General Mathematics

Quarter 2 – Module 5
Logic

Compiled and Repackaged by:

QUEENY JOYCE F. SEBASTIAN
Master Teacher I
Schools Division of the City of Batac
General Mathematics – Senior High School
Compiled and Repackaged Module
Quarter 2 – Module 5: Logic
First Edition, 2020

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Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Compiler and Layout Artist: Queeny Joyce F. Sebastian

Editor: Jerson E. Sebastian

Reviewers: Alexander Lino, EdD Sher-Amie Grace R. Macoco

Gracialyne Layaoen-Austria Blesilda B. Antiporda

Cover Art Artist: Clarence C. Manarpaac

Management Team: Joel B. Lopez, EdD, CESO V Marilou B. Sales, EdD

Annie D. Pagdilao, EdD Aubrhey Marie R. Oasay, PhD
Jhon Rey D. Ortal, EdD Joycelyn P. Perdido

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Office Address: 16S Quiling Sur, City of Batac, 2906 Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Telephone No: (077) 677-1993
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E-mail: [email protected]
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:
Welcome to the General Mathematics Compiled and Repackaged Module on
Logic.
This module was collaboratively compiled, repackaged and reviewed by
educators of the Department of Education Schools Division of the City of Batac to
assist you, the teacher or facilitator in helping the learners meet the standards set by
the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal, social, and economic
constraints in schooling.
Particularly, this module hopes to engage the learners into guided and
independent Fun-filled learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore,
this also aims to help learners acquire the needed 21st century skills and the four
livelihood skills for survival – the 4As (agtagibalay, agtaraken agmula, agliwliwa),
which are considered very vital in surviving any crisis.
As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist
the learners as they do the tasks included in the module.
For the learner:
Welcome to the General Mathematics Compiled and Repackaged Module on
Logic.
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You
will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an active
learner.
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not
alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
 What I Need To Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. A clear
understanding of the concepts in this lesson will help you understand logic. The
scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary levels of students. The lessons
are arranged to follow the standard sequence of course.

The module is composed of two lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1: Propositions
 Lesson 2: Conditional Propositions, Valid Arguments and Fallacies

Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC)

After going through this module, you are expected to:

 illustrate and symbolize propositions;

 distinguish between simple and compound proposition;
 perform the different types of operations on propositions;
 determine the truth values of propositions;
 illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions;
 illustrate different types of tautologies and fallacies;
 determine the validity of categorical syllogisms; and
 establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies.

Suggested Time Frame or Duration: 8 hours

1
 What I Know

Directions: To get started, try to answer the following questions to find out what you
already know about the topic. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following sentences is a proposition?

A. Am I ready?
B. Jose is a farmer.
C. Stop! You are not allowed to enter the house.
D. Buy one kilo of rice when you go to the market.

2. Which of the following is an example of a compound proposition?

A. Finish!
B. Water seeks its level.
C. Do you see goodness in others?
D. Health is wealth and lifestyle defines health.

3. Conjunction is a compound proposition connected by the word ______.

A. and C. if, then
B. or D. if and only if

4. Negation of proposition p can be written as_________.

A. ~p C. →p
B. p ˅ D. p ˄

5. What is the logical operator used in the proposition, “One has peace of mind if and
only if there is contentment”?
A. Biconditional C. Disjunction
B. Conditional D. Negation

For numbers 6 to 7, refer to the following problem.

p and q are both true propositions and r is a false proposition.

6. What is the truth value of ~q?

A. True C. neither true nor false
B. False D. information is insufficient

2
7. What is the truth value of p ∧ (~q)?
A. True C. neither true nor false
B. False D. information is insufficient

8. Under what condition/s is a disjunction false?

A. When both p and q are true.
B. When both p and q are false.
C. When p is true, and q is false.
C. When p is false, and q is true.

For numbers 9 to 10, refer to the given conditional proposition p ⟶ q.

“If yema cake is consumed in large volumes, then it can be harmful to one’s
health.”

9. What type of conditionals is being depicted by the conditional statement, “If yema
cake is not consumed in large volumes, then it cannot be harmful to one’s health”?
A. Contrapositive C. Equivalence
B. Converse D. Inverse

10. Which of the following represents item number 9?

A. ~p ⟶ ~q C. ~q ⟶ ~p
B. p ⟶ q D. q ⟶ p

11. What is a proposition that is always true?

A. Absolute C. Negation
B. Contradiction D. Tautology

12. Which of the following is NOT a tautology?

A. Affirming the Disjunct C. Modus Tollens
B. Modus Ponens D. Rule of Conjunction

13. Translate the argument into symbolic form. “If Joanna is relaxed, then she is
productive. If she is productive, then she is happy. Therefore, if Joanna is
relaxed, then she is happy.”
A. p → q C. p ˅ ~ q
~q ~p
∴ ~p ∴ ~q

B. ~p→q D. p→q
q→r q→r
∴ (~p ∨ q)→r ∴ p→r

3
14. An argument is valid if it satisfies the validity condition that
A. The premises p1, p2, …, pn are true, and the conclusion is true.
B. The premises p1, p2, …, pn are false, and the conclusion is false.
C. The premises p1, p2, …, pn are either true or false, and the conclusion is
true.
D. The premises p1, p2, …, pn are either false or true, and the conclusion is
false.

15. Which of the following rules of inference justifies the validity of the argument “If it
rains today, then 3 + 3 = 6. It rained today. Therefore, 3 + 3 = 6”?
A. Modus Ponens C. Rule of Addition
B. Modus Tollens D. Rule of Proof by Cases

4
Lesson

1 Propositions

What’s In

Math involves logic. There is logic in performing mathematical operations, in

making decisions, in communicating with peers and in many other activities that we
do. We may be using the principles and concepts of logic in our daily tasks which we
may not be aware of and that is how the study of logic may be significant to
everybody.
To start our discussion on logic, this lesson will introduce the key concepts of
propositions. Before that, let us recall the different types of sentences.
Direction: Determine the type of sentence in the following items. Write D if it is a
declarative sentence, E if exclamatory, Im if imperative sentence and, In if it is an
interrogative sentence.
1. Healthcare front liners are considered heroes during the COVID–19 pandemic.
2. Why does it spread that fast?
3. Stop COVID-19!
4. Please stay at home.
5. Life is more than food, and the body is more than clothing.

Sentences can be classified according to the purpose of the speaker or writer.

1. A Declarative sentence states information that normally ends with a full-
stop/period.
2. An Interrogative sentence asks a question about something or some information
and always ends with a question mark.
3. An Imperative sentence gives a command telling someone to do something and
ends with a full-stop/period or exclamation mark/point.
4. An Exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotions and always ends with an
exclamation mark/point.
In the previous activity, numbers 1 and 5 are declarative sentences, number 2
is an interrogative sentence, number 3 is an exclamatory sentence, and number 4
is an imperative sentence.

5
 What’s New

Direction: Determine whether the sentences are answerable by True or False.

1. Department of Education announced this school year that classes will start on
October 5, 2020.
2. May 30, 2021 will be the last day of school.
3. When will there be a face-to-face class?
4. Answer the What’s More part of this module.
5. log44 = 1

What is It

PROPOSITIONS

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not

both. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true which is denoted by T;
otherwise, its truth value is false and is denoted by F.
Propositions are usually denoted by small letters. For example, the
proposition
p: Everyone should study logic.
may be read as
p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic."
Moreover, a sequence of propositions may be denoted by p1, p2, p3, …

In the previous activity, sentences 1, 2 and 5 are propositions. The truth or

falsity of each can be determined through a direct check. However, sentences 3 and
4 cannot be identified as true or false. Sentence 3 is a question (interrogative
sentence) and sentence 4 is a command (imperative sentence).

6
Example 1.1. Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or
NOT. If it is a proposition, give its truth value.
p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
q: Find a number which divides your age.
r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the Logic exam.
s: Welcome to the Philippines!
t: 3 + 2 = 5
�
u: � � = (�+1) is a rational function.

v: What is the domain of the function?

w: I am lying.
p1: It is not the case that 2 is a rational number.
p2: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
p3: If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a Filipino.
p4: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's
card, and if you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, then you are more than
60 years old.
Solution. Recall that for a statement to be a proposition, it must be a declarative
sentence, and it should have a truth value of either true or false, but not both true
and false at the same time.
p. This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
Hence p is a proposition.
q. This is an imperative sentence, and so it is not a proposition.
r. The statement is a declarative sentence, but its truth value will only be known
after the logic exam. Nonetheless, it can either be true or false, but not both.
Hence r is a proposition.
s. This statement is exclamatory hence, it is not a proposition.
t. The given equation is a mathematical sentence. If translated into English, the
equation reads “the sum of three and two is five”, which is a declarative
sentence. It is also a true statement. Hence t is a true proposition.
u. This is a declarative statement. Since the numerator of the function is not a
polynomial function, the function f is not rational, so the statement is false. It
is therefore a false proposition.
v. This is an interrogative sentence. Hence, it is not a proposition.
w. Although w is a declarative sentence, it is not a proposition because it can
neither be true nor false. Suppose w is true – that is, it is the case that I am

7
 lying. Since I am lying, my statement is not true, and so w must be false. The
same conclusion can be drawn if w is assumed to be false.
p1. While this is a declarative sentence, it can be shown that 2 cannot be
expressed as a quotient of two integers. Thus, it is a false proposition.
p2. This is a declarative sentence, which is true, since students may find logic
either fun or boring. Hence, it is a true proposition.
p3. This is a declarative sentence, but it is not true. There are also Grade 11
students of other nationalities.
p4. We know that it is a true proposition. This is also known as a biconditional
statement, since we can rewrite it as “You are more than 60 years old if and
only if you are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s card.”

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PROPOSITION

A simple proposition is a proposition that conveys one thought with no
connecting words.
Examples:
A circle has no sides.
2 is an even number.
A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler propositions
using logical connectors or some combination of logical connectors. Some logical
connectors involving propositions p and/or q may be expressed as follows:
not p
p and q
p or q
If p, then q
where p and q stand for some proposition.

Example 1.2. For each of the propositions in Example 1.1, determine whether it is a
simple or a compound proposition. If it is a compound proposition, identify the simple
components.
Solution. The propositions p, r, t, and u are all simple propositions. On the other
hand, the following are compound propositions:
p1: It is not the case that 2 is a rational number.
p2: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
p3: If you study hard, then you will get good grades.
p4: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s
card, and if you are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s card, then you are more
than 60 years old.

8
 Furthermore, we can determine the simple propositions that make up the
propositions p1, p2, p3, and p4. We do so in the following table.

Proposition Simple Component/s

p1 r: 2 is a rational number.
f: Logic is fun.
p2 i: Logic is interesting.
b: Logic is boring.
h: You study hard.
p3
g: You get good grades.
a: You are more than 60 years old.
p4
s: You are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s card.

The compound propositions can thus be expressed as follows:

p1: not r
p2: f and i or b
p3: if h, then g
p4: (if a then s) and (if s then a)

LOGICAL OPERATORS
Logical operators include negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional and
biconditional. Each of the logical operators will be defined with the aid of a truth table
and truth values.

Negation
The failure of a proposition in an assertion or denial of a proposition is called
the negation of the proposition. The negative of a proposition is generally formed by
introducing the word “not” at some proper place in the proposition or by prefixing the
proposition with “it is not the case that” or “It is false that”. The negation of a
proposition p is denoted by
~� (“not p”)
and is defined through its truth table.
p ~�
T F
F T

Example 1.3. State the negation of the following propositions.

�−1
n1: � � = �+2 is a polynomial function.

n2: 2 is an odd number.

n3: Tinikling is the most difficult dance.
n4: Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.
9
Solution.
�−1
n1: “It is not true that � � = �+2 is a polynomial function.”
�−1
or “� � = �+2 is not a polynomial function.”

n2: “It is not true that 2 is an odd number.”

or “2 is an even number.”
n3: “Tinikling is not the most difficult dance.”
n4: “Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.”

Conjunction
The conjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� ∧ �: (p and q)
and is defined through its truth table.
p q �∧�
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
The propositions p and q are called conjuncts.
The conjunction � ∧ � is true only when both conjuncts p and q are true, as shown in
its truth table.

Example 1.4. Let p and q be the propositions

p: Adrian is cleaning the house.
q: Mark is washing the dishes.
Express the following conjunctions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case
may be.
1. � ∧ �
2. � ∧ ~�
3. “Adrian is not cleaning the house and Mark is not washing the dishes.”
4. “Adrian is not cleaning the house and Mark is washing the dishes.”
Solution
1. “Adrian is cleaning the house and Mark is washing the dishes.”
2. “Adrian is cleaning the house and Mark is not washing the dishes.”
3. ~� ∧ ~�
4. ~� ∧ �

10
Disjunction
The disjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� ∨ �: (p or q)
and is defined through its truth table.
p q �∨�
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
The propositions p and q are called disjuncts.
The above truth table shows that the disjunction � ∨ � is false only when both
disjuncts p and q are false.

Example 1.5. Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:

p: Pedro has a dog named Nena.
q: Jose is watching.
r: Mina loves to plant.
Express the following propositions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case
may be.
1. �∨�
2. � ∨ (~�)
3. � ∨ (� ∨ �)
4. “Either Pedro has a dog named Nena or Jose is not watching.”
5. “Either Jose is not watching or Mina loves to plant.”
6. “Either Pedro has a dog named Nena, or Jose is watching, or Mina does not
love to plant.”

Solution
1. “Either Perdo has a dog named Nena or Jose is watching.”
2. “Either Jose is watching or Mina does not love to plant.”
3. “Either Pedro has a dog named Nena, or Jose is watching, or Mina loves to
plant.”
4. � ∨ (~�)
5. (~�) ∨ �
6. � ∨ � ∨ (~�)

Conditional
The conditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� → �: (If p, then q)
and is defined through its truth table.

11
 P q �→�
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The conditional � → � may also be read as “p implies q”. The proposition p is called
the hypothesis, while the proposition q is called the conclusion.

Example 1.6. Let x, y and z be the following propositions.

x: Dioxins are found almost everywhere.
y: Plastics, bleached paper, and most commodities contain the chemical
dioxin.
z: Dioxins are culprits to many diseases.
Express the conditionals below in verbal sentences or in symbols, as the case may
be.
1. x → z
2. (~y) → (~x ∧ ~z)
3. “If dioxins are culprits to many diseases, then they are found almost
everywhere and plastics, bleached paper, and most commodities contain this
chemical.”
4. “If dioxins are not found almost everywhere, then it is not true that either
plastics, bleached paper, and most commodities containing this chemical, or
dioxins are the culprits to many diseases.”

Solution
1. “If dioxins are found almost everywhere, then they are culprits to many
diseases.”
2. “If plastics, bleached paper, and most commodities do not contain the chemical
dioxin, then it is not true that dioxins are found almost everywhere and it is not
true that dioxins are a culprit to many diseases.”
3. z → (x ∧ y)
4. (~x) → ~(y ∨ z)

Biconditional
The biconditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� ↔ �: (p if and only if q)
and is defined through its truth table.
p q �↔�
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

12
The proposition may also be written as “p iff q ”. The propositions p and q are the
components of the biconditional.

Example 1.7. Let g, h and i be the following propositions.

g: Kenji is a Grade 11 student.
h: Kenji is a Senior High School student.
i: Kenji is studying at Masipag Senior High School.
Express the biconditionals below in verbal sentences or in symbols, as the case may
be.
1. � ↔ ℎ
2. ℎ ↔ (~�)
3. “Kenji is not a senior high school student if and only if he is studying at
Masipag Senior High School.”
4. “Kenji is not a Grade 11 student if and only if he is not studying at Masipag
Senior High School.”

Solution
1. “Kenji is a Grade 11 student if and only if he is a senior high school student.”
2. “Kenji is a senior high school student if and only if he is not studying at
Masipag Senior High School.”
3. (~ℎ) ↔ (�)
4. (~�) ↔ (~�)

TRUTH TABLE
Given a proposition, its truth table shows all its possible truth values. Since a
proposition has two possible truth values, a proposition p would have the following
truth table.
p
T
F

Truth tables can also be used to display various combinations of the truth
values of two propositions p and q. The rows of the table will correspond to each
truth value combination of p and q, so there will be 22 = 4 rows. The truth table for
propositions p and q are as follows.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

13
 Similarly, suppose p, q, and r are propositions. Then the truth table involving
the given propositions has 23 = 8 rows, as shown below.
p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
In general, a truth table involving n propositions has 2n rows.

Example 1.8. Let p and q be propositions. Construct the truth table for the
compound proposition (� → �) ∧ (� → �).
Solution. Note that there are two propositions, p and q, involved in the compound
proposition. Thus, the truth table will contain 22 = 4 rows, the first two columns of
which are
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Using the truth table for the definition of the conditional statements (� → �) and
(� → �) , we add two more columns to indicate the truth values of (� → �) and
(� → �).
p q (� → �) (� → �)
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
In the final column, we add the truth value of (� → �) ∧ (� → �) , which is a
conjunction involving (� → �) and � → � as conjuncts.
p q (� → �) (� → �) (� → �) ∧ (� → �)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

14
 Example 1.9. Consider the compound proposition
� → � ∧ � → � → � ∨ � → � . Construct its truth table.

Solution. There are three primitive propositions involved, and so the truth table for
the compound proposition has 8 rows.
We first consider the truth table pertaining to � → � ∧ � → � , the hypothesis of the
entire conditional.
p q r �→� �→� �→� ∧ �→�
T T T T T T
T T F F F F
T F T T T T
T F F F T F
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
Next, we consider the conclusion � ∨ � → � of the conditional. For this, we require
the truth value of � ∨ � and � ∨ � → � , which will be appended to the table above.
p q r �→� �→� �→� ∧ �→� �∨� �∨� →�
T T T T T T T T
T T F F F F T F
T F T T T T T T
T F F F T F T F
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T F
F F T T T T F T
F F F T T T F T
Lastly, we consider the truth value of the proposition s which we define as
� → � ∧ � → � → � ∨ � → � . The sixth column is the hypothesis while the
eighth column is the conclusion.
p q r �→� �→� �→� ∧ �→� �∨� �∨� →� s
T T T T T T T T T
T T F F F F T F T
T F T T T T T T T
T F F F T F T F T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T F T
F F T T T T F T T
F F F T T T F T T
Note that regardless of the truth values of p, q, and r, proposition s is always true.
Such propositions are called tautologies.

15
Tautology and Contradiction
A proposition that is always true is called a tautology, while a proposition that
is always false is called a contradiction. We denote tautologies by � and
contradictions by �.

Example 1.10. Let p and q be propositions. Using truth tables, show the following:
a. � ∨ � is a tautology.
b. � ∧ � is a contradiction
c. � → (� ∨ �) is a tautology.
d. � ∧ (~�) ∧ (� ∧ �) is a contradiction
Solution.
a. Note that � is always true. Hence in the disjunction � ∨ �, there is at least one
true disjunct. Therefore, � ∨ � is a tautology since regardless of the truth value
of p, � ∨ � is true.
p � �∨�
T T T
F T T
b. Since � is always false, then the second column of the truth table that we will
be constructing will contain Fs. We have the following truth table
p � �∧�
T F F
F F F
Regardless of the truth value of p, � ∧ � is always false. Hence, it is a
contradiction.
c. We have the following truth table.
p � �∨� . � → (� ∨ �)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F T
Regardless of the truth values of p and q, � → (� ∨ �) is always true, so it is a
tautology.
d. We have the following truth table.
p � ~� � ∧ (~�) �∧� � ∧ (~�) ∧ (� ∧ �)
T T F F T F
T F T T F F
F T F F F F
F F T F F F
We note that � ∧ (~�) ∧ (� ∧ �) is false for any combination of truth values of
p and q. Therefore, � ∧ (~�) ∧ (� ∧ �) is a contradiction.

16
 What’s More

Activity 1.1
Directions: Determine whether the following statements are propositions. Write P if
it is a proposition; otherwise, write NP.
1. The largest continent is Asia.
2. Do I need to wash my hands regularly?
3. Occipital is the part of our brain responsible for vision so we have to be sure that it
is taken care of.
4. Happy Birthday, mother!
5. The longest bone in the body is the femur.

Activity 1.2
Directions: Determine whether the following propositions are simple proposition or
compound proposition. Write SP if it is a simple proposition; and CP if it is a
compound proposition, then identify the simple components and the logical
connectors used.
Proposition SP or Simple Logical
CP Components Connectors
1. If Ted’s score is less than 50, then Ted will
fail the course.
2. Either it is sunny in Metro Manila or its streets
are flooded
3. Dinner is served with coffee.
4. If a, b, and c denote the lengths of the legs
and the hypotenuse of a right triangle, then
a2 + b2 = c2.
5. Timothy’s average is at least 92 and he is
getting an A for the course.
6. (-5) is a negative integer.
7. A password must be at least 6 characters
long or it must be at least 8 characters long.
8. Jerry receives a scholarship if and only if he
will go to college.
9. It is not the case that today is Monday.
10. A right triangle has one right angle.

17
Activity 1.3
Let a, b, c and d be propositions.
a: You are what you eat.
b: Your food can describe your health.
c: By nature, human is designed to eat meat.
d: A person should eat healthy food.
Express the following logical symbols into verbal sentences.
1. (~c) 4. a → d
2. (~a) ∧ (~b) 5. (~a) ↔ (~c)
3. c ∨ (~d) 6. (~c) ∧ (b ↔ a)

Activity 1.4.
Let d, e, f and g be propositions.
d: There is wisdom in spending on needs.
e: It makes sense to think at least twice before giving in for wants.
f: A good planner saves first before spending.
g: A shopaholic should learn self-control.

Express the following propositions in symbols.

1. “There is no wisdom in spending on needs.”
2. “There is wisdom in spending on needs or a shopaholic should not learn
self-control.”
3. “If a good planner saves first before spending, then there is wisdom in
spending on needs.”
4. “A shopaholic should learn self-control and it does not make sense to think
at least twice before giving in for wants.”
5. “A shopaholic should not learn self-control if and only if a good planner
does not save first before spending.”

Activity 1.5
Directions: Construct the truth table for the following compound propositions.
Assume all variables denote propositions.
1. (� ↔ �) ∧ ((~�) → �)
2. ((~�) ∨ �) → (� → �)

18
Lesson
Conditional Propositions, Valid
2 Arguments and Fallacies

What’s In

In the previous lesson, you have learned the different logical operators,
including negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, and biconditional. These
logical operators connect propositions and that make compounds. The truth values
of the said propositions can be determined through the use of a truth table.
Let us recall the truth values of logical operators when used in compound
propositions.
Direction: Complete the following truth table.

p q �→� ~(� → �) �∧~ �→�

T T
T F
F T
F F

The third column used conditional. All values for p → q “p implies q”, are true
except in the case where p is true and q is false. Whereas, the fourth column
~(p → q) “negation of p implies q” denies p → q. Thus, making all that which are true
in the third column as false; and with that which is the only false in the former as the
only true in the fourth column.
The fifth column involves the conjunction q ∧ ~(p → q) “q and negation of p
implies q”. As you have noticed with the truth values you obtained in this column, all
are false. And this we call a contradiction, in which a proposition is always false.

19
 What’s New

In the previous activity, the truth values in the last column are all false. Now,
let us consider the next activity.
Direction: Complete the following truth table.

p q �→� ~� (~�) ∨ � � → � ↔ [(~�) ∨ �]

T T
T F
F T
F F

In the third column, the conditional p → q results to all true values except in
the case where p is true and q is false. For ~p in the fourth column, values of p are
simply negated. That is if p is true, then ~p is false, and vice-versa. On the fifth
column, for the disjunction (~p) ∨ q, all are true except when both ~p and q are false.
Comparing the third and fifth columns, you can easily notice that they have
the same truth values. Moreover, it turns out that when propositions are perfectly
alike, their biconditional will yield values that are all true. Hence, they result in a
tautology, as observed in the last column.

What Is It

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent if they have the
same values in the truth table and if the biconditional p ⟷ q is a tautology. It is
denoted by p ⟺ q.
The previous activity shows that (� → �) ⇔ (~�) ∨ � . This logical
equivalence is called the Switcheroo Law.

20
 Aside from this, below is a table of various logical equations.

Table of Logical Equivalences

Let p, q, and r be propositions.
Identity Laws (� ∧ �) ⇔ � (� ∨ �) ⇔ �
Domination Laws (� ∨ �) ⇔ � (� ∧ �) ⇔ �
Idempotent Laws (� ∨ �) ⇔ � (� ∧ �) ⇔ �
Inverse Laws � ∨ (~�) ⇔ � � ∧ (~�) ⇔ �
Double Negation ~(~�) ⇔ �
Associative Laws � ∨ (� ∨ �) ⇔ (� ∨ �) ∨ � � ∧ (� ∧ �) ⇔ (� ∧ �) ∧ �
Commutative Laws �∨�⇔�∨� �∧�⇔�∧�
Distributive Laws � ∨ (� ∧ �) ⇔ (� ∨ �) ∧ (� ∨ �) � ∧ (� ∨ �) ⇔ (� ∧ �) ∨ (� ∧ �)
De Morgan’s Laws ~(� ∨ �) ⇔ (~�) ∧ (~�) ~(� ∧ �) ⇔ (~�) ∨ (~�)
Absorption Laws � ∨ (� ∧ �) ⇔ � � ∧ (� ∨ �) ⇔ �

Example 2.1. Show that ~(� → �) ⇔ [� ∧ ~� ] using logical equivalences.

Solution.
Proposition Reason
~(� → �) Given
⇔ ~((~�) ∨ �) Switcheroo
⇔ ~(~�) ∧ (~�) De Morgan’s Law
⇔ � ∧ (~�) Double Negation

CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS
Suppose p and q are propositions. From the conditional proposition
� → �, we derive three other conditional statements, namely:
a. Converse: � → �
b. Contrapositive: (~�) → (~�)
c. Inverse: (~�) → (~�)

Note that a conditional and the corresponding contrapositive are logically equivalent.
Likewise for a given conditional statement, its converse and inverse are logically
equivalent.

Example 2.2. Consider the following true conditional.

� → �: “If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a Senior High School student.”
State its (a) converse, (b) contrapositive, and (c) inverse and determine whether
each statement is also true.

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Solution

a. Converse “If Geebee is a senior high school student, then she is in

�→� Grade 11.” (This is not necessarily true.)

b. Contrapositive “If Geebee is not a senior high school student, then she is
(~�) → (~�) not in Grade 11.” (This is true.)

c. Inverse “If Geebee is not in Grade 11, then she is not a senior
(~�) → (~�) high school student.” (This is not necessarily true.)

Example 2.3: Let p → q be the proposition “If Charity studied last night, then she will
pass the exam.” State the converse, contrapositive, and the inverse of p → q.
Solution

a. Converse “If Charity will pass the exam, then she studied last
�→� night.”

b. Contrapositive “If Charity will not pass the exam, then she did not study
(~�) → (~�) last night.”

c. Inverse “If Charity did not study last night, then she will not pass
(~�) → (~�) the exam

VALID ARGUMENTS AND FALLACIES

An argument is a compound proposition of the form
(�1 ∧ �2 ∧ �3 ∧ … ∧ �� ) → �.
The propositions �1 , �2 , �3 , …, �� are the premises of the argument, and q is the
conclusion. Arguments can be written in propositional form, as in above, or in
column or standard form.
�1
�2
�3
⋮
��
∴�

Example 2.4. Explain why the following set of propositions is an argument.

If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the
Americans in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.

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Solution. The set of propositions is an argument. The first two propositions are the
premises of the argument, while the last proposition, marked by the word “therefore”,
is the conclusion of the argument.

Example 2.5. Write the following argument in propositional form and in standard
form.
If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.
Therefore, we should conserve water.
Solution. The premises of this argument are
p1: If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
p2: There is a limited freshwater supply.
The conclusion is
q: We should conserve water.
In symbols, we can write the whole argument in propositional form
(�1 ∧ �2 ) → � and in standard form
�1
�2
∴�

Valid Argument
A valid argument satisfies the validity condition; that is, the conclusion q is
true whenever the premises �1 , �2, �3 , …, �� are all true. Alternatively, the argument is
valid if the conditional
(�1 ∧ �2 ∧ �3 ∧ … ∧ �� ) → �
is a tautology.

Example 2.6. Prove that the argument [(� → �) ∧ �] → � is valid. This argument is
known as Modus Ponens (or Rule of Detachment).

Solution. We only need to show that [(� → �) ∧ �] → � is a tautology. We can do this

by constructing a truth table.
p q �→� (� → �) ∧ � [(� → �) ∧ �] → �
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Since [(� → �) ∧ �] → � is a tautology, then the argument is valid.

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Rules of Inference
Let p, q, and r be propositions.
Rules of Inference Propositional Form Standard Form
Rule of Simplification (� ∧ �) → � �∧�
∴�
Rule of Addition � → (� ∨ �) �
∴�∨�
Rule of Conjunction (� ∧ �) → (� ∧ �) �
�
∴�∧�
Modus Ponens [(� → �) ∧ �] → � �→�
�
∴�
Modus Tollens [ � → � ∧ ~� ] → (~�) �→�
~�
∴ ~�
Law of Syllogism [(� → �) ∧ (� → �)] → (� → �) �→�
�→�
∴�→�
Rule of Disjunctive [ � ∨ � ∧ ~� ] → � �∨�
Syllogism ~�
∴�
Rule of Contradiction [(~�) → �] → � (~�) → �
∴�
Rule of Proof by Cases �→� ∧ �→� → [(� ∨ �) → �] �→�
�→�
∴ (� ∨ �) → �

Example 2.7. Determine whether the following arguments are valid or not. If valid,
determine the rule that justifies its validity.
a. If Antonio and Jose are friends, then they are Facebook friends.
Antonio and Jose are not Facebook friends.
Therefore, they are not friends.
b. Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly Boustead.
Therefore, Antonio Luna likes Nelly Boustead.
c. Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.
d. If the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will repent and not join the
revolution.
If Antonio Luna regrets not joining the revolution, then he will go to Belgium to
study the art of war.
Therefore, if the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will go to Belgium
to study the art of war.

24
Solution.
a. Let p: “Antonio and Jose are friends.” and q: “Antonio and Jose are Facebook
friends.” Then the given argument is of the form
�→�
~�
∴ ~�
This is valid by Modus Tollens.
b. Let p: “Antonio Luna likes Nelly Boustead.” and q: “Jose Rizal likes Nelly
Boustead.” The given argument is of the form
�∧�
∴�
By the Rule of Simplification, the argument is valid.
c. Let p: “Antonio Luna is a scientist.” and q: “Jose Rizal is a scientist.” The
argument is of the form
�
∴�∨�
By the Rule of Addition, the argument is valid.
d. Let p: “The Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna.”, q: “Antonio Luna regrets not
joining the revolution”, and r: “Antonio Luna goes to Belgium to study the art of
war.” The argument is of the form
�→�
�→�
∴�→�
The argument is valid, by the Law of Syllogism.

Fallacy
An argument �1 ∧ �2 ∧ �3 ∧ … ∧ �� → � which is not valid is called a fallacy.
In a fallacy, it is possible for the premises �1 , �2 , �3 , …, �� to be true, while the
conclusion is false. In this case, the conditional is not a tautology.

Example 2.8. Prove that the argument [(� → �) ∧ �] → � is a fallacy. This is known
as the Fallacy of the Converse.
Solution. We show that [(� → �) ∧ �] → � is a fallacy by means of a truth table.
p q �→� [(� → �) ∧ �] [(� → �) ∧ �] → �
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
Since [(� → �) ∧ �] → � is not a tautology, the argument is invalid and is hence a
fallacy.

25
Note that it is sufficient to find truth values of p and q that will make the premises
simultaneously true but the conclusion false. We call such set of values a
counterexample. In this case, the counterexample is the case when p is false and q
is true (see the third row of the truth table above).

Common Fallacies in Logic

Let p, q, and r be propositions.
Common Fallacies in Propositional Form Standard Form
Logic
Fallacy of the Converse [(� → �) ∧ �] → � �→�
�
∴�
Fallacy of the Inverse [(� → �) ∧ (~�)] → (~�) �→�
~�
∴ ~�
Affirming the Disjunct [(� ∨ �) ∧ �] → (~�) �∨�
�
∴ ~�
Fallacy of the Consequent (� → �) → (� → �) �→�
∴�→�
Denying a Conjunct [~(� ∧ �) ∧ (~�)] → � ~(� ∧ �)
~�
∴�
Improper Transposition � → � → [ ~� → ~� ] �→�
∴ (~�) → (~�)

Example 2.9. Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a fallacy.

a. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin sang with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin did not dance with Nina.
b. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin did not dance with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin sang with Nina.
c. It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina.
Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.
Solution.
Let p: “Alvin sings with Nina.” and q: “Alvin dances with Nina.”
a. The given argument is of the form
�∨�
�
∴ ~�
This is the fallacy of Affirming the Disjunct.

26
 Alternate Solution: We can prove that the argument is not valid by finding a
counterexample (i.e., truth values for p and q that make the propositional form of the
tautology false). This happens when both p and q are false, as the following table
shows.
p q ~� �∨� (� ∨ �) ∧ � [(� ∨ �) ∧ ] → (~�)
T T F T T F

b. The argument is of the form

�∨�
~�
∴�

The first premise can be written as � ∨ �, by the Commutative Law, and so we

can write
�∨�
~�
∴�

which adheres to the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism, the argument is valid.

c. In symbols, the argument is of the form

~(� ∧ �)
~�
∴�
This is the fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.

Alternate Solution: We can find a counterexample to show that the argument

is not valid. If both p and q are false, then the propositional form of the argument is
false.
p ~p q (� ∧ �) ~(� ∧ �) ~ � ∧ � ∧ ~� [~ � ∧ � ∧ ~�] → �
F T F F T T F

27
 What’s More

Activity 2.1
Direction: Tell whether the propositions (~�) → (� → �) and � → (� ∨ �) are logically
equivalent by filling in the correct logical equivalence for each statement.
Proposition Reason
(~�) → (� → �)
⇔ (~(~�) ∨ (� → �)
⇔ � ∨ (� → �)
⇔ � ∨ [(~�) ∨ �)]
⇔ [� ∨ (~�)] ∨ �)
⇔ [(~�) ∨ �] ∨ �)
⇔ ~� ∨ (� ∨ �)
� → (� ∨ �

Activity 2.2
Direction: Using the conditional proposition “If you plant vegetables, then you will
have something to eat”, state the following in:
1. Converse
2. Contrapositive
3. Inverse

Activity 2.3.
Directions. Determine whether the following arguments are valid. If it is valid,
identify the rule of inference which justifies its validity. Otherwise, state a
counterexample or identify the type of fallacy exhibited by the argument.
1. →~ 3. � → ~�
~ �
∴ ∴ ~�

2. (� ∧ �) → � 4. (� ∧ �) → �
(� ∧ �) �
∴� ∴�∧�

28
Activity 2.4.
Directions. Translate each argument into symbolic form. Determine whether the
following arguments are valid. If it is valid, identify the rule of inference which justifies
its validity. Otherwise, state a counterexample or identify the type of fallacy exhibited
by the argument.
1. If Nicanor is a famous author, then he knows how to write. But Nicanor is not
a famous author. Hence, Nicanor does not know how to write.
2. If Dina publishes a dissertation with original results, then she will earn a Ph.D.
She did not earn a Ph.D. Therefore, she did not publish a dissertation with
original results.
3. Either Nina or Nino will take the trash to the recycling center. Nina did not take
the trash to the recycling center. Hence, Nino must have taken the trash to the
recycling center.
4. If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy. Therefore, the pool is
closed.
5. Either Erick was not informed about the meeting or he made the decision not
to attend. Erick was not informed about the meeting. Thus, he did not decide
not to attend the meeting.

What I Have Learned

 A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. If
a proposition is true, then its truth value is true which is denoted by T; otherwise,
its truth value is false and is denoted by F.
 A simple proposition is a proposition that conveys one thought with no
connecting words.
 A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler proposition using
logical connectors or some combination of logical connectors.
 Logical operators include negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional and
biconditional. Each of the logical operators is defined with the aid of a truth table
and truth values.
 The negation of a proposition p is denoted by
~� (“not p”)
and is defined through its truth table
p ~�
T F
F T

29
  The conjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� ∧ �: (p and q)
and is defined through its truth table
p q �∧�
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
The propositions p and q are called conjuncts.
 The disjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� ∨ �: (p or q)
and is defined through its truth table
p q �∨�
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
The propositions p and q are called disjuncts.
 The conditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� → �: (If p, then q)
and is defined through its truth table
p q �→�
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The conditional � → � may also be read as “p implies q”. The proposition p is
called the hypothesis, while the proposition q is called the conclusion.
 The biconditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by
� ↔ �: (p if and only if q)
and is defined through its truth table
p q �↔�
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
The proposition may also be written as “p iff q ”. The propositions p and q are
the components of the biconditional.
 Given a proposition, its truth table shows all its possible truth values. A truth
table involving n propositions has 2n rows.
 A proposition that is always true is called a tautology, while a proposition that is
always false is called a contradiction. We denote tautologies by � and
contradictions by �.

30
 Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent if they have the
same values in the truth table and if the biconditional p ⟷ q is a tautology. It is
denoted by p ⟺ q.
 Suppose p and q are propositions. From the conditional proposition
� → �, we derive three other conditional statements, namely its
a. Converse: � → �
b. Contrapositive: (~�) → (~�)
c. Inverse: (~�) → (~�)
 An argument is a compound proposition of the form
(�1 ∧ �2 ∧ �3 ∧ … ∧ �� ) → �.
The propositions �1 , �2 , �3 , …, �� are the premises of the argument, and q is the
conclusion. Arguments can be written in propositional form, as in above, or in
column or standard form.

 A valid argument satisfies the validity condition; that is, the conclusion q is true
whenever the premises �1 , �2 , �3 , …, �� are all true. Alternatively, the argument is
valid if the conditional
(�1 ∧ �2 ∧ �3 ∧ … ∧ �� ) → �
is a tautology.
 An argument �1 ∧ �2 ∧ �3 ∧ … ∧ �� → � which is not valid is called a fallacy. In a
fallacy, it is possible for the premises �1 , �2 , �3, …, �� to be true, while the
conclusion is false. In this case, the conditional is not a tautology.

What I Can Do

Formulate one valid and invalid argument and translate each into symbolic form. For
the valid argument, identify the rule of inference which justifies its validity. For the
invalid argument, state a counterexample or identify the type of fallacy exhibited by
the argument. Choose from the topics given below.

 Agtagibalay  Agmula
 Agtaraken  Agliwliwa

31
 Assessment

Directions: Read each item carefully. Write the letter that corresponds to the
correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following sentences is a proposition?

A. Go out!
B. Are you happy?
B. Please clean your room.
D. Jesica received a new cellphone from her mother.

2. Which of the following is an example of a compound proposition?

A. Please take your seat.
B. Have you heard the news?
C. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
D. It is not the case that it is raining today.

3. Disjunction is a compound proposition connected by the word ______.

A. and C. if … then
B. or D. if and only if

4. The propositions p implies q can be written as_________.

A. p ↔ q C. p →q
B. p ˅ q D. p ˄ q

5. What is the logical operator used in the proposition, “If Jamie will clean the house,
then her mother would be very happy”?
A. Biconditional C. Disjunction
B. Conditional D. Negation

For numbers 6 to 7, refer to the following problem.

The proposition p is true and the propositions q and r are both false.

6. What is the truth value of � → � ?

A. True C. neither true nor false
B. False D. information is insufficient

7. What is the truth value of (� → �) ∧ �?

A. True C. neither true nor false
B. False D. information is insufficient

32
8. Under what condition/s is a biconditional false?
i. When both p and q are true.
ii. When both p and q are false.
iii. When p is true, and q is false.
iv. When p is false, and q is true.
A. i only C. ii and iii
B. i and ii D. iii and iv
For numbers 9 to 10, refer to the given conditional proposition p ⟶ q.
“If Joshua will pass all his subject, then he will receive a new cellphone.”
9. What type of conditional is being depicted by the statement, “If Joshua will receive
a new cellphone, then he will pass all his subject”?
A. Contrapositive C. Equivalence
B. Converse D. Inverse
10. Which of the following represents item number 9?
A. ~p ⟶ ~q C. ~q ⟶ ~p
B. p ⟶ q D. q ⟶ p

11. What is a proposition statement that is always false?

A. Absolute C. Negation
B. Contradiction D. Tautology
12. Which of the following is a tautology?
A. Affirming the Disjunct C. Fallacy of the Inverse
B. Denying a Conjunct D. Law of Syllogism
13. Translate the argument into symbolic form. “If Joanna is relaxed, then she is
productive. Joana is not productive. Therefore, Joanna is not relaxed.”
A. p → q C. p ˅ ~ q
~q ~p
∴ ~p ∴ ~q
B. ~p→q D. p→q
q→r q→r
∴ (~p ∨ q)→r ∴ p→r
14. Which of the following is true about a valid argument?
A. It is a fallacy. C. It is a tautology.
B. It is a premise. D. It is a conclusion.
15. Which of the following rules of inference justifies the validity of the argument “If I
go swimming, then I will stay under the sun for too long. If I stay under the sun
for too long, then I will get sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get
sunburn.”?
A. Law of Syllogism C. Modus Tollens
B. Modus Ponens D. Rule of Addition

33
35
36
References
Department of Education. General Mathematics Learner’s Materials. Pasig City:
Department of Education, 2016.
Department of Education. General Mathematics Teacher’s Guide. Pasig City:
Department of Education, 2016.
Department of Education, General Mathematics Self-Learning Module, 2020

Natividad, Stephen Kyle, et. al. General Mathematics for Senior High School. Makati
City: Salinlahi Publishing House, Inc., 2018

37
For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – Schools Division of the City of Batac

16S Quiling Sur, City of Batac

2906 Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Telephone No: (077)677-1993

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