Cosmological Principles

Copernican Principles

Principle 1 Principle 2

Isotropy Homogeneity

Isotropy → no preffered direction Homogeneity → no preffered location.

▶ Rotationaly Invarient ▶ Translationaly Invarient

Figure: (CMB)
Einstein Field Equation
Energy-Momentum
Tensor 𝑇𝜇𝜈
Einstein Field Equation: "Spacetime tells
matter how to move,
G𝜇𝜈 = 8𝜋T𝜇𝜈
matter tells space-
time how to bend."
Einstein Tensor 𝐺𝜇𝜈 — Archibald Wheeler

▶ Spherically Symmetric Universe simplifies the left hand side.

▶ The matter content of the universe on large scales is modeled as a
perfect fluid.
𝑇𝜇𝜈 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝜌, −𝑃, −𝑃, −𝑃)
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
▶ Metric
▶ Friedmann Equations. (By solving Einstein Field Equation we get,)
References I
FLRW Metric:
Curvature 𝑘
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
2 2 2 𝑑𝑟 2
2 ⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞
𝑑𝑠 = −𝑐 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎(𝑡) ( + 𝑟 2 𝑑Ω2 ) = 𝑔⏟
𝜇𝜈 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
1 − 𝑘𝑟 2
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐

Scale Factor 𝑎(𝑡)

The parameter 𝑘 can take on values in the Metric for a Cartesian Flat 2D Plane:
range 0 ≤ 𝑘 < 1:
𝑑𝑙 2 = 𝑎 2 (𝑑𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃2 ).

▶ For 𝑘 = 1, are called closed universe Metric for the surface of a Sphere:

𝑑𝑙 2 = 𝑎 2 (𝑑𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜙2 )

▶ For 𝑘 = −1, are called open universe
Metric for the surface of a hyperboloid:

▶ For 𝑘 = 0, are called flat universe 𝑑𝑙 2 = 𝑎 2 (𝑑𝜃2 + sinh2 (𝜃)𝑑𝜙2 )

Spherical Case Hyperbolic Case

Defining a variable, From change of variables

𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝜃
now, and,
𝑑𝑟 2 2 𝑑𝑟 2 2
𝑑𝑟 2 = ( ) 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃2 𝑑𝑟 2 = ( ) 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝜃𝑑𝜃2
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 2
⇒ 𝑑𝜃2 = = ⇒ 𝑑𝜃2 = =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 1 − 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝜃 1 + 𝑟 2
2

So, the line elements becomes So, the line elements becomes
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 2
𝑑𝑙 2 = 𝑎 2 × ( + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜙2 ) 𝑑𝑙 2 = 𝑎 2 × ( + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜙2 )
1 − 𝑟2 1 + 𝑟2

To recover Robertson-Walker metric we only need to make the substitution 𝑑𝜑 → 𝑑Ω

⎧
⎪𝑑𝜒 2 + sin2 𝜒𝑑Ω2 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 = +1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 = sin 𝜒
⎪ 2
2 2 2
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑎 × ⎨
⎪𝑑𝜒 + 𝜒 2 𝑑Ω2
2
𝑖𝑓 𝑘 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 = 𝜒
⎪ 2 2
⎩𝑑𝜒 + sinh 𝜒𝑑Ω2 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 = −1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 = sinh 𝜒
Figure:
Proper Distance
Galaxy (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑)
{𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑} → Comoving Coordinates.
{𝜃, 𝜑} → Constant.

The physical separation between the ob-

server and galaxy at (𝑡, 0) and (𝑡, 𝑟) is
Observer

𝑟 ⎧
⎪ sin−1 (𝑟) 𝑘 = +1
𝑑𝑟 ⎪
⎪
𝑑(𝑟, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑎(𝑡) ∫ = 𝑎(𝑡) × ⎨
⎪ 𝑟 𝑘=0
0 √1 − 𝑘𝑟 2 ⎪
⎪sinh−1 (𝑟) 𝑘 = −1
⎩

The distance increases with time in an expanding universe (𝑎̇ > 0):

𝑎̇
𝑑̇ = 𝑑≡ 𝐻
⏟ 𝑑
𝑎 𝐻𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
 𝑑𝑎̇
𝑑𝑎̇ = 𝐻0 𝑑𝑎

𝑑𝑏̇ = 𝐻0 𝑑𝑏
a
Position of Galaxy b seen from Galaxy a is
△𝑑 = 𝑑𝑏 − 𝑑𝑏 △𝑑
𝑑𝑎
Velocity of Galaxy b seen from Galaxy a is
△𝑑 ̇ = 𝑑𝑏̇ − 𝑑𝑎̇ = 𝐻0 (𝑑𝑏 − 𝑑𝑎 )
b 𝑑𝑏̇
us 𝑑𝑏
△ḋ = H0 △d

"No matter where you stand, the universe whispers its truth: all things
recede, and in the symphony of space, you are the pivot of it all."
Friedmann Equation
Einsteins equations reduce to two independent equations:

8𝜋𝐺 𝑘𝑐 2 𝑎̈ 4𝜋𝐺
𝐻2 = 𝜌− 2 =− (𝜌 + 3𝑝)
3 𝑎
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ 𝑎 3
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜌 ̇ = 3𝐻(𝜌 + 𝑝)
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Friedmann equation explains the dynamics of the universe.

𝑘
Ω=1+ 2
(𝐻𝑎(𝑡))

𝜌(𝑡)
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 → Ω =
𝜌𝑐 (𝑡)
from Hubble Law we know that
𝑑̇
𝑑 ̇ = 𝐻𝑑 ⇒ 𝐻0 =
𝑑
3𝐻0 2
Critical density → 𝜌𝑐 (𝑡0 ) = 8𝜋𝐺

▶ For Ω = 1, → 𝑘 = 0, → Flat universe

▶ For Ω > 1, → 𝑘 = +1, → Closed universe
▶ For Ω < 1, → 𝑘 = −1, → Open universe
The continuity equation encapsulates the fluid flowing in
= fluid flowing out property.

𝑃(𝑡)
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝜔𝑐 2 𝜌(𝑡) ⇒ 𝜔 =
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ 𝜌(𝑡)
equation of state

The continuity equation can be integrated to give

2
⎧
⎪𝑡 (3(1+𝜔)) 𝜔 ≠ −1
−3(1+𝜔)
𝜌∝𝑎 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑎∝⎨
⎪𝑒 𝐻𝑡
⎩ 𝜔 = −1
 𝜔 𝜌 𝑎(𝑡) 𝑎(𝜏) 𝜏𝑖
2
MD 0 𝑎 −3 𝑡3 𝜏2 0
1
RD 1
3 𝑎 −4 𝑡2 𝜏 0
Λ -1 𝑎0 𝑒 𝐻𝑡 −𝜏−1 ∞

Conformal time → a time coordinate that takes into account the

expansion of the universe.
particle horizon → The maximum comoving distance light can
propagate between an initial time 𝑡𝑖 and some later time 𝑡
𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐻 = ∫ = 𝜏 − 𝜏𝑖
𝑡𝑖 𝑎(𝑡)
Flatness Problem
Why the Universe is flat?
Friedmann Equation can be written as,

𝑘
Ω−1= 2
(𝐻𝑎(𝑡))
−1
Taking the time derivative of the 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝐻𝑎(𝑡))
𝑑 −1
(𝐻𝑎(𝑡)) ∝ (1 + 3𝜔)
𝑑𝑡
The Density Parameter, The strong energy condition is
satisfied for normal matter and
𝑑Ω radiation → 𝜔 > − 13
= 𝐻 (Ω − 1) Ω (1 + 3𝜔)
𝑑𝑡
As 𝑎(𝑡) grows , |Ω − 1| grows, if
𝑑|Ω − 1| (1 + 3𝜔) > 0
= Ω|Ω − 1|(1 + 3𝜔)
𝑑 ln 𝑎
Horizon Problem
Why the Universe is Uniform?

𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝑎(𝑡)2 𝑑X
As the photons follow null geodesics and from Conformal time 𝑑𝜏 we
can write,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜏 = = ±√𝑑X2 ⇒ 𝑑𝜏 = ±𝑑X
𝑎(𝑡)
The maximum distance a light ray can travel between 𝑡0 and 𝑡
𝑡 𝑎
𝑑𝑡 ′
𝜏≡∫ ′)
= ∫ 𝑑(ln 𝑎)(𝑎𝐻)−1
0 𝑎(𝑡 0

−1 1 1
(𝐻𝑎(𝑡)) ∝ 𝑎 2 (1+3𝜔) ⇒ 𝜏 ∝ 𝑎 2 (1+3𝜔)
for radiation-dominated (RD) and matter-dominated (MD) universes
⎧
⎪𝑎 𝑅𝐷
𝜏∝⎨
⎪𝑎 12
⎩ 𝑀𝐷
Figure:

Figure:
Strong Energy Condition (SEC)

From the Einstein field equations

1 𝜅2 𝜅2 1
𝑅𝜇𝜈 − 𝑅𝑔𝜇𝜈 = 𝑇 𝑂𝑅 𝑅𝜇𝜈 = (𝑇𝜇𝜈 − 𝑇𝑔𝜇𝜈 )
2 2 𝜇𝜈 2 2
SEC satisfies the inequality
1
(𝑇𝜇𝜈 − 𝑇𝑔𝜇𝜈 )𝑣 𝜇 𝑣 𝜈 ≥ 0 ∴(𝑣 𝜇 ) → is any timelike vector
2

𝑅𝜇𝜈 𝑣 𝜇 𝑣 𝜈 ≥ 0 → gravity has to be attractive

▶ Dominance of Energy over Pressure → 𝜌 + 3𝑃 ≥ 0

▶ Equation of State Parameter (𝜔)
Solution of Flatness and Horizon problem

Inflation is a period of accelerated expansion, defined by:

𝑎̈ > 0
−1
To get inflation the strong energy condition 𝜔 < 3 has to be broken

𝑑
𝑎̈ > 0 ⇔ (𝜌 + 3𝑃) < 0 ⇔ (𝑎𝐻)−1 < 0
𝑑𝑡

The growing comoving Hubble radius was the root of Flatness and
Horizon problem.
Figure:
Figure: