Comprehensive 2
Comprehensive 2
What is Computer?
- Computer is an electronic device. It accepts raw data from us, process it and
gives meaningful information as required by user as per given instruction.
- Characteristics of computer:
Computer is very fast and accurate
Works at constant efficiency
Can store information
Computer is very versatile
Computer System
Computer system consists of –
1. Hardware- It consists of the mechanical, electrical, and electronics parts of the
computer
2. Software- A set of programs that takes input, process data & produce output
3. Firmware- The programs that are stored in ROM (Read Only Memory)
Classification of Hardware
Hardware classified as –
1. CU (Control Unit) - controls and directs the operations of entire computer system.
2. ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit) - Carries out arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction etc.
3. Main Memory
- Classified as
a. RAM (Random Access Memory)- Temporary memory used for storing data or
instructions during processing
b. ROM (Read Only Memory)- Permanent memory which contains basic information
the CPU needs when you first turn on the computer as well as other times during the
operation of the computer.
1. Input
2. Output
3. Secondary storage
Types of Software
1. System Software
- System software is general purpose software which is used to operate computer
hardware. It provides platform to run application software.
- Example: compiler, assembler, debugger, driver, etc.
2. Application Software
- Application software is specific purpose software which is used by user for
performing specific task.
- Example: word processor, web browser, media player, etc.
What is Cache Memory?
Cache Memory is smaller and faster Memory which is very nearest to the CPU , all the
recent Instructions are Stored into the Cache Memory.
1. In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called
the bus. Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other
workstation in the network.
2. In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the
workstations are directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every
other through the central computer.
3. In the ring network topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop
configuration. Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of
workstations are indirectly connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate
nodes.
4. The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full mesh and partial
mesh. In the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the
others. In the partial mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others,
and some are connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most
data.
5. The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The
central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network
is a bus network of star networks.
CSC 183 - Programming C
What is Identifier?
Identifiers are user defined word used to name of entities like variables, arrays, functions,
structures etc. Rules for naming identifiers are:
1) Name should only consist of alphabets (both upper and lower case), digits and
underscore (_) sign.
2) First characters should be alphabet or underscore
3) Name should not be a keyword
4) Since C is a case sensitive, the upper case and lower case considered differently, for
example code, Code, CODE etc. are different identifiers.
5) Identifiers are generally given in some meaningful name such as value, net_salary, age,
data etc. An identifier name may be long, some implementation recognizes only first
eight characters, most recognize 31 characters. ANSI standard compiler recognizes 31
characters. Some invalid identifiers are 5cb, int, res#, avg no etc.
Data types
1. Int
2. Float
3. Double
4. Char
5. Pointer
6. Array
7. Void
What is constant?
Constant
Constant is an any value that cannot be changed during program execution.
What is variable?
Variable
Variable is a data name which is used to store some data value or symbolic names for
storing program. Declaration of variables specifies its name, data types and range of the
value that variables can store depends upon its data types.
Syntax:
int a;
char c;
float f
Expressions
An expression is a combination of variables, constants, operators and function call. It can
be arithmetic, logical and relational for example:-
int z= x+y // arithmatic expression
a>b //relational
a==b // logical func(a, b) // function call
Operators
1. Arithmetic Operator
This operator used for numeric calculation. These are of either Unary arithmetic
operator, Binary arithmetic operator. Where Unary arithmetic operator required 25
*under revision only one operand such as +,-, ++, --,!, tiled. And these operators are
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
2. Assignment Operator
A value can be stored in a variable with the use of assignment operator. The
assignment operator(=) is used in assignment statement and assignment expression.
For example,
int x= y;
int Sum=x+y+z;
3. Relational Operator
It is use to compared value of two expressions depending on their relation. Expression
that contain relational operator is called relational expression. Here the value is assign
according to true or false value.
a.(a>=b) || (b>20)
b.(b>a) && (e>b)
c. 0(b!=7)
Control Statement
Control statement defined How the control is transferred from one part to the other part of
the program. There are several control statement like if...else, switch, while, do....while,
for loop, break etc.
Loops in C
-It is a block of statement that performs set of instructions.
There are three types of loops in c
1.While loop
2.do while loop
3.for loop While loop
Array
Array is the collection of similar data types or collection of similar entity stored in
contiguous memory location. Array of character is a string.
Example: int arr[100];
Declaration of an array :
Its syntax is :
Data type array name [size];
int arr[100];
int mark[100];
int a[5]={10,20,30,100,5}
Function
A function is a self-contained block of codes or sub programs with a set of statements
that perform some specific task or coherent task when it is called.
Pointer
A pointer is a variable that store memory address or that contains address of another
variable where addresses are the location number always contains whole number.
Syntax-
Data type *pointer name;
Example:
void main()
{ int i=105;
int *p;
p=&i;
printf(―value of i=%d‖,*p);
printf(―value of i=%d‖,*/&i);
}
CSC 283 - Programming C++
What is Class?
A class is a construct that enables you to create your own custom types by grouping
together
A member function of a class is a function that has its definition or its prototype within
the class definition similar to any other variable. It operates on any object of the class of
which it is a member, and has access to all the members of a class for that object.
What is object?
What is encapsulation?
Grouping related data and functions together as objects and defining an interface to those
objects.
What is inheritance?
Allowing code to be reused between related types.
What is polymorphism?
Allowing a value to be one of several types, and determining at runtime which functions
to call on it based on its type.
Basic Structure:
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
cout << "Hello, world!\n";
return 0;
}
A public member is accessible from anywhere outside the class but within a program.
A private member variable or function cannot be accessed, or even viewed from outside
the class. Only the class and friend functions can access private members.
Exceptions provide a way to transfer control from one part of a program to another. C++
exception handling is built upon three keywords: try, catch, and throw.
throw − A program throws an exception when a problem sHows up. This is done
using a throw keyword.
try − A try block identifies a block of code for which particular exceptions will be
activated. It's followed by one or more catch blocks.
CSC 231 - Fundamentals of electronics and digital system
Atomic Structure
Proton (positively charged particles found in the atomic nucleus)
Neutron (uncharged particles found in the atomic nucleus)
Electron(negatively charged particles that surround the atom's nucleus)
Electronic Materials
Conductors: have low resistance which allows electrical current flow
Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses electrical current flow
Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical current flow. The main characteristic
of a semiconductor element is that it has four electrons in its outer or valence orbit.
Crystal Lattice: The unique capability of semiconductor atoms is their ability to link
together to form a physical structure called a crystal lattice.
Types of Semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor which does not have any doping agent
(an impurity added to crystal lattice).
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors
Doping: To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must
be added. ―Impurities‖ are different elements. This process is called doping.
Types of Semiconductor Materials
N-type: The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an ―N type‖ semiconductor.
P-type: Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations called holes is
called ―P type‖ semiconductor.
Diode: A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode
and the cathode.
In the forward region, the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the
knee voltage of the diode. The knee voltage equals the barrier potential.
Power dissipation: The power rating is the maximum power the diode can safely
dissipate without shortening its life or degrading its properties.
Barrier Voltage: Barrier voltage prevents the further combination of electrons and holes
which limits the size of depletion region.
Diode Biasing: The voltage applied to the semiconductor diode is referred to as bias
voltage.
Types of diode - Zener diode, LED (Light-emitting Diode), Photo diode etc.
Advantages of LEDs
Low operating voltage, current and power consumption
LEDs have low inherent noise levels
Limitations of LEDs
Temperature dependence of radiant output power and wavelength.
Sensitivity to damages by over voltage or over current.
Zener Regulator : A zener diode is sometimes called a voltage-regulator diode because it
maintains a constant output voltage even though the current through it changes.
Transistor: Transistor is a three terminal electronic device .Transistor Amplifies the
weak input signal. Transistor is used as switch and amplifier with various electronic
devices.
The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is the simplest type of transistor. BJT are classified
into two types:
• NPN Transistor
• PNP Transistor
Number System: Number system can be defined as the method or format which is used
for denoting a numerical value.
ASCII Code: The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) code is
used to represent the 26 upper case letters (A to Z), 26 lowercase letters (a to z), 10
numbers (0 to 9), 33 special characters and symbols and 33 control characters.
Digital signals: Digital signals are essentially a series of pulses or rapidly changing
voltage levels that vary in discrete steps or increments.
Digital Integrated Circuits (ICs): A digital integrated circuit, also called as a chip, is a
small electronic device made out of the semiconductor material that consists of electronic
components like transistors, logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers and other circuits.
Types of IC:
Logic Circuit: A collection of individual logic gates connect with each other and produce
a logic design known as a Logic Circuit. The following are the three basic gates: NOT ,
AND , OR .
Multiplexer: Multiplex means many into one. A multiplexer is a circuit used to select
and route any one of several input signals to a single output. The types of multiplexers are
as follows:
– 2-to-1 Multiplexer
– 4-to-1 Multiplexer
– 8-to-1 Multiplexer
– 16-to-1 Multiplexer
Demultiplexer: Demultiplex means one into many. A demultiplexer is a circuit with one
input and many outputs. The types of multiplexers are as follows:
– 1-to-2 Multiplexer
– 1-to-4 Multiplexer
– 1-to-8 Multiplexer
– 1-to-16 Multiplexer
Encoder: An encoder is a circuit with multiple inputs which generates a unique address
at its output that is, it converts an active input signal to a coded output signal.
Decoder: A decoder is a circuit with no data input, but accepts only the control inputs
and generates many outputs
CSC 197 - Assembly Language
Assembly language is also known as assembly code. The term is often also used
synonymously with 2GL.Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code.
• Opcode mnemonics
• Data definitions
• Assembly directives
What is Memory?
Information processed by the computer is stored in its memory.
A memory circuit element can store one bit of data.
The memory circuits are usually organized into groups that can store eight
bits of data.
A string of eight bits is called a byte.
Memory byte is identified by a number that is called its ―address‖
Data stored in a memory byte are called its contents
Example: Suppose a processor uses 20 bits for an address. How many
memory bytes can be accessed?
Solution: A bit can have two possible values, so in a 20-bits address there
can be 220 = 1,048,576 different values, with each value being the potential
address of a memory byte. In computer terminology, the number 220 is
called 1 mega. Thus, a 20-bit address can be used to address 1 megabyte or 1
MB.
What is Buses?
A set of wires or connections called buses that connect the different
components
There are three kind of buses:
Address bus
Data bus
Control bus
What is registers?
1. AX (Accumulator Register)
2. BX (Base Register)
3. CX (Count Register)
4. DX (Data Register)
1. segment registers
• Code Segment
• Code Segment
• Code Segment
A Flag registers
• Status flag
1. trap flag
2. interrupt flag
3. Direction flag
Assembly Struture
CSC 391 – Data Structure & Algorithm
Data Structure is a way of collecting and organising data in such a way that we can perform
operations on these data in an effective way. Data Structures is about rendering data elements
in terms of some relationship, for better organization and storage. For example, we have
some data which has, player's name "Virat" and age 26. Here "Virat" is of String data type
and 26 is of integerdata type.
As we have discussed above, anything that can store data can be called as a data structure,
hence Integer, Float, Boolean, Char etc, all are data structures. They are known as Primitive
Data Structures.
Then we also have some complex Data Structures, which are used to store large and
connected data. Some example of Abstract Data Structure are :
Linked List
Tree
Graph
Stack, Queue etc.
Space Complexity
It‘s the amount of memory space required by the algorithm, during the course of its
execution. Space complexity must be taken seriously for multi-user systems and in situations
where limited memory is available.
Instruction Space: It‘s the space required to store the executable version of the program.
This space is fixed, but varies depending upon the number of lines of code in the program.
Data Space: It‘s the space required to store all the constants and variables(including
temporary variables) value.
Environment Space: It‘s the space required to store the environment information needed to
resume the suspended function.
Time Complexity
Time Complexity is a way to represent the amount of time required by the program to run till
its completion. It's generally a good practice to try to keep the time required minimum, so
that our algorithm completes its execution in the minimum time possible.
A linked list is a chain of nodes connect through "next" pointers. A tree is similar, but each
node can be connected to multiple nodes.
When we talk about tree, mostly we mean binary tree, that is a structure that has two children,
left and right.
A node of a binary tree is represented by a structure containing a data part and two pointers to
other structures of the same type.
struct node
int data;
};
A special pointer called ROOT points to the node that is the parent of all the other nodes.
Also, the nodes that don't have any children have their left and right pointers point to NULL.
Hash Table
Hash Table is a data structure which stores data in an associative manner. In a hash table,
data is stored in an array format, where each data value has its own unique index value.
Hashing
Hashing is a technique to convert a range of key values into a range of indexes of an array.
Sorting
Sorting is nothing but arranging the data in ascending or descending order. The
term sorting came into picture, as humans realised the importance of searching quickly.
Since the beginning of the programming age, computer scientists have been working on
solving the problem of sorting by coming up with various different algorithms to sort data.
The two main criterias to judge which algorithm is better than the other have been:
Bubble Sort is a simple algorithm which is used to sort a given set of n elements provided in
form of an array with n number of elements. Bubble Sort compares all the element one by
one and sort them based on their values.
Selection sort is conceptually the most simplest sorting algorithm. This algorithm will first
find the smallest element in the array and swap it with the element in the first position, then
it will find the second smallest element and swap it with the element in the second position,
and it will keep on doing this until the entire array is sorted.
Consider you have 10 cards out of a deck of cards in your hand. And they are sorted, or
arranged in the ascending order of their numbers.
If I give you another card, and ask you to insert the card in just the right position,so that the
cards in your hand are still sorted. What will you do?
Well, you will have to go through each card from the starting or the back and find the right
position for the new card, comparing it's value with each card. Once you find the right
position, you will insert the card there.
Similarly, if more new cards are provided to you, you can easily repeat the same process and
insert the new cards and keep the cards sorted too.
This is exactly How insertion sort works. It starts from the index 1(not 0), and each index
starting from index 1 is like a new card, that you have to place at the right position in the
sorted subarray on the left.
Merge Sort Algorithm
Merge Sort follows the rule of Divide and Conquer to sort a given set of numbers/elements,
recursively, hence consuming less time.
Quick Sort is also based on the concept of Divide and Conquer, just like merge sort. But in
quick sort all the heavy lifting(major work) is done while dividing the array into subarrays,
while in case of merge sort, all the real work happens during merging the subarrays. In case
of quick sort, the combine step does absolutely nothing.
Heap Sort is one of the best sorting methods being in-place and with no quadratic worst-case
running time. Heap sort involves building a Heap data structure from the given array and
then utilizing the Heap to sort the array.
Queue is also an abstract data type or a linear data structure, just like stack data structure, in
which the first element is inserted from one end called the REAR(also called tail), and the
removal of existing element takes place from the other end called as FRONT(also
called head).
This makes queue as FIFO(First in First Out) data structure, which means that element
inserted first will be removed first.
Before we start to learn about Circular queue, we should first understand, why we need a
circular queue, when we already have linear queue data structure.
In a Linear queue, once the queue is completely full, it's not possible to insert more elements.
Even if we dequeue the queue to remove some of the elements, until the queue is reset, no
new elements can be inserted.
Linked Lists
Linked List is a very commonly used linear data structure which consists of group
of nodes in a sequence.
Each node holds its own data and the address of the next node hence forming a chain like
structure.
Recursion Basics
Some computer programming languages allow a module or function to call itself. This
technique is known as recursion. In recursion, a function α either calls itself directly or calls a
function β that in turn calls the original function α. The function α is called recursive
function.
Algorithm in Programming
1. What is an Algorithm?
Ans: This article is for those who have just started learning algorithms, and wondered
How impactful will it be to boost their career/programming skills. It is also for those who
wonder why big companies like Google, Facebook and Amazon hire programmers who
are exceptionally good at optimizing Algorithms.
CPU:
Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions –
Registers, Arithmetic and Logic Unit, Internal Bus, Control Unit
Main memory:
Stores data
I/O:
System interconnection:
Computer architecture is a specification detailing about How a set of software and hardware
standards interacts with each other to form a computer system or platform.
How Computer Architecture is characterized?
System Design: It includes all the hardware component in the system, including data
processor aside from the CPU like direct memory access and graphic processing unit
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): It is the embedded programming language of
the central processing unit. It determines the CPU‘s functions and capabilities based on
programming it can process.
Microarchitecture: It defines the data path, storage element, and data processing as
well as How they should be implemented in the ISA.
A CPU architecture is defined by the set of machine language which can be defined as a
What are the different types of fields that are part of an instruction?
Operation Code Field or OP Code field: This field is used to determine the operation
to be performed for the instruction
Address Field: This field is used to determine various addresses such as memory
address and register address
Mode Field: This field determines How operand is to perform or How effective
address is derived
What are the basic components of a Microprocessor?
I/O Units
Control Unit
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Registers
Cache
SEMICONDUCTOR MAIN MEMORY: The basic element of a semiconductor
memory is the memory cell.
RAM: Random-access memory(RAM)
DYNAMIC RAM: A dynamic RAM (DRAM) is made with cells that store data as
charge on capacitors.
STATIC RAM: Static RAM (SRAM) is a digital device that uses the same logic
elements used in the processor.
ROM: Read-only memory(ROM) contains a permanent pattern of data that cannot be
changed. A ROM is nonvolatile.
PROM: Programmable ROM (PROM) is nonvolatile and may be written into only
once.
EPROM: Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is read and written
electrically, as with PROM.
EEPROM: Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM).
FLASH memory: Flash memory is intermediate between EPROM and EEPROM in
both cost and functionality.
Processor:
The requirements placed on the processor, the things that it must do:
• Fetch instruction: The processor reads an instruction from memory (register, cache, main
memory).
• Interpret instruction: The instruction is decoded to determine What action is required.
• Fetch data: The execution of an instruction may require reading data from memory or an
I/O module.
• Process data: The execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or
logical
Operations on data.
• Write data: The results of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O
module.
Instruction pipelining:
It is a process in which several components of the CPU are used to execute more than one
instruction concurrently.
CSC 433 - Database Management System
What are the different types of languages that are available in the DBMS?
Basically, there are 3 types of languages in the DBMS as mentioned below:
DDL: DDL is Data Definition Language which is used to define the database and
schema structure by using some set of SQL Queries
like CREATE, ALTER, TRUNCATE, DROP and RENAME.
DCL: DCL is Data Control Language which is used to control the access of the users
inside the database by using some set of SQL Queries like GRANT and REVOKE.
DML: DML is Data Manipulation Language which is used to do some manipulations
in the database like Insertion, Deletion, etc. by using some set of SQL Queries
like SELECT, INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE.
What is the purpose of SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language whose main purpose is to interact with the
relational databases in the form of inserting and updating/modifying the data in the database.
Example: There are 2 tables – Employee and Department and both have one common
field/column as ‗ID’ where ID is the primary key of the Employee table while this is
the foreign key for the Department table.
What are the main differences between Primary key and Unique Key?
- Entity Type is a collection of the entities which have the same attributes.
Physical Level: This is the lowest level of the data abstraction which states How the
data is stored in the database.
Logical Level: This is the next level of the data abstraction which states the type of
the data and the relationship among the data that is stored in the database.
View Level: This is the highest level in the data abstraction which sHows/states only
a part of the database.
What is RDBMS?
RDBMS is the Relational Database Management System which contains data in the form of
the tables and data is accessed on the basis of the common fields among the tables.
What are the different type of relationships in the DBMS?
Relationships in DBMS depicts an association between the tables.
Different types of relationships are:
One-to-One: This basically states that there should be a one-to-one relationship
between the tables i.e. there should be one record in both the tables. Eg: Among a
married couple, both wife and husband can have only one spouse.
One-to-Many: This states that there can be many relationships for one i.e. a primary
key table hold only one record which can have many, one or none records in the
related table. Eg: A Mother can have many children.
Many-to-Many: This states that both the tables can be related to many other
tables. Eg: One can have many siblings and so do they have.
CSC 329 – Logic Design & switching circuit
2=0010, 5=0101
(25)10 = (100101)BCD
+1
6. Register: The device most commonly used for holding data is a register.
7. Logic Gate: Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on one or more input signals to
produce an output signal.
8. XOR: Exclusive OR
9. Binary Adder: A binary adder is a digital circuit that produces the arithmetic sum of two
binary numbers.
10. Decoder: A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n
input lines to a maximum of 2n unique output lines.
11. Encoder: An encoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from 2n
input lines to n output lines.
13. Memory Unit: A memory unit is a device to which binary information is transferred for
storage from which information is retrieved when needed for processing.
CSC 383 – Programming Java
3 int b= 5;
4 public void add(){ //Method declaration
5 int c = a+b;
6}
7}
Example:
1 public class Addition{
2 public static void main(String[] args){
5}
The above code creates the object for the Addition class.
Example:
1 Super class:
2 public class Manupulation(){
3}
4 Sub class:
3}
If someone changes the exact variable as ―a = -5” then it is bad.
In order to overcome the problem we need to follow the below steps:
We can make the variable as private or protected one.
Use public accessor methods such as set<property> and get<property>.
So that the above code can be modified as:
1 public class Addition(){
2 private int a = 5; //Here the variable is marked as private
3}
Below code sHows the getter and setter.
Conditions can be provided while setting the variable.
get A(){
.........
}
For encapsulation, we need to make all the instance variables as private and create setter and
getter for those variables. Which in turn will force others to call the setters rather than access
the data directly.
Example:
1 Public class Manipulation(){ //Super class
2 public void add(){
3}
4}
7}
8 public static void main(String args[]){
11 }
12 }
Using Manipulation reference type we can call the Addition class ―add()‖ method. This
ability is known as Polymorphism.
Example:
public class Manipulation{ //Super class
………………
………..
addition.add() method calls the add() method in the Sub class and not the parent class. So it
overrides the Super class method and is known as Method Overriding.
………………
………..
}
Public void add(int a){ //integer parameter
addition.add();
Here the add() method having different parameters in the Addition class is overloaded in the
same class as well as with the super class.
Example:
1 Public abstract interface IManupulation{ //Interface declaration
2 Public abstract void add();//method declaration
3 ……………
4}
7}
8}
Example:
1 public abstract class Manupulation{
2 public abstract void add();//Abstract method declaration
5}
An abstract class may have a Non- abstract method also.
The concrete Subclass which extends the Abstract class should provide the
implementation for abstract methods.
CSC 439 – Visual Programming
ASP.NET Core is a new open-source and cross-platform framework for building modern
cloud based internet connected applications, such as web apps, IoT apps and mobile
backends. ASP.NET Core apps cross-platform on Windows, Mac and Linux. ASP.NET
Core is open source at GitHub
Controller: The controller is responsible for handling any HTTP requests that come to
the application. The controller‘s responsibility is then to gather and combine all the
necessary data and package it in model objects, which act as data carriers to the views.
Models: Classes that represent the data of the app. The model classes use validation logic
to enforce business rules for that data. Typically, model objects retrieve and store model
state in a database.
View: Views are the components that display the app's user interface (UI). Generally, this
UI displays the model data.
MVC Logic: MVC pattern specifies where each kind of logic should be located in the
application. Logics are-
Input Logic: Input logic belongs in the Controller.
Business Logic: Business logic belongs in the model.
UI Logic: UI logic belongs in the View.
This separation helps us to reduce complexity when we build an application.
Routing: ASP.NET Core MVC uses the Routing middleware to match the URLs of
incoming requests and map them to actions.
Routing is two types- Convention bsed routing, Attribute routing
Predefined Type: Predefined types are types that are specially supported by the
compiler. The int type is a predefined type for representing the set of integers that fit into
32 bits of memory, from −231 to 231−1, and is the default type for numeric literals within
this range.
Reference Type variables are stored in the heap while Value Type variables are stored in
the stack.
The Console class is actually a static class, which means all its members are static. You
never actually create instances of a Console—one console is shared across the whole
application.
Razor: Razor is a mark up syntax that lets us embed server-based code (for example- C#)
into web pages. Razor view template file help us to generate the Html response.
The Razor syntax consists of Razor markup, C#, and HTML.
Rules of Razor:
Razor code blocks are enclosed in @{ ... }
Inline expressions (variables and functions) start with @
Code statements end with semicolon
Strings are enclosed with quotation marks
C# code is case sensitive
C# files have the extension .cshtml
@model Directive: The @model directive specifies the type of the model passed to a
view.
Sealed Class: Sealed classes are used to restrict the users from inheriting the class.
A class can be sealed by using the sealed keyword. The keyword tells the compiler
that the class is sealed, and therefore, cannot be extended. No class can be derived
from a sealed class. Sealed method is implemented so that no other class can
overthrow it and implement its own method
MVC -LINQ:
LINQ (Language-Integrated Query) is used to write LINQ queries in C# for
databases, XML documents, ADO.NET Datasets and any collection of objects. LINQ
provides you three different ways to write a LINQ query in C#-
1. Query Expression (Query Syntax)
2. Method Invocation (Method Syntax)
3. Mixed Syntax
LINQ – Mixed syntax: You can use a mixture of both syntax by enclosing a query
expression inside parentheses and make a call to method.
1. What is a Microprocessor?
Answer: Microprocessor is a program-controlled device, which fetches the
instructions from memory, decodes and executes the instructions. Most Micro
Processor are single- chip devices.
Address bus: This is used to carry the Address to the memory to fetch either
Instruction or Data.
Data bus : This is used to carry the Data from the memory.
Control bus : This is used to carry the Control signals like RD/WR, Select etc.
System analysis: System analysis is a method of figuring out the basic elements of a
project and deciding How to combine them in a best way to solve a problem.
• Consultant
• Supporting expert
• Agent of change
SDLC: It stands for Systems Development Life Cycle which is a phased approach to
solving business problems.
CASE tools: CASE tools are productivity tools for systems analysts that have been created
explicitly to improve their routine work through the use of automated support.
Agile Approach: The Agile Method is a particular approach to project management that is
utilized in software development.
• Exploration
• Planning
• Productionizing
• Maintenance
Context-Level Data Flow Diagrams: It focus is on the data flowing into and out of the
system and the processing of the data. The Basic Symbols of a Data Flow Diagram:
1. Process: A process means some actions take place
2. Entity: An Entity is a person, group, or any system that receives or originates
information or data.
3. Data flow- It sHows information being is passed from or to a process.
Use case diagram: A use case diagram is a graphic depiction of the interactions among
the elements of a system.
Tangible benefit: Tangible benefits are those measured in monetary terms. Examples:
Intangible benefits: Intangible benefits cannot be measured in monetary terms but they
do have a very significant business impact. Examples:
Break-Even Analysis: Break even analysis is the point at which the total cost of the
current system and the proposed system intersect.
Work Breakdown Structure: Often a project needs to be broken down into smaller
tasks or activities. These tasks together make up a work breakdown structure (WBS).
Function Point Analysis: Function Point Analysis (FPA) refers to the practice of using
function points to size and estimate the cost of work on systems
Takes the five main components of a computer system and rates them in terms of complexity:
• External inputs
• External outputs
• External queries
Question Types:
Bipolar Questions: Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a ―yes‖ or ―no‖ or
―agree‖ or ―disagree‖
Arranging Questions:
• Pyramid -Starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions
• Funnel - Starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions
• Diamond - Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed
questions
Sampling: A process of systematically selecting representative elements of a population
• Patched-up : A working model that has all the features but is inefficient
• Nonoperational: A nonworking scale mode that is set up to test certain aspects of the
design
• Selected features: Building an operational model that includes some, but not all, of the
features that the final system will have.
• Logical: SHow What data the business needs for its day-to-day operations
Objects: Persons, places, or things that is relevant to the system being analyzed
Classes: Defines the set of shared attributes and behaviors found in each object
Inheritance: When a derived class inherits all the attributes and behaviors of the base
class
Cipher code: A cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption or
decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure.
1. What is set?
2. What is element?
3. What is proposition?
Answer: Proposition is a declarative statement (declares a fact) that have a truth value
(true or false)
4. What is function?
5. What is alphabet?
Answer: A finite set of symbols that can be used to form strings in the language.
6. What is string?
Answer: A string over an alphabet is a finite ordered sequence of symbols from the set of
alphabet.
7. What is language?
Answer: A language L (G) defined by the grammar G is the set of all sentences derivable
using grammar G
8. What is grammar?
Answer: It is a system that specifies How the characters of an alphabet S can be joined
(concatenate) to form a legal string in a language.
9. What is algorithm?
Answer: Flowchart is the visual representation of algorithm drawn with the help of basic
geometric figures.
Answer: If the figures of the flow chart are replaced by circles, a directed graph can be
obtained which consists of a sequence of internal configuration of system called states.
This diagram is call state diagram.
Answer: Finite automaton is the simplest model for computers with an extremely limited
amount of memory. Finite automaton is used to design algorithms.
Answer: In an NFA the transition function takes a state and an input symbol or the empty
string ε and produces the set of possible next states.
Answer: Expressions build up using the regular operations for describing languages.
Answer: GNFA are simply nondeterministic finite automata wherein the transition arrows
may have any regular expressions as labels.
Answer: A much more powerful and accurate model of a general purpose computer
model, Similar to a finite automaton but with an unlimited and unrestricted memory.
Answer: Big-O notation says that one function is asymptotically no more than another.
Answer: Small-o notation is used to say that one function is asymptotically less than
another.
27. What is path?
Ans: Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Ans:
4. What is networking?
Ans: There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless
modem, a computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in
one building. These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and
are managed by one person or organization from a single device.
Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such as Wi Fi.
Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs, these types of networks don‘t
require that devices rely on physical cables to connect to the network.
Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs, explained below),
these types of networks are typically seen in universities, large K-12 school districts or small
businesses. They can be spread across several buildings that are fairly close to each other so
users can share resources.
These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and incorporate
elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a
town or city, but sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a
single person or company (a local council, a large company, etc.).
Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer
physical distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected
to each other over one large network to communicate even when they‘re miles apart.
I. The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next
II. The datalink layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
III. The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
IV. The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.
V. The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
VI. The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
VII. The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
8. What is IP and Layer?
Ans: The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers
in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original
TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport,
and application.
Ans:
Port:The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel
from a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final
objective of data communications on the Internet. A system that sends nothing but data from
one computer to another is not complete.
Specific Addresses:
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.
Examples include the e-mail address (for example, [email protected]) and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL).
Ans:
Ans:
IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long (four bytes). An example of an IPv4 address
is 216.58.216.164
With an IPv4 IP address, there are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B,
Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are commonly used. Each class
allows for a range of valid IP addresses, sHown in the following table.
1. What is MIS?
2. What is Management?
Management refers to a set of functions and processes designed to initiate and coordinate
group efforts in an organized setting directed towards promotion of certain interests,
preserving certain values and pursuing certain goals.
3. What is Information?
Information is data that have been organized into a meaningful and useful context.
4. What is System?
Subsystem: One part of a system where the products of more than one system are combined
to reach an ultimate goal
Closed system: Stand-alone system that has no contact with other systems
Characteristics of Information:
Timeliness
Purpose
Mode and Format
Redundancy
Rate
Frequency
Completeness
Reliability
Cost benefit analysis
Validity
Quality
Data Mining is the process of collecting large amounts of raw data and transforming that data
into useful information.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Require skilled technical users to interpret and analyze data from warehouse
Validity of the patterns
Related to real world circumstances
Unable to Identify Casual Relationships
Reserved for the few instead of the many
Banking
Insurance
Medicine/Healthcare
Retail
Advantages
Access to information
Data Inconsistency
Decrease Computing Cost
Productivity Increase
Increase company profits
Disadvantages
A data mart is a simple form of a data warehouse that is focused on a single subject (or
functional area), such as Sales, Finance, or Marketing.
CSC 347 – Computer Hardware & Maintenance
1. What Is A Computer?
Computer is a programmable machine. It the integral part of everyday life.
7. What Do You Mean By A Processing Device? What Are The Various Types Of
Processing Devices?
The main function of a computer is to process data. The various types of processing device
in a computer are:
a) Microprocessor
b) Chipset
c) BIOS
9. What Is An Interface?
These are the communication channel that enables your computer to exchange information
with various devices.
12. What Is Cache Memory? What Is The Advantage If A Processor With More Cache
Memory You Are Using?
Cache memory is the memory area between RAM and Processor. If cache memory
increases the speed of the system will also improve.
DRAM
Dynamic RAM stores data using a paired transistor and capacitor for each bit of data.
Capacitors constantly leak electricity, which requires the memory controller to refresh the
DRAM several times a second to maintain the data.
Random Access Memory, or RAM, is used by computers to store and access information using a
random order. This resource provides a temporary way for computers to process electronic data,
while making computers more responsive and helping operate memory-intensive programs. RAM
chips are only capable of storing and accessing information when electrical power is present.
The main difference between RAM and ROM is Ram is volatile memory and ROM is non-
volatile memory.
A ROM chip is used primarily in the startup process of a computer, whereas a RAM chip is
used in the normal operations of a computer after starting up and loading the operating
system.
Writing data to a ROM chip is a slow process, whereas writing data to a RAM chip is a
faster process.
A RAM chip can store multiple gigabytes (GB) of data, up to 16 GB or more per chip; A
ROM chip typically stores only several megabytes (MB) of data, up to 4 MB or more per
chip.
Flash memory is an electronic non-volatile computer storage medium that can be electrically
erased and reprogrammed. Flash memory is popular in modemsbecause it enables the modem
manufacturer to support new protocols as they become standardized. Flash memory is also
called flash RAM.
19. What is the purpose of RAM in a computer?
Ans: RAM (random acces memory) Is basically the memory that runs programs, it doesn't store
any long term data unlike a hard drive disk, but its more instant, the less RAM you have the slower
your operating system will run, because it doesn't have the room to move everything about.
DRAM
SRAM
DRDRAM
Ans: The CPU and the Memory are connected to the north bridge the cpu communicates through
the Front Side Bus and the memory is connected via the memory bus.
The process of increasing data throughput while RAM transmitting data repeatedly.
Ans: Buffered memory is a type of computer memory. It is designed to control the amount of
electrical current which goes to and from the memory chips at any one time. This makes for more
stable memory, but increases the cost and slows the speed at which it works. In a buffered memory
system, a hardware register is located between the part of the computer which controls memory
and the memory chips themselves. This is a device which can hold a certain amount of information
at once. The register will fill up completely and then pass on all this information at once.
24. Why is Wait states used?
Ans: Wait states can be used to reduce the energy consumption of a processor, by allowing the
main processor clock to either slow down or temporarily pause during the wait state if the CPU
has no other work to do. Rather than spinning uselessly in a tight loop waiting for data,
sporadically reducing the clock speed in this manner helps to keep the processor core cool and to
extend battery life in portable computing devices.
Ans :RAM is the MAIN MEMORY whereas cache is a temporary memory ,frequently accessed
data are stored in cache
Ans :RAM-Random Access memory is a volatile memory because when the power cuts it have a
chance to loss the memory in it.
Ans:The original DDR RAM was, very simply, exactly like the old SD RAM but with the speed at
which it could transfer data doubled by transferring on both clock edges.
DDR2 RAM added a 2x clock multiplier to the module, which meant the bus clock running at the
same speed as DDR RAM would be doubled, thus multiplying transfer speeds by 2 for the same
bus speed.
DDR3 RAM replaces the 2x clock multiplier with a 4x clock multiplier, thus running at 4 times
the memory transfer rate for the same bus speed as the original DDR RAM.
DDR4 runs on a lower voltage than DDR3, is capable of running at a higher clock speed (typical
DDR3 is 1600MHz for desktop, 1333 for laptop, while typical DDR4 may be 1866 for laptop and
2133 for desktop), and can more easily come in much more dense packages (DDR3 maxes out at
16GB/DIMM slot, DDR4 may end up maxing out at 128GB/DIMM slot).
CSC 307 – Operating System
Operating systems exist for two main purposes. One is that it is designed to make sure a
computer system performs well by managing its computational activities. Another is that it
provides an environment for the development and execution of programs.
Demand paging is referred when not all of a process‘s pages are in the RAM, then the OS
brings the missing(and required) pages from the disk into the RAM.
4) What is kernel?
A kernel is the core of every operating system. It connects applications to the actual
processing of data. It also manages all communications between software and hardware
components to ensure usability and reliability.
Real-time systems are used when rigid time requirements have been placed on the operation
of a processor. It has well defined and fixed time constraints.
Virtual memory is a memory management technique for letting processes execute outside of
memory. This is very useful especially is an executing program cannot fit in the physical
memory.
The main objective of multiprogramming is to have a process running at all times. With this
design, CPU utilization is said to be maximized.
8 ) What is time- sharing system?
In a Time-sharing system, the CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them, also
known as multitasking. This process happens so fast that users can interact with each
program while it is running.
9) What is SMP?
SMP is a short form of Symmetric Multi-Processing. It is the most common type of multiple-
processor systems. In this system, each processor runs an identical copy of the operating
system, and these copies communicate with one another as needed.
A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization. In general, a thread is composed of a thread ID,
program counter, register set, and the stack.
FCFS stands for First-come, first-served. It is one type of scheduling algorithm. In this
scheme, the process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first. Implementation is
managed by a FIFO queue.
14) What are necessary conditions which can lead to a deadlock situation in a system?
Deadlock situations occur when four conditions occur simultaneously in a system: Mutual
exclusion; Hold and Wait; No preemption; and Circular wait.
15) Enumerate the different RAID levels.
One is that it depends on how often a deadlock is likely to occur under the implementation of
this algorithm. The other has to do with how many processes will be affected by deadlock
when this algorithm is applied.
17) State the main difference between logical from physical address space.
Logical address refers to the address that is generated by the CPU. On the other hand,
physical address refers to the address that is seen by the memory unit.
Direct Access method is based on a disk model of a file, such that it is viewed as a numbered
sequence of blocks or records. It allows arbitrary blocks to be read or written. Direct access is
advantageous when accessing large amounts of information.
20) What are the different types of CPU registers in a typical operating system design?
– Accumulators
– Index Registers
– Stack Pointer
– General Purpose Registers
I/O status information provides information about which I/O devices are to be allocated for a
particular process. It also shows which files are opened, and other I/O device state.
Multitasking is the process within an operating system that allows the user to run several
applications at the same time. However, only one application is active at a time for user
interaction, although some applications can run ―behind the scene‖.
Caching is the processing of utilizing a region of fast memory for a limited data and process.
A cache memory is usually much efficient because of its high access speed.
Spooling is normally associated with printing. When different applications want to send an
output to the printer at the same time, spooling takes all of these print jobs into a disk file and
queues them accordingly to the printer.
An assembler acts as a translator for low-level language. Assembly codes written using
mnemonic commands are translated by the Assembler into machine language.
Interrupts are part of a hardware mechanism that sends a notification to the CPU when it
wants to gain access to a particular resource. An interrupt handler receives this interrupt
signal and ―tells‖ the processor to take action based on the interrupt request.
27) What is GUI?
GUI is short for Graphical User Interface. It provides users with an interface wherein actions
can be performed by interacting with icons and graphical symbols. People find it easier to
interact with the computer when in a GUI especially when using the mouse. Instead of having
to remember and type commands, users click on buttons to perform a process.
Internal commands are built-in commands that are already part of the operating system.
External commands are separate file programs that are stored in a separate folder or directory.
CSC 455 – Computer Graphics
Properties of video display devices are persistence, resolution, and aspect ratio.
3. What Is Rasterization?
The process of determining the appropriate pixels for representing picture or graphics object
is known as rasterization.
Computer graphics remains one of the most existing and rapidly growing computer fields.
Computer graphics maybe defined as a pictorial representation or graphical representation
of objects in a computer.
Four input devices are keyboard, mouse, image scanners, and trackball.
6. Write The Two Techniques For Producing Color Displays With A Crt?
7. What Is Bitmap?
Some system has only one bit per pixel; the frame buffer is often referred to as bitmap
8. What Is Resolution?
The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT is referred
to as the resolution.
In raster scan display, the electron beam return to the left of the screen after refreshing each
scan line, is called horizontal retrace of the electron beam.
The time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay one tenth of its original intensity
is called as persistence.
The ratio of vertical points to the horizontal points necessary to produce length of lines in
both directions of the screen is called the Aspect ratio. Usually the aspect ratio is ¾.
Pixel is shortened forms of picture element. Each screen point is referred to as pixel or pel.
Picture definition is stored in a memory area called frame buffer or refresh buffer.
14. What Is Point In The Computer Graphics System?
The point is a most basic graphical element & is completely defined by a pair of user
coordinates (x, y).
Circle is defined by its center xc, yc and its radius in user coordinate units. The equation of
the circle is (x-xc) + (yyc)= r2.
Transformation is the process of introducing changes in the shape size and orientation of the
object using scaling rotation reflection shearing & translation etc.
Translation is the process of changing the position of an object in a straight-line path from
one coordinate location to another. Every point (x , y) in the object must under go a
displacement to (x|,y|). the transformation is:x| = x + tx ; y| = y+ty
A 2-D rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x-y
plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by:X| = r cos (q + f)
and Y| = r sin (q + f).
A 2-D rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x-y
plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by:X| = r cos (q + f)
and Y| = r sin (q + f).
19. What Is Shearing?
The shearing transformation actually slants the object along the X direction or the Y
direction as required. ie; this transformation slants the shape of an object along a required
plane.
The reflection is actually the transformation that produces a mirror image of an object. For
this use some angles and lines of reflection.
X shear, y shear.
A point (4,3) is rotated counterclockwise by an angle of45°. Find the rotation matrix and the
resultant point
The term computer graphics include almost everything on computer that is not text or
sound. It is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers with the help of
programming. Or we can say that graphics is the representation and manipulation of image
data by computer with the help from specialized software and hardware. Graphic designing
is done using the various available soft wares for computers which can produce the 3D
images in the required shape and dimension. Computer graphics help us in getting the real
display experiences.
VECTOR- Vector graphics is the use of geometrical primitives such as points, lines, curves,
and shapes or polygon, which are all based on mathematical expressions, to represent image
in computer graphics. ―Vector‖, in this context, implies more than a straight line.
Random scan is a method in which display is made by electronic beam, which is directed
only to the points or parts of the screen where picture is to be drawn.
The Raster scan system is a scanning technique in which the electron sweeps from top to
bottom and from left to right. The intensity is turned on or off to light and un-light the pixel.
CSC 437 – Compiler Design
1. What Is A Compiler?
A compiler is a program that reads a program written in one language –the source language
and translates it into an equivalent program in another language-the target language. The
compiler reports to its user the presence of errors in the source program.
The analysis part breaks up the source program into constituent pieces and creates an
intermediate representation of the source program.
The synthesis part constructs the desired target program from the intermediate representation.
o Call by value
o Call by reference
o Copy-restore
o Call by name
o Static allocation
o Stack allocation
o Heap allocation
The activation record is a block of memory used for managing the information needed by a
single execution of a procedure. Various fields f activation record are:
o Temporary variables
o Local variables
o Saved machine registers
o Control link
o Access link
o Actual parameters
o Return values
Symbol table is a data structure used by the compiler to keep track of semantics of the
variables. It stores information about scope and binding information about names.
Linear analysis is one in which the stream of characters making up the source program is read
from left to right and grouped into tokens that are sequences of characters having a collective
meaning.Also called lexical analysis or scanning.
o Lexical Analyzer
o Syntax Analyzer
o Semantic Analyzer
o Intermediate code generator
o Code optimizer
o Code generator
Derivation from S means generation of string w from S. For constructing derivation two
things are important.
i) Choice of non-terminal from several others.
ii) Choice of rule from production rules for corresponding non terminal.
Instead of choosing the arbitrary non terminal one can choose
i) either leftmost derivation – leftmost non terminal in a sentinel form.
ii) or rightmost derivation – rightmost non terminal in a sentinel form.
13. Define Ambiguous Grammar.
A grammar G is said to be ambiguous if it generates more than one parse tree for some
sentence of language L(G).
i.e. both leftmost and rightmost derivations are same for the given sentence.
1. Syntax tree
2. Postfix
3. Three address code
CSC 469 – Software Engineering
4. When you know programming, what is the need to learn software engineering
concepts?
A person who knows how to build a wall may not be good at building an entire house.
Likewise, a person who can write programs may not have knowledge of other concepts of
Software Engineering. The software engineering concepts guide programmers on how to
assess requirements of end user, design the algorithms before actual coding starts, create
programs by coding, testing the code and its documentation.
There are several SDLC models available such as Waterfall Model, Iterative Model, Spiral
model, V-model and Big-bang Model etc.
7. What are various phases of SDLC?
The generic phases of SDLC are: Requirement Gathering, System Analysis and Design,
Coding, Testing and implementation. The phases depend upon the model we choose to
develop software.
Software project management is process of managing all activities like time, cost and quality
management involved in software development.
A software project manager is a person who undertakes the responsibility of carrying out the
software project.
Software scope is a well-defined boundary, which encompasses all the activities that are
done to develop and deliver the software product.
The software scope clearly defines all functionalities and artifacts to be delivered as a part of
the software. The scope identifies what the product will do and what it will not do, what the
end product will contain and what it will not contain.
11. What is project estimation?
It is a process to estimate various aspects of software product in order to calculate the cost of
development in terms of efforts, time and resources. This estimation can be derived from
past experience, by consulting experts or by using pre-defined formulas.
Function points are the various features provided by the software product. It is considered as
a unit of measurement for software size.
Change control is function of configuration management, which ensures that all changes
made to software system are consistent and made as per organizational rules and regulations.
There are various project management tools used as per the requirements of software project
and organization policies. They include Gantt Chart, PERT Chart, Resource Histogram,
Critical Path Analysis, Status Reports, Milestone Checklists etc.
Requirements can be gathered from users via interviews, surveys, task analysis,
brainstorming, domain analysis, prototyping, studying existing usable version of software,
and by observation.
Functional requirements are functional features and specifications expected by users from
the proposed software product.
Non-functional requirements are implicit and are related to security, performance, look and
feel of user interface, interoperability, cost etc.
These can be: DFDs (Data Flow Diagrams), Structured Charts, Structured English, Data
Dictionary, HIPO (Hierarchical Input Process Output) diagrams, ER (Entity Relationship)
Diagrams and Decision tables.
Highest abstraction level DFD is known as Level 0 DFD also called a context level DFD,
which depicts the entire information system as one diagram concealing all the underlying
details.
22. What is the difference between structured English and Pseudo Code?
Structured English is native English language used to write the structure of a program
module by using programming language keywords, whereas, Pseudo Code is more close to
programming language and uses native English language words or sentences to write parts
of code.
23. What is data dictionary?
24. What is the difference between function oriented and object oriented design?
Top-down model starts with generalized view of system and decomposes it to more specific
ones, whereas bottom-up model starts with most specific and basic components first and
keeps composing the components to get higher level of abstraction.
Validation checks if the product is made as per user requirements whereas verification
checks if proper steps are followed to develop the product.
Validation confirms the right product and verification confirms if the product is built in a
right way.
Black-box testing checks if the desired outputs are produced when valid input values are
given. It does not verify the actual implementation of the program.
White-box testing not only checks for desired and valid output when valid input is provided
but also it checks if the code is implemented correctly.
Software Testing
Who conducts this test on software Software Developer
Employee
Corrective
Adaptive
tackling the changes in the hardware and software environment where the software
works
Perfective maintenance
Preventive maintenance
Software re-engineering is process to upgrade the technology on which the software is built
without changing the functionality of the software. This is done in order to keep the software
tuned with the latest technology.
CASE stands for Computer Aided Software Engineering. CASE tools are set of automated
software application programs, which are used to support, accelerate and smoothen the
SDLC activities.