CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter discusses theoretical review of the study based on expert’s

opinion. The theoretical review is about definition of linguistic, definition of

figurative language, and definition of poem. Each of the detail sub chapter is going to

be elaborated or discussed specifically underlying the statements of the expert.

2.1. Definition of Linguistic

Linguistic as in common understanding the study of the structure,

development, etc. A particular language and its relationship to other language. Words

are arranged in a certain order, and sometimes the beginnings and endings of the

words are changed to adjust the meaning. Then the meaning itself can be affected by

the arrangement of words and by the knowledge of the writer about what the reader

will understand. Linguistics is the study of all of this

Brumfit in (Cavallaro, Francesco. Milde, Andrea. Sercombe, 2009, p. 84)

stated that “Quoted definition of applied linguistics as “the theoretical and empirical

investigation of real world problems in which language is the central issue” are of

importance to all in the field”. The statement above describes that linguistic could be

having the closest relationship with the existence of a language.

Andre Martinet in (Scholz, Barbara C. and Pelletier, Francis Jeffry and

Pullum, 2016, p. 78) stated that "One of the basic assumptions of structuralist

approaches to linguistics is that “nothing may be called ‘linguistic’ that is not

manifest or manifested one way or another between the mouth of the speaker and the

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ears of the listener”. That means, it has the actualization of the language use. It also

links to sense of both hearing and the speaking as the fundamental understanding.

Stated by Perrine and Thomas in (Syafitri, Dewi and Marlinton, 2018, p. 44)

“Figurative language is a persuasive language. It is another way of adding an extra

dimension to language, which can attract the readers attention”. It means, figurative

language can make readers feel interested in this, such as when the readers read a

poem.

According to Chomsky in (Scholz, Barbara C. and Pelletier, Francis Jeffry

and Pullum, 2016, p. 12)

“The study of meaning and reference and of the use of language should be
excluded from the field of linguistics. Given a linguistic theory, the concepts
of grammar are constructed (so it means) on the basis of primitive notions
that are not semantic (where the grammar contains the phonology and
syntax), but that the linguistic theory itself must be chosen so as to provide
the best possible explanation of semantic phenomena, as well as others”.
The statement above explains that linguistic can not said that it is linguistic,

must be in accordance with existing theories and structures.

From all the theories above, the writer can conclude that linguistic is the

study of language which reviews the ins and outs of language. Linguistic also

includes knowledge of all aspects of language that are used as communication tools

by humans.

2.2. Definition of Figurative Language

Figurative language uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive

and impactful. Figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, and allusions go beyond
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the literal meanings of the words to give readers new insights. On the other hand,

alliterations, imageries, or onomatopoeias are figurative devices that appeal to the

senses of the readers. Figurative language can appear in multiple forms with the use

of different literary and rhetorical devices.

Claimed by (McKenzie, 2016) “Figurative language refers to language that

communicates ideas beyond the literal meaning of word”. It says figurative language

is tools that used to have a communication with other people so that, it can be

understood well.

Stated by (Keraf, 2009, p. 139) “Figurative language is a word or phrase that

departs from every literal language which is very difficult to be understood by people

even students because it has differentiation from its context and reality in meaning,

in order to know that figurative language formed based on comparison and

similarity”. It assumes, the writer and the reader can define that, figurative language

or not figurative language in a way to identify the text and then define the

comparison.

Stated by Picken in (Hutauruk Sonhata, 2017, p. 41) “Figurative language is

noticed and frequently interpreted inconsiderable detail, and evaluation takes place”.

It is said to have detail so deep analysis to peer out, discuss, explore of a certain word

as the context of the figurative of language.

Based on Lazar in (Hutauruk Sonhata, 2017, p. 41) “Figurative language can

provide a useful springboard for integrated skills work and to stimulate reading,

speaking, and writing skills”. It tells, figurative language is very useful to improve

skills like reading, speaking writing because it can increase the knowledge, insight,

and anything related to context of language variant.

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Based on Dale in (Tarigan, 2013, p. 9) “Figurative language is a form of

language used by the writer or speaker to convey something else other than literal

meaning”. It means that, figurative language is like the different or unique way to

convey or deliver the exact meaning to the interlocutor.

From all theories above, the writer concludes that figurative language is

language that used to transfer or to express a message or meaning. Therefore, the

meaning in figurative language does not fully reflect in the words that composes it.

2.2.1. Types of Figurative Language

As claimed by Abrams in (Syafitri, Dewi and Marlinton, 2018, p. 46-48)

stated that there are some types of figurative language, as follows:

1. Personification
Personification is a kind of figurative expressions in which an animate object
given a human quality. The word personification derives from Latin words:
“persona‟ means person, actor, or mask used I the theatre and “fix‟ means to
make. According to Abrams (1999:99) “Personification, in which either an
inanimate object or an abstract concept is spoken of as though it were endowed
with life or with human attributes or feelings”.
2. Simile
Simile is a kind of figurative meaning comparing two essentially unlike things.
Simile expresses a direct comparison between things, which have one or more
points in common and be recognized by the use of the word like‘ and as‘. As
stated by Abrams (1999:97), ―in a simile, a comparison between two distinctly
different things is explicitly indicated by the word like‘ or as‘.
3. Metaphor
The word metaphor comes from Greek; it means to carry over. In a metaphor, a
word or expression that in literal usage denotes one kind of thing is applied to a
distinctly different kind of thing, without asserting a comparison (Abrams,
1999:97).
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4. Hyperbole
According to Abrams (1999:120) “Hyperbole is bold overstatement, or the
extravagant exaggeration of fact or of possibility.
5. Irony
According to Abrams (1999:135), In most of the modern critical uses of the term
‘irony‘ there remains the root sense of dissembling or hiding what is actually the
case; not, however, in order to deceive, but to achieve special rhetorical or artistic
effects. Irony is a way of speaking or writing by saying something while the
meaning is another. It refers to a situation in which reality differs from
appearance. It occurs in sentence or words when they imply contrast or opposite
meaning.
6. Paradox
A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.
As stated by Abrams (1999:201), A paradox is a statement which seems on its
face to be logically contradictory or absurd, yet turns out to be interpretable in a
way that makes good sense.
7. Metonymy
Metonymy is a change of name, the use of the one word for another, theuse of an
idea by means of terms involving association. As stated by Abrams (1999: 98),
“metonymy (Greek for "a change of name") is the literal term for one thing is
applied to another with which it has become closely associated because of a
recurrent relationship in common experience.
8. Symbolism
Symbolism is applied only to a word or phrase that signifies an object or event
which in its turn signifies something, or has a range of reference, beyond itself
(Abrams, 1999:311).
From theories above, it means figurative language has 8 types such as

personification, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, irony, paradox, metonymy, and

symbolism.

According to Merriam-Webster’s encyclopedia of Literatuure in (Dinillah

Harya, 2016, p. 48) figurative language or figures of speech can be classified into

five categories, such as:

1. Figures of resemblance on relationship (e.g. simile, metaphor, kenning,

conceit, parallelism, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, and
euphenism).
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2. Figures of emphasis or understatement (e.g. hyperbole, litotes, rhetoric,

question, antithesis, climax, bathos, paradox, oxymoron, and irony).
3. Figures of sound (e.g. alliteration, repetition, anaphora, and
onomatopoeia).
4. Verbal games and gymnastics (e.g. pun and anagram)
5. Errors (e.g. malapropism, periphrasis, and spoonerism).
It means that types of figurative language have several group such as figures

of resemblance on relationship, figures of emphasis, figures of sound, verbal games

and gymnastics, and errors.

Leech in (Syafitri, Dewi and Marlinton, 2018, p. 46) has classified figurative

meaning into 8 types, they are personification, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, irony,

litotes, metonymy and oxymoron.

Meanwhile, Abrams in (Syafitri, Dewi and Marlinton, 2018, p. 46) stated that

“figurative language has 10 types, they are metaphor, simile,

synecdoche,personification, metonymy, allegory, overstatement (hyperbole), irony,

symbolism, and paradox". It means, types of figurative language according to

abrams there are ten types.

From all the theories above the writer concludes that there are several kind of

types of figurative language. The writer also simplifies that, different experts to have

different statements or different meanings.

2.3. Definition of Poem

A poem is a piece of poetry. Poetry refers to the art form itself. Poem means

multiple instances of that art form. Whereas, poetry is the process of creating literary

devices such as metaphor, simile, alliteration, onomatopoeia, and symbols. A poem

is the arrangement of words that contain meaning and musical elements. It is a piece
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of writing that expresses the writer’s thought and feelings in order to set a mood, it

can be happy or sad, simple or complex. A poem can either be rhyming or non-

rhyming. It uses symbols and has lines and stanzas that have sentences, fragments of

sentences or both. It uses metaphor and alliteration, especially in poems for children.

Based on Knickerbockers and Williard in (Syafitri, Dewi and Marlinton,

2018, p. 44) “Poem is the fusion of sound and sense or a melting together of sound

and sense”. It means that poem is not about writing, but poem also used the sense to

produce a good poem.

Padni in (Syafitri, Dewi and Marlinton, 2018, p. 44) stated that “The idea and

message of a poem sometimes difficult to understood by the people”. From statement

above, the writer can conclude that the meaning of a poem sometimes cannot be

understood by others because everybody has different mindset; it has wide variant of

mindsets.

According to E-jurnal.com “Sajak itu ditulis untuk mencari kebenaran, dan

dalam sajak terdapat tanggapan terhadap hidup secara batiniah”. (The poem was

written to seek the truth, and in poem there was an inward response to life). It means

that, in poem there are several purposes intended for human life.

Stated by Pradopo in (Suryaman, 2013, p. 17)“Puisi itu merupakan emosi,

imajinasi, pemikiran, ide, nada, irama, kesan pancaindera, susunan kata, kata-kata

kiasan, kepadatan, dan perasaan yang bercampur-baur”.(Poem is emotion,

imagination, thought, idea, tone, rhythm, sensory impression, word order, figurative

words, density, and mixed feelings). It can be concluded that poem is a combination

of various aspects combined into one.

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From all theories above the writer simplifies that poem is a creation of

authors who aim to provide life lessons not only as entertainment and also contain

various aspects.