL in Fig.3.1, can be
modelled as
where a u is the attenuation factor due to the fading, τu is the overall time delay, and
øu is the path phase delay of the u th user received signal. Because of the asynchronous
system, u th user's time delays u except u = 1 can be assumed as 0 <= u < NT,. We
now assume n(t) in (3.1) as a white Gaussian process with one sided PSD N 0 /2.
changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal, the channel
slow fading channel, the factor a and corresponding phase delay ø can be considered
sequence.
where Tl is the estimate of the code delay for user one. The received signal is the
and a late code waveform C 1 (t — Tl — A). When the single-sided loop bandwidth BL
is much less than the PN code chip rate 1/T,, then the effect of the PN code self-noise
where ±L denotes one half of the length (in seconds) of a PN code chip,
43
The error signal to the loop filter is multiplied by the estimated fading envelope
'd i and the estimated conjugate phase e - j(7'' in the following way:
where D1^P(0, γ1) is the normalized desired output of the ELG S-curve and it is
multiplied by ξ1=αuα1 and it also distorted by the total interference /(t), and
Next I^l(t) and I^h(t), terms due to the data channels, are expressed by
where Ur is the number of the active users of the r rate data channel in total users
and
44
with the multirate code cross-correlation having the data and channelization
waveforms as
where f (t) is the loop filter transfer function in the time domain and K v is the gain
of the voltage controlled clock in Hz/V which drives the PN code generator. From
the definition E u Tc =τu-τ1, the normalized code tracking jitter E l for the desired
Next, we will evaluate the PSD in (3.14) by its autocorrelation functions. Since all
noise sources are pairwise uncorrelated with respect to one another, the autocorre-
with
on the interval [0, 271], τu is uniformly distributed on the interval [0, NTC ], and a u is
Rayleigh distributed. Also, the data symbols dru are asumed to take on values +1 or
Because the combination of data sequence and channelization code of pilot channel
is all l's, partial correlation between desired code and the other code for the pilot
channel is not needed. Therefore, R i p (m) does not depend on m, i.e, the shifted
versions by m are same since all PN codes are periodic with Tl. Φu^P is a special case
Let the phase difference be = kTc pu(t) and qu (t) taking on values of
±1, are the same as (2.20) and (2.21) except that the definition
defined as
46
The PSD of R i p is
Mark + means that the denoted terms are including +A. Therefore the +
terms as
where
47
and (2.19) as
the subscripts, -1,0, and 1 indicate the turn of entry. As shown in (3.22) and (3.24),
data bits at that time are decided by the position of m. That is, if m is less than ' y1 ,
-
then dlu(-1) and du^l(0) are used and if m is greater than '-y, then d u^l(0) and d u/ (1)
are used. To find these two regions of m is easy for the low-rate case since one low
data bit matches to one PN code with length Ti. In the case of high-rate, the regions
After changing all DPC functions M,/, in (3.22), if a Fourier transform is taken
with
48
(3.27)
As is mentioned in the low-rate case, while the number of region of m for high-
zero, if Th < γu= < 2Th then 'a' is one, and so forth. Additionally we need 'b' to
represent middle regions except for the first and last region. It is a integer with
In (3.29) 9 constant terms. Js. not depending on m are the following with
Similar to the low-rate case, the PSD of the high-rate term can be represented
as
with
where the constant terms are the following with n = 1, 2,3 and
As we assumed, since n (t) is an AWGN process with zero mean and PSD N0 /2 ,the
The solution of nonlinear stochastic differential equations such as (3.14) for the
steady-state probability density function (PDF) p(E) may be accomplished via the
Fokker-Planck method [4], [11], [14], [17]. To illustrate the theory, we shall consider
the case of a first-order loop (i.e., F(s) = 1) and also assume d(τ1)/dt = 0 and a
negligible recovered carrier phase error = 0. Notice DP (0, 7 1 ) in (3.3) can be repre-
Finally, the PDF and the mean-squared tracking jitter variance over the code
can be found as
53
We now evaluate in detail the PDF of the steady-state tracking jitter of the delay-
transmitter has three distinct channels that can be seperated by channelization codes.
Since the high rate data is set to be 4 times faster than the low one, W ^l is both 4
times longer than W h and orthogonal to the set {W h }. Each transmitter for an
individual user (or cell site) is spread by Gold codes with length 128.
Figure 3.2 The variance of the tracking jitter as a function of the power gain.
Figure 3.2 shows the variance of the tracking jitter as a function of power gain
of the data channels. Power gain of the pilot channel is set to 1 and all other power
gains are normalized to it. Though the DLL tracks the PN code, actually it is the
pilot channel that is tracked since the pilot channel does not have any signal except
the PN waveform. Therefore, the two data channels affect the DLL performance
54
as interference. The variance of the tracking error for faded channel is higher than
that for unfaded channel. This means that the error tracking ability of DLL for
faded channel is degraded in contrast to that for the unfaded channel. The variance
difference bewteen the faded and the unfaded channel is very close since the power
gain of the data channel is much higher than that of pilot and thus the unfaded
Figure 3.3 PDF of the tracking jitter when both data channels are active with pilot.
Seeing Figure 3.2 again, when the two data channels are not active i.e., G=0
and Gh = 0, the variance is about 0.045. If we set G ^l and Gh to 0.5 and 1 respectively,
the amount of variance is increased about 0.025. It means that two data channels
cause the performance to be decreased by 1.8dB. Thus, the choice of the power
gains is important since a tradeoff exists between the noise effect of the data channel
and power efficiency. Since the high-rate signal should be transmitted with a larger
55
power than the low-rate signal to maintain their performance generally in a practical
system, we used a Gh that is two times G ^l. The calculated PDF of the code phase
Figure 3.4 The difference between the PDFs of the tracking jitter and Gaussian
Figure 3.3 shows the PDFs for different number of users when all data channels
are active. The peak height of the PDF is decreased exponentially as the number of
active channels increases. It means that the capacity of a channel decreases rapidly
and thus the performances between 40 and 80 channels are closer than 10 and 20
channels. The shape of the PDF looks Gaussian but is not. The absolute sum of
the difference between PDFs of the tracking jitter and gaussian is shown with the
variance in Figure 3.4. The difference decreases rapidly but it does not go to zero
since we assumed the code phase delay was limited in Tc and the jitters happen either
56
Figure 3.5 The variance comparison of the low and high rate interferences with
same power gain
very rarely or not outside of 3T/2. Consquently, the variance of tracking error of
DLL increases as the number of users increases and thus, the channel capacity is
Next we fixed power gains to 1 and we varied the number of active channels.
Two cases are compared : when the high data channel is not active and when the
low data channel is not active, we seek to determine which data channel effects the
performance as a worse interference. Figure 3.5 shows the worse interference is a low
data channel. The reason can be found in the channelization code since the two data
channels use the same scrambling code. While the channelization code is short and
57
periodic for the high rate, the one for the low rate is long as much as NT,. Thus, it
makes the scrambling PN code to more distorted.
Figure 3.6 Bit error probability for chip synchronization in AWGN channel as a
function of SNR
Figure 3.6 shows the bit error probability for chip synchronization in AWGN
channel as a function of the SNR. As explained for Figure 3.2, when we demodulate
only the desired user's pilot signal, the other users' pilot signals and corresponding
multirate data signals interfere with the desired user's pilot signal. Therefore, the
total of interfering users (or signals) is 3(U-1). For example, if the interfering users
are 10, then the total interfering channels are 30. When the bit error probability is
10 -2 for G1=Gh=0.5, the required SNR is 3 and 12 dB, but it is much larger than
that for G1=Gh=1 in synchronous and asynchronous chip, respectively. This means
that the more channels of multirate data signal for each user, the worse the channel
58
capacity, and thus the demodulation performance will be degraded quickly with the
Figure 3.7 Bit error probability for chip synchronization in AWGN channel as a
function of the number of users
Figure 3.7 shows the bit error probability for chip synchronization in AWGN
channel as a function of the number of users. The bit error probability is degraded
when the DLL does not track the code delay error exactly. For example, when the
bit error probability is 10 -2 for asynchronous case with G1=Gh=0.5, the required
channels) that for synchronous case. This means that the chip delay jitter effects
Figures 3.8 and 3.9 show the bit error probabilities for chip synchronization in
Rayleigh fading channel as a function of the Average SNR per bit and the number
59
of users, respectively. The bit error probability decreases quickly when the power
of data channel is small, but the probability decreases slowly when the power of
data channel is big since the multiple access interference increases much more for the
Figure 3.8 Bit error probability for chip synchronization in Rayleigh fading channel
as a function of the Average SNR per bit
gaussian noise and Rayleigh fading channels. We proposed the DPC method to
analyze the autocorrelation and PSD of the time function having MMAI crosscorre-
lation. The PDF of the code tracking jitter and its variance were derived in a first
order loop and several results showed the effect of MMAI under various conditions.
The bit error probability of the code tracking jitter shown through a comparison of
60
code synchronous case and asynchronous case as the functions of the average SNR
per bit and the number of users over AWGN and Rayleigh fading channel.
Figure 3.9 Bit error probability for chip synchronization in Rayleigh fading channel
as a function of the number of users
CHAPTER 4
systems. The selection diversity scheme at the input of the Hybrid SD/MRC LDD
is based on choosing the branch with the maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of
all filter outputs. The MR Combining scheme at the output of the Hybrid SD/MRC
LDD adopts to maximize the output SNR and thus compensates for the enhanced
output noise. The Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD with PLL is introduced to track
its phase error and to improve the demodulation performance. The probability
density functions of the maximum SNR of the SD combiner , the near-far resistance
(NFR) of one-shot LDD by Gaussian approximation, and the maximum SNR of the
MR combiner for Hybrid SD/MRC LDD are evaluated, and the bit error probability
is obtained from these pdfs. The performance of Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD is
4.1 Introduction
interference and thus increasing the system capacity. The actual capacity increase
depends on the efficiency of the algorithm, radio environment, and the system load.
The idea of multiuser detection was first mentioned in 1979 by Schneider [35].
lation receivers [36]. In 1984, Verdu proposed and analyzed the optimal multiuser
detector and the maximum likelihood sequence detector, which, unfortunately, is too
61
62
function of the number of users [37]. Consequently, Verdu's work inspired a number
Fig.4.1 depicts a system for multiuser detection. Each user is transmitting data
bits, which are spread by the spreading codes. The signals are transmitted over an
additive white gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. In the receiver, the received signal
is correlated with replicas of the user spreading codes. The correlator consists of
a multiplier. A matched filter can also be used. Multiuser detection processes the
signals from the correlators jointly to remove the unwanted multiple access inter-
ference from the desired signal. The output of a multiuser detection block are the
A CDMA channel with U users sharing the same bandwidth is shown in Fig.4.1.
The signaling interval of each user is T seconds, and the input alphabet is antipodal
binary +1,-1. The objective is to detect those polarities, which contain the trans-
63
where τu is the transmission delay, and α u(n ) is the channel attenuation. According
to (4.2), each user's signal travels along a single path, so this model does not illustrate
multipath propagation. For synchronous CDMA, the delay τu = 0 for all users. For
where n(t) is additive white gaussian noise (AWGN). The first step in the detection
process is to pass the received signal r(t) through a matched filter bank (or a set
filter bank form a set of sufficient statistics about the input sequence d(n) given r(t).
Thus, we will consider the equivalent discrete time channel model which arises at
64
be expressed as
a colored Gaussian noise vector. The components of the matrix R are given by
signal.
Eq.(4.6).
components du contain the bit information sought. If n was identically zero, we have
Note that the decorrelating detector completely eliminates MAI. However, the
the output of the matched filter. For an example, in Eq.(4.7), the noise power at
since ρ1,2ρ2,1 is always smaller than 1. Fig.4.2 shows an example of AWGN power
increment of conventional LDD output. The value of the inverse matrix of user 1
increases as the number of users increases for a fixed signal-to-AWGN ratio of 10 dB.
decorrelating detector is that the computations needed to invert the matrix R are
difficult to perform in real time. For a synchronous system, the problem is somewhat
simplified : we can decorrelate one bit at a time. In other words, we can apply the
66
has been intensively investigated over the late decade. It has been found that the
near-far (NF) effect, especially in the direct sequence spread spectrum multiple access
(DS/SSMA) systems [14], [38]. The NF effect exists when a weak received signal is
interfered with by one or more strong signal such that the effective cross-correlations
among the signals degrade the performance of the conventional CDMA receiver.
in the problem of multiuser detection was motivated by the work of Verdú where
receiver is near-far resistant, but its complexity is exponential in the number of active
users. Recently much attention has been given to suboptimal detectors. Lupas and
Verdú's proposed linear decorrelating detector has attracted wide attention [38].
Since the decorrelator is a sequence detector, the detection process cannot be started
until the whole transmitted sequence is received at the receiver. In practice this is
not feasible and would result in a very long delay. Therefore, several finite delay
decorrelator schemes have been proposed. One of these schemes is the one-shot
linear transformation of the sampled matched filter outputs, were considered in [38]
for the synchronous channel. For the asynchronous case, Verdú proposed to use a
of users) filters are matched to the spreading code with one bit duration of a specific
user [39].
67
combines multiple replicas of the received signal, is a classical and powerful technique
maximum SNR selection combining and maximum ratio combining schemes have
attracted wide attention for compensating the Rayleigh faded envelope of received
signals [47],[48].
The maximum SNR selection diversity and maximal ratio combining schemes
have been analyzed for the last fifty years. The probability density function (pdf)
a Rayleigh fading channel was obtained in [45],[46],[48]. The maximum SNR at the
output of matched filter of the selection diversity combiner is random, and its pdf
was already well evaluated by many researchers [44],[48]. The pdf and symbol error
probalibity for conventional linear decorrelating detector was analyzed with Gaussian
approximation in [51].
The power control problem in uplink of DS-CDMA systems arises because of the
multiple access interference. Due to the propagation mechanism, the signal received
by the base station from a user terminal close to the base station will be stronger
than the signal received from another terminal located at the cell boundary. Hence,
the distant users will be dominated by the close user. This is called the near-far
effect. One solution to combat this near-far problem is multiuser detection where the
receiver exploits the knowledge of the sprea spectrum signals of the interfering users
to eliminate the near-far effect. The interest in the problem of multiuser detection
was motivated by the work of Verdu [30]. Verdu proposed the asynchronous LDD
with a packetized signal model [54], one of suboptimal detectors to combat the near-
far problem.
68
the end of the packet. Of course, the shorter the packet is, the smaller the detection
delay. However, the shorter packet means low channel efficiency since there should be
a no-signal period between each packet transmission. Without this no-signal period,
the asynchronous LDD proposed in [38] might be disturbed and all the interference
Another asynchronous LDD scheme has also been proposed by Verdu [54],
(a) shows the bit period of the desired user and the truncated window for the decor-
relator. There are three independent signal within the window for 2 users case :
and
1]x [2(U — 1) + 1]. Verdu's decorrelator is to demodulate only the symbol of desired
demodulate another user's symbol at the same time period, the matrix operation
must be repeated with the same complexity as that in the previous. Thus, to detect
the decorrelator matrix size is 2U x2U. Thus, our decorrelator needs only one
matrix operation and each user needs two pieces at the input of the decorrelator
for asynchronous CDMA systems. The total number of the matrix operation with
69
Figure 4.3 The comparison of Verdu's LDD and Hybrid SD/MRC LDD in
asynchronous CDMA systems
70
In this paper, we consider the NFR which Verdu defined as the multiuser
asymptotic efficiency [54] [29] [33] , and the compensation of the deep faded signal
in multiple access communications over a Rayleigh fading channel, and thus present
the Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD which consists of the maximum SNR selection
diversity scheme at the input of one-shot LDD and the maximal ratio combining
scheme at the output of the LDD. The maximum SNR of the SD combiner output,
each diagonal component of R -1 of LDD, and the maximum SNR of MR combiner are
random variables, and thus each pdf of the random variables has been found by many
researchers [47],[48],[50]. However, they did not treat the pdfs for the asynchronous
one-shot LDD. Thus, we evaluated the joint pdf of the random variables, the BER,
and assessed the performance of the LDD with the analytical and simulated results
the NFR exists to overcome the reduction of system capacity. Thus, we adopt
the conventional phase-locked loop (PLL) to track the carrier phase error, derive
the steady-state pdf of the phase estimator error, and analyze the performance of
the PLL in the Hybrid SD/MRC LDD. By applying a single-user phase synchro-
nization scheme, phase locked loop (PLL), at each output of the LDD, it is shown
that the Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD can be used for the coherent detection of
for 0 < t < Tα and 4,, (t) = 0, otherwise, the spreading code waveform c(t) and the
71
where consecutive signature and data bits {c(i)} and {d(i)} take on values of ±1
with equal probabilities, and T, and Tb are the chip duration of the spreading code
envelope statistics. The fading processes among the L diversity channels are assumed
an additive zero-mean white gaussian noise. Thus, the equivalent low-pass received
signals for the lth diversity channel of uth user can be expressed as
72
where
satisfies :
and
the left and right versions of the spreading waveform in one-shot window as shown
in Fig.4.5, respectively.
Diversity reception schemes are used to reduce the effects of fading. The basic
idea of a diversity reception is that if two or more independent samples of a signal are
taken, then these samples will fade in an uncorrelated manner. This means that the
probability of all the samples being simultaneously below a given level is much less
73
than the probability of any individual sample being below that level. The selection
diversity combiner in Fig.4.4 is the simplest of all the diversity schemes. An ideal
selection combiner chooses the signal with the highest instantaneous SNR, so the
In Fig.4.4, each user at the input of the SD combiner has two matched filters
for correlating of the corresponding code. One filter is matched to the left part of
its code in one-shot window, corresponding to the interval [0, τu] and other one is
matched to the right part of the code, corresponding to the interval [τu, Tb ]. The
SD combiner with each L diversity reception for each user has two outputs (v uL and
CDMA into the detection of synchronous CDMA. Consider the one-shot window
to demodulate every bit we discard all information outside its interval. Defining
the received signal for uth user from Eq. (4.14) is rewritten as
74
Assuming knowledge of the code delay waveform 6,„(t — nTb ) and carrier delay
-
phase øu from the channel estimator, the SD combiner output can be expressed as
1,2,• • ,U, the correlation matrix R with the relative phase delay On ( = øu - øv)
where the decorrelating detector applies the inverse of the correlation matrix,
scheme because it does not use all of the possible branches simultaneously. Maximal
Ratio combining uses each of the LDD output pieces in a co-phased and weighted
manner such that the highest achievable SNR is available at the receiver at all times
75
[48]. In Fig.4.4, the output of the LDD for first user has just two branches with each
SNR for each branch to maximize the output SNR of the combiner. And, of course
this combining is not for the multipath fading but for the compensation of the
perfect fine synchronization of the carrier phase error, the soft estimate of LDD with
MR Combining scheme, yu(n), can be found by the sum of LDD output x u as follows:
output SNR at y. (n) and the signs ' and " denote the present matrix output and
next matrix output of the LDD, respectively. Note that after decorrelation, there are
only signal and enhanced background noise due to removing of interferences. The
input SNR (signal-to-background noise ratio) at v 1L and v1R are exactly the same.
However, the output SNR at x 1L and x1R are different from each other since each
output branch for the desired user (user 1) experiences different noise enhancement
by the inverse matrix filtering. The output SNR at each branch is enhanced by a
Since the input SNR is exactly the same, the factors )' 1L and λ1R are proportional to
the output SNR of each branch. And, thus, we can use these to post-decorrelation
Thus, we see that the decorrelating detector completely eliminates the multiple
access interference (MAI) and the Maximum Ratio Combining scheme does maximize
Fig.4.6 shows a block diagram of the LDD with a PLL to track the phase delay
error On . Assuming the phase delay error at all the diversity branches of the same
user is the same, the information data recovered by the demodulator multiplies the
The phase error estimate in Eq.(4.25) is fed into a loop filter F(S), followed by
a VCC, Kp /S, where Kp is the overall closed-loop gain. The VCC is used to adjust
the carrier phase. F(S) is the transfer function of the loop filter where F(S) = 1 for
a first-order PLL, and Kp /S is the transfer function of the VCC. The instantaneous
phase estimate ø „ for the local oscillator is then related to the phase discriminator
^
77
where S is the Heaviside operator S = d/dt. Therefore the change rate of the phase
where dø u /dt is the rate of change of the u th user's initial phase, f(t) is the transfer
function of the loop filter in the time domain, N(t) = n yu , (n) + nyu''(n), and *
Figure 4.6 Hybrid SD/MRC One-shot LDD with PLL for first user
the steady-state probability density function (PDF), p(0), may be accomplished via
the Fokker-Planck method [4], [11], [14], [17]. From here on, we will use 0 = 0 for
convenience and simplicity. To illustrate the theory, we shall consider the case of
78
where
From (4.28), using the well-known method [1],[4], [22] we get the PDF of the
where /0 (•) is the modified Bessel function of 0th-order. For v, it can be shown by
density function with zero mean and variance Parameter v represents the loop
signal-to-noise ratio(SNR).
will be obtained in a traditional way with the branch of the diversity reception, l =
1,2,• • ,L, by averaging the results for a slow Rayleigh fading channel over the distri-
bution of the maximal instantaneous SNR. The pdf of the maximal instantaneous
SNR over L independent identically distributed (iid) diversity paths is well known
successful, it is essential that the internal time constants of a selection diversity are
assume that the instantaneous amplitude received by each diversity branch is statis-
tically independent of other branches but has equal average signal power αl^2. The
The probability that all L independent diversity branches receive signals which
Therefore, the probability that at least one branch will exceed the threshold
To determine the average SNR of the received signal when diversity is used,
it is first necessary to find the pdf of the fading signal. For selection diversity, the
4.2.3.2 pdf of NFR of One-shot LDD We found the pdf of the output SNR
of the selection combiner at the input of the linear decorrelating detector. To obtain
the bit error probability of the receiver, it is necessary to evaluate the pdf of NFR
the performance of the conventional detector for time varying CDMA signal [49]
and Yoon and Hong used it for discrete time random signature sequences [50]. We
will use the Gaussian aproximation to analyze the statistical characteristics for the
Consider the detection of first user and the delay of the uth user with respect
and, N is the processing gain (PG) and random variable ρ1L uL + ρ1RuR has an
version of uth user in one-shot LDD, Rug, for Q = L, R, in random CDMA system,
the diagonal elements are random. Using the well-known method [52], [53], the
81
probability that the mth bit of uth user with the left or right version of one-shot
the pdf of the NFR to get the bit error probability of LDD. The pdf of the off-
has been analyzed by approximation in [51] but is covered briefly here for clarity.
Their approach was based on the random signature sequences for one packet, set
all the off-diagonal components in the cross-correlation matrix to zero except for
one row and one column corresponding to the cross-correlation of the desired user's
signature waveform with those of all other interfering users and showed the validity
where the processing gain is assumed to be large enough such that (1). < 1.
The approximation in Eq.(4.41) can be used in the one-shot LDD for random
signature sequences since each cross-correlation term for one packet is the same as
that for one bit. Therefore, we can get the approximate pdf of the near-far resistance
where
82
the pdf of the maximum SNR of SD combiner and the pdf of NFR of LDD. The LDD
output has only two branches with the corresponding partial energy for each user,
the left version of the present one-shot window and the right version of the next
one-shot window are weighted summed, and thus the demodulation output with
the full energy of one-shot duration is found. prior to finding the hard decision of
the variance :
83
distributed [38],[51], and thus the SNR of MRC output can be expressed as
The partial energy terms E uL and EuR in Eq.(4.47) are not statisically
independent for each other as defined in Eq.(4.17) and thus the normalized partial
energy is EuR = 1 - EuL . It is difficult to evaluate the SNR with the mean of the
the time delay τu is uniformly distributed in [0, Tb ] and thus the mean value of
the partial energy of left version is the same as that of right version in one-shot
The pdfs of maximum SNR of SD combiner, NFR of one-shot LDD and the
maximum SNR of the MR combining output are known, and thus the average bit
where fγSD (7sD) and fw (w) were evaluated in Eq.(4.36) and Eq.(4.42), respectively,
Using the results of the previous sections, a numerical evaluation of the performance
is given in this section. The code sequences used in the analysis use only code length
N = 128 of 511 chip Gold codes to keep the property of random-CDMA code. The
PLL performance in a conventional LDD is analyzed using the pdf in AWGN and
SNR selection diversity and MR Combining scheme is shown through bit-error rate
(BER) in AWGN and Rayleigh fading channel environments. All simulations used
mitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. Rayleigh
fading channel is the most severe mobile radio channel. Since third generation
wideband CDMA uses fast closed loop power control, the near-far effect is mitigated
performances of the Hybrid SD/MRC LDD in Rayleigh fading with the assumption
Fig.4.7 shows the bit error probability for Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
scheme to maximize the output SNR of LDD without SD scheme since we fixed
AWGN term and thus the term is not random at the output of the SD combiner.
The MRC scheme provides better improvement in bit error performance for moderate
to high average SNR in AWGN channel. For example, when Pe = 10 -5 , the required
85
average SNR per bit for MRC LDD is around 11dB, which is less than that required
of CLDD. This shows that the MRC scheme improves the demodulation performance
by the maximization of SNR at the LDD output.
Figure 4.7 BER of LDD without SD/MRC and Hybrid SD/MRC LDD (L = 1) in
AWGN channel
the deep faded signal and thus, provide much better performance than the LDD
without SD/MRC. For example, when Pe = 10 -2 , the required average SNR per
bit for SD/MRC with L=2 is around 9 dB less than that for MRC LDD with L=1,
while another 2.5 dB can be saved by an L=4 diversity scheme. This clearly demon-
strates that the transmitter signal power may be reduced when selection diversity
To verify the analysis derived in the previous section, the analytical BER is
compared with the simulated results for asynchronous CDMA as a function of the
number of users in Rayleigh fading channel. In this simulation, we used the base-
band BPSK signal at the signal-to-AWGN ratio 10 dB. The BER is slicely degraded
87
as the number of users increases due to the enhancement of output noise term of the
LDD.
Figure 4.9 BER of Conventional matched filter (Cony. MF) with SD (L=2, L=4),
LDD without SD/MRC, LDD with MRC scheme, and Hybrid SD/MRC LDD with
L = 2,4 in Rayleigh fading channel
Fig.4.11 depicts the comparison of the simulated pdf and the analytical value
duration and thus, we changed the variance to 1/2N. The inversed value of diagonal
the BER performance of the LDD is degraded with the increase of the number of
users. For example, the mean value and peak height of the pdf are about 9.3 and
0.2 for 10 active users while the mean and peak height are about 0.85 and 0.06 for
20 active users.
88
Fig.4.12 illustrates the behavior of the phase estimator error pdf, p(0), in
AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels when the signal-to-AWGN power ratio is fixed
at 10 dB. The height of the pdf was normalized with the reference of only one user's
height. The peak height of the PDF clearly increases in AWGN channel. However,
the peak decreases in Rayleigh fading channels. This means the tracking ability of
Figure 4.10 bit error probability with comparison of analytical and simulated results
as a function of the number of users in Rayleigh fading channel environment
Fig.4.13 shows the bit error probability between the LDD with PLL and without
PLL as a function of the average SNR per bit in AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels.
The phase tracking error in a real system is very small after aquisition, but we used
the range of the error, ±10 degree, to investigate plainly the behavior of the error
tracking of PLL. The carrier phase error causes the degardation of demodulation
89
performance in multiuser detection. For example, when the bit error probability is
Pe 10 -2 for the conventional LDD without PLL in Rayleigh fading channel, the
required average SNR per bit is about 1 dB larger than that with PLL, while another
3 dB can be saved by SD/MRC LDD receiver. In AWGN, the required SNR per bit
of the LDD without SD/MRC and SD/MRC LDDs can be also saved by PLL. This
means that fine synchronization of carrier phase error can mitigate the degradation
Figure 4.11 pdf of the inversed value of diagonal component of R -1 for first user's
left version (N = 128, and (5,, = 0)
Figure 4.12 pdf of the phase estimator error in AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels
Figure 4.13 Comparison of BER between LDD with PLL and LDD without PLL
in AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
an integrated PLL and DLL receiver to synchronize the phase delay and the code
the autocorrelation and its PSD of the crosscorrelation terms in a multirate signal
environment.
the DPC method to analyze the autocorrelation and PSD of the time function having
MMAI crosscorrelation. The PDF of the code tracking jitter and its variance was
derived for a first order loop and several results showed the effect of MMAI under
our results will facilliate the evaluation of third generation mobile communication
systems
A main issue in multiuser detection is to decouple the MAI of the received signal
of a DS-CDMA system. Among many linear multiuser detectors which decouple the
multiple access interference from each of the interfering users, one-shot window linear
decorrelating detector (LDD) based on a one bit period to reduce the complexity of
systems. The selection diversity scheme at the input of the Hybrid SD/MRC LDD
is based on choosing the branch with the maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of
all filter outputs. The MR Combining scheme at the output of the Hybrid SD/MRC
91
92
LDD adopts to maximize the output SNR and thus compensates for the enhanced
output noise. The Hybrid SD/MRC one-shot LDD with PLL is introduced to track
its phase error and to improve the demodulation performance. The probability
density functions of the maximum SNR of the SD combiner , the near-far resistance
(NFR) of one-shot LDD by Gaussian approximation, and the maximum SNR of the
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