Mathematics in the Modern World

Module 6

Chapter 6: Logic

Chapter Objectives:
Topic Objectives
Logic statements and 1. Identify statements and quantifiers.
quantifiers 2. Use mathematical logic to infer conclusions from given
propositions.
3. Judge situations accurately and act with equality.
Truth tables, equivalent 1. Show that a given logic statement is a tautology or a
statements, and contradiction.
Tautologies 2. Recognize different kinds of tautologies used.
The conditional and the 1. Write a conditional statement in if-then form.
biconditional 2. Write the negation, converse, inverse, and contrapositive of a
conditional statement and identify its truth value.
3. Write a biconditional statement.
The conditional and related 1. Write a conditional statement in if-then form.
statements 2. Write the negation, converse, inverse, and contrapositive of a
conditional statement and identify its truth value.
Symbolic Arguments 1. Write arguments in symbolic form.
2. Compare the form of the arguments with forms that are known
to be valid or invalid.

This module is expected to be accomplished within 4 weeks.

Logic Statements and Quantifiers

One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646-1716). Leibniz tried to advance the study of logic from a merely philosophical subject to a formal
mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely achieved this goal; however, several mathematicians,
such as Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole (1815-1864), contributed to the
advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline.

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Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848. In 1854 he published the more extensive
work, An Investigation of the Laws of Thoughts. Concerning this document, the mathematician Bertrand
Russell stated, “Pure mathematics was discovered by Boole in a work which is called The Laws of
Thought”.

Logic Statements
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions and commands. For
instance,

“Is the test today?” is a question.

“Go get the newspaper” is a command.

“This is a nice car” is an opinion.

“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.

The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to sentences that are statements
which are defined below.

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and false.

It may not be necessary to determine whether a sentence is true to determine whether it is a statement. For
instance, consider the following sentence.

Yosemite National Park is located in California.

You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it is false,
and that it is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.

Examples
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a statement.
b. How are you?
The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not a
statement.
c. 99+2 is a prime number
You may not know whether 99+2 is a prime number, however, you do know that it is a whole
number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number. The sentence is
either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a statement.
d. x+1=5.
x+1=5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x=4, and it is false for any
other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.

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Activity 1
Explain whether each sentence is a statement or not.

1. Open the door.

2. 7055 is a large number.
3. In the year 2024, the president of the United States will be a woman.
4. x > 3
5. Rizal Park is located in Manila.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement that
conveys two or more ideas.

Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or if … then, and if and only if creates
a compound statement. For instance “I will attend the meeting or I will go to school.” is a compound
statement. It is composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend the meeting,” and “I will go to
school.” The word or is a connective for the two simple statements.

George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r and s to represent simple statements and symbols Λ, V, ~, →,
and ↔ to represent connectives.

Table A

Logic Connectives and Symbols

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of statement

not p not ~p Negation
p and q and pΛq Conjunction
p or q or pVq Disjunction
If p then q If … then p→q Conditional
p if and only q if and only if p↔q Biconditional

The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).

The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives.

A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values of
its simple statements.

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The negation (~p) of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the statement “Today Truth table for ~p is
not Friday.” In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol ~ is used to denote the
negation of a statement. If a statement p is true, its negation ~p is false, and if a p ~p
statement p is false, its negation ~p is true. See the table at the right. The
negation of a statement is the original statement. Thus ~(~p) can be replaced T F
by p in any statement.
F T
Example
Considering the following statements. We will be writing the negation of each of the statements.

p: Ellie Goulding is an opera singer. q: The

dog does not need to be fed.

~p: Ellie Goulding is not an opera singer.

~q: The dog needs to be fed.

The conjunction p Λ q of a statement is true if both p and q are true,

Truth table for p Λ q
and the conjunction is false if either p or q is false. The truth table in
the right shows the four possible cases that arise when we form a p q pΛq
conjunction of two statements. T T T
T F F
F T F
Examples F F F
Considering the following statements. We will be writing a conjunction of each of the statements. p: Ellie
Goulding is an opera singer. q: The dog does not need to be fed. p Λ q: Ellie Goulding is an opera singer
and the dog does not need to be fed. q Λ p: The dog does not need to be fed and Ellie Goulding is an
opera singer.

The disjunction p V q of a statement is true if p is true or q is true or Truth table for p V q

both p and q are true. The truth table at the right shows that the
disjunction p or q is false if both p and q are false; however it is true in p q pVq
all other cases. T T T
T F T
F T T
Examples F F F
Considering the following statements. We will be writing a disjunction of each of the statements. p: Ellie
Goulding is an opera singer. q: The dog does not need to be fed.

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p V q: Ellie Goulding is an opera singer or the dog does not need to be fed. q V p: The dog

does not need to be fed or Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.

Truth table for p → q

The conditional p → q of a statement is false if p is true and q is false. p q p→q
It is true in all other cases.
T T T
T F F
Examples F T T
Considering the following statements. We will be writing a conditional F F T

statements of the following. p: Ellie Goulding is an opera singer. q: The dog does not need to be fed. p →
q: If Ellie Goulding is an opera singer, then the dog does not need to be fed. q → p: If the dog does not
need to be fed, then Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.

The statement (p → q) Λ (q → p) is called a biconditional and is Truth table for p ↔ q

denoted by p ↔ q, which is read as “p if and only if q.” The
p q p↔q
biconditional p ↔ q of a statement is false if either p or q is false. The
biconditional of a statement is true if both p and q are either true or T T T
false. T F F
F T F
F F T
Examples
Considering the following statements. We will be writing a biconditional statements of the following. p:
Ellie Goulding is an opera singer. q: The dog does not need to be fed. p ↔ q: Ellie Goulding is an opera
singer if and only if the dog does not need to be fed. q ↔ p: The dog does not need to be fed if and only if
Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.

Activity 2
A. Consider the following simple statements p: Today

is Friday.

q: It is raining.

r: I am going to a movie.

s: I am not going to the basketball game.

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Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.

b. Today is Friday and it is raining.
c. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
d. I am not going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
e. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
f. I am going to the movie if and only if it is raining.
g. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
h. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie.

B. Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta. q:

The game will be shown on CBS. r: The game

will not be shown on ESPN. s: The Mets are

favored to win.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a. q Λ p
b. b. ~r Λ s
c. c. s ↔ ~p

C. Consider the following statements. e: All men are

created equal. t: I am trading places. a: I

get Abe’s place. g: I get George’s place.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a. e Λ ~t
b. a V ~t
c. e → t
d. t ↔ g

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Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together. Table 2 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate groupings for some
statements in symbolic form. Table 2
Symbolic form The parentheses indicate that:
p Λ (q V ~r) q and ~r are grouped together
(p Λ q) V r p and q are grouped together
(p Λ ~q) → (r V s) p and ~q are grouped together r and s
are grouped together

If a grouped statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together.

Table 3
English sentence The comma indicates that:
p, and q or not r. q and ~r are grouped together because they are both on the same side of the
comma.
p and q, or r. p and q are grouped together because they are both on the same side of the
comma.
If p and not q, then r p and ~q are grouped together because they are both to the left of the comma.
or s. r and s are grouped together because they are both to the right of the comma.

If a statement in symbolic form is written as an English sentence, then the simple statements that appear
together in the parentheses in the symbolic form will all be on the same side of the comma that appears in
the English sentence.

Examples
Let p, q and r represent the following.

p: You get a promotion.

q: You complete the training. r:

You will receive a house.

a. Write (p Λ q) → r as an English sentence.

Since the p and q statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form, they are placed to the left of
the comma in the English sentence.

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Thus the translation is: If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.

b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not receive
a bonus” in symbolic form.

Since the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the comma in the English sentence, they
are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form. Thus the translation is ~q → (~p Λ ~r)

Activity 3
Let p, q and r represent the following.

p: Kesha’s singing style is similar to Uffie’s q:

Kesha has messy hair.

r: Kesha is a rapper.

a.) Write (p Λ q) → r as an English sentence.

b.) Write “If Kesha is not a rapper, then Kesha does not have messy hair and Kesha’s singing style is
not similar to Uffie’s” in symbolic form.
c.) Write “If Kesha is not a rapper and Kesha does not have messy hair then Kesha’s singing style is
not similar to Uffie’s” in symbolic form.
d.) Write p Λ (q V r) as an English sentence.
e.) Write p → (q V r) as an English sentence.
f.) Write q Λ (p Λ r) as an English sentence.
g.) Write q → (p Λ r) as an English sentence.
h.) Write “If Kesha is a rapper, or Kesha does not have messy hair and Kesha’s singing style is
similar to Uffie’s” in symbolic form.
i.) Write “If Kesha is a rapper and Kesha does not have messy hair, or Kesha’s singing style is not
similar to Uffie’s” in symbolic form.
j.) Write (~r → ~q) Λ (~q → ~r) as an English sentence.

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Quantifiers and Negations
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called existential
quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.

In a statement, the words none, no, all and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal
quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every
are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.

Recall that the negation of a false statement is a true statement and the negation of a true statement is a
false statement. It is important to remember this fact when forming the negation of a quantified statement.

Example
For instance, what is the negation of the false statement, “All dogs are mean”? You may think that the
negation is “No dogs are mean” but this is also a false statement. Thus the negation of “All dogs are
mean” which is a false statement, is in fact “Some dogs are not mean” which is a true statement. The
statement “Some dogs are not mean” can also be stated as “At least one dog is not mean” or “There exists
a dog that is not mean”.

Table 4 illustrates how to write the negation of some quantified statements. Table 4
Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.

Activity 4
Write the negation of each of the following quantified statements.

a. Some airports are open.

b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. At least one odd number is divisible by 2.
d. No smart phones are expensive.
e. There exists a vegetable that is not green.

Truth tables, Equivalent Statements, and Tautologies

In the previous topic, we defined truth tables for the negation of a statement, the conjunction of two
statements, and the disjunction of two statements. Each of these truth tables is shown below for review
purposes.

Truth table for ~p Truth table for p Λ q Truth table for p V q

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 p q pΛq p q pVq
p ~p
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
T F
F T F F T T

F T
F F F F F F

Truth table for p → q Truth table for p ↔ q

p q p→q p q p↔q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T
In this topic, we consider methods of constructing truth tables for a statement that involves a combination
of conjunctions, disjunctions, negations, conditionals, and/or biconditional. If the given statement
involves only two statements, then start with a table with four rows, called the standard truth table
form.

Example
Construct a table for ~(~p V q) V q.

1. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a ~p column.

p q ~p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

2. Now use the truth values from the ~p and q columns to produce the truth values for ~p V q, as
shown in the rightmost column of the following table.
p q ~p ~p V q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

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 3. Negate the truth values in the ~p V q column to produce the following.
p q ~p ~p V q ~(~p V q)
T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

4. As for our last step, we form the disjunction of ~p(~p V q) with q and place the results in the
rightmost column of the table. Hence, forming the truth table for ~(~pV q) V q.
p q ~p ~p V q ~(~p V q) ~(~p V q) V q
T T F T F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F F T T F F

Activity 5
Construct a truth table for the following statement.

1. (p Λ ~q) V (~p V q)
2. (p V q) V q
3. ~(p → q) Λ q

If the given statement has n simple statements, then start with a standard form that has 2𝑛 rows. Enter the
truth values for each simple statement.

Example
Construct a truth table for (p Λ q) Λ (~r V q)

Compound statements that involve exactly three simple statements require a standard truth table form
with 23 =8 rows.

1. Start with the standard truth table form of the three simple statements and then include a p Λ q
column.
p q r pΛq
T T T T
T T F T

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 T F T F
T F F F
F T T F
F T F F
F F T F
F F F F

2. Negate the truth values in the r to produce the following.

p q r pΛq ~r
T T T T F
T T F T T
T F T F F
T F F F T
F T T F F
F T F F T
F F T F F
F F F F T
3. Now use the truth values from the ~r and q columns to produce the truth values for ~r V q, as
shown in the rightmost column of the following table.
p q r pΛq ~r ~r V q
T T T T F T
T T F T T T
T F T F F F
T F F F T T
F T T F F T
F T F F T T
F F T F F F
F F F F T T

4. As for our last step, we form the conjunction of (p Λ q) with (~r V q) and place the results in the
rightmost column of the table. Hence, forming the truth table for (p Λ q) Λ (~r V q).
p q r pΛq ~r ~r V q (p Λ q) Λ (~r V q)
T T T T F T T
T T F T T T T
T F T F F F F
T F F F T T F
F T T F F T F

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 F T F F T T F
F F T F F F F
F F F F T T F

Activity 6
Construct a truth table for the following statement.

1. (p Λ ~r) V (~p V q)
2. (p V r) V q
3. ~(p → q) Λ r
4. (~p Λ r) V (q Λ ~r)
5. (~p Λ r) Λ (q V ~s)

p q r pΛq ~r ~r V q (p Λ q) Λ (~r V q)
T T T T F T T
T T F T T T T
T F T F F F F
T F F F T T F
F T T F F T F
F T F F T T F
F F T F F F F
F F F F T T F

Now that we have constructed the truth table of the statement (p Λ q) Λ (~r V q), we will now identify the
truth value of the given statement given that:

a. p is true, q is false and r is false.

In the given truth table, we see that when p is true, q is false and r is false, the statement (p Λ q) Λ
(~r V q) is false.
b. p is false, q is false and r is true.
In the given truth table, we see that when p is false, q is false and r is true, the statement (p Λ q) Λ
(~r V q) is false.
c. p is true, q is true and r is false.
In the given truth table, we see that when p is true, q is true and r is false, the statement (p Λ q) Λ
(~r V q) is true.
d. All statements are true.
In the given truth table, we see that when all the statements are true, the statement (p Λ q) Λ (~r
V q) is true.

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Activity 7
Determine the truth value of the compound statement given that p is false, q is true statement, and r is
true.

1. p V (~q V r)
2. r Λ ~(p V r)
3. (p Λ q) V ( ~p Λ ~q)
4. (~p Λ r) V (q Λ ~r)
5. ~(p → q) Λ r

Equivalent Statements
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible truth values of their
simple statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values in the final columns of their truth
tables. The notation p ≡ q is used to indicate that the statements p and q are equivalent.

Example
Show that ~(p V ~q) and ~p Λ q are equivalents statements.

We would need to construct two truth tables and compare the results.
p q ~q p V ~q ~(p V ~q) p q ~p ~p Λ q
T T F T F T T F F
T F T T F T F F F
F T F F T F T T T
F F T T F F F T F

The truth tables below show that ~(p V ~q) and ~p Λ q have the same truth values for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. Thus the statements are equivalent.

Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

A Tautology is a statement that is always true. A Self-Contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Example
Show that p V (~p V q) is a tautology.
p q ~p ~p V q p V (~p V q)
T T F T T

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 T F F F T
F T T T T
F F T T T

The rightmost part of the table shows the truth value of the statement p V (~p V q). Since the truth value
of the statement shows that it is always true, then we could say that the statement p V (~p V q) is a
tautology.

Activity 8
A. Construct truth tables to prove if the two statements are equivalent or not.

1. p V (p Λ r) and p

2. q Λ (q V r) and q

3. p Λ (q V r) and (p Λ q) V (p Λ r)

B. Construct a truth table to prove if the statement is a tautology, a self-contradiction or none of the two.
1. p V ~p

2. p Λ (~p Λ q)

3. (p V q) V ( ~p V q)

4. ~r Λ r

5. (p Λ q) V ( ~p V ~q)

6. ~(p V ~p)

7. q V [ ~(q Λ r) Λ ~q]

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional

Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. It is not even necessary to state the
antecedent before the consequent. For instance, the conditional “If I live in Boston, then I must live in
Massachusetts” can also be stated as “I must live in Massachusetts, if I live in Boston”. The table below
lists some of the various forms that may be used to write a conditional statement.
Every conditional statement p → q can be written in the
following equivalent forms.
If p, then q. Every p is a q.

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 If p, q. q, if p.
p only if q. q provided that p.
p implies q. q is a necessary condition for p.
Not p or q. p is a sufficient condition for q.

Example
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.

a. The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2.

The statement “The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2” is in “q provided
that p” form. The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the consequent is “the number is an
even number.” Thus its “if p, then q” form is “If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even
number.”

b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.

The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday” is in “p only if q” form. The
antecedent is “Today is Friday” The consequent is “yesterday was
Thursday”. Its “If p, then q” form is “If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.”

The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive

Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the converse, the inverse, and
the contrapositive.

The converse of p → q is q → p. The converse is formed by interchanging the antecedent p with the
consequent q.

The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q. The inverse is formed by negating the antecedent p and negating the
consequent q.

The contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p. The contrapositive is formed by negating both the antecedent p
and the consequent q and interchanging these negated statements.

In Mathematics, it is often necessary to prove statements that are in “If p, then q” form. If a proof cannot
be readily produced, mathematicians often try to prove the contrapositive “If ~q then ~p” because a
conditional and its contrapositive are equivalent statements, a proof of either statement also establishes
the proof of the other statement.

Example
If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.

Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.

Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.

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Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the job.

The table below shows that any conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive and that the
converse of a conditional statement is equivalent to the inverse of the conditional statement.
p q ~p ~q p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

Example
Determine whether the given statements are equivalent.

a. If a number ends with a 5, then the number is divisible by 5. If a number is divisible

by 5, then the number ends with a 5.
Looking at the second statement, it is the converse of the first. The statements are not equivalent
because a conditional and a converse statement have different truth values. An equivalent
statement both share the similar truth values.

b. If two lines in a plane do not intersect, then the lines are parallel.
If two lines in a plane are not parallel, then the lines intersect.
Looking at the second statement, it is the contrapositive of the first statement. The statements are
equivalent because a conditional and a contrapositive statement both share the same truth values.

Activity 9
A. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.
1. If we will have a quiz today, then we will not have a quiz tomorrow.
2. If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.
3. If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.
4. Every odd prime number is greater than 2.
5. We can get a dog only if we install a fence around the backyard.
6. If 3 + x is an odd integer, then x is an even integer.
7. If two triangles are not similar triangles, then they are not congruent triangles.
8. If a geometric figure is not a rectangle, then it is not a square.
9. If a = b, then ac = bc
10. If I live in Nashville, then I live in Tennessee.

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 B. Determine whether the given statements are equivalent. Explain why.
1. If I save $1000, I will go on the field trip If I go on the field trip, then I saved $1000.
2. If Kevin wins, we will celebrate.
If we celebrate, then Kevin will win.
3. If she attends the meeting, she will make the sale.
If she does not make the sale, then she did not attend the meeting.
4. If you understand Algebra, you can remember Algebra.
If you do not understand Algebra, you cannot remember Algebra.
5. If I live in Manila, then I live in Manila.
If I do not live in Manila, then I do not live in Manila.

Symbolic Arguments
In this topic we consider methods of analyzing arguments to determine whether they are valid or invalid.
For instance, consider the following argument.

If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal. Aristotle was human. Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.

To determine whether the above argument is a valid argument, we must first define the terms argument
and valid argument.

An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement called the conclusion.
An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed to be true. An
argument is invalid if it is not a valid argument.

In the argument about Aristotle, the two premises and the conclusion are shown below. It is customary to
place a horizontal line between the premises and the conclusion.

First premise: If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.

Second premise: Aristotle was human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.

Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance, if we let h represent the statement “Aristotle
was human” and m represent the statement “Aristotle was mortal,” then the argument can be expressed as
h→m

The three dots are a symbol for “therefore.”

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Example
We will be writing the following argument in symbolic form.

The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefor I will order it.

Let f represent the statement “The fish is fresh.” Let o represent the statement “I will order it.” The
symbolic form of the argument is

fV~o

Activity 10
Write the following arguments in symbolic form.

1. If you can read this bumper sticker, you’re too close. You can read the bumper sticker. Therefore,
you’re too close.
2. If Lois Lane marries Clark Kent, then Superman will get a new uniform. Superman does not get a
uniform. Therefore, Lois Lane did not marry Clark Kent.
3. If the price of gold rises, the stock market will fall. The price of gold did not rise. Therefore, the
stock market did not fall.
4. I am going shopping or I am going to the museum. I went to the museum. Therefore, I did not go
shopping.
5. If we search the internet, we will find information on logic. We searched the internet. Therefore,
we found information on logic.

Arguments and Truth Tables

The following truth table procedure can be used to determine whether an argument is valid or invalid.

Truth Table procedure to determine the validity of an Argument

1. Write the argument in symbolic form.

2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise and the truth value of the
conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the simple statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are true, the
argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in any row in which all of the premises are true, the
argument is invalid.

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Example
A. We will now use the procedure above to determine the validity of the argument about Aristotle.

1. Once again we let h represent the statement “Aristotle was human” and m represent the statement
“Aristotle was mortal”. In symbolic form the argument is h → m
h

2. Construct a truth table as shown below.

First premise h Second premise h Conclusion m
h m →m
T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T F T

F F T F F

3. As shown, Row 1 is the only row in which all the premises are true, so it is the only row that we
will examine. The conclusion is true in row 1, the argument is valid.

B. We will now determine the following argument if it is valid or invalid.

If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is not raining. Therefore the game will be played.

1. If we let r represent “it rains” and g represent “the game will be played,” then the symbolic form
is r → ~g
~r

2. The truth table for this argument is as follows.

First premise r Second premise Conclusion g
r g → ~g ~r

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 T T F F T

T F T F F
F T T T T
F F T T F

3. Since the conclusion in row 4 is false and the premises are both true, the argument is invalid.

C. Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.

If I am going to run the marathon, then I will buy new shoes.

If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television.

If I buy a television, I will not run the marathon.

1. Label each simple statement.

m: I am going to run the marathon. s: I
will buy new shoes. t: I will buy a
television.

The symbolic form of the argument is

m→s
s → ~t

t → ~m

2. The truth table for this argument follows.

First premise m Second premise s Conclusion t
m s t →s → ~t → ~m

T T T T F F
T T F T T T

T F T F T F

T F F F T T

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 F T T T F T
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T

3. The only rows in which both premises are true are rows 2, 6, 7, and 8. Since the conclusion is true
in each of these rows, the argument is valid.

Activity 11
Determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

1. If you finish your homework, you may attend the reception. You did not finish your homework.
Therefore, you cannot go to the reception.
2. If I can’t buy the house, then at least I can dream about it. I can buy the house or at least I can
dream about it. Therefore, I can buy the house.
3. If the winds are far from the east, then we will not have a big surf. We do not have a big surf.
Therefore, the winds are from the east.
4. If I master college algebra, then I will be prepared for trigonometry. I am prepared for
trigonometry. Therefore, I mastered college algebra.
5. If it is a blot, then it is not a clot. If it is a zlot, then it is a clot. It is a blot. Therefore, it is not a
zlot.
6. If it is a dog then it has fleas. It has fleas. Therefore, it is a dog.
7. p V ~q 9. ~p Λ q
~q ~p

p q
8. (p → q) → (r → ~q) 10. p → ~q
p ~q

r p

Evaluation
A. Answer the following questions/problems. Describe your final answer in statements.

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Given p, q, r, s, t, and u as defined below.

p: The tour goes to Italy. q: The tour goes

to Spain.

r: We go to Venice. s: We go

to Florence. t: The hotel fees are

included.

u: The hotel fees are not included.

1. Write p Λ ~q in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the given
truth value if p is false and q is true.
2. Write r → ~s in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the given
truth value if r and s are both true.
3. Write s ↔ ~r in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the given
truth value if s is true and r is false.
4. Write r V s in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the given truth
value if r and s are both false.
5. Write p → r in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the given truth
value if p is true and r is false.

Given p, q, r, s, and t as defined below.

p: Taylor Swift is a singer.

q: Taylor Swift is not a songwriter.

r: Taylor Swift is an actress. s:

Taylor Swift plays the piano.

t: Taylor Swift does not play the guitar.

1. Write (p V r) Λ q in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the given
truth value if all of the statements are true.
2. Write p → (q Λ ~r) in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the
given truth value if p is false, q is true and r is false.

3. Write (r Λ p) ↔ q in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the
given truth value if all of the statements are false.
4. Write t ↔ ( ~r Λ ~p) in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the
given truth value if p is true, and both r and t are false.

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 5. Write (s Λ ~q) → t V p in a sentence and construct a truth table for the statement to determine the
given truth if all of the statements are true.

Given p, q, r and s as defined below. Write the following sentences into its symbolic form. p: Stephen

Curry is a football player. q: Stephen Curry is a basketball player.

r: Stephen Curry is a rock star.

s: Stephen Curry plays for the Warriors.

1. Stephen Curry is a football player or a basketball player, and he is not a rock star,
2. Stephen Curry is a rock star, and he is not a basketball player or a football player.
3. If Stephen Curry is a basketball player and a rock star, then he is not a football player.
4. Stephen Curry is a basketball player, if and only if he is not a football player and not a rock star.

B. Construct two truth tables to prove if the two statements are equivalent or not.

1. m V (m Λ j) and m

2. t Λ (t V y) and t

3. s Λ (t V u) and (s Λ t) V (s Λ u)

C. Construct a truth table to prove if the statement is a tautology, a self-contradiction or none of the two.

1. q V ~q 5. (q Λ r) V ( ~q V ~r)

2. q Λ (~q Λ r) 6. ~(q V ~q)

3. (q V r) V ( ~q V r) 7. r V [ ~(r Λ s) Λ ~r]

4. ~s Λ s

D. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.

1. If I were rich, I would quit this job.

2. If we had a car, then we would be able to take the class.
3. If she does not return soon, we will not be able to attend the party.
4. I will be in the talent show only if I can do the same comedy routine I did for the banquet.
5. Every parallelogram is a quadrilateral.
6. If you get the promotion, you will need to move to Denver.
7. I would be able to get current information about astronomy provided I had access to the Internet.
8. You need four-wheel drive to make the trip to Death Valley.

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 9. We will not have enough money for dinner, if we take a taxi.
10. If you are the president of the United States, then your age is at least 35.

E. Determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

1. We will serve either fish or chicken for lunch. We did not serve fish for lunch. Therefore, we
served chicken for lunch.
2. If Mike is a CEO, then he will be able to afford to make a donation. If Mike can afford to make a
donation, then he loves to ski. Therefore, if Mike does not love to ski, he is not a CEO.
3. If we wish to win the lottery, we must buy a lottery ticket. We did not win the lottery. Therefore,
we did not buy a lottery ticket.
4. Robert can charge it on his Master Card or his Visa. Robert does not use his Master Card.
Therefore, Robert charged it to his Visa.
5. If we are going to have a Caesar salad, then we need to buy some eggs. We did not buy eggs.
Therefore, we are not going to have a Caesar salad.
6. If we serve lasagna, then Eva will not come to our dinner party. We did not serve lasagna.
Therefore, Eva came to our dinner party.
7. (p Λ ~q) Λ (~p → q) 9. p → ~q p q

~q ~p
8. p → ~r 10. (p V ~r) → (q Λ r)
~p → q rΛp

pΛq pVq

References
Cengage, (2018) Mathematics in the Modern World. pp. 163 – 225

Prepared by:

Marcus John L. Javier, LPT

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