See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/330833805

Motivation and Academic Performance: A SEM Approach

Article in International Journal of Environmental and Science Education · February 2019

CITATIONS READS

9 4,490

2 authors:

Salim Nauzeer Vishal Chandr Jaunky

Open University of Mauritius J&R Institution of Research Ltd.
6 PUBLICATIONS 28 CITATIONS 59 PUBLICATIONS 768 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

eterminants of Secondary School Performance in Mauritius: A Cross-Sectional Approach View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Vishal Chandr Jaunky on 05 February 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL & SCIENCE EDUCATION
e-ISSN: 1306-3065
OPEN ACCESS 2019, Vol. 14, No. 1, 41-60

Motivation and Academic Performance: A SEM Approach

Salim Nauzeer 1*, Vishal Chandr Jaunky 2

1
Open University of Mauritius, MAURITIUS
2
Luleå University of Technology, SWEDEN

* CORRESPONDENCE: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Many models in educational have tried to clarify the causal relationships of motivation variables
on student performance, by presenting hypothesized models, exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) under structural equation modeling (SEM). Based on the
literature, this model inspected the most robust stimuli of motivation: intrinsic, extrinsic,
amotivation, self-efficacy and achievement motivation alongside with other variables like parental
education, location, musculoskeletal pain (MSP), student body mass index (BMI), bag weights and
tuition. SEM (unmodified and modified) is used to clarify the interrelationships of these variables
and their relative contributions to academic performance. The sample consists of 324 students
from Forest-Side State Secondary School (Boys). The results show that as predicted the latent
variable motivation, mother education, private tuition and weights of bags have direct effects on
students‘ performance using the modified standardized coefficients.

Keywords: motivation, academic performance, students, SEM

INTRODUCTION
Academic performance is the basic criterion used to assess students’ success in their studies, making it
vital to understand the factors responsible for determining, predicting, mediating and causing variance in
academic achievement (Ahmed & Bruinsma, 2006). Students are admitted into schools from the society and
transformed as output back to the society. Good academic performance is crucial to both students and
educational institutions. The quality of students’ academic performance is influenced by a range of
environmental factors and psychological factors within the learners like motivation and the self apart from
simple teacher and ability (Kumar & Karimi, 2010). Academic performance is principally measured in terms
of scores in varied assessments and examinations and this information mass are referred to as performance
data. The research by Dodd (2006) is indisputable about the role of performance data in effective schools and
this avenue is the first indicator under analysis by the various educational stakeholders to measure academic
performance. Mathematics is the language of science and technology, and early basis of mathematics skills is
essential so as to achieve high academic performance (Richardson, 2000).

EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

Motivation
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors (Cherry,
2016). There are five different constructs reflecting motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Weiner, 1990) namely
intrinsic, extrinsic, amotivation, self-efficacy and achievement (IEASAch). These constructs are discussed as

Article History: Received 18 December 2018  Revised 13 January 2019  Accepted 17 January 2019

© 2019 The Author(s). Open Access terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) apply. The license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, on the condition that users give exact credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license, and indicate if they made any changes.
Nauzeer and Jaunky

follows: Intrinsic motivation is defined as motivation in which the source is the “inherent satisfaction” an
individual derives from the behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Extrinsic motivation relates to a wide variety of
behaviours from external sources and these behaviours are engaged in as a means to an end and not for their
own sake (Deci, 1975). Amotivation is defined as a state in which individuals cannot perceive a relationship
between their behavior and that behavior’s subsequent outcome (Deci & Ryan, 1985). It is a state of lacking
impulse whereby amotivated people either do not act or act without intent (Ryan, 1991). Along with Bandura
(1995), self-efficacy is defined as a personal judgement or expectation of how well an individual can execute
courses of action required to deal with prospective situations. Achievement motivation refers to the affinity to
work hard to meet personal aims within a social environment (Cassidy & Lynn, 1989). It signifies a complex,
multidimensional concept (Hart et al., 2008) or simply a drive or degree of motivation (Gwynn, 2012). It is
characterized by the responsibility of the individual for the outcome (success or failure), anticipates
unambiguous knowledge of the outcome results, and there is some degree of uncertainty or risk (McClelland,
1961).

Motivation constructs (IEASAch) and performance

There is much evidence to advocate that some types of motivation enhance academic performance (Cokley,
2003; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Prospero and Vohra-Gupta, 2007; Roeser et al., 2013). It is well-accepted that the
relationship between motivation and academic performance is multifaceted, and many studies have been
inspected about the effectiveness of motivation as a driving force in the educational sector. Meta-analysis by
Robbins et al. (2004) finds achievement motivation and academic self-efficacy, as well as academic
achievement, to be significant predictors of GPA. Intrinsic motivation positively impacts on academic
performance (Bouffard & Couture, 2003; Bong, 2004, 2007; Diseth et al., 2010; Taylor et al., 2014). Extrinsic
motivation also has a positive impact on academic performance (Ryan, 2001; Sigfusdottir et al., 2006;
Bakhtiarv and et al. 2010; Hornstra et al. 2013; Helker and Wosnitza, 2016; Passini et al., 2015). In contrast,
amotivation has an overall negative effect on academic performance (Pajares & Valiante, 2001; Sigfusdottir et
al., 2006; Arbabi et al., 2014) but a few positive impacts are uncovered (Chow & Young, 2013; Mega et al.,
2014). Self-efficacy (Abu Bakar et al., 2010; Du Toit et al., 2011; Feldman & Kubota, 2014; Skaalvik et al.,
2015) and achievement motivation have positive comparable effect (Bong, 2004; Waseka & Simatwa, 2016).

Student Location and Academic Performance

The impact of student location on academic performance is an ongoing issue, and a clear cut verdict is
ambiguous due to different research results. There is confusion between student location and school location
and in Mauritius students are free to access either urban or rural schools due to free education and free
transport. Therefore, the student location is preferred in this review. According to Ajai (2013), rural students
performed better that than their urban counterparts although the absence of effective teaching methods and
argues that attendance is not the cause.
Another study indicates no significant difference in academic performance of rural and urban students and
stresses that teachers have more objective looks to education and parents should no longer feel the difference
(Alokan and Arijesuyo, 2013). A study shows significant differences between urban and rural locations of
students in favour of urban students suggests that bridging the gap in educational resources could be a
possible solution (Opoku-Asare and Siaw, 2015).

Parental Education and Academic Performance

Parental education is an indicator of parent’s income as income and education are highly correlated
(Hauser & Warren, 1997). The degree and variety of parental interest are strongly predisposed by family
upbringing, maternal level of education, maternal psycho-social health and single parent status and to a minor
extent by family ethnicity (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003). According to Chevalier et al. (2013) parental
education are larger for maternal education than for paternal because mothers are more likely to be the key
giver of care within the family circle. Socio-economic status like parents’ education, profession, revenue and
standard of living are related to students’ performance, whereby middle to upper class family learners
performs better than students from less privileged milieu (Baliyan & Nenty, 2015). It is very important that
educated families impart their knowledge to their children in order to translate acquired know how into
excellent performance (Machebe et al., 2017).

42 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Musculoskeletal Pain (MSP)

Musculoskeletal pains (MSP) are health problems associated with the locomotion system, such as muscles,
tendons, bony skeleton, cartilage, ligaments, and nerves. These enclose all types of complaint, from minor and
ephemeral pain to permanent and unbearable injuries (WHO, 2017) 11. Such musculoskeletal health problems
arise when the mechanical effort surpasses the level of resistance of the components of the locomotor structure
(Marras and Hancock, 2014). MSP symptoms include pains of the neck, shoulders, back, and upper members
associated with awkward posture (Lapointe et al., 2009). Developing back pain (BP) at an early age is a
significant risk factor for experiencing BP in adult life (Harreby et al., 1999)). For instance, BP in adolescents
varies up to 52.1% (Mackenzie et al., 2003) and among students it ranges between 32.9% and 89.3% in different
parts of the world (Abledu and Offei, 2015). This may in the long run lead to disability, decrease quality of life
and lead to time lost from work in adulthood (Duthey, 2013). MSP is associated with academic performance
(Du et al., 2017).

BMI and Academic Performance

Academic performance is interrelated to cognitive and memory functions (Aguirre-Perez et al., 2007). There
is a negative association between obesity and cognitive memory functions on the academic achievement of
adolescents (Kim and So, 2013). A balanced diet is normally recommended to people of all age and a deviation
from healthy eating is normally associated health problems. According to the World Health Organization
(2016) infancy obesity is linked with a higher chance of early death and disability in later life (Khadaee and
Saeidi, 2016). The consumption of fast food by students is an example of poor nutrition which may lead to
inadequate performance in the classroom (Alswat et al., 2017). Students consuming above the average amount
of fast food and students who are overweight have lower scores in math and reading in contrast to with their
normal-weight peers (Tobin, 2013). Also, students with low level of physical activity tend to be obese and are
more likely to be less performing (Naticchioni, 2013). Obese students may develop low self-esteem which may
be translated into missed school with short term loss in performance outcome (Geier et al., 2007).

Weights of Bags and Academic Performance

Weight of bags is mainly due to school materials like books, copybooks, pencil case and laptops in some
cases. The amount of schooling materials that students carry is almost the same per grade but differs across
grades. The weight of students varies greatly due to many reasons including age and genetics. Each student
is differently affected by the weight of their bags. This exposes students to many health issues, mainly MSP
(George et al., 2015). The recommended bag pack weight by health organizations diverges ranging from not
exceeding 5 % to 20% of the student’s body weight (Rai and Agarawal, 2013) but the most convincing figures
is not to exceed 10% of their body weight (Drzał-Grabiec, 2013; Goodgold et al., 2002; Moore et al., 2007).
Perceiving high learning burden due to the heavy weight of the school bag negatively impacts academic
performance (Panigrahni, 2018). However, weights due to instructional materials are positively correlated to
academic performance (Krukru, 2015; Tety, 2016).

Tuition and Academic Performance

According to Dang and Hai-Anh (2008) private tuition is defined as fee based tutoring that offers extra
instruction to children in academic subjects relative to mainstream education system. Investment in education
plays a significant role in human development through empowerment of people to improve their well-being
and participate actively in nation building (Nafula, 2002). So, tuition is perceived as a long term investment
by parents but for students this may be the case as part of their precious time is being sacrificed. The private
tutoring division is growing so rapidly that it is being considered the third rising education sector other than
public and private school sectors (Dang & Rogers, 2008). A research study recommends private tuition as the
analysis indicates a significant positive impact of tuition in Mathematics at secondary school level (Suleman
& Hussain, 2014). In some cases, even professional tutors are selected for tutoring the children at home and
this tendency of tutoring is turning into a tradition rather an academic necessity (Atta et al., 2011). The term
shadow education is also used to illustrate private tuition as it mimics normal schooling (Lee et al., 2012). The
tuition effect is so promising in academic performance that recommendations are being made to legalize
private tuition, to prefer one-to-one private tuitions and to fearlessly invest in tuition (Kilonzo, 2014).

1 Online at: www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/musculoskeletal/en/.

http://www.ijese.com 43
Nauzeer and Jaunky

Table 1. Some recent studies using SEM to model motivation and performance
Study (Year) (N) Dependent variable Independent variables Cronbach α
Arbabi et al. (2014) Motivation 0.68
Grades
N=1125 Learning, etc. 0.75
Badiee et al. (2014) Mastery goals 0.75
Mathematics achievement
N=360 Performance goals, etc. 0.82
Bergamin et al. (2010) flexibility of time
Psychology performance
N= 309 flexibility of teacher contact
Boon (2007) Parenting goals
Achievement -
N=879 Self-efficacy etc.
Caprara et al. (2011) Self-efficacy, 0.89
Achievement
N=879 Traits 0.79
Chik and Abdullah 2018 Motivation -
Additional Mathematics
N=260 Learning, etc. -
Di Giunta et al. (2013)
N=187,206,188
Diseth et al. (2010) Deep, 0.76
HSGPA, Grades etc.
N=422 Surface etc. 0.68
Guay et al. (2010) Academic self-concept 0.78
Grades
N=925 Motivation etc. 0.72
Khalaila(2014) self-concept 0.91
Grade average
N=170 Intrinsic etc. 0.81
King (2013) Parent support 0.77
GPA
N=1026 Work avoidance etc. 0.71
Mega and De Beni (2014) Strategies 0.59
Academic achievement
N=5805 Self-efficacy etc. 0.74
Skaalvik et al. (2015) Self-efficacy 0.92
Mathematics
N=823 Intrinsic motivation etc. 0.91
Taylor et al. (2014) Intrinsic motivation 0.73
Math and Science Grades
N=514 Amotivation etc. 0.75
Tongsilp (2013) Classmate relationships -
GPA
N=840 Self-directed learning etc. -
Um et al. (2005) intrinsic motivation 0.78
Mathematics
N=4566 external regulation 0.68
Wilson and Trainin (2007) Self efficacy -
Literacy Achievement
N=198 Perception of competence -
Wormington et al. (2011) Intrinsic motivation 0.91
GPA
N=1067 Perceived competence etc. 0.61

Motivation and Performance using the SEM Approach

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) as a statistical technique has gained increasingly recognition since
it was first envisioned by Wright (1918), a biometrician who developed the path analysis method to examine
genetic theory in biology (Teo & Khine 2009). The SEM approach offers some advantages to researches
compared to other statistical method. It is founded on regression, ANOVA and correlation techniques but
demarks itself by allowing analysis of hypothesized interconnection between latent constructs (Kline, 1991).
It also permits for a higher level of generalization through the development of structural models of theorized
constructs. SEM allows illustrating direct and indirect effects from observed variables based on hypotheses of
casual effects (Stage et al., 2004). It permits measurement and structural models between latent variable (a
group of independent variables). The path coefficients are corrected for measurement error as hypothetical
variables are measured by several indicators where measurement error is “averaged out” (Bentler, 1982; Kline,
2005, Violato & Heccker, 2007). Relaibility of a statistical method is crucial in quantitative analysis and
numerous types of reliability exist as regard to SEM: internal consistency, split-half reliability, test-retest
reliability and homogeneous reliability (Ursachi et al., 2015. The internal consistency reliability is calculated
using the Cronbach Alpha coefficient which is believed to indirectly specify the degree to which a group of
items computes a single unidimensional latent construct. There are many questions when considering
minimum sample sizes and a proposal of 100 comes from simulation studies (Anderson & Gerbing, 1984;
Kyriazos, 2018). In the issue of factor loadings in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) factors such as the overall
sample size (> 200-400) and magnitude of the loadings (standardized value > .60) is more important (Jackson,
2007). A common conventional rule is that Cronbach Alpha of 0.6-0.7 indicates a satisfactory level of reliability,
and 0.8 or greater is a very good level. Still, values higher than 0.95 are not automatically good, since they
might be a suggestion of redundancy (Hulin et al., 2001). SEM is extensively used in the education field (Khine,
2013; Marsh & Hau, 2007). So with so many benefits the SEM method poses as an indispensable tool in an
educational research and Table 1 shows some studies using the SEM approach to model motivation and

44 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Figure 1. Hypothesized model for motivation and other variables influence on performance

performance. The studies are from 2005 and above to keep track of the latest trends in education research.
The Cronbach alpha values range from 0.59 to 0.91. This study tries to follow the same pattern in an attempt
to model motivation and performance in the presence of other moderator variables. The sample sizes vary from
a minimum of 270 to a maximum of 4566 students. All the studies use measures of student academic
performance as dependent variables and many motivation constructs are used as independent variable.

DATA AND METHODOLOGY

The Model Hypotheses
H1: Motivation constructs (IEASAch) positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H2: Mother education positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H3: Father education positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H4: Living in urban location positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H5: Absence of MSP positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H6: BMI positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H7: Weights of bags positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
H8: Tuition positively and significantly affects student’s performance.
The model is hypothesized based on the literature review and a model proposed and tested by Kusurkur et
al (2013).

Sample
Students are from a secondary school (Forest Side Boys State Secondary School) in Mauritius, cohort 2017.
The respective rector of the schools approved the measurement protocol. A description of the study’s
procedures was provided to parents, and written parental consent was obtained prior to participation. A group-
administered survey was conducted in each class in the presence of the educator in charge at any particular
period of the school day.

The Questionnaire and Selection Criteria

The questionnaire consists of five sections (A, B, C, D and E) which are found to be most relevant to the
study. The first section includes questions regarding socio-economic indicators (location and parental

http://www.ijese.com 45
Nauzeer and Jaunky

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2. a) Measuring student’s bag weight; b) Measuring student’s BMI; c) Students filling questionnaire;
d) A pen as token

education). The second section deals with performance and school facilities (Mathematics performance,
extrinsic motivation and private tuition). Section C captures the motivation constructs (Self-efficacy,
achievement and amotivation). Section D is on health status and it captures anthropometric measures (height
and weight of students; weight of bags) and symptoms of potential MSP. The construct intrinsic motivation is
captured from section E. In a pilot study, the questionnaire was distributed to 90 randomly chosen students,
30 educators and 5 rectors for corrections and proofreading and the required changes were made to enhance
reliability. After the anthropometric measures, students completed questionnaires consisting of Likert scale,
close-ended and branching questions.
The analysis and detection of musculoskeletal symptoms of different persons in different parts of the globe
using indirect methods (questionnaires) requires the standardization of the evaluation questions (López—
Aragón et al., 2017). Such a questionnaire has been developed by Holman, (1966) and it is widely used under
the name of Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ). Another interesting questionnaire is composed of
closed questions on BP and social, economic, demographic, and behavioral variables (Detsch et al., 2007). The
actual study’s questionnaire utilizes concepts from both questionnaires as it adapts part of NMQ to capture
MSP in its health section. Figure 2(a-d) shows the survey being carried with grade 9 students whereby bag
weights, BMI measurements, questionnaire fillings and a pen is being given to a student after completing the
survey.

46 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

The questions selected to represent motivation (IEASAch) are based on literature but it is adapted to the
classroom environment so as to facilitate understanding for easy responses. The respective questions and the
closest related references are given:
I am often cheerful and energetic (I)
Interest and enjoyment are both emotions that describe intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Nix et al.,
1999). Intrinsic motivation depends on inner pressure and surfaces from a person’s enjoyment or interest in
the duty being accomplished. It does not involve working on actions for the purpose on an external reward but
it rather entails the feeling of inner pleasure in the activity itself. Malone and Lepper (1987) view intrinsic
motivation as a force that involves doing activities without exterior incentive 2. For example, a person is eager
to act provided that he is involved or individually enjoys the task. Intrinsic motivation illustrates behaviors
that are fun, interesting, and optimally challenging (Legault, 2016).
Educators are good at explaining things (E)
Extrinsic motivation is as an external strength in the form of expectation, praise and rewards that power
students in learning (Kong, 2009). When educators encourage best practices like incorporating a range of
teaching methods and complementary exhibits verbal and non-verbal behaviours that create a positive feeling
and stimulate learners’ curiosity (Falout et al., 2009; Kistnasamy, 2014). In some forms of extrinsic motivation
the person feels more self-endorsed and self-concordant than others. Extrinsic motivation is an extensive class
of motivations that range in the extent to which they are self-directed stemming from an internal perceived
locus of causality and sense of personal choice. Therefore, even if an action is not fun or enjoyable it may
nevertheless be internally regulated as opposed to externally controlled (Legaut, 2016).
I really feel that I am wasting my time at school (A)
According to the self-determination theory the lowest stage in feeling self-determination is amotivation
(Deci & Ryan, 2000). Amotivation describes the state where the actor perceives his or her behavior as being
determined by external forces completely out of his or her own control (Cokley, 2000).Individuals lurking in
such a stage lack apparent competence because they do not feel capable to perform the behavior, or they lack
the supposed control as they think their actions are not enough to achieve a desired result (Wang et al., 2016).
Amotivation is linked with a range of negative outcomes and feelings. It is accompanied by an intention to
drop out and the respective individual actually actual drops out (Utvær & Haugan, 2016).
When I make a mistake, I try to find out why (Ach)
Atkinson and Feather (1966) state that a person’s achievement oriented behavior is based on three parts:
the individual’s predisposition to achievement, the probability of success, and the individual’s perception of
value of the task. The power of motivation to perform some act is supposed to be a multiplicative function of
the strength of the motive, the expectancy (subjective probability) that the act will have as a consequence the
attainment of an incentive, and the value of the incentive. An achievement behavior is a behavior directed at
developing or indicating high rather than low ability. Ability is rated high or low with reference to the person’s
own past performance or comprehension and a gain in mastery specifies competence. Ability is also the
capacity relative to others where one must achieve more with equal effort or use less effort than do others for
an equal performance (Nicholls, 1984).
Whether the subject content is difficult or easy, I am confident that I can understand it (S)
Self-efficacy is as the power to produce an effect. It also reflects a person’s judgments of his or her ability
to fruitfully participate in an activity and the effect the view has on future activities. Students with positive
self-efficacies feel in control of their learning condition and deem they have the essential capabilities to succeed
(Scott, 1996). Self-efficacy beliefs decide how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs
produce these diverse effects through cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. The most
useful method of creating a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences. Accomplishments build a
strong belief in one’s personal efficacy whereas failures weaken it, mainly if failures happen before a sense of
efficacy is confidently established. Social models too can boost self-efficacy that is if someone similar to him or
her can succeed, he or she can also do it 3.

2 Online at: https://explorable.com/intrinsic-and-extrinsic-motivation

3 Online at: Source: http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/BanEncy.html

http://www.ijese.com 47
Nauzeer and Jaunky

Table 2. Description and Summary Statistics

Variable Description Mean Std. Dev. Minimum Maximum
Dependent
maths second term score in mathematics 57.199 17.994 10 95

Independent:
Motivation
q44 I am often cheerful and energetic 4.095 0.932 1 5
q9 educators are good at explaining things 4.034 0.824 1 5
q28 I really feel that I am wasting my time at 1.629 1.050 1 5
school
q30 whether the subject content is difficult or 4.025 0.978 1 5
easy, I am confident that I can understand it
q33 when I make a mistake, I try to find out why 4.200 0.878 1 5

fed father’s education level 2.862 0.853 1 4

med mother’s education level 2.920 0.675 1 4
urban student lives in an urban region 0.212 0.409 0 1
nomsp student does not have musculoskeletal pain 0.175 0.380 0 1
bmi student’s body mass index 19.598 4.948 12.163 43.445
weights weight of bag 4.063 1.776 0.5 9.9
y student takes private tuition 0.571 0.496 0 1

Data Collection
Out of the 395 students (7th – 10th grade, aged 11-14 years) requested to participate in the study, parental
consent was obtained by of them. 347 questionnaires were collected but due to incompleteness and bias 4, 48
questionnaires were discarded. The final sample size contains 324 questionnaires. Data were collected during
a typical day at school so that actual schoolbag weight could be recorded. Height was measured to an accuracy
of 0.5 cm using a meter rule, and standing height was measured with the student shoes to avoid reluctance in
participation.
Body and schoolbag weight were measured with electronic balances with an accuracy of ± 0.1 kg. To ensure
reliability of the protocol, the weight measurements were taken on the same day and by the same investigator,
and the average value out of three measurements was recorded. With this data, each student’s BMI was
estimated in kg/m2, and the relative schoolbag weight was estimated as a percentage of student weight (% of
BW). The time spent in carrying school bags were recorded in minutes and it accounts only standing and
walking positions. On completion of the questionnaires, the investigator gave a pen as a token to each student
and the students were notified that they can withdraw from the survey at any stage of the study.

Descriptive Statistics
Table 2 presents the descriptive and summary statistics for the data used in this paper. About 65% of the
students scored at least 50 marks and 13% of the students scored less than 40. A 5-point Likert-scale has been
used to construct the indices except for MSP where two categories are present. Only the amotivation construct
under motivation has a mean of about 1.6 showing that most students have positive feelings about their
schooling. The other forms of motivation (IESA) have means of about 4 on a scale of 5 indicating that these
forms of motivation are strongly present in students. Parental education is slightly higher for mother
compared to father. About 21% of the students are from urban regions and only about 18% of the students do
feel MSP in any body region due to the carriage and standings with bags on their journey. The average BMI
of the students is about 20 and the weight of bags ranges from 0.5Kg to 9.9Kg. About 57% of the students get
recourse to private tuition in general.

4 Some respondents reported figures such as Rs 25.00 with respect to Tuition fees. These values do not fit the actual context
for private tuition. A few bag weights were written as 2 -5 grams instead of kilograms and they were omitted. Any flawed
or partial responses were excluded from the final dataset.

48 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Table 3. Correlation matrix for the model variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
maths 1.00
q44 0.29*** 1.00
q9 0.22*** 0.26*** 1.00
q28 -0.07 -0.20*** -0.10* 1.00
q30 0.15*** 0.28*** 0.44*** -0.23*** 1.00
q33 0.18*** 0.27*** 0.20*** -0.12** 0.32*** 1.00
fed -0.07 -0.16*** -0.05 -0.003 -0.12 0.003 1.00
med 0.10 -0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.34*** 1.00
urban -0.01 -0.03 -0.04 0.03 -0.03 0.03 0.13** 0.13** 1.00
nomsp 0.09* 0.12** -0.03 -0.03 0.04 0.03 -0.13** -0.01 0.02 1.00
bmi 0.04 0.05 -0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 0.07 -0.10* -0.01 -0.03 1.00
weights 0.17*** 0.14** 0.20*** -0.01 0.10* 0.08 -0.10* -0.05 0.04 -0.19*** 0.12 *** 1.00
y -0.01 -0.12** -0.24*** 0.11* -0.13** 0.01 0.13** 0.07 -0.02 0.04 -0.004 -0.19 *** 1.00
Note. *p< 0.1, ** p< 0.05, ***p <0 .01

Table 4. Cronbach alpha values under latent variable motivation

Constructs under Motivation Cronbach alpha
I am often cheerful and energetic (I) 0.552
Educators are good at explaining things (E) 0.553
I really feel that I am wasting my time at school (A) 0.625
Whether the subject content is difficult or easy, I am confident that I can understand it (S) 0.4837
When I make a mistake, I try to find out why (Ach) 0.572
Test scale 0.614

Descriptive statistics and correlations

Table 3 shows the correlation coefficients for each of the variables evaluated in the study based on the
hypotheses H1 up to H7 described above. The table displays a positive correlation between motivation
variables (intrinsic, extrinsic, self-efficacy and achievement motivation) and performance as observed in
earlier studies (Helker & Wosnitza, 2016; Robbins et al., 2004; Skaalvik et al. 2015; Taylor et al., 2014) but in
contrary to Chow and Young (2013) and Arbabi et al. (2014) and neither positive nor negative correlation is
found between amotivation and performance. The correlations reveal that the absence of MSP and
performance are positively correlated and its presence may disturb academic performance (Du et al., 2017The
correlation between weights of bags and performance is in contrast to the findings of Panigrani (2018) whereby
perceiving high learning burden due to the heavy weight of the school bag negatively impacts academic
performance (Panigrani, 2018). Results show high level of correlations among motivation mechanisms
(IEASAch), mother’s and father’s education, urban location and parental education, weights and absence of
MSP, BMI and weights, weights and tuition. These correlations formed the basis for testing the model
proposed in Figure 1.

Data analysis
The descriptive statistics are evaluated using StataSE14 for Windows. The SEM analysis is carried out in
two stages, the measurement model and the structural model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Firstly, a
preliminary technique is employed to reveal the essential constructs in the data by Exploratory Factor
Analysis (EFA). Factors identified through literature review and proposed in the questionnaire are subjected
to EFA that shrinks data, with an extraction method of Maximum likelihood (ML) and factor rotation. Factors
with loadings above 0.5 are preferred in shaping the latent variables (Pawaskar and Goel, 2016). The variables
IESAA under the latent variable motivation signified a Cronbach alpha value of 0.6138 as given in Table 4
which is in line with Hulin et al. (2001) and Field (2009) stating that a factor with four or more loadings greater
than 0.6 “is reliable regardless of sample size.”
The Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated a Chi-square value of 378.033 with 78 degrees of freedom and p-
value = 0.000 showing that the variables are not intercorrelated. The measure of Sampling, KMO, has a value
of 0.648 concerning the factors discussed and it is an acceptable value (Kaiser 1974; Hof, 2012; Sulaiman and
Zahoni, 2016).
Next, the model fit is assessed using a variety of indicators and tests, more famous being the goodness-of-
fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), the incremental fit index (IFI), the Trucker Lewis Index (TLI),
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and Chi-square and degree of freedom. The goodness-of-fit

http://www.ijese.com 49
Nauzeer and Jaunky

Table 5. Confirmatory Factor analysis

Fit statistic Value Description
Likelihood ratio
p > chi2
45.133 (0.198)
degrees of freedom=38
Population error
Root mean squared error of approximation RMSEA <= 0.05 0.024
Information criteria
Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) 12564.177
Bayesian information criterion (BIC) 12813.706
Baseline comparison
Comparative fit index (CFI) 0.969
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) 0.954
Size of residuals
Standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) 0.034
Coefficient of determination (CD) 0.699

Table 6. SEM models before and after modification

Model 1 (Before modification) Model 2 (After modification)
Variables
Coefficient Coefficient
motivation 12.173 12.835
(2.939) * (3.053) *
fed -2.132 -2.282
(0.588) (1.566)
med 3.417 3.316
(1.501) + (1.497) +
urban -0.748 -0.573
(0.321) (2.315)
nomsp 4.378 3.978
(2.548) ‡ (2.565)
bmi 0.169 0.187
(0.192) (0.191)
weights 1.475 1.127
(0.561) * (0.587) ‡
y 2.268 3.353
(1.962) (2.033) ‡
Constant 42.198 43.393
(6.934) * (6.939) *

of the proposed model is evaluated using the universally-accepted statistical indices, such as Goodness-of-Fit
Index (GFI) with a value closer to 1 indicating good fit (Byrne, 2001). In this case, the value of Goodness-of-
Fit Index (GFI) as indicated by Table 5, the TLI and CFI values of 0.954 and 0.969 are respectively consistent
in suggesting that the hypothesized model represented an adequate fit to the data [values above 0.90 being
indicative of good fit. The proposed model has a value of 0.024 for its Root Mean Square Error of the
Approximation (RMSEA) (which should be less than 0.08), implying that the model is an acceptable fit. The
ratio of Chi-square to degrees of freedom is within the recommended fit of less than 3. Thus, all the tests and
measures, taken together support our structural model and indicate that the model has a good level of fit and
can be used for further analysis. Therefore, the hypothesized model proposed in the study fits the sample data
satisfactorily. Next, SEM analysis is used to estimate all of the parameters using the maximum likelihood
method.

RESULTS
Table 6 displays two models with their respective structural coefficients for the latent variable motivation
and the other observed variables. On a first look both seem alike but a closer look at the overall test revealed
opposing results. Model 1 and Model 2 are discussed below.

50 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Figure 3. Standardized path analysis

Model Choice (Proposed Model versus Modified Model)

Model 1 was tested with three sets of covariance between med/ fed, weights/nomsp and BMI/weights but
the overall model was not good (LR test of model vs. saturated: chi2 (44) = 81.61, Prob > chi2 = 0.0005) although
the motivation measurements and the mean of other variables were highly significant. We then tested a
modified factor model based on the suggestion of the modification indices command (Kline, 2005). Seven pairs
of covariances were included as follows cov(e.q44,e.q30), cov(e.q44,e.maths), cov(e.q9,e.q28), cov(e.q9,e.q30),
cov(e.q9,e.q33), cov(weights,Motivation) and cov(y,Motivation). Although it could be debatable whether these
items would be somewhat redundant, the fact is that higher scores in one of the items imply higher scores in
its related pair. Consequently, we considered the theoretical framework which supported the decision of
adding covariances to find a better-fitting model (LR test of model vs. saturated: chi2 (38) = 45.13, Prob > chi2
= 0.1984). Thus, the resulting improved model showed a good fit and was the most adequate for our data.

Interpretation of the Path Analysis Coefficients

SEM provides both standardized and unstandardized options for coefficients but this study employs the
standardized coefficients although the initial gains from defining and using the relevant range for
standardization may be modest (Grace & Bollen, 2005). The standardized values are values converted into the
same unit (standard deviation). Using standardized values are preferable because it provides comparability
between values but unstandardized values are needed to obtain the significance of indirect effects. Figure 3
illustrates the path analysis of the standardized model of the direct and indirect effects of the various
independent variables on math performance.
Motivation is positively (standard coefficient =0.34) associated academic performance in Mathematics. If
motivation is increased by one standard deviation, academic would be expected to increase by 0.34 standard
deviations. Mother education is positively related to academic performance and an increase in one unit
standard deviation would increase performance by 0.12 standard deviations. Similarly, weights of bags and
tuition are positively linked to performance with respective increase in standard deviations. The other
observed variables have insignificant relations on math performance in this particular study but this does not
mean the absence of correlation in general. The same variables may give different results in different context
of study.

http://www.ijese.com 51
Nauzeer and Jaunky

DISCUSSIONS
This article addresses the different types of motivation (IEASAch) as the main predictor of academic
performance alongside with other independent variables. The path coefficients for the full model as illustrated
with mainly positive and highly significant (p-value < 0.001) except for the paths of amotivation (q28) to
motivation. The results of the study signify that hypothesis H1 H2, H7, and H8 are accepted while hypothesis
H3, H4, H5 and H6 are rejected with insignificant p-values. All the five variables under the latent variable
motivation are highly significant and motivation is a strong predictor of academic performance (B=12.84,
SE=3.05 and Pearson correlation=0.34) in line with literature (Arbabi et al., 2014; Helker & Wosnitza, 2016;
Robbins et al. 2004; Skaalvik et al. 2015; Taylor et al., 2014). The result also show that mother education is
directly associated with academic performance as the result of Chevalier et al. (2013) stressing that parental
education are larger for maternal education than for paternal because mothers are more likely to be the key
giver of care within the family circle. The weight of bags of students are directly related to performance
indicating that weight of bags is mainly due to school materials like books, copybooks, pencil case and laptops
in some cases. These facilities are referred to as instructional materials and it is positively correlated to
academic performance (Krukru, 2015; Tety, 2016). The results points toward the importance of private tuition
in the dissemination of extra knowledge to students with respect to academic performance as revealed by the
study of Suleman and Hussain (2014).

Future Research
The use longitudinal and experimental studies (Burton et al., 2006) on motivational processes and
academic performance is required. This will permit an assessment of how students attain the motivation,
behavioral choice, analytical strategies, strength, persistence, commitment, success or failure of subsequent
performance (Tabernero & Hernández, 2011). Additionally, to the variables studied in the present study, the
model can be extended by adding other related school variables like extracurricular, socioeconomic features of
students, resiliency and financial politics of government on education.

Strengths and Limitations

One of the strengths of our study is that we used a SEM approach and have found a well-fitting model for
the relationship between motivation, mother education, weights of bags, tuition and academic performance.
Positivity is the use of primary data in the survey to add to existing literature. Only male students have been
used, therefore the effect of gender is not examined which is very important in educational studies. Another
limitation is that the findings require replication to show that they are not unique to the current study sample
(Rugutt & Chemosit, 2005).

CONCLUSION
It is important for researchers to explore motivational models as it is complex but crucial to understand
the student and performance nexus. The SEM model has shown that there are causal relationships between
motivation, mother education, weight of bags and private tuition and proposes one possible way to improve
math performance. Educational stakeholders need to identify, potential student’s internal and external
motives for performance, and integrate them in their sharing of good practices agenda.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
Salim Nauzeer – Open University of Mauritius, Mauritius.
Vishal Chandr Jaunky – Luleå University of Technology, Sweden.

REFERENCES
Abledu, J. K., & Offei, E. B. (2015). Musculoskeletal Disorders among First-Year Ghanaian Students in a
Nursing College. African Health Sciences, 15(2), 444-449. https://doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v15i2.18

52 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Abu Bakar, K., Tarmizi, R. A., Mahyuddin, R., Elias, H., Luan, W. S., & Ayub, A. F. M. (2010). Relationships
between university students’ achievement motivation, attitude and academic performance in Malaysia.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4906-4910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.793
Aguirre-Perez, D. M., Otero-Ojeda, G. A., Pliego-Rivero, F. B., & Ferreira-Martinez, A. A. (2007). Relationship
of working memory and EEG to academic performance: A study among high school students.
International journal of neuroscience, 117(6), 869-882. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450600910077
Ahmed, W., & Bruinsma, M. (2006). A Structural Model of Self-concept, Autonomous Motivation and Academic
Performance in Cross-cultural Perspective.
Alswat, K. A., Al-Shehri, A. D., Aljuaid, T. A., Alzaidi, B. A., & Alasmari, H. D. (2017). The association between
body mass index and academic performance. Saudi medical journal, 38(2), 186.
https://doi.org/10.15537/smj.2017.2.16320
Amrai, K., Motlagh, S. E., Zalani, H. A., & Parhon, H. (2011). The relationship between academic motivation
and academic achievement students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 399-402.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.111
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1984). The effect of sampling error on convergence, improper solutions, and
goodness-of-fit indices for maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. Psychometrika, 49(2), 155-
173. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294170
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and
recommended two-step approach. Psychological bulletin, 103(3), 411. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-
2909.103.3.411
Arbabi, T., Vollmer, C., Dörfler, T., & Randler, C. (2015). The influence of chronotype and intelligence on
academic achievement in primary school is mediated by conscientiousness, midpoint of sleep and
motivation. Chronobiology international, 32(3), 349-357. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2014.980508
Areepattamannil, S. (2014). Relationship between academic motivation and mathematics achievement among
Indian adolescents in Canada and India. The Journal of general psychology, 141(3), 247-262.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2014.897929
Atkinson, J. W., & Feather, N. T. (eds.) (1966). A theory of achievement motivation (Vol. 66). New York: Wiley.
Atta, M. A., Jamil, A., Rehman, J., Ayaz, M., Saeed, A., & Shah, M. A. (2011). Effects of private home tuition
on educational attainments of students at secondary school level. World Applied Sciences Journal,
13(6), 1486-1491.
Ayub, N. (2010). Effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on academic performance. Pakistan business
review, 8, 363-372.
Badiee, H., Babakhani, N., & Hashemian, K. (2014). The Explanation of structural model of academic
achievement based on perception of classroom structure and use of motivational strategies in middle
schools of Tehran. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 397-402.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.229
Bakhtiarvand, F., Ahmadian, S., Delrooz, K., & Farahani, H. A. (2011). The moderating effect of achievement
motivation on relationship of learning approaches and academic achievement. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 28, 486-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.093
Baliyan, S. P., & Nenty, H. J. (2015). Demographic Factors Influencing Senior Secondary School Students’
Attitude towards Agriculture in Botswana. International Journal of Education and Research, 3(10),
457-470.
Bandura, A. (ed.) (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge university press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527692
Bentler, P. M. (1982). Linear systems with multiple levels and types of latent variables. Systems under indirect
observation, pp.101-130.
Bergamin, P., Ziska, S. and Groner, R., 2010. Structural equation modelling of factors affecting success in
student’s performance in ODL-Programs: Extending Quality Management concepts. Open Praxis, 4(1),
pp.18-25.
Bipp, T., & van Dam, K. (2014). Extending hierarchical achievement motivation models: The role of
motivational needs for achievement goals and academic performance. Personality and Individual
Differences, 64, 157-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.039

http://www.ijese.com 53
Nauzeer and Jaunky

Bong, M. (2004). Academic motivation in self-efficacy, task value, achievement goal orientations, and
attributional beliefs. The Journal of Educational Research, 97(6), 287-298.
https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.97.6.287-298
Boon, H. J. (2007). Low-and high-achieving Australian secondary school students: Their parenting,
motivations and academic achievement. Australian Psychologist, 42, 3,212-225.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060701405584
Bossaert, G., Doumen, S., Buyse, E., & Verschueren, K., 2011. Predicting children’s academic achievement
after the transition to first grade: A two-year longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, 32(2), 47-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.12.002
Bouffard, T., & Couture, N. (2003). Motivational profile and academic achievement among students enrolled
in different schooling tracks. Educational studies, 29(1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690303270
Bozack, A. R., & Salvaggio, A. N. (2013). Relational effects of reading motivation and academic achievement
among adolescent boys. Reading Psychology, 34(6), 507-522.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2012.660302
Broussard, S. C., & Garrison, M. E. (2004). The relationship between classroom motivation and academic
achievement in elementary‐school‐aged children. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal,
33(2), 106-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077727X04269573
Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D’alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). The differential effects of intrinsic and
identified motivation on well-being and performance: prospective, experimental, and implicit
approaches to self-determination theory. Journal of personality and social psychology, 91(4), 750.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.750
Byrne, B. (2001). Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Caprara, G. V., Vecchione, M., Alessandri, G., Gerbino, M., & Barbaranelli, C. (2011). The contribution of
personality traits and self‐efficacy beliefs to academic achievement: A longitudinal study. British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(1), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.1348/2044-8279.002004
Cassidy, T., & Lynn, R. (1989). A multifactorial approach to achievement motivation: The development of a
comprehensive measure. Journal of Occupational Psychology.
Cherry, K. (2016). Motivation: Psychological factors that guide behavior. Retrieved from
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-motivation-2795378.
Chevalier, A., Harmon, C., O’Sullivan, V., & Walker, I. (2013). The impact of parental income and education
on the schooling of their children. IZA Journal of Labor Economics, 2(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-
8997-2-8
Chik, Z., & Abdullah, A. H. (2018). Effect of Motivation, Learning Style and Discipline Learn about Academic
Achievement Additional Mathematics. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and
Social Sciences, 8(4), 772-787.
Choi, K., & Kim, D. Y. (2013). A cross cultural study of antecedents on career preparation behavior: Learning
motivation, academic achievement, and career decision self-efficacy. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure,
Sport & Tourism Education, 13, 19-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2013.04.001
Chow, S. J., & Yong, B. C. S. (2013). Secondary School Students’ Motivation and Achievement in Combined
Science. Online Submission, 3(4), 213-228.
Clark, et al. (2014). Mediating relationships between academic motivation, academic integration and academic
performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 33, 30-38.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.04.007
Cokley, K. O. (2000). Examining the validity of the Academic Motivation Scale by comparing scale construction
to self-determination theory. Psychological Reports, 86(2), 560-564.
https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.2.560
Cokley, K., Komarraju, M., King, A., Cunningham, D., & Muhammad, G. (2003). Ethnic differences in the
measurement of academic self-concept in a sample of African American and European American college
students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63(4), 707-722.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402251055
Dang, H. A., & Rogers, H. F. (2008). How to interpret the growing phenomenon of private tutoring: human
capital deepening, inequality increasing, or waste of resources?. The World Bank.
https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkn004

54 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Dang, H.-A. (2008). Private Tutoring in Vietnam: An Investigation of its Causes and Impacts with policy
implications. Saarbrucken: VDM Verlag Dr. Muller.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-
4613-4446-9
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality.
Journal of research in personality, 19(2), 109-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(85)90023-6
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits:Human needs and the self-
determination theory. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s
domains. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0708-
5591.49.1.14
Deci, E., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer
Science & Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
Desforges, C., & Abouchaar, A. (2003). The impact of parental involvement, parental support and family
education on pupil achievement and adjustment: A literature review (Vol. 433). Nottingham: DfES
publications.
Detsch, C., Luz, A. M. H., Candotti, C. T., Oliveira, D. S. D., Lazaron, F., Guimarães, L. K., & Schimanoski, P.
(2007). Prevalência De Alteraçõesposturaisemescolares Do Ensinomédioemumacidade No Sul Do
Brasil. Revistapanamericana De Salud Publica, 21, 231-238. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1020-
49892007000300006
Di Giunta, L., Alessandri, G., Gerbino, M., Kanacri, P. L., Zuffiano, A., & Caprara, G. V. (2013). The
determinants of scholastic achievement: The contribution of personality traits, self-esteem, and
academic self-efficacy. Learning and individual Differences, 27, 102-108.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.07.006
Diseth, Å., Pallesen, S., Brunborg, G. S., & Larsen, S. (2010). Academic achievement among first semester
undergraduate psychology students: the role of course experience, effort, motives and learning
strategies. Higher Education, 59(3), 335-352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9251-8
Dodd, A. (2006). Investigating the effective use of resources in secondary schools. DfES Publications.
Doshi Dhara, R., & Jogson, Y. A. (2014). A study of mental health and academic achievement among orphan
and non-orphan students. International Journal of Current Research and Academic Review, 2(1).
Du Toit, D., Pienaar, A. E., & Truter, L. (2011). Relationship between physical fitness and academic
performance in South African children. South African Journal for Research in Sport. Physical
Education and Recreation, 33(3), 23-35.
Du, J. Y., Aichmair, A., Schroeder, J. E., Kiely, P. D., Nguyen, J. T., & Lebl, D. R. (2017). Neck Pain and Low
Back Pain in Medical Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Archives of Public Health and
Community Medicine.
Duthey, B. (2013). Background Paper 6.24 Low BP. Priority Medicines for Europe and the World. Global
Burden of Disease (2010), (March), 1-29.
Erten, İ. H. (2014). Interaction between Academic Motivation and Student Teachers’ Academic Achievement.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 173-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.176
Falout, J., Elwood, J., & Hood, M. (2009). Demotivation: Affective states and learning outcomes. System, 37(3),
403-417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.03.004
Feldman, D. B., & Kubota, M. (2015). Hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and academic achievement: Distinguishing
constructs and levels of specificity in predicting college grade-point average. Learning and Individual
Differences, 37, 210-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.022
Field, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics using SPSS. Sage: London.
Fritea, I., & Fritea, R. (2013). Can motivational regulation counteract the effects of boredom on academic
achievement? Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78, 135-139.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.266
Geier, A. B., Foster, G. D., Womble, L. G., McLaughlin, J., Borradaile, K. E., Nachmani, J., Sherman, S.,
Kumanyika, S., & Shults, J. (2007). The relationship between relative weight and school attendance
among elementary schoolchildren. Obesity, 15(8), 2157-2161. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.256

http://www.ijese.com 55
Nauzeer and Jaunky

George, D., Nayak, B. S., & Shetty, S. (2015). Bag Pack Weight and Musculoskeletal Discomfort Among School
Children. Nursing and Midwifery Research, 11(3), 97.
Goodgold, S., Corcoran, M., Gamache, D., Gillis, J., Guerin, J., & Coyle, J. Q. (2002). Backpack Use in Children.
Pediatric Physical Therapy: The Official Publication of The Section on Pediatrics of The American
Physical Therapy Association, 14(3), 122-131.
Grace, J. B., & Bollen, K. A. (2005). Interpreting the results from multiple regression and structural equation
models. The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 86(4), 283-295. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-
9623(2005)86[283:ITRFMR]2.0.CO;2
Guay, F., Chanal, J., Ratelle, C. F., Marsh, H. W., Larose, S., & Boivin, M. (2010). Intrinsic, identified, and
controlled types of motivation for school subjects in young elementary school children. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 711-735. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709910X499084
Gwynn, E. P. (2012). Achievement Motivation in High School: The Role of Teacher-Child Relationship Quality
from Third Grade to Sixth Grade (Doctoral dissertation).
Harreby, M., Nygaard, B., Jessen, T., Larsen, E., Storr-Paulsen, A., Lindahl, A., Fisker, I., & Lægaard, E.
(1999). Risk Factors for Low BP in a Cohort of 1389 Danish School Children: An Epidemiologic Study.
European Spine Journal, 8(6), 444-450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s005860050203
Hart, J. W., Stasson, M. F., Fulcher, K. H., & Mahoney, J. M. (2008). Assessing Achievement Motivation as a
Multi-Faceted Construct: Examining the Psychometric Properties of the Cassidy and Lynn
Achievement Motivation Scale. Individual Differences Research, 6(3).
Hart, J. W., Stasson, M. F., Fulcher, K. H., & Mahoney, J. M. (2008). Assessing Achievement Motivation as a
Multi-Faceted Construct: Examining the Psychometric Properties of the Cassidy and Lynn
Achievement Motivation Scale. Individual Differences Research, 6(3).
Hauser, R. M., & Warren, J. R. (1997). Socioeconomic indexes for occupations: A review, update, and critique.
Sociological methodology, 27(1), 177-298. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9531.271028
Helker, K., & Wosnitza, M. (2016). The interplay of students’ and parents’ responsibility judgements in the
school context and their associations with student motivation and achievement. International Journal
of Educational Research, 76, 34-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2016.01.001
Hornstra, L., van der Veen, I., Peetsma, T., & Volman, M. (2013). Developments in motivation and
achievement during primary school: A longitudinal study on group-specific differences. Learning and
Individual Differences, 23, 195-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.09.004
Hoseinzadeh, D., & Shoghi, B. (2013). The Relationship between Physical Function and General Health with
Academic Achievement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 1212-1216.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.730
Hulin, C., Netemeyer, R., & Cudeck, R. (2001). Can a reliability coefficient be too high?. Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 55-58. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327663JCP1001&2_05
Jackson, D. L. (2001). Sample size and number of parameter estimates in maximum likelihood confirmatory
factor analysis: A Monte Carlo investigation. Structural Equation Modeling, 8(2), 205-223.
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0802_3
Jovinius, J. (2015). An Investigation of the Effect of Geographical Location of Schools to the Students’ Academic
Performance: A Case of Public Secondary Schools in Muleba District (Doctoral dissertation, The Open
University of Tanzania).
Khadaee, G. H., & Saeidi, M. (2016). Increases of Obesity and Overweight in Children: an Alarm for Parents
and Policymakers. International journal of pediatrics, 4(4), 1591-1601.
Khalaila, R. (2015). The relationship between academic self-concept, intrinsic motivation, test anxiety, and
academic achievement among nursing students: Mediating and moderating effects. Nurse Education
Today, 35(3), 432-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2014.11.001
Khine, M. S. (ed.). (2013). Application of structural equation modeling in educational research and practice.
SensePublishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-332-4
Khoshnam, A. H., & Gendavani, A. G. (2013). The relationship between intrinsic motivation and happiness
with academic achievement in high school students. International Journal of Academic Research in
Business and Social Sciences, 3(11), 330. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v3-i11/342
Kilonzo, J. (2014). Influence of private tuition on standard eight pupils’ academic achievement in Mbooni West
District, Kenya. A University of Nairobi MED Project Report.

56 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Kim, J. H., & So, W. Y. (2013). Association between overweight/obesity and academic performance in South
Korean adolescents. Central European journal of public health, 21(4).
King, G. (2013). A solution to the ecological inference problem: Reconstructing individual behavior from
aggregate data. Princeton University Press.
Kistnasamy, E. J. (2014). The power of extrinsic motivation in tertiary education. American Journal of
Educational Research, 2(6), 383-388. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-2-6-9
Kline, R. B. (1991). Latent variable path analysis in clinical research: A beginner’s tour guide. Journal of
clinical psychology, 47(4), 471-484. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199107)47:4<471::AID-
JCLP2270470402>3.0.CO;2-O
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling: Methodology in the social sciences.
The Guilford Press.
Kocakaya, S., & Kocakaya, F. (2014). A structural equation modeling on factors of how experienced teachers
affect the students’ science and mathematics achievements. Education Research International.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/490371
Komarraju, M., Karau, S. J., & Schmeck, R. R. (2009). Role of the big five personality traits inpredicting college
students’ academic motivation and achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 19,47–52.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2008.07.001
Kong, Y. (2009). A brief discussion on motivation and ways to motivate students in English Language
Learning. International Education Studies, 2(2), 145. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v2n2p145
Krukru, K. (2015). Effects of instrumental materials on student’s academic performance. Social studies in
selected secondary schools in Nigeria.
Kusurkar, R. A., Ten Cate, T. J., Vos, C. M. P., Westers, P., & Croiset, G. (2013). How motivation affects
academic performance: a structural equation modelling analysis. Advances in health sciences education,
18(1), 57-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-012-9354-3
Kyriazos, T. A. (2018). Applied Psychometrics: Sample Size and Sample Power Considerations in Factor
Analysis (EFA, CFA) and SEM in General. Psychology, 9(08), 2207.
https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2018.98126
Lapointe, J., Dionne, C. E., Brisson, C., & Montreuil, S. (2009). Interaction Between Postural Risk Factors and
Job Strain on Self-Reported Musculoskeletal Symptoms Among Users of Video Display Units: A Three-
Year Prospective Study. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 134-144.
https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1312
Lasagabaster, D. (2011). English achievement and student motivation in CLIL and EFL settings. Innovation
in language Learning and Teaching, 5(1), 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2010.519030
Lee, C. J., Park, H. J., & Lee, H. (2012). Shadow education systems. In Handbook of education policy research
(pp. 917-935). Routledge.
Legault, L. (2016). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. In Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual
Differences (pp. 1-4). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-
8_1139-1
López-Aragón, L., López-Liria, R., Callejón-Ferre, Á. J., & Gómez-Galán, M. (2017). Applications of The
Standardized Nordic Questionnaire: A Review. Sustainability, 9(9), 1514.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091514
Machebe, C. H., Ezegbe, B. N., & Onuoha, J. (2017). The Impact of Parental Level of Income on Students’
Academic Performance in High School in Japan. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(9), 1614-
1620. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2017.050919
Mackenzie, W. G., Sampath, J. S., Kruse, R. W., & Sheir-Neiss, G. J. (2003). Backpacks in Children. Clinical
Orthopaedics And Related Research®, 409, 78-84. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.blo.0000058884.03274.d9
Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning.
Aptitude, learning and instruction, 3.
Marras, W. S., & Hancock, P. A. (2014). Putting Mind and Body Back Together: A Human-Systems Approach
To The Integration Of The Physical And Cognitive Dimensions Of Task Design And Operations. Applied
Ergonomics, 45(1), 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2013.03.025

http://www.ijese.com 57
Nauzeer and Jaunky

Marsh, H. W., & Hau, K. T. (2007). Applications of latent-variable models in educational psychology: The need
for methodological-substantive synergies. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32(1), 151-170.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.10.008
Martínez, A. F., & Dolores, H. M. (2008) 171. Is working memory capacity diminished in students with low
academic achievement? Clinical Neurophysiology, 119(9), p.e141.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2008.04.187
McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. New York: The Free Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/14359-000
Mega, C., Ronconi, L., & De Beni, R. (2014) What makes a good student? How emotions, self-regulated
learning, and motivation contribute to academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology,
106(1), 121-131 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033546
Mersch, R. L. D. (2012). Student academic achievement in rural vs. non-rural high schools in Wisconsin
(Doctoral dissertation, Edgewood College, Madison).
Moenikia, M., & Zahed-Babelan, A. (2010). A study of simple and multiple relations between mathematics
attitude, academic motivation and intelligence quotient with mathematics achievement. Procedia-
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 1537-1542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.231
Nafula, N. N. (2002). Achieving sustainable Universal Primary Education through debt relief. Nairobi: KIPRA.
Naticchioni, K. (2013). The Relationship between Obesity and Academic Achievement of School-Age Children.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and
performance. Psychological review, 91(3), 328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328
Nix, G. A., Ryan, R. M., Manly, J. B., & Deci, E. L. (1999). Revitalization through self-regulation: The effects
of autonomous and controlled motivation on happiness and vitality. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 35(3), 266-284. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1382
Önder, İ., Beşoluk, Ş., İskender, M., Masal, E., & Demirhan, E. (2014). Circadian preferences, sleep quality
and sleep patterns, personality, academic motivation and academic achievement of university students.
Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 184-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.02.003
Othman, M., & Muijs, D., 2013. Educational quality differences in a middle-income country: the urban-rural
gap in Malaysian primary schools. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 24(1), 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2012.691425
Owoeye, J. S., & Yara, P. O. (2011). School location and academic achievement of secondary school in Ekiti
State, Nigeria. Asian social science, 7(5), 170. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v7n5p170
Pajares, F., & Valiante, G. (2001). Gender differences in writing motivation and achievement of middle school
students: A function of gender orientation? Contemporary educational psychology, 26(3), 366-381.
https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1069
Panigrahi, S. S. (2018). Effect of Learning Burden on Academic Achievement of Nursery School Children.
International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 7(5).
https://doi.org/10.15680/IJIRSET.2018.07051155110
Passini, S., Molinari, L., & Speltini, G. (2015). A validation of the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction in
Italian secondary school students: the effect of positive relations on motivation and academic
achievement. Social Psychology of Education, 18(3), 547-559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-015-9300-
3
Pawaskar, R. P., & Goel, M. (2016). Improving the efficacy of destination marketing strategies: A structural
equation model for leisure travel. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 9(15).
https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i15/92154
Próspero, M., & Vohra-Gupta, S. (2007). First generation college students: Motivation, integration, and
academic achievement. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 31(12), 963-975.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10668920600902051
Putwain, D. W., Kearsley, R., & Symes, W. (2012). Do creativity self-beliefs predict literacy achievement and
motivation? Learning and Individual Differences, 22(3), 370-374.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.12.001
Quirk, K. J., Keith, T. Z., & Quirk, J. T. (2001). Employment during high school and student achievement:
Longitudinal analysis of national data. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(1), 4-10.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670109598778

58 http://www.ijese.com
 Int J Env Sci Ed

Rai, A., & Agarawal, S. (2013). Back Problems Due to Heavy Backpacks in School Children. IOSR J Hum Soc
Sci, 10, 1-5.
Richardson, K. (2000). Mathematics Standards for Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 2. ERIC Digest.
Robbins, S. B., Lauver, K., Le, H., Davis, D., Langley, R., & Carlstrom, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and study
skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological bulletin, 130(2), 261.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.261
Roeser, R. W., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., … Harrison, J., 2013. Mindfulness
training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control
field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), p.787. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032093
Rücker, J. C. (2012). The relationship between motivation, perceived stress and academic achievement in
students (Bachelor’s thesis, University of Twente).
Rugutt, J. K., & Chemosit, C. C. (2005). A Study of Factors that Influence College Academic Achievement: A
Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Journal of Educational Research & Policy Studies, 5(1), 66-
90.
Ryan, A. M. (2001). The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent motivation and
achievement. Child development, 72(4), 1135-1150. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00338
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions.
Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. Accession Number: 00000487-
200001000-00007
Scott, J. E. (1996). Self-efficacy: A key to literacy learning. Reading Horizons, 36(3), 1.
Sigfúsdóttir, I. D., Kristjánsson, A. L., & Allegrante, J. P. (2006). Health behaviour and academic achievement
in Icelandic school children. Health education research, 22(1), 70-80. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyl044
Sivandani, A., Koohbanani, S. E., & Vahidi, T. (2013). The relation between social support and self-efficacy
with academic achievement and school satisfaction among female junior high school students in
Birjand. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 668-673.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.623
Skaalvik, E. M., Federici, R. A., & Klassen, R. M. (2015). Mathematics achievement and self-efficacy: Relations
with motivation for mathematics. International Journal of Educational Research, 72, 129-136.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2015.06.008
Stage, F. K., Carter, H. C., & Nora, A. (2004). Path analysis: An introduction and analysis of a decade of
research. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(1), 5-13. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.98.1.5-13
Stoeber, J., & Eismann, U., 2007. Perfectionism in young musicians: Relations with motivation, effort,
achievement, and distress. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(8), 2182-2192.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.036
Suárez-Álvarez, J., Fernández-Alonso, R., & Muñiz, J. (2014). Self-concept, motivation, expectations, and
socioeconomic level as predictors of academic performance in mathematics. Learning and Individual
Differences, 30, 118-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.10.019
Suleman, Q., & Hussain, I. (2014). Effects of private tuition on the academic achievement of secondary school
students in subject of mathematics in Kohat division, Pakistan. Journal of Education and Learning
(EduLearn), 8(1), pp.29-40. https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v8i1.203
Tabernero, C., & Hernández, B., 2011. Self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation guiding environmental behavior.
Environment and Behavior, 43(5), 658-675. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510379759
Taylor et al., 2014, Cortina, M. A., Stein, A., Kahn, K., Hlungwani, T. M., Holmes, E. A., & Fazel, M. (2016).
Cognitive styles and psychological functioning in rural South African school students: understanding
influences for risk and resilience in the face of chronic adversity. Journal of adolescence, 49, 38-46.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.01.010
Taylor, G., Jungert, T., Mageau, G. A., Schattke, K., Dedic, H., Rosenfield, S., & Koestner, R. (2014). A self-
determination theory approach to predicting school achievement over time: The unique role of intrinsic
motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(4), 342-358.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.08.002
Teo, T., & Khine, M. S. (2009). Structural equation modeling in educational research. Sense Publ.

http://www.ijese.com 59
 Nauzeer and Jaunky

Tety, J. L. (2016). Role of Instructional Materials in Academic Performance in Community Secondary Schools
in Rombo District (Doctoral dissertation, The Open University of Tanzania).
Tobin, K. J. (2013). Fast-food consumption and educational test scores in the USA. Child Care Health Dev, 39,
118-124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01349.x
Tongsilp, A. (2013). A Path Analysis of Relationships between Factors with Achievement Motivation of
Students of Private Universities in Bangkok, Thailand. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 88,
229-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.501
Um, E. K., Corter, J., & Tatsuoka, K. (2005). Motivation, autonomy support, and mathematics performance: A
structural equation analysis (Unpublished manuscript). retrieved from
http://cms.tc.columbia.edu/i/a/1996_ncme2005-3unkyoung.pdf
Ursachi, G., Horodnic, I. A., & Zait, A. (2015). How reliable are measurement scales? External factors with
indirect influence on reliability estimators. Procedia Economics and Finance, 20, 679-686.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00123-9
Utvær, B. K. S., & Haugan, G. (2016). The academic motivation scale: dimensionality, reliability, and construct
validity among vocational students. Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 6(2), 17-45.
https://doi.org/10.3384/njvet.2242-458X.166217
Vegas, E. (2007). Teacher labor markets in developing countries. The future of children, 219-232.
https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2007.0011
Venkatesh Kumar, G., & Karimi, A. (2010). Mathematics anxiety, mathematics performance and overall
academic performance in high school students. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology,
36(1), 147-150.
Violato, C., & Hecker, K. G. (2007). How to use structural equation modeling in medical education research:
A brief guide. Teaching and learning in medicine, 19(4), 362-371.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10401330701542685
Wang, J. C., Morin, A. J., Ryan, R. M., & Liu, W. C. (2016). Students’ motivational profiles in the physical
education context. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(6), 612-630.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0153
Waseka, E. L., & Simatwa, E. M. W. (2016). Student Factors Influencing Academic Performance of Students
in Secondary Education in Kenya: A Case Study of Kakamega County. Educational Research, 7, 72-87.
Washington, L. (2016). The Effects of Parent Involvement on Student Outcomes in a Minority-Serving Charter
High School Western. Sydney, Penrith, Australia.
Webster, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (2000). Accounting for variation in science and mathematics achievement: A
multilevel analysis of Australian data Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).
School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 11(3), 339-360. https://doi.org/10.1076/0924-
3453(200009)11:3;1-G;FT339
Weiner, B. (1990). History of motivational research in education. Journal of educational Psychology, 82(4),
616. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.616
Wilson, K. M., & Trainin, G. (2007). First-grade students’ motivation and achievement for reading, writing,
and spelling. Reading Psychology, 28(3), 257-282. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710601186464
World Health Organization (2016). Obesity and overweight: 2016 update. Geneva (GH): WHO. Retrieved
allowed on May 2016. Retrieved on May 2016 from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
Wormington, S. V., Anderson, K. G., & Corpus, J. H. (2011). The role of academic motivation in high school
students’ current and lifetime alcohol consumption: Adopting a self-determination theory perspective.
Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, 72(6), 965-974. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2011.72.965
Young, R. (2008). Using technology tools in the public school classroom. University of Wisconsin: Unpublished
Master’s Thesis.
Yuet, C. C. (2008). The Relationship between motivation and achievement in foreign language learning in a
sixth form college in Hong Kong (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), University of Leicester, Leicester,
United Kingdom.

60 http://www.ijese.com

View publication stats