Different techniques for ESA

 Direct Methods
 Mechanical Methods
 Electrical Methods
 Acoustical Methods
 Thermal Method
 Optical Methods
Acoustical methods
Acpistocal strain gage or vibrating wire
strain sensor
Typical Range: 3,000 μm. Resolution: 1.0 μm.

Applications

Dams
Nuclear power stations
Bridges
Large buildings
Tunnel linings
Piles and caissons

Geotechnical & Structural Instruments and

Soil/Rock Testing use.
www.roctest.com
https://www.geo-instruments.com
 Ultrasonic
displacement sensors
Ultrasonic displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacemen
 Ultrasonic displacement sensors

An ultrasonic transducer, used for the measurement of distance (primarily

underwater), is provided with a piezoelectric element emitting pulses of acoustic
energy directed to the target, which is a small area on the object. The signal
reflected from the target travels back to the transducer, generating electrical
pulses in the element. The time between transmitting and receiving the pulses
is a measure of the distance between the transducer and the target. In this
sonic radar, a separate or the same element can be used for generating and
receiving the signals.
http://zone.ni.com/devzone/conceptd.nsf/webmain/086A7733E65CCB02
Ultrasonic displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacemen
 Ultrasonic displacement sensors

Ultrasound-level sensors, a, b, and c = level-sensing systems with one crystal at

side (a), bottom (b), and two crystals at side (c) of tank; L = level, 1 = tank,
2 = liquid, 3 = piezoelectric crystal, 4 = pulse generator, 5 = pulse receiver.

http://zone.ni.com/devzone/conceptd.nsf/webmain/19429775ABA4B1D58
 Ultrasonic displacement sensors
Principle of a pulse-echo ultrasound system for
distance measurements.

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacemen
Temposonic displacement sensors
Temposonic displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacemen
Temposonic displacement sensors

http://www.rdpelectronics.com/displacement/magneto/principle.htm
 Different techniques for ESA

 Direct Methods
 Mechanical Methods
 Electrical Methods
 Acoustical Methods
 Thermal Method
 Optical Methods
Thermo-elasticity
 Thermo-elasticity
Under adiabatic and reversible conditions, a temperature
variations, ∆Τ, occurs when stress is applied to a material:

= -KTΔσ

where α is the thermal expansion coefficient, T is the absolute

ambient temperature, ρ is the density and Cp and Cε is the
specific heat for constant pressure & strain, E is the Young's
Modulus and σmean is the mean stress.
 Thermo-elasticity

https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.3090885?class=pdf

https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=KvuxDYWeTuIC&pg=PA547&lpg=PA547&dq=Thermoelasticity+t
emperature+change+for+10+MPa&source=bl&ots=vfBfzOe4UU&sig=ACfU3U2noNkpQUkn_YoHKXZKH
SZe9MWPTw&hl=zh-
CN&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjp1p6v7PbgAhVyF6YKHTVLBjUQ6AEwBnoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q&f=true
 Thermo-elasticity
The above temperature variations may be measured using a
sensitive infrared detector.

However, note the above phenomenon occurs under adiabatic

conditions.

Truly adiabatic conditions may be achieved only if the thermal

conductivity of the material is zero or no stress gradients are
present in the specimen.

However, if the load frequency is high enough the thermal

diffusion length is reduced and the presence of non-adiabatic
effects is minimized. A fast infrared detector with fine
resolution can pick up this temperature change.
 Thermo-elasticity
TSA of compressor blades with foreign object damage

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.430.8783&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 Thermo-elasticity
TSA of compressor blades with foreign object damage

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.430.8783&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 Thermo-elasticity
Aircraft fuel pumps provide metered fuel flow to the jet engines and
are essential for operation. The pumps are highly efficient and have
to run at high pressures (in excess of 55 bar) with very high flow
rates (in excess of 2.5litres/sec). Consequently the pumps run at
high speed, over 6000RPM, and are subjected to substantial
vibration so must be very robust and reliable.

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.430.8783&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 Thermo-elasticity
Automotive Door Slam Analysis using TSA

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.430.8783&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 Thermo-elasticity
Advantages
• Remote measurement.
• Full field measurement.
• easily detect stress concentrations and defects.
• suitable for vibratory and periodic motion condition.

Disadvantages
• Expensive equipment
• Physical constants needs calibration and are sensitive to
temperature and mean stress.
• Stress separation is needed.
• Non-adiabatic condition attenuates signal and induces
error.
• Inelastic loading induces error.
Optical methods
The diffractographic strain gage

When strain occurs, w

changes and the diffraction ≈
minima will shift.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02329100
The interferometric strain gage

ΔF1 & ΔF2 are fringe order shift

in the two patterns.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02326343
Advantages

Disadvantages
Moiré method
Advantages

Disadvantages
Photoelasticity
 Wave theory of Light

https://www.slideshare.net/MAHESHHUDALI/experimental-stress-analysischapter-3

Electric
field

Magnetic
field

https://blog.soton.ac.uk/soundwaves/further-concepts/1-mechanical-waves-and-light-waves/
Unpolarized and polarized Light
Natural Light contains light
vectors in random directions

Plane or linear polarized

light

https://www.quora.com/What-is-polarization-
Effect of rotating two polarizing filters

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/27-8-polarization/
 Phase Angle
Light is regarded as a sinusoidal
electromagnetic wave having
amplitude a and longitudinal
wavelength λ, propagating in the
z direction with velocity v

A wave propagating in the +z direction may be represented in

trigonometric notation as

where the quantity is called the phase of the wave.

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Combination of 2 waves

Two waves with

the same phase
will result in a
plane polarized
light, no matter of
their amplitudes.

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Elliptical Polarization

The combination of two linear components with

differing amplitudes with π/2 phase difference or a
phase difference that is not π/2.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-polarization-
 Circular Polarization

Two waves of 90o

out of phase
(differ by 1/4 λ)
with the same
amplitude will
result in a circular
polarized light.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizer http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/polclas.html
 Refraction
When light passes through any medium, its velocity decreases from
v to a value:

where n1 denotes the index of refraction of the medium.

Frequency
remains
unchanged.

difference:

phase
difference Δ:

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Derivation of path & phase
difference on last page
∵ v=λf and v1=(v/n1)=λ1*f=-∴ λ = λ1*f (1/ λ1)=(n1/λ)

Phase difference(∆) = (h/λ2)*2π-(h/λ1)*2π

n2 2πh(n2−n1)
n1
∆= 2πh ( − ) =
λ λ λ
∆ δ
According to relationship: =
2π λ

Therefore path difference(δ) = h(n2 − n1)

 Birefringence
Birefringence is the polarization dependence of the
refractive index in a medium
 Birefringence
e
•Nicol’s Prism: Calcite

Double Refraction
o
ni sin q i = nt sin q t

no ¹ ne Canada
Balsam

•Wave plate
Able to resolve the light vectors
into two orthogonal components
and transmit each one of them in
different speeds and phases. This
phase difference is proportional to
the thickness of the plate.

Some materials has Stress-induced Birefringence.

https://www.slideshare.net/MAHESHHUDALI/experimental-stress-analysischapter-3
 Creating circularly polarized light

The quarter-wave plate is made of a birefringent material with a fast and a

slow axis. The incoming horisontal and vertical components are in phase. By
adjusting the thickness of the wave plate so that the light leaves the quarter-
wave plate with the horizontal component exactly one quarter of a
wavelength behind the vertical component, the light becomes circularly
polarized. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizer
 Photoelastic materials
Photoelastic materials have
stress-induced birefringence.

In the unloaded state, the material

exhibits a index of refraction n0
that is independent of orientation.
Therefore, light of all orientation
propagating along all axes through
the material propagate with the
same speed, namely v/n0 .

In the loaded state, however, the orientation of given light amplitude

vector with respect to the principal stress axes, and the magnitudes of
the principal stresses, determine the index of refraction for that light
wave. It acts as temporary wave plates, refracting light differently for
different light-amplitude orientation depending upon the state of stress
in the material. www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Photoelastic materials
The stress-optics law:

Now consider the emerging phase difference

δ between orthogonal components M1 and M2
of a light wave that entered the material from
the back in phase and that were aligned in the
principal stress directions.

N complete cycles of relative retardation,

or, equivalently, in terms of the angular Phase difference:
phase difference ∆:

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Polariscopes
Plane Polariscopes

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Plane Polariscope

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Isoclinic
When the analyser axis aligns
with the principal axis, α=0 ,
amplitude A and thus light
intensity extinguishes.

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Isochromatic
When the horizontal components
of M1 and M2 cancel out, amplitude
A and thus light intensity will also
extinguish. Note that M1 and M2 in
general have a phase difference:

The locus of points for which this condition is met is called an

isochromatic, because (except for n = 0) it is both stress and
wavelength dependent. Therefore, points along an isochromatic
in a plane polariscope satisfy the condition:

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Isochromatic

The number n is called the order of the isochromatic.

If mono-chromatic light is used, then the value of λ is unique,
and very crisp isochromatics of very high order can often be
photographed.
If white light is used, then (except for n = 0), the locus of points
for which the intensity vanishes is a function of wavelength. For
example, the locus of points for which red light is extinguished is
generally not a locus for which green or blue light is
extinguished, and therefore some combination of blue and
green will be transmitted wherever red is not. The result is a
very colorful pattern. Only the isoclinics will appear as dark
fringes.
www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Isochromatic
The photoelastic color sequence (showing increasing stress) is:
Black (zero)
Zero Order
Yellow
Red

Blue-Green First Order

Yellow
Red

Second Order
Green
Yellow
Red
Third Order
Green
Yellow
Red
 Polariscopes
Plane Polariscopes

The fringe pattern in a plane polariscope setup

consists of both the isochromatics and the
isoclinics. The isoclinics change with the
orientation of the polariscope while there is no
change in the isochromatics.

By using white light is used, then (except for n = 0),

only the isoclinics will appear as dark fringes.

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Circular Polariscope
Circular polariscopes only produce isochromatics.

www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEfFotoelastico/photoelasticity.pdf
 Circular Polariscope

Stress concentration around a hole visualized using Photoelastic experimental

photoelastic methods, with strain gages attached to the image of maximum shear
surface to measure strain stress field near opening
https://teamuv.org/tag/photoelasticity/ crack tip.
https://pangea.stanford.edu/projects/structural_geology/c
hapters/chapter09/browser/09_20c.html
Stress concentration at a sharp corner in Photoelastic visualization of stress
a plastic protractor Photo Credit: distribution in plastic eating utensils.
Wikipedia.org Photo Credit: flickr.com/photos/chrisar/
(Christian Rein)

https://teamuv.org/tag/photoelasticity/
Circular Polariscope
 Measuring Techniques

Observation of Color Pattern Method

Compensator Method
Analyzer Rotation Method

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
Observation of Color Pattern Method

Strain Viewer/
Polariscope

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
Observation of Color Pattern Method

White light produces a complete spectrum

of light. This includes the visible spectrum
of 400 nm to 700 nm.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
Observation of Color Pattern Method

The intensity of the light is modulated by

the retardation exhibited by the sample.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
Observation of Color Pattern Method

• Results are highly

subjective to interpretation

• Can only be used for

qualitative measurements

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Compensator Method

Compensator

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
Compensator Method
• Simplest method of measuring
retardation

• Compensator (wedge) is a
calibrated, handheld device
that optically adds a retardation
of equal, but opposite sign to the
sample.

• The net result is a light intensity

of zero, which is easily
recognized visually as black
in the color pattern.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Compensator Method
There are two types of compensators in common usage:

• Babinet or “Wedge” compensator (scale readout)

• Babinet-Soleil or “Double-Wedge” compensator
(digital readout)

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Analyzer Rotation Method

Analyzer

Polarimeter (with microscope option)

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Analyzer Rotation Method
The Analyzer Rotation Method uses a circular
polarimeter setup as shown below. This is called the
”Tardy” method. When only one ¼-wave plate is used,
it is called the “Senarmont“ method.

Axis of First
Polarization 1/4-Wave
(Plane Plate
Added Axis of
Polarizer)
Retardation Polarization
(Analyzer)
()

Point of Second
Added 1/4-Wave
Retardation Interest
Plate
()

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Analyzer Rotation Method
• The analyzer rotation method is generally used
to measure fractional levels of retardation (<570 nm).

• The sample is first positioned parallel to the reference

axis of the polarizer and analyzer.

• The analyzer is rotated until a minimum light

intensity is observed.

• The sample is then rotated 45 degrees from the

reference axis.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Analyzer Rotation Method
Retardation is calculated from the fractional fringe
order that is read directly from the dial.

509 nm =
0.9 x 565

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Analyzer Rotation Method
This measurement (509 nm of retardation) is then
converted to stress using the equation below or
referring to a conversion chart.
=tCB

WHERE
=Stress (in MPa)
 = Retardation (in nanometers)
t = Thickness
CB = Brewster Constant

(1 MPa = 145 psi)

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
Analyzer Rotation Method
Example:

Retardation ( = 509 nm

Thickness (t) = 6 mm
CB = 2.54

=tCB =509/(6.0 x 2.54)

=/15.24
 = 33.4 MPa or 4843 psi

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1405299/
 Photoelasticity
Advantages
• Full field measurement.
• furnishes full-field values of the principal stress directions
• is adaptable to both static and dynamic investigations

Disadvantages
• requires that a model of the actual part be made (unless
photoelastic coatings are used)
• requires rather tedious calculations in order to separate
the values of principal stresses at a general interior point
• can require expensive equipment for precise analysis of
large components
• is very tedious and time-consuming for three-
dimensional work.
Brittle Coating method
The brittle coating will fracture at right angles to the
principal tensile strain of the surface. The applicable
strain range is ~200-3000με.
The calibrator and strain scale
Procedures
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/experimental-
stress-analysis

http://www.tailored-fiber-design.com/english/optimum.html

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=imgres&cd=&ved=2a
hUKEwiLzta69NrgAhUEurwKHRVmBuMQ5TV6BAgBEAs&url=https%3A%2F%2F
link.springer.com%2Fcontent%2Fpdf%2F10.1007%2FBF02324986.pdf&psig=AOv
Vaw1qwr9GAe2DHX_XE3uIfxLx&ust=1551322409173130
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=imgres&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiLzta69NrgAhUEurwKHRVmBuMQ5TV6BAgBEAs&url=https%3A%2F%2Fround-lake.dustinice.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Flink.springer.com%2Fcont
ent%2Fpdf%2F10.1007%2FBF02324986.pdf&psig=AOvVaw1qwr9GAe2DHX_XE3uIfxLx&ust=1551322409173130
X-ray diffraction method
(atomic strain gauge)
X-ray diffraction method
Scattered from same plane:

In directions 1’ and 1a’ are the scattered beams in phase with each
other, and hence interfere constructively because the difference in
their path length between the wave fronts XX’ and YY’ is equal to
zero.
http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/Determination_of_Residual_Stresses_by_X-ray_Diffraction_-_Issue_2.pdf
Scattered from different planes:
Rays 1 and 2 are scattered by atoms K and L. Scattered rays 1’ and
2’ will be in phase only if the path difference is equal to a whole
number n of wavelengths, that is if The path difference for rays 1K1’
and 2L2’ can be expressed as
Bragg’s Law
http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/Determination_of_Residual_Stresses_by_X-ray_Diffraction_-_Issue_2.pdf
X-ray diffraction method
 ψ (sample rotated
through some known
angle ψ).
D, x-ray detector:
S, x-ray source;
N, normal to the surface.

In the ψ = 0 orientation (Fig. a). The presence of a tensile stress in the sample results in a
Poisson's ratio contraction, reducing the lattice spacing and slightly increasing the
diffraction angle, 2θ. If the sample is then rotated through some known angle ψ (Fig. b), the
tensile stress present in the surface increases the lattice spacing over the stress-free state
and decreases 2θ.
Measuring the change in the angular position of the diffraction peak for at least two
orientations of the sample defined by the angle ψ enables calculation of the stress present
in the sample surface lying in the plane of diffraction, which contains the incident and
diffracted x-ray beams. To measure the stress in different directions at the same point, the
sample is rotated about its surface normal to coincide the direction of interest with the
diffraction plane.
 Method Penetration Spatial Accuracy
Resolution

X-rays diffraction < 50 m (Al); 1 mm laterally  20 MPa, from

< 5m (Ti); <1mm (if 20 m depth non-linearities in
layer removal) sin2 or surf.
cond.
Hard X-rays 150kV 50 mm (Al) 20 m lateral;  10 , from
1mm parallel to grain sampling
beam statistics
Neutrons 200mm (Al), 30mm 500 m  50 , from
(Fe) 4mm (Ti) count. Statis. &
reliability of
reference
X-ray diffraction method

http://przyrbwn.icm.edu.pl/APP/PDF/96/a096z2p05.pdf
Advantages of the X-ray Diffraction Technique:

• Non-destructive technique;
• Laboratory or “on-site” measurements;
• Bi-axial (i.e. σxx and σyy) residual stress measurements;
• Small gauge volume and so great for measuring surface stress gradients;
• High magnitude residual stresses are measured accurately;
• Complex shapes can be measured providing rotation of the measuring head
is not restricted;
• Nominal accuracy: 7MPa – Aluminium, 20MPa – Steel, 10MPa – Titanium;
• Very quick and easy to apply the process, and therefore cheap;

Disadvantages of the X-ray Diffraction Technique:

• Measurement depths limited for low energy X-ray;

• Only applicable to polycrystalline materials;
• Accuracy seriously affected by grain size and texture;
• A good component surface finish is essential.