Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics

Glossary
closed system A system of interacting objects in which
acceleration The rate of change of an object’s velocity: there are no external forces.
Δv
a=
Δt coherent Two sources are coherent when they emit waves
Unit: m s−2 . with a constant phase difference.
accuracy An accurate value of a measured quantity is one
which is close to the true value of the quantity. components (of a vector) The magnitudes of a vector
quantity in two perpendicular directions.
compression A region in a sound wave where the air
ampere The SI unit of electric current (abbreviated A). pressure is greater than its mean value.
amplitude The maximum displacement of a particle from compressive Describes a force that squeezes an object.
its equilibrium position.

conservation of momentum In a closed system, when

bodies interact, the total momentum in any specified
antinode A point on a stationary wave with maximum
direction remains constant.
amplitude.
constructive interference When two waves reinforce to
atomic mass unit A unit of mass (symbol u)
give increased amplitude.
approximately equal to 1.661 × 10−27 kg. The mass of an
atom of 126 C = 12.000 u exactly. contact force The force an object exerts on another with
which it is in contact.

average speed The total distance travelled by an object coulomb The SI unit of electrical charge (abbreviated C).
divided by the total time taken. A charge of 1 C passes a point when a current of 1 A flows
for 1 s. 1 C = 1 A s.

base units Defined units of the SI system from which all

other units are derived. couple A pair of equal and antiparallel forces having a
best fit line A straight line drawn as closely as possible to turning effect but no resultant force.
the points of a graph so that similar numbers of points lie
above and below the line. density The mass per unit volume of a material:
m
ρ=
V
centre of gravity The point where the entire weight of an Unit: kg m−3.
object appears to act.
dependent variable The variable in an experiment with a
value that changes as the independent variable is altered by
the experimenter.
charge carrier Any charged particle, such as an electron,
derived units Units which are combinations of the base
responsible for a current.
units of the SI system.
destructive interference When two waves cancel to give
reduced amplitude.
diffraction The spreading of a wave when it passes
through a gap or past the edge of an object.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics

equations of motion Four interrelated equations that can

be used to determine the displacement, initial velocity,
final velocity and acceleration of a body moving with
displacement The distance moved by an object in a
constant acceleration.
particular direction (measured from a fixed starting
point). equilibrium An object in equilibrium is either at rest or
travelling with a constant velocity because the resultant
Doppler effect The change in frequency or wavelength of
force on it is zero.
a wave observed when the source of the wave is moving
towards or away from the observer (or the observer is errors Inaccuracies when taking measurements.
moving relative to the source). extension The change in the length of a material from its
drag A force that resists the movement of a body through original length.
a fluid.
drift velocity, mean The average speed of a collection of
charged particles when a current flows. force constant The ratio of force to extension for a spring
dynamics The study of motion using quantities such as or a wire. Unit: N m−1.
force and mass.
e.m.f. The total work done when unit charge is moved free-body force diagram A diagram showing all the
round a complete circuit. Unit: J C−1 or volt (V). forces acting on an object (but not the forces it exerts on
other objects).
−1. frequency The number of oscillations per unit time. Unit:
hertz (Hz).
efficiency The ratio of useful output energy to the total
input energy for a device, expressed as a percentage:
fundamental frequency The lowest-frequency stationary
useful output energy wave for a particular system.
efficiency = × 100%
total input energy
gravitational field strength The gravitational force
elastic limit The value of stress beyond which an object experienced by an object per unit mass:
will not return to its original dimensions. F
g=
elastic potential energy Energy stored in a stretched or m
compressed material.
hadron Any particle which is affected by the strong nuclear
electric charge A property of a body that gives rise to a force, made from two or three quarks or anti-quarks.
force on the body when it is within an electric field.
harmonic A wave of frequency n times the fundamental
electrical resistance The ratio of potential difference to frequency, where n is an integer.
current. Unit: ohm (Ω). Hooke’s law The extension produced in an object is
proportional to the force producing it.

independent variable The variable in an experiment with

a value that is altered by the experimenter.
electromagnetic spectrum The family of waves that travel
through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 × 108 m s−1. inelastic A collision is inelastic when kinetic energy is not
conserved; some is transferred to other forms such as heat.
electronvolt The energy gained by an electron travelling
Momentum and total energy are always conserved.
through a p.d. of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.60 × 10−19 J.
inertia A measure of the mass of an object. A massive
elementary charge The smallest unit of charge that
object has large inertia.
a particle or an object can have. It has a magnitude of
1.60 × 10−19 C. instantaneous speed The speed of an object measured
over a very short period of time.
intensity The power transmitted normally through a
surface per unit area:
energy A calculated quantity which is conserved during
power
any change; that which is transferred when a force does intensity =
cross-sectional area
work.
Unit: W m−2.
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interference The formation of points of cancellation and

reinforcement where two coherent waves pass through
each other. mass A measure of the amount of matter within an
object. Unit: kilogram (kg).
internal resistance The resistance of an e.m.f. source.
mean drift velocity The average speed of a collection of
The internal resistance of a battery is due to the chemicals
charged particles when a current flows.
within it.
moment The moment of a force about a point is the
magnitude of the force, multiplied by the perpendicular
isotopes Nuclei of the same element with a different distance of the point from the line of the force. Unit: N m.
number of neutrons but the same number of protons. monochromatic Describes light of a single frequency.
I–V characteristic A graph of current against voltage for a neutrino A lepton, released during beta-decay.
particular component of an electrical circuit.
neutron number The number of neutrons in the nucleus
kinematics The study of motion using quantities such of an atom.
as time, distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
newton The force that will give a 1 kg mass an
acceleration.
acceleration of 1 m s−2 in the direction of the force.
1 N = 1 kg m s−2.
Newton’s first law of motion An object will remain at rest
kinetic energy Energy of an object due to its motion. or keep travelling at constant velocity unless it is acted on
by a resultant force.

Kirchhoff ’s first law The sum of the currents entering any Newton’s second law of motion The resultant force
point (or junction) in a circuit is equal to the sum of the acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of
currents leaving that same point. This law represents the its momentum. The resultant force and the change in
conservation of charge. momentum are in the same direction.
Kirchhoff ’s second law The sum of the e.m.f.s round a Newton’s third law of motion When two bodies interact,
closed loop in a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s in the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.
that same loop. node A point on a stationary wave with zero amplitude.

nuclear model of the atom A model of the atom in which

lepton A sub-atomic particle which is not affected by the negative charges (electrons) are distributed outside a tiny
strong nuclear force. nucleus of positive charge.
light-dependent resistor (LDR) A resistor whose nucleon number The number of neutrons and protons in
resistance decreases as the intensity of light falling on it the nucleus of an atom (also called mass number).
increases. nucleon A particle found in an atomic nucleus, i.e. a
light-emitting diode (LED) A semiconductor component neutron or a proton.
that emits light when it conducts electricity. nucleus The tiny central region of the atom that contains
linear momentum The product of an object’s mass and its most of the mass of the atom and all of its positive charge.
velocity, p = mv. Momentum is a vector quantity. nuclide A specific combination of protons and neutrons
longitudinal wave A wave in which the particles of the in a nucleus.
medium oscillate along the direction in which the wave number density The number of particles, such as free
travels. electrons, per unit volume in a material.
lost volts The difference between the e.m.f. and the Ohm’s law The current in a metallic conductor is directly
terminal p.d. in a circuit. It is equal to the voltage across proportional to the potential difference across its ends,
the internal resistance. provided its temperature remains constant.

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 Glossary

parallel Describes components connected side-by-side in

a circuit.
path difference The difference in the distances travelled
by two waves from coherent sources at a particular point.
perfectly elastic A collision is perfectly elastic when
kinetic energy is conserved. Momentum and total energy
are always conserved.
period The time taken by an object (e.g. a planet) to
complete one cycle (e.g. an orbit). The period is also the time
taken for one complete oscillation of a vibrating object.
Unit: second (s).
phase Refers to the point that an oscillating mass has
reached in a complete cycle.

phase difference The difference in the phases of two

oscillating particles, expressed in degrees or radians.

Polarisation oscillations are in a single

direction, which is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation (of the wave)

positron An anti-electron.
potential difference (p.d.) The energy lost per unit charge
by charges passing through a component. Unit: J C−1 or
volt (V).
potential divider A circuit in which two or more
components are connected in series to a supply. The
output voltage from the circuit is taken across one of the
components.
potentiometer A circuit which allows the measurement of
an e.m.f. by comparison with a known e.m.f.
power The rate at which energy is transferred or the rate
at which work is done. Unit: watt (W).

precision The smallest change in value that can be

measured by an instrument or an operator. A precise
measurement is one made several times, giving the same,
or very similar, values.
pressure The force acting normally per unit area of a
surface:
F
p=
A
Unit: N m−2 or pascal (Pa).
principle of conservation of energy The idea that, within
a closed system, the total amount of energy in all its forms
is unchanged during any change.

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principle of moments For an object in equilibrium, the speed The rate of change of the distance moved by an
sum of clockwise moments about a point is equal to the object:
sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point. distance
speed =
time
principle of superposition When two or more waves
Unit: m s−1.
meet at a point, the resultant displacement is the sum of
the displacements of the individual waves. stationary wave A wave pattern produced when two
progressive wave A wave that carries energy from one progressive waves of the same frequency travelling in
place to another. opposite directions combine. It is characterised by nodes
projectile Any object thrown in the Earth’s gravitational and antinodes. Also known as a standing wave.
field. strain The extension per unit length produced by tensile
proton number The number of protons in the nucleus of or compressive forces:
an atom (also called atomic number). extension
strain =
original length
quarks The fundamental particles of which hadrons are
made. strain energy The potential energy stored in an object
when it is deformed elastically.
range The horizontal distance covered by an object.
stress The force acting per unit cross-sectional area:
red shift the change in frequency or wavelength of a force
stress =
spectral line observed when the source of light is moving cross-sectional area
away from the observer; see Doppler effect. strong nuclear force A fundamental force which acts
between hadrons.
relative speed The magnitude of the difference in systematic error An error in readings which is repeated
velocities between two objects. throughout an experiment, producing a constant absolute
error or a constant percentage error.
resistivity A property of a material, a measure of its
tensile Associated with tension or pulling, e.g. a tensile
electrical resistance, defined by:
force.
RA
ρ= terminal p.d. The potential difference across an external
L
resistor connected to an e.m.f. source.
Unit: Ω m.
terminal velocity The maximum velocity of an object
resistor An electrical component whose resistance in travelling through a fluid. The resultant force on the object
a circuit remains constant, is independent of current or is zero.
potential difference.
thermistor A device whose electrical resistance changes
when its temperature changes.
resultant force The single force that has the same effect as
all of the forces acting on an object.
threshold voltage The minimum forward bias voltage
scalar quantity A scalar quantity has magnitude but no across a light-emitting diode (LED) when it starts to
direction. conduct and emit light.
semiconductor diode An electrical component made torque of a couple The product of one of the forces of
from a semiconductor material (e.g. silicon) that only a couple and the perpendicular distance between them.
conducts in one direction. A diode in ‘reverse bias’ has an Unit: N m.
infinite resistance.
transverse wave A wave in which the particles of the
series A term used when components are connected end- medium oscillate at right angles to the direction in which
to-end in a circuit. the wave travels.
triangle of forces A closed triangle drawn for an object in
equilibrium. The sides of the triangle represent the forces
in both magnitude and direction.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics

unified atomic mass unit A convenient unit used for the Young modulus The ratio of stress to strain for a given
mass of atomic and nuclear particles (1 u is equal to the material, resulting from tensile forces, provided Hooke’s
mass of a 126C carbon atom). law is obeyed:
1 u = 1.66 × 10−27 kg stress
Young modulus =
strain
uniform acceleration Acceleration that remains constant.
Unit: pascal (Pa; or MPa, GPa).
uniform motion Motion of an object travelling with a
constant velocity. zero error A systematic error in an instrument that gives
a non-zero reading when the true value of a quantity is
upthrust The upward force that a liquid exerts on a body
zero.
floating or immersed in a liquid.

vector addition Using a drawing, often to scale, to find

the resultant of two or more vectors.
vector quantity A quantity which has both magnitude
and direction.
vector triangle A triangle drawn to determine the
resultant of two vectors.
velocity The rate of change of the displacement of an
object:
change in displacement
velocity =
time
Unit: m s−1.
You can think of velocity as ‘speed in a certain direction’.

viscous forces Forces that act on a body moving through

a fluid that are caused by the resistance of the fluid.

wave A periodic disturbance travelling through space,

characterised by a vibrating medium.
wavelength The distance between two adjacent peaks or
troughs in a wave.

weak nuclear force A fundamental force, involved in

radioactive β-decay.
weight The force on an object caused by a gravitational
field acting on its mass:
weight = mass × acceleration of free fall
Unit: newton (N).

work done The product of the force and the distance

moved in the direction of the force.

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