1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 01
Introduction to Science and
Technology
 2

Introduction to Science and Technology

Bio-Technology:

 Biology is the study of life or living organisms. Biotechnology is technology that utilizes biological
systems, living organisms or parts of this to develop or create different products.
 Cell: A cell is a fundamental unit of life. Cell is a place where life activities take place. These life
activities are known as metabolic activities or Biochemical reactions.
 Life: Life is a total sum of bio-chemical reactions occurring inside a cell or cells. This metabolic
reactions can be of 2 types:
 Anabolism: Formative or constructive process: Example – Photosynthesis (It consumes
energy)
 Catabolism: Breakdown or destructive: Example – Respiration (It releases energy)
Characteristics of Life or Living Organisms:
 Reproduction: Living organisms reproduce whereas Non-living organisms cannot. Reproduction is
the division of cells.
 Cell Structure: A living structure is made up of cells. It is a set up where all the living activities
take place.
 Biochemical Reactions or Metabolism: Life activities taking place inside a cell. The metabolism
gives us either matter or energy.
 Adaption: Every living organism has the capability to adapt to its environment. Adaptation is of 2
types:
 Short Term: Example: Tanning in sunlight.
 Long Term: This is also known as Evolution. Example: People living in Kashmir have a fair
complexion. It is because Kashmir is away from the equator and the sun rays are less harsh
which does not require the body to produce melanin to counter UV radiations coming from the
sunlight.
Virus:
 Virus is a connecting link between Living and Nonliving.
 It is living because it can reproduce.
 It is non-living because it does not have a cell structure and no metabolic activities take place.
 3

 Viruses enter cells of the body and hijack the mechanism of the cell to make matter and utilize
energy and they multiply in number inside the cell known as reproduction.
 Virus is made up of protein and genetic material (RNA or DNA).
Structure of Virus:
Types of Viruses based on Genetic Material:
They can be divided into two types:
 DNA virus: Genetic material is DNA. Example: Hepatitis virus, Pox virus.
 RNA virus: Genetic material is RNA. Example: Flu and Influenza, Covid – 19 (SARS COV 2),
Polio, Dengue, Chikungunya, Zika, Nipah, Hanta, Measles, HIV, Rabies. RNA viruses are also
known as Heterovirus.
In living world, genetic material is made up of 2 types:
 RNA: 1st genetic material on earth. It is older than DNA. It is present only in retrovirus. They are
simple and unstable.
 DNA: 2nd genetic material on earth after RNA. This is present in all organisms. They are complex
and stable.
Types of Virus based on infection to host:
 Animal virus: It can infect animal cells.
 Plant virus: It can infect plant cells.
 Mycophage: It can infect fungi.
 Bacteriophage: It can infect bacteria.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 02
Cell and Genetic Material
 2

Cell and Genetic Material

Cells:
 Cells are a fundamental unit of life.
 Cell is a structural and functional unit of life.
Animal cells vs. Plant cells:
Key Differences:
 Both plant and animal
cells have vacuoles. A
plant cell contains a large,
singular vacuole that is
used for storage and
maintaining the shape of
the cell. In contrast, very
small vacuoles as
compared to plant cells are
seen in animal cells.
 Plant cells have a cell wall, as well as a cell membrane. In plants, the cell wall surrounds the cell membrane.
This gives the plant cell its unique rectangular shape. Animal cells simply have a cell membrane, but no cell
wall.
 Plastids are present in Plant cells and absent in Animal cells.
 Centrosomes and Lysosomes are present mostly in animal cells.
Key Similarities:
 For the process of reproduction
both possess reproductive
organs.
 Both comprise the nucleus and
other membrane-bound
cellular organelles.
 Both are living and at some
point in life, they both die.
 Both species possess DNA
and RNA.
 3

 Impermeable: An impermeable membrane blocks the movement of all substances.

 Freely Permeable: Freely permeable means different types of molecules pass easily through this membrane
without any resistance.
 Semi Permeable: A Semi-Permeable membrane allows passage of only solvent molecules to pass through
it.
 Selectively Permeable: The selectively permeable membrane or differentially permeable membrane allows
passage of only selected molecules to pass through it.

Cell wall:
 It is present only in plant cells.
 It is a non-living structure.
 It is freely permeable.
 Chemical composition of the cell wall is cellulose which is a carbohydrate.
 Function of the cell wall: It provides rigidity and mechanical strength to the plant.
 Cell Wall in different Organisms:
 Cell walls in plants are made up of Cellulose.
 Cell wall in fungi is made up of Chitin.
 Cell wall in algae is made up of Cellulose.
 Cell wall in bacteria is made up of Peptidoglycan (Muramic Acid).
 Thus, the cell wall is a defining character of plants.
Plasma Membrane:
 It is present in both animals and plants and in all life forms.
 It is a living structure.
 It is selectively permeable.
 Chemical composition of the Plasma Membrane: It is made up of lipid (Phospholipid) and protein.
 Function of the Plasma Membrane: It allows entry of only selected/required matter inside the cell.
Hypotonic Solution:
 A hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration than inside the cell.
 The difference in concentration between the compartments causes water to enter the cell.
 Plant cells can tolerate this situation better than animal cells. In plants, the large central vacuole fills with water
and water also flows into the intercellular space.
 The combination of these two effects causes pressure which presses against the cell wall causing it to bulge
out. The cell wall helps keep the cell from bursting.
 However, if left in a highly hypertonic solution, an animal cell will swell until it bursts and dies.
Hypertonic Solution: Hypertonic solutions have a higher solute concentration than inside the cell. This causes
water to rush out making the cell wrinkle or shrivel.
 4

Osmosis: Osmosis is the

movement of solvent particles
across a semipermeable
membrane from a dilute solution
into a concentrated solution. The
solvent moves to dilute the
concentrated solution and equalize
the concentration on both sides of
the membrane.
Diffusion: Diffusion is the
movement of particles from an
area of higher concentration to
lower concentration. The overall effect is to equalize concentration throughout the medium.
If a freshwater fish is placed in sea water:
 A freshwater fish contains more
water and less salt. Whereas the sea
water contains more salt and less free
water. High salt concentration will
pull the water from the fish. This will
lead to dehydration in the ship and
eventually the fish will die.

If a sea water fish is placed in the river/freshwater:

 In river water salt will be less
and water will be more. The
fish contains more salt and
less free water since it is a sea
water fish.
 The water will enter into the
fish and the fish will be over-
hydrated. This will slow down
its metabolic activity and
eventually the fish will die.

Cause of Dehydration in body is due to:

 Presence of Less water in the body
 Presence of more salt in the body: The free water in the body decreases.
 5

Plasmolysis:
 Extreme dehydration in living beings or cells is known as Plasmolysis. Plasmolysis is the process in which cells
lose water in a hypertonic solution.
 The reverse process, de-plasmolysis or cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a
lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell.
 Plasmolysis is used in the preservation of food. Either a strong sugar solution or a strong salt solution
is used for the purpose. Example: Dried fish, vegetables and fruits, jam and jelly, pickles, sweets etc.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 03
Cell and Genetic Material
- II
 2

Cell and Genetic Material - II

Cell Organelles:
1. Mitochondria:
 It is the powerhouse of the cell. Power house is a set up where one form of energy is converted into another
form of energy. Mitochondria is present in both plant and animal cells.
 Function of Mitochondria:
 Breakdown of food to get energy
 Oxidation of glucose to get ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate)
 Cellular respiration to get ATP.
 Formation of ATP. ATP is a form of chemical energy. It is also known as the Energy Currency of the cell.
 ATP is an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living things. ATP captures chemical energy
obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes.
 Structure of Mitochondria: It is a double membrane structure.
 Thus, an animal cell will have two DNA: Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA), Nuclear DNA.
 Mitochondria is under the partial control of the nucleus. Hence, it is semi-autonomous in nature.

2. Plastid:
 It is a double membrane structure and present only in plant cells.
 3

 Types of Plastid:
 Chloroplast: It contains a green pigment known as Chlorophyll. It performs the function of
photosynthesis.
 Chromoplast: It contains an orange-red pigment known as Carotene. It also contains a yellow pigment
known as Xanthophyll. The function of both is to help in photosynthesis and give color to fruits and
flowers.
 Leucoplast: It is colorless and contains no pigment. Its function is storage of food.

 Magnesium is present at the core of chlorophyll. It helps in absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Carotene converts into Vitamin A or Retinol in our liver. It maintains eye health and helps in preventing night
blindness.
 Plastid is also semi-autonomous in nature.
Other Plant Pigments:
 Anthocyanins: It gives various colors such as red, purple, blue etc.
 Lycopene: It is an antioxidant which gives tomato its red color.
Whenever a bio-chemical reaction takes place, a useful product is formed and a by-product is formed. This by-
product is usually harmful and is in the form of waste or free radical. Antioxidants trap or neutralize the free radicals.
Vitamin C and Vitamin E, Lycopene, Whole grains, Green vegetables and Fruits etc. are good examples of
antioxidants.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an important organelle in eukaryotic cells. It plays a major role in the
production, processing, and transport of proteins and lipids. It is an interconnected network of pipeline
structures made of membrane.
 A cell's endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contains a network of tubules and flattened sacs. The ER performs
multiple functions in both plant and animal cells.
 Endoplasmic reticulum has two major regions: smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Rough ER contains attached ribosomes while smooth ER does not.
 4

 Via the attached ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins via the translation process.
Rough ER also manufactures membranes.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum serves as a transitional area for transport vesicles. It also functions in
carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. Cholesterol and phospholipids are examples.
 Rough and smooth ER are typically connected to one another so that the proteins and membranes made by the
rough ER can freely move into the smooth ER for transport to other parts of the cell.

Golgi Bodies:
 The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body or Golgi complex, is a type of organelle (i.e., a structure
located in the cell) that processes and packages proteins and lipid molecules (i.e., fat molecules). These are
later transported to other cell compartments (e.g., lysosomes or the plasma membrane) or secreted from the
cell.
 It is responsible for storage, modification, packaging and delivery of protein.
 All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes.
Lysosomes:
 Lysosomes originate by budding off from the membrane of the trans-Golgi network, a region of the Golgi
complex responsible for sorting newly synthesized proteins, which may be designated for use in lysosomes,
endosomes, or the plasma membrane.
 It is responsible for the digestion of macromolecules, old cell parts, and microorganisms.
 Lysosomes are the organelles that have digestive enzymes. When lysosomes burst, the digestive enzymes
released start digesting their own cells. That is why they are known as suicidal bags.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture – 4
Cell and Genetic Material-III
 2

Cell and Genetic Material - III

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi Bodies and Lysosomes:
❖ These all are single membrane structures.
❖ Golgi bodies is the chief secretory organelle of the cell.
❖ Lysosomes are generally absent in plants. It kills only worn out, damaged, old and infected cells. Maximum
number of lysosomes are present in White Blood Cells (WBC).
Apoptosis:
❖ Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death.
❖ It is used during early development to eliminate unwanted cells; for example, those between the fingers of a
developing hand. In adults, apoptosis is used to rid the body of cells that have been damaged beyond repair.
Apoptosis also plays a role in preventing cancer.
❖ If apoptosis is for some reason prevented, it can lead to uncontrolled cell division and the subsequent
development of a tumor.
❖ It is triggered by Mitochondria and not Lysosomes.
Centrosome:
❖ It is found only in animal cells.
❖ It is a non-membranous structure.
❖ Chemical composition: It is made up of Tubulin protein.
❖ It performs the function of cell division.
Ribosomes:
❖ The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.
❖ It is a non-membranous structure.
❖ Chemical composition: It is made up of RNA and protein. (Ribonucleoprotein)
❖ Types of Ribosomes: The two types of ribosomes are the 70S and 80S, where s signifies Swedberg’s
sedimentation rate.
➢ 80S ribosomes: The 80S ribosomes are found in the eukaryotes, which are further formed by 60S and
40S subunits.
✓ The 80S ribosomes are found within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
✓ They are heavier and larger in size.
✓ It assists in the process of translation of mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) into amino acids.
✓ They are found in all plants and animals.
➢ 70S ribosomes: The 70S ribosomes are commonly found in prokaryotes.
 3

✓ They are further produced of two subunits, i.e. the 30S and 50S.
✓ They are small, around 15-20 nm in size.
✓ The 70S ribosomes are found freely within the cytoplasm of prokaryotes.
✓ It assists in the production of proteins within the cells of prokaryotes.
✓ They are found in bacteria, blue green algae and mycoplasma.
Nucleus:
❖ Nuclear is the control room of the cell.
❖ It is also known as the brain of the cell.
 4

Important Terms:
❖ Chromatin: It is a thread-like structure present in the Nucleus. It is the summation of DNA and Histone.
❖ DNA: It is genetic material where genetic information is written.
❖ Genes: Genes are segments of DNA having information for character (Example: Eye color)
❖ Chromosomes: It is a coiled/condensed DNA with Histone Protein.
Important Points:
❖ In a cell nucleus, chromatin is present.
❖ Chromosomes appear only during cell division.
❖ Genes are a unit of inheritance. They are located on the chromosome.
❖ 30000 genes are present in human cells.
❖ Normally, one gene determines one character but sometimes a single character can be determined by more
than one gene. This is known as the Polygenic effect. Example: Skin color.
❖ Genes are carried by chromosome from one generation to another.
❖ We have 23 pairs of chromosomes.



PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 05
DNA & RNA
 2

DNA & RNA

DNA:
 It is a chemical known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
 It is a bio molecule and a biopolymer.
 A series of similar molecules put together is known as a Polymer. It consists of small units known as Monomer.
 The unit (monomer) of is nucleotide.
 A nucleotide is made up of:
 Deoxyribose sugar (S): C5H10O5 is Ribose.
 Phosphate group (P): It is made of Phosphoric Acid H3PO4
 Nitrogenous bases: They are made of Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T).
 Adenine (A) combines with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) combines with Cytosine (C).
 DNA is a genetic material on which genetic information is written.
 DNA is a double helix which makes it more stable. The main bonding in DNA which renders the double helix
structure so stable is that of hydrogen bonds. Between the complementary base pairs, hydrogen bonds connect
the two strands of the helix. There are 3 H bonds between Guanine and Cytosine and 2 H bonds between
Adenine and Thymine. As well as this there are hydrogen bonds between the bases and surrounding water
molecules, and this combined with the even stronger phosphodiester bonds in the sugar phosphate backbone
make DNA very stable.
 Sudden change in DNA or genetic material is known as Mutation.
DNA Language / Genetic Language:
 There are 4 alphabets: A, G, C, T which are also known as Nitrogenous bases.
 Only 3 letter words can be formed. They are also known as Triplets. Example: AAA, ATA, ATT, TGC, TCC,
TCA. A total of 64 words have to be formed.
 Words have to be put in any order to form sentences. Example: ATA – TAT – CCC – CTG – GGG – TAT.
These sentences are known as Genes. Genes can be up to any length and any sequence.
 3

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning
of an organism. DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder — a
shape known as a double helix. Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and
phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or
thymine (T). The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between the bases: adenine bonds with thymine,
and cytosine bonds with guanine. The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes biological information,
such as the instructions for making a protein or RNA molecule.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA):

 RNA is also a polymer. Therefore, it consists of small units known as
Monomer.
 The unit (monomer) of RNA is nucleotide.
 A nucleotide is made up of:
 Ribose sugar (S): C5H10O5 is Ribose.
 Phosphate group (P): It is made of Phosphoric Acid H3PO4
 Nitrogenous bases: They are made of Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C), and Uracil. Thymine (T) is absent in an RNA nucleotide.
 RNA is single stranded. Therefore, it is less stable than DNA.
Functions of the RNA:
 RNA is a genetic material present only in Retrovirus.
 Role of RNA is animal cells and plant cells is the synthesis of protein.
4
 5

Transcription and Translation:

 Genes provide information for building proteins. They don’t however directly create proteins. The production
of proteins is completed through two processes: transcription and translation.
 Transcription and translation take the information in DNA and use it to produce proteins. Transcription uses a
strand of DNA as a template to build a molecule called RNA.
 The RNA molecule is the link between DNA and the production of proteins. During translation, the RNA
molecule created in the transcription process delivers information from the DNA to the protein-building
machines.
 Transcription and translation are the two processes that convert a sequence of nucleotides from DNA into a
sequence of amino acids to build the desired protein.
Transcription:
 Transcription is the process of producing a strand of RNA from a strand of DNA.
 Through transcription, the sequence of bases of the DNA is transcribed into the reciprocal sequence of bases in
a strand of RNA.
 The information of the DNA molecule is passed onto the new strand of RNA which can then carry the
information to where proteins are produced. RNA molecules used for this purpose are known as messenger
RNA (mRNA).
Translation:
 Translation is the process
where the information
carried in mRNA
molecules is used to
create proteins.
 The specific sequence of
nucleotides in the mRNA
molecule provides the
code for the production of
a protein with a specific
sequence of amino acids.
 Translation occurs in
Ribosomes. Ribosomes
are small cellular machines that control the production of proteins in cells.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 06
Biotechnology
 2

Interior of Earth (Part 2)

Central Dogma of Biology:

 Transcription and Translation: Already discussed in the last class.

 Reverse Transcription: In biology, the process in cells by which an enzyme makes a copy of
DNA from RNA. The enzyme that makes the DNA copy is called reverse transcriptase and is
found in retroviruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
 DNA Replication: DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during
cell division.
 Every function in our body is determined by proteins because all enzymes in our body convert to
proteins.

 Genome: Gene is a segment of DNA. The total gene present in our body is known as Genome. The
genome is the entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell. The study of Genomes is known as
Genomics.
 Transcriptome: It is the complete set of all RNA molecules in a cell, a population of cells or in an
organism. Transcriptomics technologies are the techniques used to study an organism's
transcriptome, the sum of all of its RNA transcripts.
 Proteome: The proteome is the entire set of proteins that is, or can be, expressed by a genome, cell,
tissue, or organism at a certain time. It is the set of expressed proteins in a given type of cell or
organism, at a given time, under defined conditions. Proteomics is the study of the proteome.
 3

 Metabolome: The metabolome refers to the complete set of small-molecule chemicals found
within a biological sample. The biological sample can be a cell, a cellular organelle, an organ, a
tissue, a tissue extract, a biofluid or an entire organism. Metabolomics is the scientific study of
chemical processes involving metabolites, the small molecule substrates, intermediates, and
products of cell metabolism.

Bio-Technology:

Science is the theories or principles whereas technology is the applications of these theories or
principles. Biotechnology is application of biological principles and theories for the human welfare and
commercial benefit.

Branches of Biotechnology:

 Green biotechnology is related to agriculture.

 Red biotechnology is related to health.
 Blue biotechnology is related to aquatic or ocean.
 White biotechnology is related to industrial applications.
 Yellow biotechnology is related to insect biotechnology.

 The harmful impacts of insects can be minimized. Example: Pest control.

 The benefits of insects can be maximized. They act as pollinators. Their products like honey
are very useful.
 Insects can be used as food and protein resources.
 4

Genomes:

The genome is the entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell. The study of Genomes is known as
Genomics.

Human Genome Project (HGP): It was carried out by the USA in the period of 1990-2003.

Under this project, the entire human genome was studied for the first time and all the information
written on human DNA was determined. The series of information present on the DNA is known as
Genetic sequence or base-pair sequence. This process is also known as Gene sequencing or Gene
mapping.

Technology used in HGP:

 Sequence Annotation: One of the key technologies utilized to read the base-pair sequence.
 Bioinformatics: It is related to HGP data storage and analysis by supercomputers. It is also known
as Gold biotechnology.

Result of HGP:
 5

 Human Genomes are composed of 300 crores of Nitrogenous base pairs.

 In the human genome, there are approximately 30000 genes.
 More than 50% of the DNA present in the genome are repeated sequences and they do not play any
role in protein synthesis. Hence, they are known as Junk DNA.
 In a particular cell only 2% of the genes are active and involved in protein synthesis.
 Genetic similarity between any two human beings is 99.9%. The unique difference among human
beings is due to 0.1% dissimilarities.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 07
Biotechnology II
 2

Biotechnology II
Benefits of Human Genome Project (HGP):
❖ HGP data helps us to understand the genetic basis of various diseases.
❖ HGP data can be helpful in gene therapy i.e treatment of diseases with gene manipulation.
❖ Personal Genomics: Personal genomics is the analysis and interpretation of information from an individual's
genome for the assessment of risk in an individual's body. Nowadays, personal genomics is becoming popular
for risk assessment related to various diseases and health conditions.
❖ Custom drug or Designer drug: With the help of human genome data custom drug or designer drug can be
developed according to the individual genetics. Such medicines will provide better treatment with no side
effects.
❖ HGP data helps in the study of structure and function of genes.
❖ Comparative study of HGP data of different human races tell us about information about origin of human
species, migration across the globe and relationships of human races.

Issues and concerns related to HGP:

❖ Risk assessment: It can be one factor which promotes discrimination. Risk assessment is controversial. It may
lead to discrimination on the basis of genetics in insurance and employment opportunities.
❖ HGP data for personal genomics can reveal Genetic information about our real ancestry and lineage which
may disturb our belief system.
❖ HGP can reveal about disease that may appear in future and it may create psychological pressure or stress
about disease that may appear in the future.

HGP - Write:
❖ Timeline of this project: 2016-2026.
❖ This project is initiated by the multinational organization Center of Excellence of Engineering Biology.
❖ This project aims to design genomic data on a computer and convert this data into an artificial human genome.
❖ In other words, the genomic data or nitrogenous base sequence will be written on the DNA in the laboratory.
This project will help in better understanding of the human genome, human genetics, various diseases and its
treatment.

HGP - Read:
❖ Timeline of this project: 2016-2003.
❖ Also known as Older HGP.
❖ The original HGP was a HGP - Read which used chemicals and instruments to decipher the genome for the
first time.

Earth Bio Genome Project:

❖ It started in 2018. It is due to be completed in 2028.
❖ Under this project 15 lakhs eukaryotic organisms will be genetically mapped.
❖ In this project almost every species living around us will be studied at genomics level.
 3

❖ This will help in better understanding of biodiversity and its conservation.

❖ It will also help in development of new drugs and development of Genetically Modified (GM) crops.

Genomics in India:
❖ Genomics in Agriculture: In India, genomics study started in 2002 when India became a part of the
International Rice Research Project. After 2002, India mapped the genomes of many crops like wheat,
pulses, sugarcane, mustard, turmeric, ragi, tulsi etc. With the help of data collected in agricultural genomics,
India is doing development of many GM crops.
❖ Genomics in Health sector: Genome India Project (GIP) is a big project under the guidance of Department
of Biotechnology and Indian Institute of Science (IISC), Benagaluru. It commenced in the year 2020. In the
first phase of this project, a reference genome will be created by collecting genomic data of 10000 Indians.
This project will help to understand the genetic basis of disease which affects the Indian population.
❖ INSA - COG (India SARS-COV-2 Consortium for Genomics Study): This is a network of more than 50
laboratories where new variants of coronavirus are detected with the help of gene sequencing. This consortium
is a joint initiative of the health ministry, Department of Biotechnology, Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 08
Biotech - Genetic Engineering
 2

Biotech - Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering:

Genetic Engineering is a process by which the genome of an organism is edited by removal of some gene or by

addition of some foreign gene. Modification of the genome will change genetics and it can bring out new character

or it can produce new protein.

Production of Insulin by bacteria with the help of Genetic Engineering:

❖ Diabetes is the presence of high sugar (Glucose) in the blood. It is managed by Insulin hormone.

❖ The insulin hormone is released by beta cells of the Pancreas gland. The insulin gene is taken out from the beta

cells with the help of an enzyme known as Restriction Endonuclease.

❖ E coli bacteria have a DNA and a plasmid which is an extra DNA. The plasmid is taken out from the E coli

bacteria. It is opened with the help of Restriction Endonuclease and the insulin gene is added to it with the help

of another enzyme known as Ligase.

❖ The new structure is known as Recombinant Plasmid. It is transferred by a vector in the E coli bacteria which

contains only the DNA.

❖ The new E coli which contains DNA and Recombinant Plasmid is known as Transgenic bacteria. The

Transgenic bacteria is supplied with a suitable medium or nutrition culture which leads to multiplication of E

coli and thereby the production of insulin.

❖ Restriction Endonuclease is known as Molecular/DNA scissors. Restriction Endonucleases are enzymes

that recognize a specific DNA sequence, called a restriction site, and cleave the DNA within or adjacent to

that site.

❖ Ligase is known as Molecular/DNA glue.

❖ Vectors are the carriers of genes from one organism to another.

 3

Vector: Vector is a DNA/Gene carrier.

Types of Vector:

❖ Plasmid: Transfer of gene to bacteria.

❖ Agrobacterium: Transfer of genes to plant cells.

❖ Virus: Transfer of gene to animal/human cells.

❖ Cosmid and Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YAC) are used for laboratory experiments.

Applications of Genetic Engineering:

❖ Production of useful protein, medicines and hormones. Example: Insulin and growth hormone.

❖ Development of Genetically Modified (GM) crops. Example: Bt cotton, Golden rice.

❖ Development of GM animals. Example: GM-Salmon.

❖ It is used in gene therapy to treat some diseases.

 4

Issues/concerns related to Genetic Engineering:

❖ Development of Biological weapons by genetically modifying bacteria and viruses. This is also known as Bio-
Terrorism.

❖ Development of designer babies because Genetic Engineering can modify genetics of an embryo.

Two ways for treatment of Diabetes:

❖ Injecting insulin

❖ Addition of insulin gene in beta cells (Pancreas) by Genetic Engineering. This process is known as Gene
Therapy. Gene therapy is a technique that uses a gene(s) to treat, prevent or cure a disease or medical disorder.
Often, gene therapy works by adding new copies of a gene that is broken, or by replacing a defective or missing
gene in a patient's cells with a healthy version of that gene.

Genetically Modified (GM) crops:

They are of 3 types:

❖ Cisgenic: Here, the transfer of genes is done between the same species. It is safe but not popular.

❖ Transgenic: Here, the transfer of genes is done between two different species. Although it is popular, safety
evaluation is required.

Non- Transgenic: Here, there is no transfer of genes but only removal of genes. It is safe and getting popular
nowadays.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 09
Biotech - GM Crops
 2

Biotech - GM Crops

Transgenic Crops:
 When a gene from other species is added in a plant genome then this plant is known as Transgenic crop.
 The development of transgenic crops is based on genetic engineering.
 It brings out new character or new nutrients in the plant.
 Transgenic crops require risk assessment to rule out environmental impact and health impact.
Examples of GM crops:
 Bt Cotton: It is the only GM crop that is accepted in India. It was accepted in 2002.
 Bt Brinjal
 Bt Maize
 DMH 11 (GM – Mustard): It is the second GM crop to be accepted in India.
 Golden Rice
 GM Soybean
 GM Canola (Rapeseed)
 Ht Potato
 GM Rubber
 Flavr Savr Tomato: It was the first GM crop accepted by humans in the world in 1992-94 in the USA.
Benefits of Transgenic Crops (GM Crops):
There are 6 big benefits of GM crops:
 Increase in production
 Enhanced nutritional value
 Herbicide tolerance (Ht)
 Pest resistance crops
 New plant products
 Medicinal property in plants
1. Increase in Production:
 Productivity of agriculture must be increased to overcome challenges of limited agricultural land, increasing
human population and increasing demand for food and adverse impacts of climate change.
 Many GM crops have been developed to increase productivity and it can grow in adverse climatic conditions.
 In Indonesia, GM Sugarcane has been accepted to increase sugar production.
 Argentina and Brazil have accepted many GM crops to increase their agricultural productivity.
 In 2021, India developed and planted the first GM Rubber to increase rubber productivity.
 First GM Rubber Development by India:
 Natural Rubber is suitable for hot and humid conditions. After the addition of MnSOD (Manganese
Supra Oxide Dimutase) Gene, GM Rubber is obtained.
 GM Rubber is suitable for low temperature (winters) of North Eastern states.
 3

 GM Rubber is developed by Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII), Kerala.

 The first GM Rubber is planted in Guwahati, Assam in Rubber Board Research Farm.
 GM Rubber will increase the productivity of rubber because it can tolerate low temperatures of winters
in North Eastern states.
 At present GM Rubber is under evaluation and assessment.
2. Enhanced nutritional value:
 India is self-sufficient in food production but lacks in nutrition.
 India has already enacted the Food Security Act but now we are aspiring for nutritional security in the future.
 Example: Golden rice and Super banana
 Golden Rice:
 A gene called beta-carotene is added to Natural rice. After the insertion of this gene, Natural rice converts
to Golden rice. Natural rice is rich in starch whereas Golden rice is rich in Starch and Vitamin A.
 Beta carotene is obtained from the Daffodil plant.
 Beta carotene gene converts into Vitamin A in the liver of human beings and animals.
 Golden rice was developed by Ingo Portirykus and Peter Bayer with the help of Rockefeller
Foundation on humanitarian grounds.
 It has been developed as a tool to fight Vitamin A malnutrition.
 According to WHO, 124 million kids are suffering from Vitamin A deficiency. And 2 million kids die
every year.
 Golden Rice is undergoing field trial and evaluation under the supervision of International Rice Research
Institute, Manila.
 In July 2021, the Philippines became the first country to accept Golden rice for commercial cultivation.
 Recently, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation donated a fund to develop the next generation of golden rice
known as Super Rice which will have Vitamin A, Vitamin E, Zinc, Iron and Protein.
 Super Banana: Super Banana will have better protein content along with Vitamin A.
3. Herbicide tolerance (Ht):
 Herbicide is also known as weedicides. Glufosinate is a popular weedicide chemical. It kills unwanted plants
or weeds in crop fields.
 Normal Mustard of the VARUNA variety is killed by Glufosinate herbicide. Management of weeds will
be difficult and productivity will decrease.
 The GM Mustard (DMH-11) has a unique property of tolerating Glufosinate. Weeds will be managed and
productivity increases by 30%.
 Dhara Mustard Hybrid – 11 or DMH-11 is developed by Delhi University under Dipak Pental.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 10
Biotech - GM Crops II
 2

Biotech - GM Crops II
Benefits of Transgenic Crops (GM Crops):
1. Increase in Productivity: Discussed in the last class.
2. Enhanced nutritional value: Discussed in the last class.
3. Herbicide tolerance (Ht):
➢ Herbicide is also known as weedicides. Glufosinate is a popular weedicide chemical. It kills unwanted
plants or weeds in crop fields.
➢ Normal Mustard of the VARUNA variety is killed by Glufosinate herbicide. Management of weeds
will be difficult and productivity will decrease.
➢ GM Mustard (DMH-11) has the unique property of tolerating Glufosinate. Weeds are managed and
productivity increases by 30%.
▪ Dhara Mustard Hybrid – 11 or DMH-11 is developed by Delhi University under Dipak Pental.
▪ DMH-11 is a genetically modified hybrid crop where three genes from the soil bacteria have
been introduced by genetic engineering.
▪ Varuna Mustard and European Heera Mustard are the two types of mustard grown in India out
of which Varuna Mustard is more popular.
➢ They are cross bred and 3 genes are added: Bar Gene, Barnase, Barstar Gene. These genes have been
derived from the soil bacteria.
▪ Bar Gene: It is responsible for herbicide tolerance (Ht).
▪ Barnase Gene: It causes male sterility in mustard Varuna.
▪ Barstar Gene: It removes male sterility in DMH-11 or restores male part or removes the impact of
Barnase.
➢ As a result, DMH-11 is both a hybrid crop and a GM crop.
➢ Barstar Gene in DMH-11 neutralizes or removes the effect of Barnase Gene so that the male sterility can
be reverted and DMH-11 will be having both male and female part.
➢ Present Status of DMH-11:
▪ All GM crops in India are approved by GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee) under
the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
▪ Role of GEAC: It is responsible for -
o Export and Import of GM crops
o Trial and evaluation of GM crops
o Release of GM crops for cultivation
▪ In 2017, DMH-11 was approved by GEAC but MoEFCC stopped the release for cultivation due to
some controversies related to it.
▪ In October 2022 GEAC and MoEFCC approved the environmental release of DMH-11 so that its
environmental impact can be assessed and soon it will be released for commercial cultivation.
 3

4. Pest Resistant Crops: Example: Bt Cotton, Bt Brinjal, Bt Maize.

➢ Bt Cotton:
▪ Bt Cotton is a genetically modified cotton species developed by Monsanto (USA).
▪ Normal cotton can be attacked by a pest called Bollworm. This Bollworm can be killed by chemical
pesticide which will cause pollution.
▪ As a remedial action, scientists added genes Cry1AB and Cry2AB derived from Bacillus
Thuringiensis which is a soil bacteria. As a result, we got Bt Cotton which will produce Cry protein
or Bt-Toxin. This will kill the Bollworm.
▪ Thus, the need for a chemical pesticide will be eliminated, thereby reducing pollution and ensuring
crop protection and more protection.
▪ Under the influence of the Cry gene, cotton plants produce a toxic protein which damages the
intestines of Bollworms and kills them.
▪ In India, cultivation of Bt cotton started in 2002 after getting approval from GEAC. At present more
than 95% of cotton plantations are under Bt Cotton.
▪ Bt Cotton has been accepted in India to protect the environment from the massive use of chemical
pesticides in cotton plants.
▪ In India, Mahyco (Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company) Monsanto is responsible for the introduction
and marketing of Bt Cotton by the brand name BallGuard.
▪ In recent times in some places, Bt Cotton is facing attacks by White Flies (Pest/insects).
➢ Bt Brinjal:
▪ It is based on the Bt technology of Monsanto.
▪ Normal Brinjal can be attacked by Fruit and Stem Borer. Cry1AC gene derived from soil bacteria is
added. Thereby, Bt Brinjal is produced which consists of Cry protein or Bt-Toxin which kills the
fruit and stem borer.
▪ In 2008, Bt Brinjal was approved by GEAC but there was massive protest all over India because it
is a GM food crop. After that, MoEFCC banned Bt Brinjal and ordered a risk and benefit analysis of
it. So, Bt Brinjal is under field trial and evaluation.
▪ In recent times, illegal cultivation of Bt Brinjal has been reported in states like Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Haryana and Punjab.
 4

5. New plant products: With the help of genetic engineering, a new gene can be introduced in plants to produce
a new chemical compound.
➢ For Example, Albumen protein (egg protein) in peas.
➢ Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids (fish oil) in mustard.
➢ Insulin (hormone) in tomatoes.
6. Medicinal properties in plants:
➢ By addition of new genes medicinal properties in plants can be added. Example: Edible vaccines by
addition of genes of antigen. Cholera vaccine in potato, Pertussis vaccine in banana.
Note: Points 5 and 6 are limited to laboratory experiments.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 11
Biotech - Issues of GM Crops, Stem
Cell
 2

Biotech - Issues of GM Crops, Stem Cell

Protest of GM Crops in India:

❖ Commercial Reasons:
➢ Dependency on multinational companies for seed.
➢ It might increase input costs of small and marginal farmers.
➢ GM crops may lead to high yields which can imbalance the demand and supply equation and
farmers will not be able to get the right price.
❖ Environmental Reasons:
➢ Resistance in pests (insects) for existing GM crops.
➢ Application of GM crops can lead to Gene Escape and it can cause genetic pollution.
➢ Migration of gene from a GM crop to a non-GM crop is called Gene Escape. This transfer
of genes can be carried out by insects through cross pollination.
➢ In some cases scientists have suggested that GM crops have adverse effects on pollinators
like honey bees, on soil fertility and it demands more irrigation.
❖ Health related reasons:
➢ In GM crops, some extra chemicals and proteins are formed which may be harmful for
human and cattle health.
➢ Thus, a long testing period is required before we accept any GM food crop.
Non Transgenic GM crop:
❖ In this technology, a plant genome is edited by elimination or deletion of some gene to bring out
desired results.
❖ New genes are not added in this technology therefore it is non-Transgenic but genetically
modified.
❖ Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) has developed this technology and this technology
has been accepted and approved by GEAC.
❖ This technology is also known as SDN (Site Directed Nuclease) technology because enzymes used
to remove the gene from the genome are known as SDN1 and SDN2 enzymes.
Benefits of Non-Transgenic Crops:
❖ There are no foreign genes so there is no biological or environmental risk.
❖ It is cheaper and faster technology for development of GM crops.
 3

❖ It is non-Transgenic so it will be accepted by European countries like France because those

countries are not open for Transgenic crops. Earlier, there was a GM Rice export controversy
between India and France.
Stem Cell:
❖ Stem Cells are undifferentiated cells in the body which can divide and produce different
types of cells. Example: Bone Marrow is a Stem Cell because it produces RBC, WBC and
Platelets. These are known as Blood Cells.

Functions of Stem Cells:

❖ It supplies new cells for embryonic development and growth and development after birth.
❖ It supplies cells for repair and healing in the body.
❖ It replaces the dead cells with new cells.
Characteristics of Stem Cells:
❖ They undergo multiple division cycles.
❖ They have self renewal ability.
❖ They can produce different types of cells.
Types of Stem Cells:
❖ Embryonic Stem Cells: They are present only in embryonic conditions. They are -
➢ Totipotent Stem Cells
➢ Pluripotent Stem Cells
 4

❖ Adult Stem Cells: They are present in the adult body. They are -
➢ Multipotent Stem Cells
➢ Oligopotent Stem Cells
➢ Unipotent Stem Cells


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 12
Biotech - Stem Cell
 2

Biotech - Stem Cell

Types of Stem Cells:
1. Embryonic Stem Cells: They are present only in embryonic conditions. They are -
❖ Totipotent Stem Cells:
➢ This stem cell can divide into any type of cell in the body.
➢ It is present only in the early embryo stage (5-7 days old embryo).
➢ The embryo gets destroyed if we try to retrieve Totipotent stem cells, that is why application of
Totipotent stem cells is globally banned because the embryo gets destroyed.
➢ For medical research, Totipotent stem cells can be isolated from embryos developed in the lab by In
Vitro Fertilization (IVF).
➢ Pluripotent Stem Cells:
▪ These stem cells are formed by division of Totipotent stem cells and it can give rise to the majority
of cells in the body.
▪ Medically, it is the most important stem cell because it can be used in stem cell therapy for the
treatment of various diseases.
▪ How to retrieve Pluripotent Stem Cells?
▪ From the later embryo stage (after 1 week) - Here the embryo gets destroyed and hence it is
banned.
▪ From miscarriage within 12 weeks of pregnancy - Used only for research purposes.
▪ From the umbilical cord blood at the time of birth - This can be used in stem cell therapy.
▪ The Pluripotent Stem Cells derived from umbilical cord blood are stored in liquid Nitrogen at -1960C.
The medical services involved in the cryopreservation of stem cells are known as stem cell banking
or cord blood banking.
❖ Normally, stem cells are used for the same person from whom stem cells have been retrieved but in many cases
stem cells can also be used for closest blood relatives after matching blood group and Human Leukocyte
Antigen. Example: Parents, siblings, offsprings.
 3

Stem Cell Banking in India:

There are 3 types of stem cell banking in India. They are as follows:
❖ Private Stem Cell Banking: Parent’s ownership is 100% and no one can use these stem cells except for the
baby and the baby’s family.
❖ Public Stem Cell Banking: The stem cells are donated without ownership and anybody can access or use
these stem cells after paying the service fee.
❖ Community Stem Cell Banking: A group of people can preserve their kid’s stem cells together and all the
stem cells can be freely used within a group in any family. It is a hybrid model with limited ownership of
parents on stem cells.

Applications of Stem Cell - Stem Cell Therapy:

❖ Pluripotent stem cells are used for the treatment of blood related diseases such as blood cancer (Leukemia),
anemia, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia.
❖ It is also being used in tissue reconstruction and healing after severe burns or wounds.
❖ It can be helpful in the treatment of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson's disease. Both are diseases of the nervous
system.
❖ It may be helpful in the reconstruction of the cornea and retina to treat blindness.
❖ It can treat diabetes permanently and can start insulin production.
❖ In the future, organs can be developed by stem cells for organ transplants.
❖ It is also helpful for the treatment of spinal injury, kidney, heart, bone, and cartilage diseases.
❖ Stem cells can be used for the treatment of baldness.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 13
Stem Cell in India and
Cloning in India
 2

Stem Cell in India and Cloning in India

iPS (Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell):
❖ In 2007, Shinya Yamanaka of Japan developed a technology to convert a normal cell into Pluripotent Stem
Cell by Gene Reprogramming. It is the process of activating the genes which are silent.
❖ For this achievement he was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2012.

Stem Cell Research/Application in India:

❖ In India, Stem Cell research started in 2002 when Dr. Venugopal (AIIMS, Delhi) developed a stem cell micro
injection technology for the treatment of heart disease.
❖ After that the first embryonic stem cell bank was established in AIIMS, Delhi to promote stem cell research in
India.
❖ In 2005, a Centre of Excellence for Stem cell research was established in CCMB (Centre for Cell and
Molecular Biology), Hyderabad.
❖ In 2007, Government of India rolled out a ‘New Stem Cell Policy’ to start stem cell banking services in India.
After that stem cell banking and stem cell therapy became popular in India.
❖ In 2014, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) provided
guidelines to stem cell banks and hospitals. In this guideline, a differentiation was made between stem cell
experiment and stem cell treatment. According to ICMR, only blood related treatment and tissue repair after
burn and wound will be considered as stem cell treatment. Rest others will be considered as clinical
experiments and for any experiment doctors need to seek permission from ICMR.
❖ In 2019, the stem cell was given the status of ‘New Drug’ under New Drug and Clinical Trial Rule, 2019.
After this, the government is having better control over stem cell treatment and its experiments and clinical
trials.

Cloning:
❖ Cloning is a process of making the genetic copy of an organism or biological structure by asexual means.
❖ Clones are an exact copy of an organism or biological structure with the same genetic structures and features.
Types of Cloning:
There are two types of Cloning. They are:
❖ Therapeutic cloning: It is of two types -
➢ Gene Cloning: Insulin production by E.Coli is an example of Gene Cloning by Genetic Engineering.
➢ Tissue and Organ Cloning: It is done by using stem cells.
❖ Reproductive cloning: It is a method of organism cloning. The first animal cloned was Dolly Sheep. It was
developed by Ion Wilmul of Scotland in 1996. The Dolly Sheep was developed by a technology known as
SCNT (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer) Tech. It is the most popular technology for the development of
clones of an adult animal.
 3

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT):

❖ A Somatic Cell is taken out from the mother sheep. The nucleus is removed from the somatic cell. The nucleus
contains the DNA.
❖ Another Donor sheep (female) is used in this process. The egg has been taken out from the donor sheep and
the nucleus from the egg is removed. Later, the nucleus of the mother sheep is transferred to the empty egg of
the donor sheep. The newly formed egg is known as the reconstructed egg. This egg will be converted into an
embryo in the lab consisting of many cells.
❖ This embryo is transferred to the surrogate sheep. After gestation, the birth of a cloned sheep takes place. This
entire technology is known as Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer.

❖ Somatic cells are the cells in the body other than sperm and egg cells (which are called germ cells).
❖ When the male sperm and the female ovum fertilize to form a zygote, the process is known as Sexual
reproduction.
❖ Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single parent.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 14
Cloning in India
 2

Cloning in India
Cloning in India:

❖ In India, cloning programme started in 2007 in NDRI (National Dairy Research Institute), Karnal (Haryana)

❖ In 2009, India developed the world's first buffalo clone by NDRI named as GARIMA.

❖ In 2012, NDRI in association with Sher-e-Kashmir university developed the world's first Pashmina goat
clone named Noorie.

❖ In 2014, NDRI developed a clone of critically endangered wild buffalo in Chhattisgarh and it was named
Dipasha.

❖ In 2015, NDRI developed two high yield buffalo clones Apurva and Swaroopa. The yield capacity of
Swaroopa is 25 liters/day.

❖ NDRI has also developed clones of male buffaloes to increase the production of high quality sperm or
artificial insemination. The name of the clone was Rajat, Swarn and Shresth.

❖ In 2020, NDRI developed a male clone of Murra buffalo known as Tejas.

❖ In 2020, Central Institute of Buffalo Research (CIBR), Hisar developed eight male buffalo clones to increase
sperm production.

❖ In 2023, NDRI developed the first Gir cow clone named Ganga.

❖ Note: Gir Cow is a native breed of Gujarat. This cow is docile, resilient to infections and produces good
quality and quantity of milk. Gir cows are exported to countries like Brazil, USA, Mexico and Venezuela.

Artificial insemination (AI) of cattle: Artificial insemination (AI) is the process of collecting sperm cells from a
male animal and manually depositing them into the reproductive tract of a female.

Purpose of cloning in India:

❖ To increase the milk production and to improve the cattle quality

❖ To increase the production of commercially important biological products. Example: Pashmina Goat.

❖ To save critically endangered species. Example: Wild buffalo of Chhattisgarh.

Note: In NDRI, hand guided cloning technology is used which is a modification of SCNT.

Cloning for increasing milk production:

According to the National Dairy Research Board of India, India needs to produce 10 million tonnes more milk
per year to fulfill the increasing demand of milk and this target can be achieved by cloning in two ways:
 3

❖ Short Term: In the short term, male cattle clones can increase high quality sperm production to boost
artificial insemination programmes.

❖ LongTerm: In the long term plan, high yield female clones can be provided directly to the farmers to
increase the milk productivity.

Issues Related to Cloning:

Technical Issues:

❖ The success rate of cloning is only 10%. The cloned animal will be commercially unviable and costly.

❖ Controversy related to genetic age: Many scientists believed that the genetic age of a clone is equal to the
parent at the time of the birth of the clone because the clone inherits old genetic material. In many cases,
clones suffer with disease at the early stage which usually appear at older age.

❖ Application of cloning in animal husbandry will lead to extinction of indigenous species and it will lead to
loss of biodiversity.

Socio-Ethical issues related to Human Cloning:

❖ Human cloning is prohibited all over the world because it can raise issues related to family rights, social
rights, citizen rights and human rights.

❖ There will be issues related to relationships and it will promote the idea of single parenthood.

Human clones can be misused for organ harvesting, in warfare and in global terrorism.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 15
Surrogacy
 2

Surrogacy
Surrogacy:
❖ Surrogacy is a medical service in which a female or a surrogate mother implants an embryo of a couple
developed by IVF (In Vitro Fertilization) in her own womb and after the birth of the baby she hands over the
baby to parent.
❖ Surrogate mother does not contribute to genetics but only provides her womb for normal embryonic
development and nutrition. This is known as Gestational Surrogacy.

Gestational Surrogacy are of two types:

❖ Commercial Surrogacy: The female provides this service against money.
❖ Altruistic Surrogacy: The female provides her womb as a help to the couple without charging any fee.

Surrogacy in India:
❖ In India, commercial surrogacy started in 2002 under the guidelines of ICMR.
❖ It was done under Indian Contracts Act, 1872 as there was no dedicated law for surrogacy.
❖ By 2010, India emerged as a global hub of surrogacy because of the absence of a law, limited liabilities of
couples, easy availability of surrogate female, low surrogacy fee as compared to other nations and
reliable medical services and clinics.
❖ In India, Commercial Surrogacy was freely available till 2015. It was banned in 2015 on the advice of the
Supreme Court of India due to issues related to:
➢ breach of privacy of surrogate mother
➢ breach of dignity of surrogate mother
➢ exploitation of surrogate female
➢ issues related to surrogate health and well being
➢ legal issues related to newborn and surrogate
➢ controversy related to parenthood and claim on the baby
❖ To deal with such issues and concerns related to commercial surrogacy, Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2021 was
enacted. Under this act commercial surrogacy is banned and only altruistic surrogacy is allowed.

Altruistic Surrogacy in India under Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2021:

❖ Altruistic Surrogacy can only be availed from close relatives of the couple without financial transaction.
❖ The surrogate mother must be married and mother of at least one child.
❖ Surrogate mother should be physically and mentally fit and must be in the age range of 25-35 years.
❖ Such females will provide only one surrogacy in her lifetime.
❖ Surrogacy services can be availed by Indian hetrosexual married couples who are married for the last 5 years
and not having any biological or adopted baby.
❖ The age of the couple must be 26-55 years (male) and 23-50 years (female).
❖ Single male persons, live-in couples (unmarried couples), homosexual couples and foreign couples are not
allowed.
 3

❖ Divorcees and widows as well as single females can also avail the surrogacy services.
❖ To regulate and control the surrogacy in India, National Surrogacy Board and State Surrogacy Board will be
established.
❖ In case of any breach of the law, 8 years of imprisonment and a penalty of up to 10 lakhs will be there.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 16
TPIVF and Gene Therapy
 2

TPIVF and Gene Therapy

Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2021: As per the Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2021, single male persons cannot avail
the surrogacy services. Whereas single females (only divorcee and widows) can avail the surrogacy services. In
case of any breach of the law, 10 years of imprisonment and a penalty of up to 10 lakhs will be there.

TPIVF (Three Parent In Vitro Fertilization):

❖ It is also known as Three Parent Baby or Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy.
❖ A female ovum (egg) has a nucleus with 30000 genes. It also has a mitochondria which has its own DNA
known as mitochondrial DNA or mDNA consisting of 37 genes.
❖ Similarly, a male sperm has a nucleus with 30000 genes. It also has a mitochondria which has its own DNA
known as mitochondrial DNA or mDNA consisting of 37 genes.
❖ In the process of fertilization, the sperm fuses with the egg and leads to the formation of a zygote.
❖ It comprises mother's DNA and father's DNA and the mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) always comes from the
mother whereas the 30000 genes comes from both the mother and the father.

❖ If the mother is having a mitochondrial defect it will pass on to the next generation both in son and daughter
and the daughter will pass it to the next generation but the son will not. This is known as Maternal Line
Inheritance.
❖ Due to the defect in mitochondrial DNA, eye, liver, brain, muscle can be affected and sometimes it may cause
serious medical conditions like Leigh or Charge Syndrome.
❖ In 2015, Britain became the first country in the world to allow genetic change in the embryo in order to
eliminate the mitochondrial defect.
 3

Process of TPIVF or Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy:

❖ In Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy a female mitochondria donor is involved along with the parents in the
genetic formation of the zygote.
❖ 3 people are required: A diseased female, a healthy donor and a healthy male.
❖ The diseased female will contribute only nucleus, i.e, 30000 genes.
❖ The healthy donor will provide mDNA, i.e, 37 genes.
❖ The healthy male will contribute only nucleus, i.e, 30000 genes.
❖ We combine the nucleus (from diseased female) and mDNA (from the healthy donor) to form an egg. This egg
will have 30000 genes of the mother and 37 genes (mDNA) of the mother. The egg fuses with the sperm of
the male through IVF in a laboratory to form a zygote. Since, three parents are involved in the genetics of a
baby, the process is known as Three Parent baby.
❖ The mDNA has no effect on the physical features of the baby. It determines the internal characters like muscle,
liver, brain, eye etc.
 4

Types of of TPIVF or Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy:

❖ Before Fertilization in Egg: The process is known as the Maternal Spindle Transfer. This process is more
popular.
❖ After Fertilization in Zygote: The process is known as Pro Nuclear Transfer. This process is less popular.

Issues related to TPIVF:

❖ It has a low success rate.
❖ It promotes the idea of a designer baby.

Gene Therapy:
❖ Gene Therapy is a treatment methodology based upon genetic engineering in which a faulty gene is either
removed, replaced or silenced in order to treat the disease.
❖ The first experiment of Gene Therapy was in 1990 by Dr. French Anderson in the USA and he successfully
treated SCID (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease) or Bubble Boy Syndrome. In this disease the
immunity system of the person collapses.

Types of Gene Therapy:

Based on Cell Type:
❖ Somatic Cell Gene Therapy: Somatic cells are the cells in the body other than sperm and egg cells (which
are called germ cells). Somatic Cell Gene Therapy is a gene therapy in the adult body where treatment is related
to that person only but the disease will pass on to the next generation.
❖ Germ Cell Gene Therapy: Germ Cells are reproductive cells like the sperm, ovum and zygote. Germ Cell
Gene Therapy is a gene therapy in reproductive cells. It will treat the future generation. It is controversial and
banned.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 17
Gene Therapy
 2

Gene Therapy
Types of Gene Therapy:
 Based on Cell Type: Somatic Cell Gene Therapy and Germ Cell Gene Therapy (Already discussed in the
previous class)
 Based on Methods and Approach:
 Knock Out Approach: In this approach, the faulty gene is completely eliminated or removed from the
genome. Example: CRISPR Cas9, TALENS. These are known as Genome Editing tools.
 Knock Down Approach: In this approach, the faulty genes are not removed but silenced or inactivated in
the genome.Example: RNA interference, Antisense technology. These are known as Gene Silencing tools.
 If we destroy DNA or genes it is called the Knockout approach. If we destroy the message of the DNA i.e
RNA it is called Knock Down. The end result of both the approaches will be that there will be no bad protein
and hence no occurrence of disease.

CRISPR Cas-9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat - CRISPR Associated Protein-
9):
 CRISPR Cas-9 is the most precise genome editing tool available.
 CRISPR Cas-9 is naturally present in bacteria as an immunity system against bacteriophage.
 It was first discovered in 1897 in E.Coli (bacteria). It was thoroughly studied in 2007 and in 2012 it was used
for human genome editing for the first time.
 In 2020, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for
discovering one of gene technology's sharpest tools: the CRISPR/Cas9 genetic scissors.
 According to world leading magazine, The Science, CRISPR Cas-9 was the biggest scientific achievement of
the decade.
Components of CRISPR Cas-9:
 CRISPR: It is a segment of DNA.
 Cas-9: It is a restriction endonuclease enzyme (molecular scissors)
 3

 gRNA: It is a guide RNA.

CRISPR Cas-9 in Bacteria:
The DNA of the E.Coli bacteria is being attacked by the virus. CRISPR is a segment of the DNA of E.Coli and by
the process of Transcription this CRISPR has generated a RNA known as gRNA. It has a Cas-9 protein attached to
it. gRNA aligns itself with the DNA of the virus. Cas-9 fragments the DNA of the virus, thereby rendering it
ineffective.

gRNA is formed by the transcription of CRISPR DNA segment and it has a complementary genetic sequence of
target DNA. Cas-9 is attached to the guide RNA. gRNA will combine with target DNA on the basis of
complementation of genetic sequence and Cas-9 will cut the target DNA. The gRNA and Cas-9 complex can be
utilized for human genome editing. For this, the genetic sequence of gRNA will be changed according to the new
target of the human genome.
 4

Benefits and Applications of CRISPR Cas-9:

 CRISPR Cas-9 will give a major boost to gene therapy because of its accuracy.
 In 2017, American doctors used this technology to edit the genome of an embryo to treat Hypertrophic
Cardiomyopathy (thickening of heart muscles)
 In 2018, a Chinese scientist Janikui edited the genome of an embryo and made it HIV resistant and twin babies
were born out of it. It was very controversial and criticized all over the world because germ cell gene therapy
is not allowed.
 CRISPR Cas-9 can be used for the development of GM crops in less time and with more accuracy.
 USA based Sherlock Bioscience has developed a Covid-19 test kit based on CRISPR Cas-9.
 Many scientists consider that CRISPR Cas-9 can provide permanent immunity against Covid-19 and other viral
diseases.
 CRISPR Cas-9 can edit the genome of other organisms to make it more useful for human applications and
industrial applications. Example: production of biofuel.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 18
Gene Silencing
 2

Gene Silencing
Issues related to CRISPR Cas-9:
❖ It promotes the idea of a designer baby.
❖ It promotes Germ cell gene therapy which is controversial and banned. Example: HIV resistant twin baby in
China.
❖ The treatment methodology based on CRISPR Cas-9 will be costly.

Gene Silencing:
❖ In Gene Silencing expression of a gene is blocked by manipulating messenger RNA so that harmful proteins
are not synthesized in the body. Example: RNA interference, Antisense technology.
RNA Interference Technology Antisense Technology
❖ Double helix RNA are used. ❖ Single helix RNA are used.
❖ The double helix RNA activates some enzymes to ❖ It blocks the mRNA formed by DNA (gene).
destroy the messenger RNA and protein synthesis
is stopped.
❖ Because double helix RNA is stable, RNA ❖ Single helix RNA blocks the messenger RNA so
interference technology will last longer. that protein synthesis is stopped.
❖ This technology is useful in treatment of AIDS ❖ This technology is comparatively older and less
and to lower cholesterol level in the body. accurate. It doesn't last for a longer period.
❖ With the help of this technology scientists are ❖ It was primarily used in agriculture for the
developing antiviral defense in Covid-19 patients. development of new crop varieties. Example:
FLAVR SAVR Tomato.

Gene Therapy in India:

❖ Gene Therapy in India is at the primary level of research and development.
❖ There are about 10 laboratories working in gene therapy experiments in India.
❖ India is in the 3rd position in Asia in terms of Gene Therapy research.
❖ Indian labs are exploring gene therapy mainly for the treatment of various types of cancers.
❖ In 2019, the Department of Biotechnology and ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) rolled out
guidelines for Gene Therapy.
❖ According to these guidelines, all gene therapies in India will be considered as experiments and it is not
available as treatments.
❖ The treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy is done by a method known as Zolgensma developed by a company
called Novartis in the USA.
❖ In recent times import of gene therapy medicines has been done due to the popularity of gene therapy at world
level. To support such imports, the Government of India slashed down the GST to 5% from 18%.
 3

DNA Profiling or DNA Fingerprinting:

❖ DNA Profiling is used to establish the identity of a person or an organism on the basis of differences or
similarity in the DNA.
❖ This technology was developed in 1994 by British Scientist Sir Alec Jeffreys.
❖ In India the same technology was developed in 1988 in CCMB (Centre for Cell and Molecular Biology),
Hyderabad.
❖ In 1989, DNA fingerprinting was used in Indian court for the first time.
❖ In the DNA there are some specific sequences known as VNTR (Variable Number of Tandem Repeats) and
STR (Short Tandem Repeats) which helps in the identification. These segments are present in each and every
organism but the number and position of this segment are different.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science and Technology

Lecture – 19
DNA Profiling
 2

DNA Profiling

Methods Used in DNA Profiling:

 PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): PCR increases the quantity of the DNA by polymerisation in the
laboratory.
 SBT (Southern Blotting Technology): SBT is used to identify the segment of DNA such as VNTR and
STR.
 Gel Electrophoresis: Gel Electrophoresis is a process by which segments of DNA are arranged
(VNTR/STR) according to the molecular weight and charge.

Note:
 Gel Electrophoresis is also applicable on RNA and protein.
 NBT (Northern Blotting Technology) is used for the identification of RNA.
 WBT (Western Blotting Technology) is used for the identification of protein. It is the confirmatory test of
HIV.
 ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay): ELISA is the most popular protein testing method. It is
the primary test of HIV.

Applications of DNA Profiling:

 In Forensic Investigations:
 For Identification of criminals.
 For Identification of dead bodies.
 For maternity and paternity tests.
 To solve illegal immigration cases.
 In Health Care Sectors:
 To identify genetic disorders.
 For Pedigree analysis i.e, analyzing possibility of a disease in future generation.
 In Conservation of Biodiversity:
 To identify animal species and subspecies.
 To control smuggling of animals and its parts.
 DNA profiling helps in identifying unwanted biological contamination on biological agents in food by a
process known as DNA Barcoding which is based on DNA Profiling.
 3

DNA Technology Regulation Bill, 2019:

 The DNA Technology Regulation Bill (2019), allows establishing DNA data banks and laboratories at
national and state level where DNA Profiling will be done and data will be stored.
 According to this bill, DNA samples will be stored in data banks in different categories:
 DNA samples of criminals
 DNA samples from crime scenes
 DNA samples of missing peoples
 DNA samples of unidentified dead bodies.
 To control and regulate these data banks, DNA regulation board will be established
 The aim of the bill is to promote forensic investigation, to speed up the judiciary process, to strengthen social
security and to maintain data in DNA data banks.
 According to this bill if there is any misuse of any DNA data then there will be a provision of imprisonment
up to 3 years.



















 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 20
Vaccine Technology
 2

Vaccine Technology
Issues Related to DNA Technology Regulation Bill, 2019:
❖ There is the possibility of misuse of DNA data in demographic studies based on caste and religion.
❖ There can be a misuse of DNA data in some other areas without the knowledge of the donor.
❖ The misuse of DNA data may lead to a breach of privacy because it holds lots of information about our lineage
and origin.

Note:
❖ Smt Selvi vs. State of Karnataka, 2010: The Supreme Court in this verdict held that a person cannot be
compelled to undergo polygraph (lie detector), narco analysis (truth serum test), brain mapping (brain
fingerprinting) and DNA profiling by any investigating agencies.
❖ Polygraphy, narco analysis and brain mapping cannot be presented as evidence under Article 20 (3) of the
Indian Constitution.
❖

Vaccines:
❖ A vaccine is a biological preparation that develops acquired immunity in the body.
❖ Immunity can be of two types:
➢ Innate: It is present by birth (Example: White Blood Cells (WBCs)) and
➢ Acquired, It is developed over the lifetime (Example: by infection or disease, by vaccine)
❖ A vaccine contains a biological agent made from a weakened or killed form of the pathogen, a toxin produced
from the pathogen and a surface protein (antigen) of the pathogen.
Types of Vaccines:
❖ Live Attenuated Vaccines: These type of vaccine contains weakened form of viruses. Examples: Measles,
Mumps, and Rubella (MMR), Chicken Pox, and Flu vaccine.
❖ Inactivated Vaccines: These type of vaccine contains inactivated or killed viruses. Examples: Hepatitis A,
Influenza, Polio and Rabies.
❖ Toxoid Vaccines: These type of vaccine contains weakened toxins of bacteria. Examples: Diphtheria,
Tetanus vaccine, Pertussis vaccine.
❖ Subunit Vaccine: This type of vaccine contains/uses only a part of the bacteria or virus. Examples:
Whooping Cough.
❖ Conjugate Vaccine: This type of vaccine contains/uses a coating of bacteria combination of weak and strong
antigens. Examples: Hepatitis, HPV.
Covid-19 Vaccine:
❖ Whole Virus Vaccines: It is the combination of Live Attenuated and Inactivated viruses. Example:
COVAXIN developed by Bharat Biotech is an example of Inactivated or killed viruses.
❖ Protein Subunit Vaccine: In this, only a part of the virus has been used. Example: NOVAVAX
❖ Nucleic Acid Vaccine: It can be of two types:
 3

➢ mRNA vaccines: Viral proteins are produced in the host by injecting mRNA. Example: Pfizer and
MODERNA.
➢ DNA vaccines: Viral protein is produced in the host cell by injecting DNA. Example: Zycov D.
❖ Viral Vector Vaccine: A modified version of other viruses like adenovirus has been used. Example:
Covishield Vaccine.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 21
Nano Technology
 2

Nano Technology
Nanotechnology:

❖ Nanoparticles are dwarf (small size)

particles with a size of 10-9 .
❖ At the nanoscale elements or
materials start showing different or
new properties. It ranges from 1 nm -
100 nm, 10-9m – 10-7m and below
100m.
❖ In 1959, Richard Feynman
published a paper, “There is plenty of room at the Bottom” to suggest that material science can get a major
boost if it is explored at the nanoscale.
❖ To work at nanoscale advanced tools and skills are required such as atomic force microscope and scanning
tunneling microscope.
❖ Nanoscience and technology come under material science. It is a general-purpose technology that will have
a huge impact on almost every part of our lives and it will improve the quality of our life.
❖ Information technology is considered as the past era, Biotechnology is the present era whereas Nanotechnology
is the future era.
❖ Silver nanoparticles have been found to be an effective antiviral against many deadly viruses like HIV,
hepatitis B, herpes simplex virus, influenza virus, and so on. It is helpful in inhibiting the proliferation of
coronavirus by preventing the synthesis of viral negative-strand RNA and viral budding.
❖ Silver nanoparticles give slow and sustained release of silver ions to kill the microorganisms that come in
contact with it. Besides, it can be stored in ambient conditions.
 3

Methods of Nanotechnology:
There are two methods of Nanotechnology:
❖ Top-Down Method: In this method, the
bulk is broken into fragments and fragments
are further broken into nanomaterials.
❖ Bottom-Up Method: In this method, atoms
combine to form molecules and molecules
further combine to form nanomaterials.
Difference Between Top-Down and
Bottom-Up Method:
Top-Down Method Bottom-Up Method
❖ It is a time-consuming and expensive method. ❖ It is based on molecular and chemical assembly.
❖ It is not suitable for mass production. ❖ It is suitable for mass production and for building
complex nanostructures.
❖ A complex nanostructure cannot be developed. ❖ It takes less time.
❖ It is good for initial and lab experiments. ❖ It is the most popular and futuristic method.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 22
Nanotechnology and
Nanomaterials
 2

Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials

Principles of Nanotechnology:
At the Nanoscale material starts showing new properties due to the following reasons:
❖ At the Nanoscale, materials are governed by the laws of quantum physics which are quite different from
classical physics.
❖ At the Nanoscale surface to volume ratio increases very high which affects energy exchange with the
environment and this can change the physical properties of an element at the Nanoscale.
❖ Due to the high surface area per unit volume, the reactivity of material can increase and this can change
chemical properties at the Nanoscale.
Nanomaterials:
Nanomaterials can be classified into two types as follows:
Non-carbon Nanomaterials:
❖ Silver Nanocrystal kills bacteria.
❖ Aluminum silicate can give scratch resistance
❖ Zinc oxide or Titanium oxide is ultraviolet ray resistant
❖ Platinum material can act as a catalyst in fuel cells.
Carbon nanomaterials:
❖ Graphene
❖ Carbon Nanotubes(CNT)
❖ Fullerene
(The above three materials are pure carbons.)
Allotropes of Carbon:
❖ They all are pure forms of carbon(Cn).
Natural Allotropes:
❖ Diamond: It is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal
structure called diamond cubic. Fig: Structure of Diamond.
❖ Graphite: It is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of stacked
layers of graphene. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of
carbon under standard conditions. Fig: Structure of Graphite.
❖ Coal: It is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock,
formed as rock strata called coal seams.
❖ Fullerene: A fullerene is an allotrope of carbon whose molecule
consists of carbon atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to
form a closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven
atoms.
 3

Man-Made Allotropes:
❖ Graphene: It is a single layer (monolayer) of carbon atoms, tightly
bound in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. Fig: Structure Of Graphene.
❖ Carbon NanoTube(CNT): It is a rolled-up structure tube of graphene
sheet.
Structure of Carbon Nanomaterials:
❖ Graphene: It is made up of a planner sheet of carbon hexagons where
one carbon attaches two to three carbons by a covalent bond and each
carbon has one electron free. Fig: Structure of Graphene.
❖ Carbon NanoTube (CNT): It is a rolled-up structure tube of graphene sheet.
Fig: Structure of CNT.

Fig: Structure of Fullerene, CNT and Graphite.

❖ Fullerene (C60): It is a spherical structure made up of carbon hexagon and
Pentagon.
Fig: Structure of Fullerene.
Dimensions of Carbon Nanomaterials:
Carbon Nanomaterials Dimensions
Graphene Two-dimensional
Carbon NanoTube (CNT) One-dimensional
Fullerin Zero-dimensional
Graphite Three-dimensional.

Properties of Carbon nanomaterials (Example: CNT)

Mechanical Properties:
❖ CNT is 100 times stronger than Steel.
❖ It is 10 times lighter than aluminium.
❖ Tensile strength means the ability of the material to bend without breaking. The tensile strength of CNT is the
best.
 4

Electrical Properties:
❖ It has 1000 times better conductivity than silver and copper.
Thermal Properties:
❖ It has very high thermal stability.
❖ It can withstand temperatures up to 780 degrees Celsius in the Atmosphere.
❖ It can withstand temperatures up to 2800 degrees Celsius in space (Vacuum).
Applications of Carbon Nanomaterials:
❖ Vehicles & Aircraft
❖ Missiles & Satellites
❖ Sports equipment
❖ Mobile & computers
❖ Touch screen Display
❖ Chemical Sensor
❖ Bulletproof Jacket
❖ Biological Sensor
❖ Dresses & Sheets for Soldiers
❖ Defense equipment

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 23
Applications of
Nanotechnology
 2

Applications of Nanotechnology
Application of Nanotechnology in Health and Medicine:
❖ The health medical sector will get primary benefit from Nano science and technology because
intracellular activities are already at the nanoscale and with skills and tools acquired by
advancement in nanotechnology we are able to understand and manipulate cell functionality.
Highly Sensitive Disease Detector:
❖ Nanosensors have been developed which can detect specific proteins and chemicals in the body
which appear due to some infection or disease.
❖ These chemicals and proteins in the body are known as the biological barcode of a disease.
❖ Nano sensors can be injected into the bloodstream and it can detect disease at earlier stages so that
treatment and cure can be done. It can detect diseases like cancer and Alzheimer.

Targeted Drug Delivery System:

❖ Nano sensors can be attached with
drug carrier molecules such as
Fullerene.
❖ This system will detect and deliver
drugs to cancer cells pathogen for
disease cells.
❖ This system will be highly accurate
and without side effects because it
will kill only the target and not the other part of the tissue of the body. Examples:
➢ Cornell University of USA has developed a nano machine which can kill cancer cells in
the body.
➢ IISC and DRDO have jointly developed a Nanosensor based typhoid detection kit.
Tissue Engineering:
❖ Researchers from the Feinberg School of Medicine of Japan have developed a Nano gel which
can increase the rate of cell division and it can make healing and repair faster after surgery cuts
and burns.
❖ Antimicrobial dressing:
❖ It is based on Silver Nanocrystal which can kill bacteria and reduce the chances of infection on
cuts and wounds.
 3

Application of Nanotechnology in the Environment Protection:

Minimizing Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
❖ To minimize Greenhouse gas
emissions nano solar cells and fuel
cells combination can be used to
get energy without any
Greenhouse gas emissions.
Nano Solar Cell:
❖ It is made up of Carbon
Nanotubes (CNT) and
Graphene.
❖ It can harvest energy from both visible light and infrared so its energy potential is double.
❖ The internal resistance of Nano solar cells is very low and it is highly energy efficient.
❖ Naino solar cells are portable and easy to handle and it can spread like a sheet or painted over
outer work to increase the total surface area.
Fuel cells/Gas cells:
❖ Fuel sales break down water into hydrogen and oxygen and store it.
❖ Hydrogen is stored as a fuel which can be oxidized to get the energy.
❖ Platinum catalyst is used to minimize the energy demand of electrolysis of water.
In this combination of Nano Solar cells and fuel cells surplus energy will be transferred to fuel cells
and fuel cells will provide energy in the night-time. This system can ensure day and night energy
without greenhouse gas emissions.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 24
Nano Technology:
Applications (Part II)
 2

Nano Technology: Applications (Part II)

Applications of Nanotechnology:
Environmental Protection:
❖ Minimizing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions
❖ Chemical Nano Sensors can detect chemical pollutants in the environment. It can capture it and recycle it.
❖ The University of Florida has developed a Nano Sensor which can capture, remove, and recycle mercury
vapour.
❖ IISc Bengaluru has developed Nano flakes that can minimize chemical pollution and biological
contamination in water bodies. This technology was successfully demonstrated in the Mahanadi river.

Use of Nanotechnology in Dealing with Energy Crisis:

❖ Nano solar cell: Already covered in Environment
❖ Fuel cell: Already covered in Environment
❖ Nano Zeolite: Zeolite is an inorganic, porous material present in nature which can act as a filter and catalyst.
➢ It can be used in water filtration, and oxygen concentrators and it can break down crude petroleum
into high-grade gasoline.
➢ But the amount of natural Zeolite is very less. So scientists have developed Nano Zeolites using a
bottom-up method which can give more gasoline from crude oil in future.

Defense and Security:

❖ Nano Bio Detection Scheme: Under this scheme biological sensors are used to detect any biological attack
by terrorists.
➢ Such sensors have been placed in water distribution systems in many countries.
➢ These sensors can detect biological contamination and it can stop water distribution. Nanosensors are
used at public places to detect any chemical or biological attack.
❖ Nano Tech for Soldiers: In 2003, the USA established the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnology for the
development of bulletproof jackets, helmets, war equipment, uniforms etc. for soldiers which are more
effective and efficient. Similar work is done by DRDO in India.

Applications of Nanotechnology in
Agriculture:
❖ Crop improvement: With the help of
Nanobiotechnology genetics of a crop can be
manipulated and new crop varieties can be
developed. Example: Chiage Mei University
Thailand has changed the color of rice with the
help of Nano-biotechnology.
 3

❖ Crop productivity: Nano fertilizers are used. Nano fertilizers are more efficient and required in less
quantity with minimum pollution and environmental impact. Recently, IFFCO (Indian Farmer Fertilizer
Corporation) developed the world’s first Nano Urea Liquid which has the following benefits over
traditional urea fertilizer:
➢ It requires 50% less in amount
➢ It is 80% effective whereas normal urea is only 40% effective.
➢ It can increase the productivity of crops by 8% on average.
➢ It can minimize pollution and environmental impact
➢ It can decrease the dependency on Urea imports.
❖ Crop protection: Nano Pesticides are used. Scientists have developed Nano Pesticides and Nano Pesticides
can manage the waste in an effective way because it is based on a targeted delivery system and kills only
harmful insects with minimum impact on human health and environment.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 25
Nano Technology:
Issues and Concerns
 2

Nano Technology: Issues and Concerns

Nanotechnology in Electronics:
❖ Graphene can be used to make lighter, thinner and flexible touchscreen displays which can be folded.
❖ In 2010, Samsung developed a prototype flexible touchscreen made up of Graphene.
❖ IBM has developed the world's first graphene-based transistor which is four times faster than silicon
transistors.
❖ In the future, graphene-based transistors can provide powerful processors, computers and electronics.
❖ Graphene and CNT (Carbon Nanotubes) can be used in electronic circuits to make it more energy
efficient.
Nanotechnology in Textiles:
❖ International Advanced Research Centre of Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad has
developed different types of textiles based upon Nanotechnology. They are as follows:
❖ Anti microbial fabric with silver nanocrystals and copper oxide Nanoparticles.
❖ This organization has developed a self-cleaning fabric that has Titanium dioxide Nanoparticles. This fabric
can clean itself when it is exposed to sunlight. This is available in the market as sun-washed fabric.
❖ This organization has developed many technical textiles which are suitable for some specific jobs. For Example
Fire resistant fabric for firefighters and easy dry fabrics for sportspersons.
❖ Wrinkle free fabric, water-resistant fabric, odour free fabric are also based on Nanotechnology.
Issues and Concerns of Nanotechnology:
❖ In Health and Medicine:
➢ Nanomedicines can have side effects on the body. It can interfere with the functionality of the brain by
crossing the blood-brain barrier.
➢ Tissue engineering, Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicines can enhance immunity, cure diseases like
cancer and improve the looks of a person but all these nanomedicines will be very costly and available to
rich people only which will be against social justice.
❖ Environmental Concerns:
➢ Nanotechnology is a general-purpose technology that can be used at a larger scale in different areas.
○ This will increase the amount of Nanomaterials in the environment and it will lead to Nanopollution.
➢ These Nanomaterials can enter into the food chain and can have adverse effects on biodiversity.
○ That is why Nanomaterials require environmental safety assessment and evaluation before we use it.
➢ A renowned scientist Eric Drexler in his book, "Engines of Creations, The Coming Era of
Nanotechnology" gave the concept of Green Goo and Grey Goo.
○ Green Goo is a Nano toxin which can kill living organisms.
○ Grey Goo is a Nano catalyst that can decompose or rust abiotic things.
 3

❖ Economical Concerns:
➢ Development of Nanostructure and Nanomaterials is based upon the making and breaking of chemical
bonds at the atomic level which requires a lot of energy and it makes the entire process cost ineffective.
➢ Many Nanostructures like fuel cells require precious elements like Platinum and this will increase the cost
of production.
➢ A renowned scientist Eric Drexler in his book, "Engines of Creations, The Coming Era of
Nanotechnology" gave the concept of Assemblers and Replicators.
➢ According to Eric Drexler, Assembler and Replicator can assemble or replicate anything by bottom-up
technology. Such machines will change the economy entirely. Products will have less importance in this
new economy and services, energy and data will be more important.
Development of Nanotechnology in India:
❖ In 2001, the Department of Science and Technology started the Nano Science and Technology Initiative
(NSTI) to promote fundamental research in Nanotechnology. Under this initiative, 19 centers of excellence
have been established across the country.
❖ In 2007, Nano Science and Technology Mission (NSTM) also known as Nano Mission was initiated to
achieve the following objectives in the long run:
➢ To boost fundamental research in Nanotechnology.
➢ Development of advanced infrastructure.
➢ Development of trained human resources.
➢ Inclusion of the private sector in Nanotech research.
➢ Promotion of international cooperation in Nanotechnology.
➢ To steer and control this Nano mission, Nano Mission Council has been established under the leadership
of Prof. CNR Rao


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 26
Robotics
 2

Robotics
Development of Nanotechnology in India:
❖ For human resource development and to promote fundamental research India's first INST (Institute of Nano
Science and Technology) has been established in Mohali, Punjab.
❖ India's first Nano park is being developed in Bengaluru to attract private companies in this sector.
❖ Because of all these efforts, in 2018, India was amongst top 3 countries in terms of Nanotechnology research.
Around 2300 research papers have been published.
❖ In India, there is a huge gap between laboratory and market mainly due to lack of interest of the private sector
in fundamental research in Nanotechnology.
❖ To promote the private sector in this area, soft loans are being provided to private companies so that they can
indulge into Nanotechnology research and development.
International Cooperation in Nanotechnology:
❖ ICONSAT (International Conference on Nano Science and Technology): This conference is organized in
India every two years where foreign delegates are invited and this provides a platform where international
collaboration can be promoted.
❖ STIO (Scientists and Technocrats of Indian Origin): STIOs are invited to different conferences and talks in
India so that the country can be benefitted from expertise and high positions. Such people can play an important
role in international cooperation and technological development in the country.
Robotics:
❖ The word Robot is derived from the word ‘Robota’ which means slave or bonded labor. It was first used in
1920 by Karel Capek, a storywriter. In his story, a negative description of robots was given because they were
seen as killing humans.
❖ The word Robotics was given by Issac Asimov. He gave a positive description of robots as they were seen as
the helper of humans.
Definition of Robots:
❖ Robot is an automatic, self-controlled, multipurpose and reprogrammable machine which can replace
human labor and can work without human intervention.
❖ All the robots are machines but all machines are not robots.
Definition of Robotics:
❖ Robotics is a multidisciplinary area associated with the development and application of robots.
❖ In robotics, different branches of science, technology and engineering are involved such as material science,
mechanical engineering, electronics and computer science etc.
Parts of the Robot:
❖ End Effector: An end effector is a peripheral device that attaches to a robot's wrist, allowing the robot to
interact with its task. Most end effectors are mechanical or electromechanical and serve as grippers, process
tools, or sensors.
 3

❖ Manipulator: The arm-like structure of an industrial robot is known as a robot manipulator. This component
is responsible for completing the tasks the robot is programmed to perform. Also known as a robot arm, the
manipulator mounts to the robot body and consists of multiple links and joints.
❖ Locomotion Device: Robot locomotion is the collective name for the various methods that robots use to
transport themselves from place to place. Locomotion is the method of moving from one place to another. The
mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment is called robot locomotion.
❖ Computer: Robotic programming is the process of defining specific commands of an application for an
industrial robot to automate.
❖ Sensor: Sensors are used in robotics to calculate the condition and environment of robots, using functions
similar to the human sensory organs. A variety of sensors are required by different robots to navigate their
environment while performing tasks.
End Effectors, manipulators, and locomotion device are present in every machine. Computers and sensors are
additional parts present in a robot.
Types of Robots:
Bases on Locomotion:
❖ Fixed/Static Robot: These are industrial robots or assembly operation robots.
❖ Mobile Robots: They are wheeled robots used in hospitals and warehouses. Legged robots are useful in human
robot coexistence. They can be used as defense robots or human helper robots.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 27
Robotics: Application
 2

Robotics: Application
Types of Robots Based on Working Abilities:
❖ Type I Robots: These robots can perform a task better than human beings but these robots are mainly
associated with non-skilled work.
❖ Type II Robots: These robots cannot perform a task better than human beings but they save human beings
from dangerous situations and that is why they are used. For Example: Space exploration, volcanic studies,
deep ocean exploration etc. Such works are skilled works, study and exploration-related work.
Types of Robots Based on Shape:
❖ Mechanical Robots: These are industrial robots used for manufacturing.
❖ Animal Robots: AIBO is a robot dog manufactured by Sony, and TAMA is a robocat.
❖ Humanoid Robots: The male robot is called Android and the female robot is called Gynoid.
Asimov’s Law of Robotics (1942):
❖ First Law: Robots will never harm human beings actively or passively.
❖ Second Law: Robots will obey all commands given by human beings unless the command contradicts the first
law.
❖ Third Law: The robot will save its own existence until it is contradictory with the first and second laws.
❖ Zero Law: Asimov enacted another law above these three laws known as Zero law which says the robot will
never harm humanity and humanity is more important than human beings.
Applications of Robots:
Robots in Industry:
❖ According to the World Robotics Report, 2022 published by the International Federation of Robotics
(IFR) around 5 lakh industrial robots have been installed in various industries in the world in 2021.
❖ In total, global robot
installations are
expected to grow by
more than 10% in
2022.
❖ 4-5 lakh robots are
being installed every
year in various
industries across the
world.
❖ Majority of industrial
robots are installed in
the electronic and
automobile industries.
 3

❖ More than half of the industrial robots are installed in China and Japan. In India, the installation of industrial
robots is increasing.

Benefits of Industrial Robots:

❖ Increase in productivity: Robots work faster than human beings.
❖ Better product quality: It is because robots are more accurate than human beings.
❖ Less production cost: The cost involved in the maintenance of robots is lower because robots are cheaper
than human labour.
❖ Robots can work in adverse and dangerous working conditions such as high temperatures, poisonous
chemical painting etc.
❖ By using robots companies are saved from occupational safety rules and health safety rules.
❖ If robots are used in industry then labor laws and labor unions become ineffective.
Issues and Concerns of Industrial Robots:
❖ Unemployment: Industrial robots lead to unemployment. They replace jobs that relatively high-wage
manufacturing employees used to perform.
❖ Devaluation of labour: Robot investments are associated with increases in low-skilled employment.
❖ Low employment leads to a decrease in purchasing power which prompts an economic slowdown and a
decrease in growth rate.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture – 28
Robotics: Application - Part II
 2

Robotics: Application - Part II

Application of Robots:
❖ The use of robots in developing countries like India will have a far-reaching impact on the economy.
❖ If a company or industry is not using robots then the company will be out of the market due to competition in
the market because other companies will be using and having the benefits of robots.
❖ As a way out, human-robot coexistence can be adopted in industries where skilled work will be done by
humans and non-skilled work will be assigned to robots on the basis of the principle of 3Ds.
❖ Unemployed unskilled workers can be converted into skilled labour by providing adequate training through
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) and government
programmes.
The 3D Principle of Robotics:
❖ The 3Ds offer a conservative description of the types of jobs where robots can, or should, replace humans,
without concern that robots are stealing good jobs.
❖ Dirty - Unsanitary or hazardous process.
❖ Dull - Repetitive and tedious process.
❖ Dangerous - Process that is able or likely to cause harm or injury.
Use of Robots in Healthcare:
❖ Robotic Prosthetics and Robotic Orthotics: Robotic Prosthetics can be used in the place of lost limbs. This
robotic system can receive electric signals from the brain and convert them into different types of movements.
Robotic Orthotics can be used for paralyzed limbs as exoskeletons. It can give strength and support to a
paralyzed limb.
❖ Robotic Surgery: Da Vinci Surgical system is developed by Intuitive Surgical (USA). This is the most
popular and most advanced robotic surgery instrument in the world. This can also be used for Tele-Robotic
surgery. Indian startup Asimov Robotics has developed Craniobot for accurate brain surgery. Robotic
surgery is popular for brain and heart surgery because utmost accuracy is required in these surgeries.
Benefits of Robotic Surgery:
❖ Less tissue damage
❖ Less time and less trauma or pain
❖ Less chances of infection
❖ Post-surgery recovery will be fast
❖ Better accuracy
Concerns Related to Robotic Surgery:
❖ It is not cost-effective
❖ It requires advanced infrastructure
❖ Lack of general awareness about robotic surgery
❖ Robotic surgery requires a minimum set-up time and it cannot be used in emergency situations.
 3

Medical Service Robot or Robotic Nurse:

❖ Invento Robotics, Bengaluru has developed many medical robots for Covid management. Example: C-
Astra. It can take the temperature and sanitize the room. RoboDoc can connect patients to the doctor and then
provide information about the patient to the doctor. Hence, it provides contactless treatment.
❖ Medical Service Robots are used to minimize the work pressure of medical staff during the Covid-19
pandemic. The importance of these robots has increased because they can provide contactless patient care and
virtual connectivity to doctors.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 29
Robotics: Application - Part III
 2

Robotics: Application - Part III

Application of Robotics in Home Environment:

❖ Service Robots: These robots are designed to help in domestic work. For Example house cleaning robots such
as iRobot, Mi Robot, and Milagrow Robot. A robotic cook developed by Euphotic Labs in India can cook
120 types of dishes.
❖ Toy Robots or Companion Robots: For Example Robo Dog AIBO and RoboCat TAMA. These toy robots
can play some important role in the security of a house with a camera attached to them and it can help the
members of the family. AIBO is a guide dog that can show paths to visually challenged persons. TAMA can
recognize family persons and it can talk back. It provides companionship.
Issues and Concerns with Robots Used in the Home Environment:
❖ Human and robot interaction at the domestic level can lead to emotional bonding with the robot and it can
cause some psychological changes and detachment from reality in kids and elderly people living alone in
the house along with the domestic robots.
Application of Robots in the Defense Sector:
❖ At present, many robotic systems have been developed which can fight a war or it can increase the war-fighting
capacity of a country. Recently, Israel has deployed a robotic system REX Mark II for border security.
❖ Boston Dynamics in association with DARPA (Defence Advanced Research Project Agency, USA) has
developed many robotic systems for warfare. For Example, Cheetah is the fastest-running robot. Atlas is a
bipedal humanoid robot. The smaller version of Cheetah is WildCat.
Robots should not be used in warfare as killing machines because of the following reasons:
❖ It is against Asimov’s law of robotics.
❖ There will be no human emotion involved in the war and the frequency of war will increase.
❖ Robot killing human beings is against war ethics, human dignity and the value of human life.
❖ Robots can be used as a helping hand in the war field. It can save the lives of soldiers by supplying food,
medicines, water, arms etc.
❖ Robots can detect mines and it can be useful in surveillance and spying.
Application of Robots in Agriculture:
❖ Agricultural robots are popular in developed countries and they are being used in crop fields and food
processing industries.
❖ In India, Agricultural robots are at the research and development stage but we are using robots in food
processing industries.
❖ A scientist from Andhra Pradesh has developed Agribots which can help Indian farmers in crop fields.
Robots in Disaster Management:
❖ Robots are attached to advanced sensors. Robots can be small-sized and flexible. Robots can work in dangerous
and hostile conditions. That is why robots can play an important role in disaster management.
❖ Hyderabad Science Society has developed a robotic system that can enter into the collapsed building
wreckage and it can detect the person trapped inside.
 3

❖ Indian startup Gen Robotics has developed a sewer-cleaning robotic system Bandicoot which is being used
by many cities of India.
Robotics in India:
❖ In India, the application of robots is mainly related to the electronics, automobile, and medicine industries.
❖ According to the International Federation of Robotics report, World Robotics 2022 a total of 4900
industrial robots have been installed in Indian industries which is 15% more than the previous year. This
indicates that in India application of robots is picking up.
❖ Most of the robots being installed in the Indian industries are imported robots.
In India, research and development in robotics are slow because of the following reasons:
❖ It is not properly supported by plans and policies.
❖ The Indian robotic industry depends on imported hardware.
❖ There is a scarcity of trained human resources to provide maintenance and technical support to the robot.
❖ There are social and political barriers against the application of industrial robots.
For development in robotics, some steps have been taken by the government sector and private
sector:
❖ Centre for Development of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR): This is a government-backed
dedicated research centre for the development of robotics in India. This organization has developed many
robotic systems including GARUDA robots which are being used in Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL), Bengaluru for aircraft making.
❖ All India Council for Robotics and Automation (AICRA): It was established in 2014 as a non-profit
organization to provide a conducive environment, administrative help, technological association and financial
assistance to start-ups and new companies working in robotics.
❖ Due to such support being provided now India is having many start-ups in robotics. For Example Gen Robotics,
Gray Orange, Asimov Robotics, and Team Indus.
❖ In India, the use of service robots is also getting popular in different sectors such as banking, shopping malls
and theatres. For Example, Laxmi is the first banking robot installed in City Union Bank, Chennai. Era is the
second banking robot installed in HDFC Bank, Mumbai. RobotMitra is installed in shopping malls.
International Cooperation in Robotics:
❖ Due to the popularity of industrial robots in India, world-famous robotic company KUKA has established its
first office and training centre in Pune.
❖ Under Euro India strategic partnership, robotic and AI joint missions are being promoted in Indian universities
and European universities.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 30
Space Technology
 2

Space Technology

Space Technology:

Outer Space:
❖ Karman Line is the region 100 Km above the surface of the earth. Below the Karman Line is the air space
of a nation.
❖ The region beyond Karman Line is known as Outer Space
and does not belong to any country.
Outer Space Treaty or International Space Law, 1967:
❖ Outer Space must be used for peaceful application and
welfare of mankind.
❖ No country can claim any part of space or any celestial
body.
❖ Astronauts in outer space represent entire humanity.
❖ No country will place any nuclear weapon in any part of
outer space. All countries will be free to explore outer space
and celestial bodies for knowledge, research and peaceful
applications.
❖ At the present time, the peaceful application of space is controversial because many countries have developed
technologies based upon space that can increase the war-fighting capacity of a country.
❖ For Example, Spy satellites, satellite navigation like GPS and NAVIC, defence satellites, and anti-satellite
missiles (A-SAT mission) which was initiated by India in 2019 under Mission Shakti.
Orbit Types:
❖ Geocentric orbit is a circular path around the earth to place the satellite.
 3

Types of Orbits (Based on Height):

❖ Near Earth Orbit (NEO): It is up to 200 Km from the surface of the earth. This orbit is not used.
❖ Low Earth Orbit (LEO): It is up to 200 -2000 Km from the surface of the earth. It is used for remote sensing
satellites.
❖ Middle Earth Orbit (MEO): It is up to 2000 - 20000 Km from the surface of the earth. It is used for global
navigation satellites.
❖ High Earth Orbit (HEO): It is at 36000 Km from the surface of the earth. It is used for communication
satellites, regional navigation satellites and weather satellites.
Types of Orbits (Based on Inclination):
Polar Orbit:
❖ Angle of Inclination: It is the angle of orbit along with the equator. It is close to 900 or 900.
❖ Orbital Height: It will be 600 Km (+- 200).
❖ Orbital Period: Time taken to complete one turn around this earth i.e. 100 min.
❖ Satellite: Remote sensing satellite is placed in this orbit.
❖ Launch Vehicle: PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) is used to launch satellites in this
orbit.
Geo-Stationary Orbit (GSO):
❖ Angle of Inclination: It will be 00.
❖ Orbital Height: It will be 36000 Km.
❖ Orbital Period: The time taken to complete one turn around this earth
will be 24 hours.
❖ Satellite: Communication satellite, weather satellite and regional
navigation satellite is placed in this orbit.
❖ Launch Vehicle: GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle)
or LVM-III (Launch Vehicle Mark III) is used to launch satellites in
this orbit.
Geo-Synchronous Orbit (GSO):
❖ Angle of Inclination: It will not be 00. It will not be
parallel to the Earth. It will have some angle of
inclination with the equator.
❖ Orbital Height: It will be 36000 Km.
❖ Orbital Period: The time taken to complete one turn
around this earth will be 24 hours.
❖ Satellite: Communication satellite, weather satellite and
regional navigation satellite is placed in this orbit.
❖ Launch Vehicle: GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle) or LVM-III (Launch Vehicle Mark III)
is used to launch satellites in this orbit.
 4

Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO):

❖ This is a type of polar orbit where remote sensing satellites are placed in such a way
that it lies in the sunlit area of the earth for better remote sensing. The orbit is just above
the circle of illumination.
❖ To maintain the satellite on the circle of illumination the orbital plane or satellite will
be adjusted or shifted by approximately 10 every day. All SSPOs are Polar orbits but all
Polar orbits are not SSPOs.

Other Important Points:

❖ Geo-Stationary is a type of Geo-Synchronous orbit where the angle of inclination is zero.
❖ All Geo-Stationary orbits are Geo-Synchronous but all Geo-Synchronous orbits are not Geo-Stationary.
❖ Satellites placed in Geo-Stationary orbits will look stationary from the earth because relative motion is zero
whereas satellites placed in Geo-Synchronous orbits will
come back to the same position after every 24 hours.
ISRO’s Rockets:
❖ Sounding rockets are those rockets used for atmospheric
studies
❖ Thumba situated in Kerala is one of the few places of the
earth from where if a satellite is launched it directly reaches
to the magnetic equator.
❖ Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station was
established in 1963. It was India’s first rocket launching
station.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 31
Space Technology
 2

Space Technology

Sounding Rockets:

 It is used for atmospheric studies and the study of magnetic equator.

 The rocket is made up of 1 or 2 stages with solid fuel.
 Example: RH-200, RH-300, RH-560
 The first launch of sounding rockets was done in 1965.
Launching Rockets:
 SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle):
 The first launch of SLV launching rockets was done in 1980.
 It was India's first experimental launch vehicle.
 It can carry a 40 Kg payload to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
 It is a 4-stage all solid rocket system.The solid fuels are HTPB
(Hydroxy Terminated Poly-Butadine).
 ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle):
 The first launch of ASLV launching rockets was done in 1987.
 It was India's second experimental launch vehicle.
 It can carry 150 Kg payload to 400 km Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
 It is a 5-stage all solid rocket system.
 PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle):
 The first launch of PSLV launching rockets was done in 1994.
 It was India's first functional launch vehicle.
 It can carry 1750 Kg payload to Polar Orbit and 1425 Kg payload to
Geosynchronous Orbit which is approximately 36000 Km above the
surface of the earth.
 It is known as the workhorse of ISRO.
 3

Variants of PSLV:
 PSLV-G (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle –
Generic):
 It was launched in 1994 for the first time.
 It is a 4-stage launch vehicle.
 The first stage has an additional rocket attached
to it. The first stage has six Strap On Motors
(SOM).
 The first and the third stage is solid whereas the
second and the fourth stage has a liquid fuel.
 VIKAS engine is used for the liquid fuel. No
engine has to be used for the solid fuel.
 PSLV-CA (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Core Alone):
 It was developed in 2007.
 It is a 4-stage launch vehicle. The six SOM
present in PSLV-G are absent here.
 The technology is simplified and we don’t need to
attach a fixed rocket to the first stage.
 Hence, operational ease and flexibility has
increased. PSLV-CA is easy to launch. Hence, it
replaced the PSLV-G.
 PSLV-XL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Hexa Lift):
 It was developed in 2008.
 It is the most powerful PSLV.
 Six SOM are added to the first stage of PSLV-CA.
 PSLV-QL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Quad Lift):
 It was developed in 2019.
 It is a PSLV-CA with four SOM.
 PSLV-DL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Dual Lift):
 It was developed in 2019.
 It is a PSLV-CA with two SOM.
 4

Liquid Fuel:
 The liquid fuel is UMMH (Unsymmetrical Mono Methyl Hydrazine) or UDMH
(Unsymmetrical Di-Methyl Hydrazine)
 With the liquid fuel VIKAS engine is used.
 To burn the liquid fuel in space an oxidizer is needed. N204 is the oxidizer of liquid fuel.
 If we put the fuel and oxidizer together it is known as Propellant. Thus, Propellant is a
combination of fuel and oxidizer.
Why is PSLV the workhorse of ISRO?
 It is the most reliable launch vehicle for Polar Orbit.
 PSLV has launched around 57 flights. Out of 57 launches only 2 launches were unsuccessful.
Thus, it has an impeccable track record.
 PSLV has served 35 countries and launched over 350 satellites under commercial agreement.
 It has a world record of 100 satellite launches in one go.
 PSLV had a joint satellite mission with France. The satellites launched were Megha Tropiques
in 2011 and SARAL in 2013.
Role of PSLV for Indian Space Department:
 All remote sensing satellites to Polar Orbit are launched by PSLV.
 It has also launched a few communication satellites and weather satellites in GSO.
 NAVIC or IRNSS satellites were launched by PSLV.
 All the successful space missions of India are done by PSLV. Example: Chandrayan in 2009,
Mangalyan in 2013, Astrosat in 2015.
Latest Flight of PSLV:
 PSLV-C55 was launched in April, 2023.
 The launching was done with the help of PSLV-CA.
 Two satellites were launched.
 The first payload was TeLEOS-2, second payload was LUMILITE-4. These are the commercial
flights or satellites of Singapore. The third satellite launched was POEM-2 (PSLV Orbital
Experimental Module). It was an experimental flight of ISRO.
GSLV (Geo-Synchronous Launch Vehicle):
 The first launch of GSLV was done in 2001 with the help of Russian Cryogenic engines.
 5

 After the disintegration of the USSR in 1991, Russia provided seven cryogenic engines but
technology transfer was not done due to international pressure.
 In 1994, India started the Upper Stage Cryogenic Development Programme in ISRO
Propulsion Centre, Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu.
 In 2014, India successfully launched GSLV with Indian Cryogenic engine and India became the
sixth country in the world to develop Cryogenic Engine Technology.
Cryogenic Engine:
 It is an engine where we use liquid Hydrogen (with a temperature of -2530C) as fuel and the
oxidizer used is Liquid oxygen (with a temperature of -1830C).
 The fuel and the oxidizer is stored in very high pressure.
Variants of GSLV:
 GSLV-Mark I:
 It was launched in 2001 with the help of
Russian Cryogenic engines.
 It is a three stage launch vehicle.
 Four SOM are attached to the first stage.
 The first stage is solid, the second stage is
liquid and the third stage is cryogenic.
 VIKAS engine is used for the liquid fuel.
 The payload capacity is 1.5 Tons in the
Geo-Synchronous Orbit (GSO).
 GSLV-Mark II:
 It was launched in 2014 with the help of Indian
Cryogenic engines.
 It is a three stage launch vehicle.
 Four SOM are attached to the first stage.
 The first stage is solid, the second stage is liquid and
the third stage is cryogenic.
 The payload capacity is 2.5 Tons in the Geo-
Synchronous Orbit (GSO).
 6

 GSLV-Mark III or LVM-III (Launch Vehicle Mark-III):

 It was launched in 2017.
 It is a three stage launch vehicle
with a different design. Two first
stages are used and they are known
as S-200 stage or Booster stage.
 Two SOM are attached to the first
stage.
 The first stage is solid, the second
stage is liquid and the third stage is
cryogenic.
 The liquid stage where the VIKAS
engine is used is known as the L-110 stage. It is also known as the Core Stage.
 The third stage where the cryogenic engine is used is known as the C-25 stage. It is also
known as the Upper Stage.
 The payload capacity is 4 Tons in the Geo-Synchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 32
Space Technology: Launch
Vehicles II
 2

Space Technology: Launch Vehicles II

Recent Launches of GSLV/LVM-III:

❖ LVM-3 M1: It was launched in 2019 for carrying Chandrayaan-II to the moon.
❖ LVM-3 M2: It was launched in October 2022. It was known as One Web India-1 Mission. It is a satellite-
based global internet service. It was a commercial flight.
❖ LVM-3 M3: It was launched in March 2023. It was One Web India-2 Mission.
❖ GSLV-F12 (GSLV-MkII): It was launched in May, 2023. It launched the NVS.01 satellite which is the
second-generation navigation satellite of India.
Importance of GSLV/LVM/Cryogenic Engine:
❖ India has achieved self-reliance in communication satellite launches and heavy satellite launches.
❖ This will play an important role in upcoming space missions such as Mangalyaan-II, Chandrayan-III and
Gaganyan.
❖ This is helping India to get commercial agreements of satellite launches like One Web satellites.
❖ It highlights the scientific image of India, the space achievements of ISRO.
❖ This can help in the development of powerful missile systems in India.
SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicles):
❖ It is a Three-stage solid-fuel launch vehicle.
❖ It is very cheap to operate.
❖ It can launch 500 Kg to 500 Km LEO (Polar Orbit).
❖ If the payload capacity is decreased to 300 Kg then it can launch a satellite up to a distance of 500 Km SSPO
(Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit).
❖ SSLV will boost commercial launches.
❖ This is affordable and takes less time to assemble.
❖ Private companies are engaged in the mass production of SSLV.
Latest Flights of SSLV:
❖ SSLV-D1: It was launched in August 2022 for launching the EOS-02 satellite.
❖ SSLV-D2: It was launched in February 2022 for launching the EOS-07 satellite. EOS is a remote-sensing
satellite.
Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV):
❖ The Payload capabilities will be up to 10 Tonnes (GSO).
❖ It is a Three-stage launch vehicle.
❖ It will be based on a semi-cryogenic engine where the fuel will be refined kerosene and the oxidizer will be
Liquid Oxygen stored at -1830C.
❖ It will be used for commercial launches, satellite launches, and deep space missions.
 3

RLV (Reusable Launch Vehicle):

❖ RLV is at an experimental stage. ISRO is experimenting with a small-size model
of the RLV known as RLV-TD (Technology Demonstration).
❖ Four experiments have been planned where two experiments are successfully
conducted.
➢ Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX): It was done in 2016.
➢ Landing Flight Experiment (LEX): It was done in April 2023.
➢ Return Flight Experiment (REX): It will be done in future.
➢ Scramjet Propulsion Flight Experiment (SPEX): It will be done in
future.
❖ After the development of a fully functional RLV, it can launch a satellite or
payload in space and can come back to Earth like an aircraft. Afterwards, it can
be reused.
Benefits of RLV:
❖ Launching cost will come down to 10%.
❖ India will be able to provide cheaper launching services in the international market.
❖ It will also play an important role in low-cost space tourism.
Satellite Structure:
It consists of the following parts:
❖ Gyroscope/Accelerometer: It gives information about orientation, inclination and change in speed of the
satellite.
❖ Transponder (Transmitter + Responder): A Transponder with the help of a Radar will send and receive
signals. The communication
going from a satellite to the
ground is called downlink,
and when it is going from
the ground to a satellite it is
called uplink. Uplink and
Downlink are together
called Telemetry which is
based on Microwaves.
❖ Liquid Fuel and Motor: It
keeps the satellite in circular
orbit by correcting its path.
❖ Computer and Electric
Circuit
 4

❖ Payload: It is the main functional part of a satellite.

➢ If it is a remote sensing satellite then the payload will be a camera or SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar).
➢ If it is a communication satellite then the payload will be multiple transponders.
➢ If it is a weather satellite then the payload will be a sounder and imager.
➢ If it is a navigation satellite then the payload will be a transponder and atomic clock.
Applications of Satellite:
Remote Sensing / Earth Observation:
❖ It is a process by which the physical and chemical properties of an object can be analyzed without physically
touching it by using different types of electromagnetic waves such as light, infrared and microwave.
Types of Remote Sensing:
❖ Active Remote Sensing: It is based on microwaves and radar. It can work day and night and in all weather
conditions. Its payload is Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). It provides multipurpose and high-resolution data
that can be used in defense applications. Example: RISAT.
❖ Passive Remote Sensing: It depends on sunlight and it can do remote sensing in daytime and clear weather
conditions. It is camera-based remote sensing where the payload is the camera. Example: Cartosat.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 33
Space Technology: Applications
 2

Space Technology: Applications

Indian Remote Sensing Satellites:

❖ In 1988, the first remote sensing satellite IRS-1A was launched.
❖ At present there are more than 20 remote sensing satellites established by India and India is among one of the
most developed countries having civilian remote sensing satellites.
❖ Example: Cartosat, Resource Sat, Ocean Sat, SCATSAT, HySIS, RISAT, EOS, Megha Tropiques, SARAL.
Let us discuss them one by one:
❖ Cartosat: It is a dedicated mapping and infrastructural development in the country. Example: Development
of roads, townships, canals etc.
❖ Resourcesat: It is used for the management of natural resources such as agriculture and forest. It is helpful in
crop evaluation programmes and annual forest censuses.
❖ Oceansat and Scatsat: It is used for management, surveillance, mapping and early warning in coastal and
oceanic areas.
❖ HySIS (Hyper-Spectral Imaging Satellite): It can recognize and analyze a specific place or object by
differentiating it from its surrounding. It is useful in agriculture, mineral exploration and defense application.
❖ RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite): It is used in Kharif crop evaluation, flood evaluation and disaster
management. It can also be useful in border surveillance.
❖ EOS (Earth Observation Satellite): There is EOS 01, EOS 03, EOS 04.
❖ Megha Tropiques: It is a joint mission developed by ISRO and the French space agency, CNES, for tropical
weather and climate studies.
❖ SARAL: It is used for the study of the ocean surface.
Communication Satellite of India:
❖ India’s first communication satellite INSAT-1B was launched in 1983.
❖ At present there are more than 20 communication satellites placed in orbit and India is one of the most
developed countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
❖ Communication satellites are placed in Geo-Stationary orbit and it has different types of transponders as
communication payload.
Types of Transponders:
❖ S-band: It operates in the frequency
between 2 GHz – 4 GHz.
❖ C band: It operates in the frequency
between 4 GHz – 8 GHz.
❖ Ku band: It operates in the frequency
between 12 GHz – 18 GHz.
❖ Ka band: It operates in a frequency between
26.5 GHz – 40 GHz.
 3

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has allocated 1 GHz – 50 GHz microwave frequency for
communication satellites and this is known as Satellite Command Frequency. Ku band is the most popular
frequency band because it requires a small-sized antenna and it is useful in DTH and V-SAT (Very Small
Aperture Terminal) services.

Recent Communication Satellites of India:

❖ GSAT-30: It was launched in January 2020 by Ariane-5 (France). It is a 3 Ton heavy satellite with 24
transponders.
❖ CMS-01: It was launched in December 2020 by PSLV-XL. INSAT was the oldest name of a communications
satellite by ISRO. Later it was renamed to GSAT. CMS is the new name of a communication satellite.
Important Communication Satellites of India:
❖ GSAT-09: It was launched in 2017. It is a South Asian satellite launched for SAARC countries. It was a part
of Space Diplomacy.
❖ GSAT-7: It was launched in 2013. It is a communication defense satellite for the Navy. It is also named as
Rukmini.
❖ GSAT-7A: It was launched in 2018. It is a communication defense satellite for the Air Force. It is also named
as Angry Bird.
❖ GSAT-7B: It is planned to be launched as a communication defense satellite for the Army.
Weather Satellite (MET-SAT) of India:
❖ It is placed in the Geo-Stationary orbit.
❖ The payload consists of a sounder and an imager.
❖ The sounder gives the vertical profile of temperature and humidity.
❖ The imager consists of a camera that gives a wider view of the Indian subcontinent to locate clouds, monsoons,
cyclones, pressure belts etc.
❖ The data produced by the weather satellites are analyzed by supercomputers for weather information and
weather forecasting.
Weather Satellite (MET-SAT) of India:
❖ MET-SAT-1: It was launched in 2002. It is the first dedicated weather satellite of India. It is renamed as
Kalpana-1.
❖ INSAT-3D: It was launched in 2013. It is an advanced weather satellite.
❖ INSAT-3DR: It was launched in 2016. It is an advanced weather satellite.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 34
Space Technology: Applications II
 2

Space Technology: Applications II

Satellite Navigation:
❖ Satellite Navigation systems can determine the relative position of an object attached with a satellite navigation
receiver.
❖ To find out the position of an object, a navigation satellite communicates with the receiver by microwaves
through a transponder placed in the satellite.
❖ To find out the relative position of a static object, minimum three satellites are needed and for moving objects,
five satellites are needed to communicate with satellite navigation receivers.
❖ Atomic clocks present in the satellite are used to calculate the precise time.
Satellite Navigation Systems can be of Two Types:
❖ Global: There are 4 global navigation satellites working across the world. They are:
➢ GPS of USA
➢ GLONASS of Russia
➢ Compass of China
➢ Galileo of EU
❖ Regional: NaVIC of India and Beidou of China.
Payload of Navigation Satellite:
❖ Transponder
❖ Atomic Clock
Global Satellite Navigation System:
❖ Placement of satellites in MEO (14000 - 20000 Km).
❖ Minimum number of satellites required to cover the entire earth is 24.
GPS (Global Positioning System):
❖ It was developed by the USA in 1978.
❖ It was available for civilian usage in 1994.
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System):
❖ It was developed by Russia and became active in 2011.
Compass (Beidou-2):
❖ It was developed by China and became active in 2020.
Galileo:
❖ It was developed by the European Union and became active in 2020.
NaVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation):
❖ It is also known as IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System).
❖ It is a Satellite-Based Navigation System (SBNS).
❖ Coverage: It covers the whole of India's landmass and up to 1,500 km (930 miles) from its boundaries.
 3

❖ Average Accuracy: 15 meters.

❖ Number of satellites required: 4 in Geo-Synchronous Orbit and 3 Geo-Stationary Orbit.
❖ As a payload, transponders and a Rubidium atomic clock are there.
NaVIC can provide two types of signals:
❖ PPS (Precise Positioning Signals): PPS is encrypted, more accurate and multi-purpose. It is available only
for defense and strategic uses.
❖ SPS (Standard Positioning Signals): SPS is a non-encrypted open signal available for all.
Satellites of NaVIC:
❖ IRNSS Satellite: It is a first-generation satellite.
❖ NVS Satellite: It is a second-generation advanced satellite.
GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation):
❖ It is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS).
❖ GAGAN augments or adds additional data into GPS signals to make it more precise for aviation purposes
because GPS signals are not accurate enough in Indian airspace.
❖ GAGAN has been jointly developed by ISRO and the Airport Authority of India (AAI).
❖ After the development of GAGAN, India's airspace will be secured in terms of better navigation and helps in
better air traffic management.
❖ GAGAN is also being used in railways and waterways.
❖ The GAGAN system does not require a dedicated satellite launch. Rather, GAGAN payloads are based on
communication satellites GSAT-8, GSAT-10, and GSAT-15.
Experimental Satellites:
❖ Astrosat: It was India’s first astronomical satellite dedicated to astronomical studies.
➢ It was launched in 2015 on a PSLV launch vehicle.
➢ Astrosat is a multi-spectrum space observatory sensitive to visible light, UV rays and X-rays. It lies at
650 Km orbit.
❖ EMISAT (Electromagnetic Intelligence Satellite): It was launched in 2019 on a PSLV launch vehicle.
➢ It is a joint project of ISRO and DRDO.
➢ This satellite can detect electromagnetic radiation coming from the radar alongside the radar.
➢ This satellite can detect radar activity and locate the position of the radar.
❖ NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar): It is a joint mission of the USA and India.
➢ This project is developing the world’s most powerful and advanced remote-sensing satellite.
➢ This satellite will be based on Dual Band SAR by NASA. This satellite will be launched by GSLV of
India.
➢ This satellite will be used for the study of the natural processes of the ecosystem.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 35
Space Missions
 2

Space Missions

Space Missions:
Chandrayan-1:
❖ It was launched in 2008 on PSLV-XL.
❖ It was India’s first orbiter mission.
❖ It was mainly remote sensing of the Moon’s surface.
❖ Chandrayan-1 detected the presence of water in the ice form below the moon surface by mini Synthetic
Aperture Radar provided by NASA.
Chandrayan-2:
❖ It was launched in 2019 by LVM-III.
❖ It was India’s first landing mission.
❖ It consisted of three main components: an orbiter, a Lander known as VIKRAM and a Rover known as
PRAGYAN.
❖ In Chandrayaan-2, ISRO wanted to detect the water present over the southern part of the Moon and to study
the mineral composition of the Moon’s surface.
❖ This mission has failed because the lander crash landed on the Moon’s surface.
Chandrayan-3:
❖ Chandrayan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayan-2.
❖ It consists of two components: a Lander and a Rover.
❖ This mission will be launched in July, 2023 and it will have following objectives:
➢ Safe and soft landing on the moon.
➢ Movement ability demonstration of the Rover.
➢ Conducting scientific observation directly on the site.
➢ Chandrayan-3 will be launched by LVM-III.
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or Mangalyaan-1:
❖ It was launched in 2013 by PSLV-XL.
❖ It reached Mars orbit in 2014. The Mars orbit is around 15 lakh Km from the Earth.
❖ It was India’s first extra-planetary mission.
❖ It was an orbiter mission for remote sensing of Mars atmosphere and surface.
❖ India became the first country in the world to reach Mars orbit in the first attempt.
❖ India became the first country in Asia to reach Mars orbit.
Mangalyaan-2:
❖ It will be a landing mission consisting of three components: orbiter, lander and rover.
❖ It will be launched by LVM-III.
❖ The lander will land on Mars surface to study the mineral composition and atmosphere of Mars.
Venusian Mission (Shukrayan):
❖ It will be launched by PSLV-XL.
❖ Venus is the twin planet of earth because it has got similar density, gravity and mineral composition.
 3

❖ This mission will be a remote sensing mission for Venus.

Aditya - L1 Mission:
❖ This mission is proposed to study the Sun from Lagrangian Point-1.
❖ Lagrangian Points are the places at which the net gravitational pull is zero due to its specific positioning
between two celestial objects.
❖ There are five Lagrangian Points between Earth and Sun.
❖ The Satellite or spacecraft placed at this point remain hanging at the same place..
❖ Lagrangian Points are also known as Parking Space in Space.
❖ Lagrangian Point-1 (L1) is 15 lac Km away from the Earth’s surface and spacecraft placed over it will
always be exposed to the Sun.
❖ With the success of Aditya L1, India will become the third country in the world to reach the L1 after the
USA and European Union.
EXOWORLDS:
❖ It is expected to be launched by 2028.
❖ It is India’s first mission outside the solar system.
GAGANYAAN:
❖ It is India’s first manned mission.
❖ It will be aboard LVM-III.
❖ It consists of an Orbiter Module.
❖ The Orbiter Module has two major components:
➢ Crew Module: This will be a very strong cabin which can withstand high temperatures, strong radiation
and it is equipped with life supporting systems for the astronaut. The Crew Module will be used by
astronauts during the flight and re-entry.
➢ Service Module: It will have different types of instruments to conduct micro gravity experimentations
in space.
❖ GAGANYAAN will take three astronauts to 300-400 Km in Geocentric orbit for one week.
❖ The GAGANYAN mission will be completed in three attempts. The first two attempts will be without human
beings and a Vyomitra robot will be sent. After the success of these two attempts of GAGANYAAN, humans
will be sent.
Types of Space Missions:
Space Missions can be of two types:
❖ Orbiter Mission: Orbiters are placed in orbit around a celestial body.
❖ Landing Mission: Landers land on the surface of a celestial body.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 36
Space Technology: Impact
and Issues
 2

Space Technology: Impact and Issues

Significance of Space Missions in India:

 Discovery of H2O on the Moon: The detection of H2O on the Moon can provide Hydrogen fuel or
Cryogenic fuel as well as breathable Oxygen. That is why many countries are planning to develop a
space station on the Moon.
 Presence of He3 Isotope on the Moon: The discovery of He3 Isotope on the Moon can be used as
fusion fuel.
 Studying the Composition of Earth and Solar System: Study and Exploration of different planets
and satellites in the Solar System help us to understand the origin and composition of the Earth and
the solar system.
 Space-Industry Cooperation: Many technologies which have been developed for space missions
can be useful in different industries. ISRO is already providing technical consultancy to different
industries under Space-Industry Cooperation.
 Space missions boost the scientific image of India.
 Space missions create awareness and scientific temperament which brings down superstitions.
Promoting scientific temperament is a part of Fundamental Duties in the Constitution.
Impact of Space Technology in the Defense Sector:
 Space Tech is a dual technology that can increase the war-fighting capacity of a country.
 Indian missiles are based on ISRO's rocket technology. Example: The first missile of India, the
Prithvi missile is based on SLV, the first launch vehicle of India.
 NaVIC will play an important role in navigation and target acquisition during warfare.
 Defense satellites like GSAT-7, 7A, and 7B provide seamless information exchange between
different segments of armed forces.
 Advanced satellites like RISAT, HySIS, EOS, and EMISAT can provide valuable information at the
time of war. It can enhance border security and can stop infiltration.
 In 2019, under Mission Shakti, India developed and demonstrated the Anti-Satellite (A-SAT)
missile.
Impact of Space Technology on Social or Rural Upliftment:
 Space tech is the backbone of knowledge enhancement technology which plays an important role
in social upliftment. For Example, DTH or Satellite TV provides both knowledge and
entertainment.
 It plays an important role in agriculture. For Example DD Kisan, Kisan TV, Crop Evaluation
Programme, Crop Management and Land Management, and Agri Infrastructure Development.
 Tele-Education backed by satellite brings education in rural and remote areas.
 3

 Tele-Medicine backed by satellite provides better access to special medical opinions and improves
time and commute efficiency.
Impact of Space Technology on the Economic Sector:
The development of robust infrastructure can lead to economic development. ISRO has developed
satellite communication infrastructure by launching communication satellites which has developed
many new industries and services in India such as DTH, V-SAT, Satellite news and Commercial
communication services. Such economic activities generate revenue and employment opportunities.
 Management of resources can provide more benefit than economic gain. Remote sensing satellites
play an important role in the management of natural resources and modern infrastructure
which boosts economic development. Agriculture, fisheries and mining are benefiting from it.
 Under Space-Industry Cooperation many advanced technologies of the space segment are being
used by different industries of India and benefiting from it.
 ISRO is a self-sufficient and developed organization. ISRO is engaged in selling space-related
services in the domestic and international markets. For this, ISRO has two commercial wings:
Antrix Corporation Limited established in 1992 and New Space India Limited (NSIL)
established in 2019.
Space Pollution or Space Debris:
 Space Pollution or Space Debris is the dysfunctional satellite, parts of the satellite, and parts of the
launch vehicle in different orbits. Such Space Debris can collide with another satellite and can delay
the launching schedule.
 In 1978, NASA proposed the Big Sky Theory. According to this theory, Space Pollution will not
be a problem because space is too big and the satellite placed in Low Earth Orbit will eventually
enter the Earth’s atmosphere due to gravity and it will burn off due to friction.
 In 1978, Donald Kessler challenged NASA’s theory and published his theory Creation of the
Debris Belt which is also known as Kessler Syndrome. According to this theory, after three
decades, the number of satellites in different orbits will increase and collide with each other to
create the entire orbit as a belt of debris.
 In 2009, a Russian satellite collided with an American satellite and created a cloud of debris.
Management of Space Pollution:
 For the management of space pollution, a multinational forum has been established known as the
Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee.
 Concept of Graveyard Orbit: Satellites of Geo-Stationary Orbit are pushed away from the orbit
into deep space in the Graveyard Orbit. This minimizes satellite crowding in Geo-Stationary Orbit.
 4

 ElectroDynamic Debris Eliminator (Tether): In 2017, this was used by Japan but it was a failed
mission. In this technology, the debris can be accumulated by a metal net and it can be brought back
to the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Clear Space Mission I: It is planned by the European Union to be launched in 2025. In this
technology, space debris will be collected by Robotic arms and it will be entered into the
atmosphere.
 NEO-1 mission: It is planned by China to be launched in 2025. This will be a robotic spacecraft
which will bring down space debris using a metallic net.
 Project NETRA: It is a joint mission of DRDO and ISRO. This is an early warning system which
keeps an eye on space debris which might collide with the Indian satellite to save our satellites.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 37
IT and Computers (Part I)
 2

IT and Computers (Part I)

Space Diplomacy (India-China):

❖ At present time, space technology does not only improve the quality of life but also plays an important role in
the defence sector. Space Technology is linked with all modern technologies and plays an important role in
the development of any country.
❖ Many space power countries are using space technology for diplomatic advantage and for soft power for other
countries.
❖ For Example: China is playing an important role in South Asia Space Diplomacy by establishing APSCO
(Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization) for diplomatic advantage.
❖ Under APSCO, China provides space tech and services to other countries at easy terms and conditions and at
low cost. Pakistan, Bangladesh and Thailand are already members of APSCO and China is trying to bring
Nepal, Maldives and Sri Lanka into it.
❖ In future, China can establish space centers in these countries which can be used against India. By this Chinese
aggression in the space segment, India might lose its foothold in geopolitics.
❖ India is also active in Space Diplomacy and recently, India has launched South Asian Communication
Satellite for all SAARC nations except Pakistan.
❖ India has invited all SAARC nations to use NaVIC services. India is already providing data related to remote
sensing, weather conditions and disaster management in South East Asian countries.
❖ All these efforts will bring balance in Space Diplomacy and India will be able to counter Chinese aggression
in this sector.
Supercomputers:
❖ A supercomputer is a computing device where thousands of processors are connected together and it works
on parallel processing. Due to parallel processing, supercomputers can handle gigantic amounts of data and
process it in a very short span of time.
❖ Supercomputers need a lot of space and power and it is designed specific to a particular job or function. It is
not a multitasking device.
❖ The processing ability of a supercomputer is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second)
unit.
❖ The value of TeraFlops (TFLOPS) is 1012 FLOPS.
❖ The value of Peta Flops (PFLOPS) is 1015 FLOPS.
❖ The value of Exa Flops (EFLOPS) is 1018 FLOPS.
❖ Supercomputer is a dual technology which has both peaceful and defense applications.
The supercomputer is mainly used in the following areas:
❖ Quantum Physics Calculation
❖ Nanotechnology Research
❖ Genomics, Bioinformatics and
 3

❖ Seismic Data Analysis, Geological Studies

❖ Weather and Climate related Studies
❖ Nuclear Research and Nuclear Reactor and Weapon Designing
❖ Development of Launch Vehicles and Missiles and their Testing
❖ Fundamental Research and Education
❖ For Simulation and Training Purposes
History of Supercomputers:
❖ Supercomputer was developed in the 1960s by American scientist Seymour Cray, the owner of Cray
supercomputers.
❖ In India, to develop a supercomputer, C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) was
established in 1988 in Pune.
❖ In 1991, C-DAC developed India’s first supercomputer PARAM-8000 under the leadership of C-DAC
director, Dr. Vijay Bhatkar.
Top 500 list of Supercomputer:
❖ This is a list published biannually where the world’s top 500 supercomputers are enlisted.
❖ 61st Top 500 list was published in June, 2023:
➢ Rank 1: Frontier developed by USA with a speed of 1680 PFLOPS (1.6 EFLOPS)
➢ Rank 2: Fugaku developed by Japan with a speed of 537 PFLOPS (0.5 EFLOPS)
➢ Rank 3: LUMI developed by EU with a speed of 428 PFLOPS
➢ India is ranked at 75th position in the Top 500 list with AI supercomputer AIRAWAT, installed at C-
DAC, Pune. Its speed is 13170 TFLOPS or 1.3 PFLOPS.
Country wise Ranking in Top 500 (Nov, 2022):
❖ Rank 1: China has 162 supercomputers in Top 500
❖ Rank 2: USA has 127 supercomputers in Top 500
❖ Rank 3: Germany has 34 supercomputers in Top 500
❖ Rank 20: India has 3 supercomputers in Top 500
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 38
IT and Computers (Part II)
 2

IT and Computers (Part II)

National Supercomputing Mission:

❖ The National Supercomputing Mission was approved in 2016 and it is being implemented by the Department
of Science and Technology (DST) and the Department of Electronics and Information Technology
(Deity).
❖ This mission intends to empower academics and fundamental research institutions across the country by
constructing more than 70 high-performance computers.
❖ This mission will also improve the position of India in the Top 500 list.
❖ To enhance research capability across different institutions all these supercomputers will be connected together
in a network known as NKN (National Knowledge Network).
❖ Technical organizations, research centers and universities will be connected to the National Knowledge
Network to access the processing ability of supercomputers.
❖ This mission is being guided by C-DAC, Pune and IISc Bengaluru.
❖ This mission will provide direct benefits to areas like medical research, energy research, climate analysis,
demographic analysis and fundamental research.
Comparison between Digital Computers and Quantum Computers:
Digital Computers Quantum Computers
❖ It is based on the flow of electrons. ❖ It is based on the spin of the electron pair either clockwise
or anticlockwise. The spin of electrons is known as
Spintronics.
❖ It is based on binary codes, i.e., 0 ❖ If the electrons are in paired conditions we get 4 combinations
and 1. They are known as binary known as Qubits. They are 00, 01, 10, and 11 where 1
digits or bits. represents the clockwise spin of the electrons and 0 represents
the anti-clockwise spin of the electrons.
❖ A thousand transistors connected ❖ The Qubits (01, 10, 11, 00) can be generated by Quantum
together, known as microprocessors, Dots or Quantum Loops.
regulate the flow of electrons.
❖ It can work at normal temperatures. ❖ It can work at very low temperatures.
Quantum Computers:
❖ This is a new computing technology where data is analyzed and processed on the basis of quantum mechanical
phenomena.
❖ Quantum computers are based on the spin of electrons or Spintronics and they generate Qubits.
❖ Electrons are in paired condition so there are 4 types of Qubits.
❖ To generate and process Qubits, Quantum Computers use Quantum Dots or Quantum Loops which are
nanostructures of semiconductors kept at extremely low temperatures.
 3

❖ The working principle of Quantum Computing is Entanglement and Superpositioning.

➢ Entanglement: In the process of Entanglement, if the spin of one electron is changed, complementary
change will occur in the paired electron.
➢ Superpositioning: It can generate an intermediate position of the spin of electrons where both electrons
can be present in the same spin or same orientation.
Development of Quantum Computers:
❖ In 2011, a Canadian company, D-Wave System developed the first commercially available Quantum
Computer named as D-Wave Quantum Computer.
❖ At present, IBM, Microsoft, and Google like big IT companies are developing Quantum Computers and
exploring their potential in artificial intelligence and machine learning.
❖ Organizations like Lockheed Martin (USA) are exploring Quantum Computers in Defense applications,
Cyber Security, Data Security and Quantum Encryption.
❖ A few years back, Google claimed to achieve Quantum Supremacy where Google’s Quantum Computer
processed extremely large amounts of data in 200 seconds. The same data can be processed by a supercomputer
in 10000 years.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 39
Super Computing
 2

Super Computing
Quantum Computing:
In 2023, Google claimed that the Quantum computer developed by it has solved data in a few seconds that would
take a supercomputer approximately 47 years.

Development of Quantum Computer in India:

❖ In 2017, the Department of Science and Technology organised a national consultation at Harishchandra
Research Institute (Prayagraj) to explore the possibility of development of quantum computing in India.
❖ In Budget 2020-21, Rs. 8000 crores was given to NMQTA (National Mission on Quantum Technology and
Applications).
➢ This mission aims to establish India at 3rd place in Quantum Technology after the USA and China.
❖ In 2021, the Department of Electronics and Information Technology released the Q-SIM Toolkit
(Quantum Computer Simulator Toolkit). This toolkit was developed by IISC, CDAC and IIT Roorkee.
➢ This will help researchers to understand the concept of quantum computing.
❖ In 2023, the government of India approved the National Quantum Mission(NQM). This mission is planned
for 2023-2031 and it will boost Scientific and Industrial Research in Quantum Technology.
➢ The National Quantum mission will be implemented by the Department of Science and Technology and
India will be the seventh country in the world to have a dedicated Quantum Mission.
➢ Under this mission, India will target to develop Intermediate State Quantum Computers (up to 1000
Q-bits).

Photonic Computer/Optical Computer:

❖ In this computing, electrons will be replaced by photons for calculation and processing of binary data.
➢ Photons are the particles of light and are the fastest particle in the universe.
❖ Optical computer will have the following benefits over the electronic computers:
➢ Energy requirement will be very low because of the absence of internal resistance and it will use LED.
➢ It will have an extremely high processing ability and data transfer rate because nothing can travel faster
than light.
❖ Obstacles in its development:
➢ The biggest obstacle in the development of optical computers is the development of light based
(optical) processors.
✓ In 2016 MIT USA developed the world's first optical transistor which can be helpful in the
development of optical processors in future.

DNA Computing/ Biological Computing/Molecular Computing/ Organic Computing:

❖ In DNA Computing, DNA molecules can be used to store the digital data.
❖ DNA is considered to be suitable because the binary data can be converted into generic data and it can be
stored inside a cell.
➢ This DNA holding generic data will be placed inside a bacteria called Bacillus subtitles which can
survive in extreme and adverse conditions.
❖ In 2018, science magazine Nature published that 1 gram of DNA can hold 15 Petabit of data.
 3

Web 1.0/ Web 2.0/ Web 3.0:

Web 1.0:
❖ Web or worldwide web started in 1989 and became a popular phenomenon between 1993 to 1999.
❖ At this time it was called a static web or read-only web.
❖ Data consumers were the only users of this generation of web.
❖ Users could not contribute/write any data to the web.
❖ There was least or no e-Commerce or financial activity done on this web.
Web 2.0:
❖ This web, though started early, i.e. in 1990 itself but it fully developed by 2004.
❖ Web 2.0, also known as the read-write web or two-way web, refers to a concept where users are not only
passive consumers of data but also active contributors, capable of writing and contributing their own data
to the web.
❖ This interactive nature of Web 2.0 transforms it into a dynamic platform, where users play a dual role as
both data consumers and contributors.
❖ With emergence of social media, blog, vlog, e-commerce and financial transactions all came increased
manifold.
Benefits of Web 2.0:
❖ The Internet is rich in quantity and diversity of content.
❖ New employment opportunities have been created.
❖ It helps citizens to express their views easily.
❖ Governments and organisations can get direct feedback from citizens which can help them to amend plans
and policies.
❖ Many E-Commerce activities emerged in web 2.0.
Issues with Web 2.0:
❖ Anybody can publish anything on Web 2.0 because there is no censorship and it could be harmful for social
fabric, religious sentiments and national security.
❖ Quality and authenticity of contents published on the web remain always in question.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 40
Web and Wireless
Communication
 2

Web and Wireless Communication

Web 3.0:
❖ The term Web 3.0 was used by scientist Gavin Wood in 2014 but it gained popularity in 2021.
❖ Web 3.0 is a Decentralized Web where data and internet traffic will not be controlled by a few internet
companies, rather every user will have ownership and control on his/her own data.
❖ Data will be decentralized, it will not be stored on a central server or cloud server but user's data will be stored
at the user end by using Blockchain Technology.
➢ Blockchain Technology: It will be the fundamental basis of Web 3.0.
✓ Blockchain is an open ledger where all the information is present in the form of data blocks.
✓ In Blockchain, every transaction is digitally printed and it cannot be changed or deleted. At the
same time, it is an open ledger, so it is available to everyone.
✓ Blockchain in Web 3.0 will allow peer to peer transactions by eliminating the role of third parties
like banks, social media and e-commerce sites.
❖ Significance of Web 3.0:
➢ Promote Cryptocurrency and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFT): It will promote cryptocurrency and NFT
related transactions.
➢ Enhance Data Security: Web 3.0 will provide better data security and the user will decide how personal
data will be used on the internet.
➢ Monetary Benefit to Users: In Web 3.0, a user will be able to get a monetary benefit by sharing personal
data with internet companies.
Web 4.0: It is nothing but a Mobile web, or mobile devices is Web 4.0.
Web 5.0: It is the combined web of Web 1.0 + Web 2.0 + Web 3.0.

Non-Fungible Tokens (NFT):

❖ Non-Fungible Tokens are blockchain-based tokens that each
represent a unique asset like a piece of art, digital content, or
media.
❖ An NFT can be thought of as an irrevocable digital certificate of
ownership and authenticity for a given asset, whether digital or
physical.
❖ Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are designed to be:
➢ Cryptographically verifiable
➢ Unique or scarce and
➢ Easily transferable.
❖ Leveraging cryptographic signatures native to the blockchain on which an NFT is issued, one can easily
determine the origin and the current owner of the asset in question in seconds.

Wireless Communications:
1. Li-Fi (Light Fidelity):
➢ The real name of Li-Fi is Visible Light Communication (VLC).
➢ It was developed by Herald Haas in the USA.
➢ It is the concept of using the internet through light waves.
 3

➢ Benefits of Li-Fi:
✓ Enhance internet speed: The internet speed will be ultra fast. It may go up to 200 Gbps.
✓ Consume less energy: It consumes less energy as light will be produced by the LED.
✓ Provide better security than Wi-Fi: Because visible light cannot pass through walls,
communication is extremely localized to areas that are confined by opaque walls.
2. Mobile Telephony:
➢ 1G: It is an analog system that provides low quality, less security and less privacy. The data transfer rate
is negligible. It was a voice centric service.
➢ 2G: It is a digital system that provides high quality, more security and more privacy. The data transfer
rate is 9.6 Kbps. Texting through SMS was also made possible. It was a voice centric service.
➢ 2.5G: It is 2G combined with GPRS (General Packet Radio Service). It increased the data transfer rate
to 114 Kbps.
➢ 2.75G: It is 2G combined with EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for Global Evolution). It increased the
data transfer rate to 384 Kbps. 2.5G and 2.75G provided mobile internet.
➢ 3G: It is a digital system that provides data centric service. The technology used is HSPA (High Speed
Packet Access). The data rate is 2-3 Mbps. For the first time we got Mobile Broadband. It means internet
services will be available 24*7 with a speed of more than 512 Kbps. It was useful in a variety of
applications like Internet voice call, Video call, Social Media, YouTube etc.
➢ 4G: It is a digital system that provides data centric service. The technology used is LTE (Long Term
Evolution). The data transfer rate is 100 Mbps. 4G contained two things: VoLTE (Voice over LTE) for
calls and LTE for internet. It was useful in a variety of applications like live streaming, video calls.
➢ 5G: It is a digital system that provides data centric service. It is an up-gradation over LTE. 5G is
promoting the idea of WWWW (World Wide Wireless Web) where the entire world will be converted
into a high speed internet zone. 5G will provide anytime, anywhere, any device, any network internet. 5G
will play a very important role in the development of IoT (Internet of Things) where all the household
devices will be connected together through the internet. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
has given a criteria that must be fulfilled in 5G:
✓ The first criteria is data speed up to 20 Gbps.
✓ India need to achieve ultra low latency of 1 millisecond.
✓ High bandwidth up to 1000 times more.
✓ Connectivity per unit area should be 100 times more.
✓ Network uptime should be 99.99%.
✓ 100% global coverage.
✓ Energy consumption should be 90% less.
✓ IoT (Internet of Things) sensors will have a battery life of up to 10 years.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 41
Artificial Intelligence
 2

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

 Artificial Intelligence is a new area of computer technology in which such computer programmes
are developed which can work as the human brain and it can solve a problem, learn a pattern
and store information.
 AI should have four characteristics:
 Self Learning System or Machine Learning: It means an artificial intelligence system that is
able to learn and adapt on its own without being explicitly programmed to do so.
 Data Mining: Data mining relies on big data and advanced computing processes including
machine learning and other forms of artificial intelligence (AI). The goal is to find patterns that
can lead to inferences or predictions from large and unstructured data sets.
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): Whether the language is either spoken or written, NLP
uses Artificial Intelligence to take it as input, process it and translate it in a way that the
computer understands.
 Pattern Recognition: Pattern recognition is a data analysis method that uses machine learning
algorithms to automatically recognize patterns and regularities in data. This data can be
anything from text and images to sounds or other definable qualities.
 Significance of AI: It can be helpful in the development of automated query management systems
which can solve a problem or reply to a question without human interference. For Example: Laxmi
Banking Robot and ChatGPT.
Types of AI:
 Narrow AI: It can perform predefined work and cannot solve a new problem. For Example:
Speech-to-Text, Automatic Washing Machine.
 General AI: It is a present day AI which can perform a task with the similar efficiency of human
beings. For Example: Banking AI Robot, ChatGPT, Driverless Car.
 Super AI: It is a future AI which can perform a task better than the human being but it is at
conceptual level only.
General Example of AI:
 Voice Assistants: Alexa, Siri, OK Google
 E-Commerce Sites and Apps: Chatbots to Answer Customer Query, Generation of Product
Descriptions, Handling and Processing of Business Data, Sales Forecasting, After Sales Support,
Voice Search and Giving Recommendations, Image Searching and Recognition
 Spam Filter in Email: AI email filtering can manage incoming malware and protect email users
from developing spam complacency.
 3

 Industrial AI for better control and coordination of the machine.

 Development of Cyber Physical System: Cyber-physical systems are an important component of
the information age. Currently, to improve the operation of the components of cyber-physical
systems, methods of artificial intelligence, such as deep learning algorithms, are increasingly being
used.
 Banking Robots in the finance sector are using AI to provide information to customers.
 AI is very instrumental in robotic surgery and New Drug Discovery.
 AI has been used for the development of driverless cars which can manage traffic and minimize
road accidents.
 AI in border security and surveillance. For Example: AI drones.
 AI in weather forecasting.
 AI in space exploration. For Example: Robotic Rover.
Robotics and AI has created some more jobs and employment opportunities. Although, this area has
minimized some job avenues, most of these jobs are unskilled jobs or no skill jobs whereas AI is
creating avenues for skilled jobs.
Big Data / Big Data Analysis:
 Big Data means an enormous amount of data present on the internet and digital world which is
being generated by general users and organizations through various activities on the internet.
 Big Data has three characteristics known as 3Vs:
 Volume: Huge amount of data
 Velocity: Speed at which data is created
 Variety: Different types of data
 A human user produces big data during online shopping, digital payment, social networking,
internet search, blogging, comments etc.
 In Big Data analysis, data is analyzed in different ways to fight out some information, traits and
patterns.
 Big Data analysis can help to find out the medical history, income level and private information of a
person.
 With Big Data analysis, patterns of financial fraud and tax evasion can be detected.
 Police forces and security agencies can use Big Data analysis to control crime to detect criminals
and other threats.
 Big Data analysis is extensively being used in bioinformatics and biotechnology.
 Big Data helps in new drug discovery and analysis of pandemic and its effect such as Covid-19.
 4

 Government is using Big Data analysis to recognize the target groups in demography so that
benefits of welfare plans and policies can reach them.
 In the education sector, big data is analyzing the interest and orientation of students so that higher
studies can be managed by the universities.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 42
Nuclear Technology
 2

Nuclear Technology
An atom consists of a nucleus and electrons orbiting around the nucleus. The nucleus is a combination of protons
and neutrons, also known as nucleons. There are two types of reactions:
Types of Reactions:

Chemical Reaction Nuclear Reaction

 If electrons are involved then it is termed as  If nucleons are involved then it is termed as Nuclear
Chemical Reaction. Reaction.

 New elements are not formed in a Chemical  New elements are formed in a Nuclear Reaction.
Reaction. Only new compounds are formed.

 Mass remains constant in a Chemical Reaction.  There will be Mass Defect, i.e, loss of mass (Δm).
This loss of mass converts into energy. (E = Δmc2).
The value of c = 3 * 108 m/s.

 For Example: HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O  For Example: H13 + H12 -> He24 + n1 + Energy.

Types of Nuclear Reactions:

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

 When the nucleus of U23592 is bombarded with a  Small nuclei under extremely high temperatures will
high energy particle neutron, then it splits into form a big nucleus.
Plasma
Barium, Krypton and a huge amount of energy.  H13 + H12 ---------------- > He24 + n + EE
6
10 degree
 U23592 Ba + Kr + 3n + E.

 Thus, bombardment by a high energy particle is  Thus, a high temperature is required to get a plasma
required. state.

 In comparison, less energy is generated.  In comparison, more energy is generated. Example:

Example: Atom bomb. Hydrogen bomb.

What is Plasma?
 Plasma is the fourth state of matter when we lose the atomic structure of an element and all the fundamental
particles like proton, electron, neutron are present in a random state.
 3

Fission Reactor:
 The place where Nuclear Fission takes place is known as a Fission Reactor.
 Parts of a Fission Reactor:
 Nuclear Fuel
 Moderator
 Control Rod
 Coolant
 Shield
 Reactor Core
 Cooling Tower
1. Nuclear Fuel / Fission Fuel: It can be of three types: Uranium, Plutonium, Thorium.
 Uranium: It can give peaceful energy and it can also be used to make a bomb.
 It is the most popular because all 22 active Indian nuclear reactors are running on Uranium.
 It is obtained from mining. The ore of Uranium is known as Pitchblend.
 The purification of Pitchblend gives three types of Uranium:
 U23492 (very less),
 U23592 (0.7%),
 U23892 (99.3%).
 U23592 is used as a nuclear fuel. The vast majority of nuclear power reactors use the isotope Uranium-
235 as fuel. However, it only makes up 0.7% of the natural uranium mined and must therefore be
increased through a process called enrichment.
 Enrichment of U23592 (Fission Fuel) gives three types of Uranium:
 SEU (Slightly Enriched Uranium): The proportion of Uranium in Uranium-235 is increased to
1.1%. It is used as peaceful energy.
 LEU (Low Enriched Uranium): The proportion of Uranium in Uranium-235 is increased to 2-
5%. It is used as peaceful energy.
 HEU (High Enriched Uranium): The proportion of Uranium in Uranium-235 is increased to 20-
90%. It can be used to make an atomic bomb to be used as a weapon.
 Plutonium: It can give peaceful energy and it can also be used to make a bomb.
 It is a man-made element, and the most efficient fuel.
 When U23892 is bombarded with high energy particles like neutrons, it is converted into Plutonium
Pu23994. This process is known as Transmutation.
 Benefits of Plutonium:
 It gives high energy.
 It is weapon grade. Thus, it can be used to make atomic bombs.
 Energy can be harnessed with the help of a Special reactor known as the FBR (Fast Breeder Reactor).
 4

 Thorium: It can give only energy.

 It is present in nature. The ore of Thorium is known as Monazite. Out of this ore we get Th23290. Since
it contains 2-12% of Thorium no enrichment is required.
 Thorium is 3 times more than Uranium on the earth. India has 25% of world reserves of Thorium.
 In Thorium, the harmful radiation and radioactivity is very mild and it is not as dangerous as
Uranium and Plutonium.
 After use in a nuclear reactor, Thorium is radioactive only for 500 years whereas Uranium
radioactivity lasts for 10,000 years.
 Thorium cannot be weaponized and it can only be used in peaceful applications.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 43
Nuclear Technology (Part II)
 2

Nuclear Technology (Part II)

 Fissile Material: Fissile Material is a Fission fuel that can be used in a nuclear reactor. For Example U23592,
Pu23994, U23392.
 Fertile Materials: Fertile Materials are the elements that can produce fission fuel or fissile material. For
Example: U23592. U23892 is converted into Plutonium Pu23994 through the process known as Transmutation.
Similarly, Th23290 is converted into U23392. Hence, U23892 and Th23290 are fertile material and Pu23994 and U23392
are fissile material.
Parts of a Nuclear Reactor:
Control Rod:
 Control Rod is made up of Cadmium and Boron. It absorbs extra neutrons from fission so that chain reaction
can be controlled in a nuclear reactor. An uncontrolled chain reaction is the concept of an atom bomb.
 When the nucleus of U23592 is bombarded with a high-energy particle neutron, then it splits into three neutrons
and a huge amount of energy.
 Each of these 3 neutrons targets the
nucleus of 3 other Uranium and further
gives rise to 9 electrons. Again, each of
these 9 neutrons gives rise to 27 neutrons
and the process continues. This reaction is
termed a Chain Reaction.
 If the generation of electrons is not
controlled then, it can be used to make an
atomic bomb. But this chain reaction has to be controlled in a nuclear reactor. This objective is achieved with
the help of a control rod.
Moderator:
 The splitting of U23592 produces three fast electrons which cannot be used to carry out a fission reaction. Hence,
these electrons are passed through a moderator to slow down their speed.
 Moderator slows down the speed of the
neutron which is necessary for fission of
Uranium.
 Slow neutrons and moderators are required
in Uranium and Thorium based reactors
whereas Plutonium based reactors do not
require slow neutrons and moderators.
 Example of Moderator: H2O (Light
Water), D2O (Heavy Water) and Graphite.
Coolant:
 Coolant takes out energy and heat from the reactor core to the turbine in the form of vapor.
 3

 In Uranium and Thorium-based reactors, moderator and coolant are the same.
 In Plutonium based reactors, FBR (Fast Breeder Reactor) liquid Sodium is used as a coolant.
Functioning of a Nuclear Reactor:

 The reactor consists of Uranium rods (u), control rods (c) to control the chain reaction, and water which is
used as a moderator. The reactor is covered with a concrete structure known as a shield. Water is pumped in
the reactor core with the help of a pump When the fission reaction takes place the water is used to slow down
the speed of neutrons. The water is heated and converted to vapor. This vapor passes through a turbine and
generates electricity which is transmitted to villages and cities through a grid. The vapor is condensed with
the help of cold water pumped from the nearest water body. After the heat exchange takes place, the vapor is
condensed back into the form of water and pumped back to the reactor. Hence, water functions in two ways:
in the form of a moderator and in the form of a coolant.
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR):
 Fast Breeder Reactor is Plutonium based.
 It produces fast neutrons. No moderator is
required.
 It can produce breed fuel. Pu239 and U238 are used
as fuel. Pu239 will be bombarded with neutrons.
This will provide energy. When some of the
neutrons strike U238 transmutation happens and
U238 is converted back into Pu239.
 India’s first Fast Breeder Reactor is ready at
Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. It is known as
Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR). India
has 22 Uranium based nuclear reactors with the latest one at Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.
 4

Nuclear Reactors in India:

Nuclear Reactors in India are classified into two parts: Thermal Reactor and Fast Breeder Reactor.
1. Thermal Reactor: A moderator is used in Thermal Reactor. There is a presence of slow neutrons or thermal
neutrons. Thermal reactors are classified on the basis of moderator, i.e., use of heavy water (D2O) or light
water (H2O).
 If Heavy Water (D2O) is used then there are two types of reactors:
 PHWR (Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors): Here the fuel is U235 . Total number of PWHR
reactors is 18.
 AHWR (Advanced Heavy Water Reactors): Here the fuel is Th232. Total number of AWHR
reactors is 0 (still in the developmental stage).
 If Light Water (H2O) is used then there are two types of reactors:
 BWR (Boiling Water Reactors): Here the fuel is U235 . The total number of BWR reactors is 2.
 PWR (Pressurized Water Reactors): Here the fuel is U235 . Total number of PWR reactors is 2. It was
developed with the assistance of Russia in Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu. It is also known as VVER-1000
(Water Cooled Water Moderated Energy Reactor). It is the most advanced Uranium reactor.
2. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR): The moderator is absent in FBR. There is a presence of fast neutrons. The fuel
used in Pu239 . The total number of FBR reactors is 1 known as Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR).
India’s 3-Stage Nuclear Power Programme:
First Stage Second Stage Third Stage
 It was implemented with the  It was implemented with limited  It was implemented with
help of other countries. help from other countries. Indian technology.
 It is based on PHWR  It is based on FBR (Fast Breeder  It is based on AHWR
(Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors). (Advanced Heavy Water
Reactors) where Uranium is Reactors)
used as a fuel.
 U235 is mixed with U238 to be  Pu239 and U238 are used as fuel.  U233 and Th232are used as
used as fuel. U235 will be Pu239 will be bombarded with fuel. U233 will be
bombarded with neutrons. neutrons. This will provide energy. bombarded with neutrons.
This will provide energy. When some of the neutrons strike This will provide energy.
When some of the neutrons U238 transmutation happens and When some of the
strike U238 it is converted into U238 is converted back into Pu239. neutrons strike, Th232 is
Pu239.  Next, Pu239 and Th232 are used as converted back into U233.
 239
The amount of Pu obtained fuel where Th232 is converted back
is very less. into U233.
 The first stage provides fuel  The Second stage provides fuel for
for the second stage. the third stage.
 5

 This program was designed to use Thorium as the main nuclear fuel in the future and India will become self-
sufficient in nuclear technology.
 This program is based on a closed fuel cycle where one stage is providing fuel to the next stage.
 It maximizes the fuel potential and minimizes the nuclear waste.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 44
Nuclear Technology (Part III)
 2

Nuclear Technology (Part III)

Fusion Reactor:
 It is also known as the Thermo Nuclear Reactor or Tokamak Reactor.

 H13 + H12 

Plasma
106 degree
 He24 + n + EE

 H13and H12 are fusion fuels. H13 (Tritium) comes from Lithium metal and H12 (Deuterium) is obtained from
water. He24 is a by-product of this reaction. Tokamak Reactor provides the requisite high temperature for this
reaction to take place.
 For research and development in Fusion technology or Plasma technology, a tokamak reactor was
established at Plasma Research Institute, Gujarat in 1986. This reactor is known as ADITYA and this is a
research reactor.
 At the Geneva Summit, in 1985 an "international collaboration" had been set into motion to build a 'Big
Machine' that would demonstrate the scientific and technical feasibility of fusion energy. It led to the
conception of the International Thermo-Nuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER).
 ITER is an international mega-project founded in 2007 to develop the world’s largest and energetically
viable fusion reactor based upon Tokamak Technology. The location of this reactor is Cadarache,
France.
 The input energy of this reactor will be 50 MW whereas the output will be 500 MW.
 The ITER project has seven members: India, China, South Korea, USA, Japan, Russia and the
European Union.
 First phase of this project is going to be complete in 2028 and in the first phase the plasma state will be
achieved whereas the reactor is expected to be fully operational by 2035.
 The European Union is bearing 45% of the total cost of this project whereas the other six countries will
bear 9% each.
Defence Technology:
Weapon Systems: Weapon Systems can be divided into two types:
 Conventional: It is also known as Limited Damage Weapon. They are based on explosives such as RDX
and TNT which produce bullets, grenades, missile warheads, etc.
 Non-Conventional: It is also known as the Weapon of Mass Destruction. They are Chemical Weapons,
Biological Weapons, and Nuclear Weapons.
Types of Non-Conventional Weapons:
Chemical Weapons Biological Weapons Nuclear Weapons
1. It used chemicals and gases 1. These are biological agents or 1. It can be of two types:
which can incapacitate or kill pathogens with high  Fission device or Atom
human beings. infection rates and mortality. bomb. It is Uranium or
Plutonium based.
 3

 Fusion device or
Hydrogen bomb. It is
also known as the
Thermo-Nuclear bomb.
2. For Example: Mustard Gas 2. These pathogens are 2. Operation Smiling Buddha,
which was used in the First developed in such a way that also known as Pokhran-I,
World War, Lewisite Gas they become resistant to most holds a significant place in
which was used in the Second of the drugs and antibiotics. India's history as it marks the
World War, Hydrogen country's first successful
Cyanide Phosgene, and Serin. nuclear weapons test in 1974.
 India’s deterrence is based on
Nuclear Weapons.
3. Chemical Weapon 3. Genetic engineering can be 4. The Pokhran-II tests were a
Convention, 1993: According used to develop Biological series of five nuclear bomb test
to this convention, member Weapons. For Example: explosions conducted by India
countries cannot develop, store Anthrax, Plague, Botulinum, at the Indian Army's Pokhran
and use chemical weapons. Cholera. Test Range in May 1998. To
deliver Nuclear Weapons,
India developed the Nuclear
Triad in 2019. Nuclear Triad is
the ability to develop Nuclear
Weapons from air, land and
water.
5. India is a part of this Biological Weapon Convention,
convention and Indian 1993: Members of this convention
parliament has enacted the cannot develop, store and use
Chemical Weapon biological weapons. India is a part
Convention Act, 2000 and of this convention.
India is free of chemical
weapons.
India’s Nuclear Triad:
Nuclear Triad is the capability to fire nuclear weapons from land, air, and sea.
 From Air: Nuclear strikes are launched by Fighter Jets through Air India’s deterrence is based on Nuclear
Weapons.
 ops. For Example: Mirage, Sukhoi, Jaguar, and Rafale are fighter jets that can drop a nuclear bomb.
 From Land: Nuclear strikes are launched by Surface to Surface Missile (S-S). The two such missiles
developed by India are Prithvi for Pakistan and Agni for China which can carry a nuclear warhead.
 4

 From Water: Nuclear strikes are launched in two ways:

 Launch by Water Surface: Attacks from ship. Dhanush missile is a ship launch missile that can carry a
nuclear warhead.
 Launch underwater: Attacks from submarine. It requires a missile and a submarine. India has a K-series
missile and Arihant class submarine.
Missile System:
Missile Systems are of two types:
 Ballistic Missiles:
 Ballistic missiles are powered initially by a rocket or series of rockets in stages, but then follow an
unpowered trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target.
 Agni and Prithvi are the Ballistic Missiles of India. It can be easily detected by any radar and can be
destroyed by air defense systems.
 Ballistic Missiles have greater strike range and they can carry heavy warheads like nuclear warheads.
Ballistic Missiles are strategic weapons.
 Cruise Missiles:
 Cruise missiles are unmanned vehicles that are propelled by jet engines, much like an airplane.
 They can be launched from ground, air, or sea platforms.
 Cruise missiles remain within the atmosphere for the duration of their flight and can fly as low as a few
meters off the ground. They are self-guided.
 Brahmos and Nirbhay are the Cruise Missiles of India.
 Cruise Missiles can be controlled in its fly path and it flies close to the surface so it is difficult to be
detected and killed by air defense systems.
 Cruise Missiles are tactical weapons.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 45
Defense Technology
 2

Defense Technology
IGMDP (Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme):
 It was started in 1983 under the command of APJ Abdul Kalam. It was completed in the year 2008.
 The missiles developed under this program are as follows:
Missiles Type Features
1. Agni Surface-to-surface ballistic missile They can carry a nuclear warhead
2. Prithvi Surface-to-surface ballistic missile They can carry a nuclear warhead
3. Akash Surface-to-air Ballistic Missile
4. Trishul Surface-to-air Ballistic Missile
5. Nag Anti-tank Ballistic Missile
Indian Missiles:
It can be categorized into:
 Ballistic Missiles: Ballistic Missiles are further categorized into:
 IGMDP Missiles: They are:
 Agni
 Prithvi
 Akash
 Nag
 Other Missiles: They are:
 K-Series: They can carry a nuclear warhead.
 Prahar
 Dhanush: They can carry a nuclear warhead
 Astra
 Shourya
 Cruise Missiles: Cruise Missiles are further categorized into:
 Indo-Russian Missiles: Also known as Brahmos.
 Indian Missiles: Also known as Nirbhay.
Agni Missile:
 They are Surface to Surface Ballistic Missiles.
 Agni series of missiles are based on solid fuels which give the following benefits:
 Solid fuels are non-corrosive. So, the missile can be kept in the fuelled position which provides
operational flexibility and launching ability at short notice.
 Solid fuel missiles can be easily carried on mobile launchers.
 There is no need for refueling and defueling in solid fuel missiles.
 3

 It can carry a nuclear warhead.

 Variants of Agni Missile:
 Agni-I: It is a 1-Stage missile that can carry a nuclear warhead up to 700-1200 Km.
 Agni-II: It is a 2-Stage missile that can carry a nuclear warhead up to 2000-2500 Km.
 Agni-III: It is a 2-Stage missile that can carry a nuclear warhead up to 3500 Km. It is equipped with
MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles).
 MIRV is a technology by which we can put 5-8 payload overhead in a single missile.
 Agni IV: It is an upgraded version of Agni-II. It is a 2-Stage missile that can carry a nuclear warhead up
to 3000 Km.
 Agni V: It is an upgraded version of Agni-III. It is a 3-Stage missile that can carry a nuclear warhead up
to 5500 Km. It is India’s first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).
 Agni-Prime: It is a 2-Stage missile that can carry a nuclear warhead up to 1000-2000 Km. It is a new
generation Agni Missile. It is made up of composite material. It is lighter and fuel-efficient. It will replace
Agni-I and Agni-II.
Prithvi Missile:
 They are Surface to Surface Missiles. It was the first missile under the IGMDP.
 It uses liquid fuel.
 It can carry a nuclear warhead.
 Variants of Prithvi Missile:
 Prithvi-I is a 1-stage missile with a strike range of 150 Km. It is being replaced by the Prahar missile.
 Prithvi-II is a 1-stage missile with a strike range of 250-350 Km. It is the main strike missile against
Pakistan.
 Prithvi-III: It is a 2-stage missile with a strike range of 350 Km. It has been re-developed as the
Dhanush missile.
Prahar Missile:
 They are Surface to Surface Missiles.
 It uses solid fuel.
 It can carry a nuclear warhead.
 It has a strike range of 150 Km.
 It is the replacement of Prithvi-I.
 Pragati is a missile system that is the export version of Prahar.
 The advanced version of Prithvi is the Pranash which has a strike range of 200+ Km.
Dhanush Missile:
 They are Surface to Surface Missiles.
 It is a naval version of Prithvi-III.
 It is a ship-launched ballistic missile.
 It has a strike range of 350 Km.
 4

 It can carry a nuclear warhead.

 Dhanush is a system made up of a missile and a stabilizing platform.
K-Series Missile:
 It has been developed under a secret project known as Project Black.
 The aim of the project was the development of India’s first Submarine Launch Ballistic Missile (SLBM).
 Its variants are:
 K-15: It was codenamed as Sagarika. It has a strike range of 750 Km. It is India’s first SLBM deployed
on INS Arihant. This missile is capable of a nuclear strike and is an important part of the nuclear triad.
It is already developed. The land version of the K-15 missile is the Shaurya missile.
 K-4: It has a strike range of 3500 Km. It is under trial.
 K-5: It has a strike range of 5000 Km. It is under development.
 With the development of this missile, India became the 5th country in the world to become a SLBM country.
Akash Missile:
 They are Surface-to-Air Missiles.
 It has a strike range of 30-80 Km.
 It is a 2-stage missile:
 The first stage is solid fuel and
 The second stage is a RAMJET.
 It is part of India’s air defense system.
 This missile is supported by indigenously developed Rajendra RADAR.
 New generation of Akash known as Akash-Prime is 90% more accurate.
Turbojet, Ramjet and Scramjet:
 Turbojet: Air or oxidizer will be sucked in from the atmosphere by Turbofan. The Nirbhay missile uses a
Turbojet.
 RAMJET: No turbofan is required. The speed is 3 Mach. Air will rush in
due to the supersonic speed of the missile. Example: Akash, Brahmos. It is
known as an air-breathing engine.
 SCRAMJET (Supersonic Combustion RAMJET): The speed is 7 Mach.
Air will rush in with supersonic speed due to the hypersonic speed of the
missile. Example: Brahmos-2, Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) of ISRO.
It is known as an air-breathing engine. RAMJET and SCRAMJET cannot
move missiles from stationary positions. It requires a minimum velocity to start these engines. That is why,
RAMJET and SCRAMJET are the second stage of the missile system.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Lecture – 46
Defense Technology (Part II)
 2

Defense Technology (Part II)

Nag Missile:
 It is a "Fire and Forget" anti-tank missile.
 It has a strike range of up to 7 Km.
 It is based on an infrared guidance system and it can be used day and night in any weather condition.
 HELINA: It is the helicopter version of the Nag missile for the army.
 Dhruvastra: It is the helicopter version of the Nag missile for the air force.
 NAMICA: It is a Nag missile carrier. 12 Nag missiles can be placed in this carrier. 8+4 missiles can be
launched in one go. (8 missiles in the first go and 4 missiles in the second go).
Astra Missile:
 Astra is a Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM).
 It is India's first air-to-air missile developed for the airforce and Navy.
 Variants of Astra:
 Astra Mark I: It can strike up to 110 Km. It has already been developed.
 Astra Mark II: It can strike up to 160 Km. It is under development.
Brahmos Missile:
 Brahmos Missile is developed by Brahmos Aerospace Limited.
 It is a joint venture between India and Russia.
 The aim of this joint venture is to develop the world’s best cruise missile for the Indian and Russian armed
forces and for the international market.
 India conducted its first nuclear tests on May 18, 1974, in Pokhran, Rajasthan, as part of the ‘Smiling
Buddha’ operation.
 India demonstrated to the world that it could defend itself in an extreme situation and chose not to immediately
weaponize the nuclear device it tested at Pokhran.
 This was to happen only after 1998’s Pokhran-II tests. But before that, it would face significant criticism
from many countries.
 In 1978, US President Jimmy Carter signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act, following which the US
ceased exporting nuclear assistance to India.
 As an after-effect of Pokhran-I, the G-7 countries paved the way for the Missile Technology Control Regime
(MTCR).
 Established in April 1987, the voluntary MTCR aims to limit the spread of ballistic missiles and other
unmanned delivery systems that could be used for chemical, biological, and nuclear attacks.
 The regime urges its 35 members, which include most of the world's key missile manufacturers, to restrict
their exports of missiles and related technologies capable of carrying a 500-kilogram payload at least
300 kilometers or delivering any type of weapon of mass destruction.
 3

 India got the membership of MTCR in 2016.

 The whole idea of the Brahmos missile was conceived when India was not a part of the MTCR.
Variants of Brahmos:
Brahmos-I Brahmos-II Brahmos-NG
 The range of Brahmos-I was  It is under development.  It is the next generation of
290 Km before India signed Brahmos-I.
the MTCR and increased to
350-400 Km after India
became a part of the MTCR.
 The speed is 2.8 Mach.  The speed is 7 Mach  It is 50% lighter and 3m
(Hypersonic). shorter due to use of
composite material in the
development of missiles.
 The payload capacity is 200-  The payload capacity is 200-  All four versions will be
300 Kg. 300 Kg. developed but it is most
suitable for the airforce.
 It is a 2-stage missile. The first  The range of Brahmos-II will
stage is a solid booster and the be 400-800 Km.
second stage is a RAMJET.
 Versions of Brahmos-I: The  It is a 2-stage missile. The first
Land, Ship and Aircraft stage is a solid booster and the
versions of Brahmos-I have second stage is a SCRAMJET.
been already developed and
deployed whereas the
Submarine versions of
Brahmos-I are under trial.
Nirbhay Missile:
 It is a subsonic cruise missile developed by the Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO).
 Its speed is 0.8 Mach.
 The range is 1000 Km.
 A Turbojet engine will be used.
 Land, ship, and Air are the variants of the Nirbhay Missile.
 This missile can be compared with the American cruise missile Tomahawk.
 It is also known as a Tree Top missile because it can fly at low altitudes to avoid radar tracking.
 Many tests of Nirbhay were not successful and DRDO is working on a better engine for the Nirbhay missile
known as MANIK.
 4

Pralay Missile:
 It is a quasi-ballistic missile.
 This missile can change its ballistic path mid-air and it is able to defeat the interceptor missiles and air
defense system.
 This missile can be categorized as a Short Range Surface-to-Surface Quasi-Ballistic Missile.
 The range of this missile is 150-500 Km.
 This missile is powered by solid fuel.
India’s Air Defense System:
 India has got long-range interception in the form of BMD.
 It has a medium-range interception in the form of an S-400 missile.
 It has a short-range interception in the form of Akash, Barak-8, and SPYDER.
 India has very short-range interception in the form of MANPADS and Bofors.
Below is the explanation of these interceptor missiles:
BMD (Ballistic Missile Defense System):
 It is of two types:
 PAD (Prithvi Air Defense): It
has a range of 80 Km. Prithvi
missile is the interceptor missile.
 AAD (Advanced Air Defense):
It has a range of 30 Km. Ashwin
missile is the interceptor missile.
 According to DRDO, Indian BMD
has 99.9% accuracy.
 The first developmental phase of the BMD is completed and after the completion of the second phase, it will
protect Indian cities.
S-400:
 This advanced air defense system can kill missiles, drones, and fighter planes in the range of 400 Km.
 This is a Russia-made air defense system acquired recently by India.
 S-400 is similar to the American system THAAD (Terminal High Altitude Air Defense).
 It is a truck-based air defense system that is easy to deploy and easy to use.
 This system can recognize 36 targets in an area of 400 Km.
 The speed of this interceptor missile is the fastest in the world which is 14 Mach.
Barak-8:
 This is a Ship-to-Air missile developed jointly by India and Israel.
 Its strike range is up to 150 Km.
 5

 This air defense system has been deployed on Indian warships and it can protect the warship from airborne
targets.
Submarines of India:
It can be categorized into two parts:
 Nuclear Submarine: It is called the Arihant class submarine. India has deployed 2 Arihant Class submarines.
INS Chakra was also a nuclear submarine on lease from Russia but returned in 2021.
 Diesel-Electric Submarine: India imported 4 Shishumar class submarines from Germany and 9
Sindhughosh class submarines from Russia. The 5 Kalvari class submarines made by India are based
on French Scorpene Technology.
Below is the explanation of these interceptor missiles:
INS Arihant:
 It is India’s first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine capable of a nuclear strike by a K-15 missile.
 It was commissioned into the Indian Navy in 2016.
 This submarine is powered by an 80 MW PWR developed at Kalpakkam.
 4 nuclear submarines will be constructed in the Arihant class of which 2 submarines are already launched.
They are
 INS Arighat
 S-4: It is under trial.
 S-4*: It is under construction.
 Kalvari Class Submarine:
 It is based on the scorpene submarine of France.
 It is developed under Project 75. Under this project, India will develop 6 submarines. Out of 6, 5
submarines are already in service. They are:
 INS Kalvari (2017)
 INS Khanderi
 INS Karanj
 INS Vela
 INS Vagir
 INS Vagsheer: It is under sea trial. The rest 5 have already been inducted into the service.
 After the completion of Project-75, a new project will be started known as Project-75 Alpha to develop
6 more diesel attack submarines.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Technology

Lecture - 47
Defense Technology (Part-III)
 2

Defense Technology (Part-III)

India's Aircraft Carrier:

Indian Aircraft Carrier Features

INS Vikrant It is the first aircraft carrier in India, acquired from the UK, and was in service
from 1961 - 1987.

INS Virat It was the second aircraft carrier in India, acquired from the UK. It was in
service from 1987 - 2017.

INS Vikramaditya This is the third aircraft carrier in India, acquired from Russia. It is in service
from 2013 onwards.

INS Vikrant- the first It is in service from September 2022 onwards.

indigenous aircraft of India

INS Vishal It is another proposed indigenous aircraft of India

Blue Water Navy:

❖ If the country claims it is a Blue Water Navy, then it has authority up to 200 nautical miles in the sea
for all the natural resources present in the deep sea.

Below is the description of the various aircraft carriers of India:

❖ INS Vikramaditya:
➢ It is a Russian aircraft carrier known as Admiral Goshkov in the Russian Navy.
➢ India got this aircraft carrier in 2013.
➢ This aircraft carrier can have 36 fighter planes, 6 helicopters, and 1500 naval personnel.
➢ This aircraft carrier has played a very important role in Indian naval defense.
❖ INS Vikrant:
➢ It is also known as Indian Aircraft Carrier-1 (IAC-1).
➢ This is India’s first indigenously developed aircraft carrier developed at Cochin Shipyard Limited,
Kochi.
➢ INS Vikrant is a 40,000 tonnes aircraft carrier and India has become the fifth country to develop the
aircraft carrier.
➢ INS Vikrant was launched in 2013 and it was commissioned in the Indian Navy in September 2022.
➢ At present India is having two aircraft carriers active in the Indian Ocean: INS Vikramaditya and
INS Vikrant.
 3

➢ These two aircraft carriers are providing control and dominance over vast expanses of the Indian Ocean
and it makes India only the fifth country after the US, Russia, Britain, and France to have such
capabilities by indigenous aircraft.
➢ In the future, India will develop INS Vishal which will be a 60,000 - 65,000 aircraft carrier.

Indian Aircraft:

SOURCES AIRCRAFTS

Borrowed from Russia ❖ MIG-21: They are 112 in total.

❖ MIG-29: They are 66 in total.
❖ SUKHOI-30: They are 242 in total

Borrowed from France ❖ Mirage: They are 41 in total.

❖ Jaguar: They are 91 in total.
❖ Rafale: They are 36 in total.

Manufactured in India ❖ Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA): They are 18 in total.

Below is the description of various aircraft in India:

❖ Rafale:
➢ It can be defined as a Twin Engine Medium Multirole Aircraft.
➢ This has been developed by Dassault Aviation, France.
➢ According to the contract of 2016, India will get 36 Rafales in ready-to-fly position, and after that
technology transfer deal will be done so that India can make Rafale aircraft on its own land.
➢ In July 2023 Ministry of Defense granted approval for the acquisition of 26 Rafale-M for the Indian
Navy alongwith 3 Scorpene diesel-electric submarines from France.
➢ Rafale is one of the most advanced fighter aircraft in the world.
➢ It can fly with a speed of 2223 Km/hr with a flight range of 3700 Km.
➢ In Rafale, mid-air refueling system has been placed.
❖ Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA):
➢ It is defined as Single Engine, Single Seat, Multirole Light Combat Aircraft.
➢ This aircraft is developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
➢ In 2016, the first batch of Tejas was commissioned in the air force.
➢ Tejas will replace MIG-21.
➢ Variations of Tejas:
✓ Tejas-Mark 1A: This is a new and advanced version of Tejas with 40 upgrades.
✓ Tejas-Mark II: Tejas Mark-II is being developed which is the most advanced version of Tejas where
90% of the spare parts are indigenous. This aircraft will be ready for its first flight by 2025.
✓ HAL-TEDBF (Hindustan Aeronautics Limited-Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter): This is the
latest version of Tejas which will replace MIG-29 deployed on INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant.
This is expected to be available for the Indian Navy by 2030 and the first flight will take place in
2026.
 4

India’s Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV):

The Unmanned Aerial Vehicles of India are as follows:
❖ Nishant
❖ Rustom (TAPAS)
❖ Ghatak (AURA)
❖ Lakshya

Below is the description of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles of India

❖ Nishant:
➢ It is a multipurpose UAV that can be controlled in the range of 150 Km.
➢ It can be used in surveillance, spying, and target acquisition.
➢ Nishant is a wheelless system that can be launched by a spring or slingshot system.
➢ The wheeled version of Nishant is known as Panchi.
❖ TAPAS (Rustom-II):
➢ It is India’s first high-endurance Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV).
➢ This aircraft can fly at 25000 feet for 10-24 hours
➢ It can carry small weapons.
❖ Ghatak (AURA):
➢ This is at the developmental stage and is expected to be ready by 2025.
➢ This will be India’s most advanced UAV which can strike bombs and fire missiles.
➢ It will have stealth ability. So it cannot be tracked by radar.
❖ Lakshya:
➢ This is a target UAV mainly used by missile groups and air defense groups as a practice target.
➢ It can fly with a speed of 500 Km/hr in the range of 100 Km.
➢ This is a collapsible aircraft that can be used again and again.

