Discrete Mathematics PED356
Predicates and Quantified statements
Previous Lecture
• Propositional Logic
• Conditional Statements
• Logical Equivalences
• Valid and Invalid Arguments
Previously we discussed the logical analysis of compound
statements those made of simple statements joined by the
connectives, ~, ˅,˄,→, and ↔
Today’s Lecture
• Predicates
• Universal and Existential Statement
• Translating between formal and informal language
• Universal conditional Statements
• Equivalent Form of Universal and Existential statements
• Negations of Universal and Existential statements
• Multiple Quantifiers
Predicates (Informally)
Predicates
A predicate is a sentence which contains finite number of
variables and becomes a statement when specific values are
substituted for the variables.
The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all values that may be
substituted in place of the variable
Truth Set
If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of P(x) is
the set of all elements of D that make P(x) true when substituted
for x. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by
{x D | P( x)}
read as “the set of all x in D such that P(x)”.
Notation
For any two predicates P(x) and Q(x), the notation P( x) Q( x)
means that every element in the truth set of P(x) is in the truth
set of Q(x). The notation P(x) Q(x) means that P and Q
have identical truth sets.
Consider the predicate:
x 0, xR
The truth set of the above predicate is
x R
x 0
Example
Let P(x) = x is a factor of 8, Q(x)= x is a factor of 4
and R(x)= x < 5 and x 3 . The domain of x is
assumed to be Z . Use symbols , to indicate
true relationships among P(x), Q(x) and R(x).
Example
Let Q(x, y) be the statement
x+y=x−y
where the domain for x and y is the set of all real numbers. Determine
the truth value of:
(a) Q(5,−2).
(b) Q(4.7, 0).
(c) Determine the set of all pairs of numbers, x and y, such that Q(x, y) is
true.
Solution:
Universal and Existential Statements
Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A universal
statement is of the form “x D, Q( x) ”. It is true if and only
if Q(x) is true for all x in D and it is false if and only if Q(x)
is false for at least one x in D. A value for x for which Q(x)
is false is called a counterexample to the universal
statement.
Example: Let D={1,2,3,4,5} and consider the
statement x D, x 2 x. Show that this statement is true.
Solution: Check that " x 2 x ". is true for each individual
x in D.
12 1 3 3
2
5 2
5
x D, x x.
2
2 2
2
42 4 6 6
2
Cont…..
The technique used in first statement while showing the
truthness of the universal statement is called method of
exhaustion.
Consider the statement x R, x x. Find the counter
2
example to show that this statement is not true.
Counter example . Take x=1/2, then x is in R and
2
1 1
2 2
Hence x R, x x. is false.
2
Existential Quantifier
Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. An
existential statement is of the form.
x D such that Q (x)
It is true if and only if Q(x) is true for at least one
x in D. It is false if and only if Q(x) is false for
all x in D.
The symbol denotes “there exist” and is called
the existential quantifier.
Truth and falsity of Existential statements
Suppose P(x) is the predicate “x < |x|.” Determine the truth
value of x s.t. P(x) where the domain for x is:
(a) the three numbers 1, 2, 3.
(b) the six numbers −2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
Solution
Translating from formal to informal language
Rewrite the following statements in a variety of
equivalent but more informal ways. Do not use the
symbol ,
a) x R, x 2 0.
b) x R, x 2 1.
c) m Z s.t. m 2 m
Cont…
Write the following statement in English, using the
predicates
x (F(x) T (x, Discrete Math))
where x represents students and y represents courses:
F(x): “x is a Freshman”
T (x, y): “x is taking y”
Solution
The statement x (F(x) T (x, Discrete)) says that there is a
student x with two properties: x is a freshman and x is taking
Discrete. In English, “Some Freshman is taking Discrete
Math.”
Translating from informal Language to Formal language
“Every freshman at the College is taking PED 356.”
Solution: There are various ways to answer this question, depending on
the domain.
• If we take as our domain all freshmen at the College
and use the predicate T (x) : “x is taking PED 356”,
then the statement can be written as x, T(x).
• We are making a conditional statement:
“If the student is a freshman, then the student is taking
PED 356;”
x, (F(x) → T (x)).
Note that we cannot say x (F(x) T (x)), because this says
that every student is a freshman, which is not something we
can assume here.
Cont…..
“Every freshman at the College is taking some Computer
Science course.”
Sol: If we take as our domain for people all freshmen at the
College and our domain for courses, all Computer Science
courses.
Then we can use the predicate
T (x, y): “x is taking y”
The statement can be written as
x y T(x, y).
Universal Conditional Statements
A reasonable argument can be made that the most important
form of statement in mathematics is the universal conditional
statement: x, if P(x) then Q(x)
Example: “Everyone who visited Kazakhstan stayed in
Almaty.”
Sol: However, if we take all people as the universe , then we
need to introduce the predicate F(x) for “x visited
Kazakhstan.” and P(x) is the predicate “x stayed in Almaty.”
In this case, the proposition can be written as
x, (F(x) → P(x)).
Exercise
Rewrite the following statements in the form
,if then .
a) If a real number is an integer, then it is a rational
number.
a) All bytes have eight bits.
b) No fire trucks are green.
Sol: a). x R , i f x Z , t h e n x Q .
b). x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.
c). x, if x is a fire truck, then x is not green.
Equivalent Forms of Universal and Existential statements
Observe that the two statements “ real numbers x,
if x is an integer then x is rational” and “
integers x, x is rational” mean the same thing.
In fact, a statement of the form
x U , if P(x) then Q(x).
Can always be rewritten in the form
x D ,Q (x)
Can be rewritten as x, if x is in D then Q(x).
Contd.
The following statements are equivalent
polygons P, if P is square, then P is a rectangle.
And
squares P, P is a rectangle
The existential statements
x belongs to U such that P(x) and Q(x).
And
x belongs to D such that Q(x)
Are also equivalent provided D is taken to consist of all elements in U that
make P(x) true.
Implicit Quantifications
• Consider “ If a number is an integer, then it is a
rational number”
The clue to indicate its universal quantifications comes from
the presence of the indefinite article “a”.
Existential quantification can also be implicit.
for instance, “ the number 24 can be written as a sum of sum of
two integers”
“ even integers m and n such that 24=m + n.”
Negations of Quantified Statement
The negation of the statement of the form
x in D, Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the form
x in D such that ~Q(x)
Symbolically:
~ (x D, Q( x)) x D ~ Q ( x).
Note: the negation of universal statement is
logically equivalent to existential statement.
Cont….
The negation of the statement of the form
x in D such that Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the form
x in D, ~Q(x)
Symbolically:
~ (x D Q ( x)) x D, ~ Q( x).
Note: the negation of existential statement is
logically equivalent to universal statement.
Negate “Some integer x is positive and all integers y are negative.”
Solution: Using all integers as the universe for x and y, the statement is x
s.t. (x > 0) y, (y < 0). The negation is
~{ x (x > 0) y (y < 0)}≡ ~ x s.t. (x > 0) ~ y, (y < 0):
De Morgan’s law
≡ x, ~(x > 0) y s.t. ~(y < 0) properties of negation
≡ x, (x ≤ 0) y s.t. (y ≥ 0).
Therefore, the negation is “Every integer x is non positive or there is an
integer y that is nonnegative.”
Cont….
Negate “There is a student who came late to class and
there is a student who is absent from class.”
Solution: In symbols, if L(x) : “x came late to class” and
A(x) : “x is absent from class,” this statement can be written
as x st L(x) y st A(y).
Note that we must use a second variable y. By one of De
Morgan’s laws the negation can be written as
~( x st L(x)) ~( y st A(x)) ≡ x, ~L(x) y, ~A(x).
In English this is “No student came late to class or no student
is absent from class.”
Multiple Quantified Statements Informally
a. positive numbers x, a positive number y such that
y<x
b. a positive number x such that positive numbers y
,y<x
Sol: a. Given any positive number, there is another
positive number that is smaller than the given
number
b. There is a positive number with the property that all
positive numbers are smaller than this number.
Multiple Quantified Statements formally
a. Every body likes some body
b. Some body likes every body
c. Any even integers equals twice some other integer
d. There is a program that gives the correct answer to every
question that is posed to it.
Sol: a. people x, a person y such that x likes y.
b. a person x such that people y , x likes y.
c. even integers m, integers n, n = 2m.
d. a program P such that questions it gives correct
answer.
Negations of Multiple Statements
The negation of
x, y such that P(x ,y)
is logically equivalent to
x such that y, ~P(x, y).
A similar sequence of reasoning can be used to derive the
following:
The negation of
x such that y, Q(x, y).
is logically equivalent to
x, y such that ~Q(x ,y).
Examples
a) integers n, an integer k such that n = 2k.
b) a person x such that people y, x loves y.
Sol: a. an integer n such that integers k, n 2k
Or we can say
“ there is a some integer that is not even”
b. people x, a person y such that x does not love y.
Or we can say
“ Nobody Loves everybody”
Table for the Quantification of two variables
Example
Write the following statement in English, using the
predicates
C(x): “x is a Computer Science major”
T (x, y): “x is taking y”
where x represents students and y represents courses:
y x (~C(x) T (x, y)).
Solution:
The statement y x (~C(x) T (x, y)) says that for
every course y there is a student x such that x is not a
Computer Science major and x is taking y. That is,
“In every course there is a student who is not a
Computer Science major.”
Relations among , , and
If Q(x) is a predicate and the domain D of x is the set
{ x1 , x 2 , ..., x n } then the statements
x D, Q( x)
and
Q ( x1 ) Q ( x2 ) ... Q ( xn )
are logically equivalent.
Example
Let Q(x) be “ x ˄ x = x” and suppose D ={ 0,1} the x
belongs to D, Q(x), can be written as binary digits x,
x˄x=x. This is equivalent to 0˄0=0 and 1˄1=1.
Example
If Q(x) is a predicate and the domain D of x is the set
{ x1 , x 2 , ..., x n } then the statements
x D, Q( x)
and
Q ( x1 ) Q ( x2 ) ... Q ( xn )
are logically equivalent.
Example
Let Q(x) be “ x ˅ x = x” and suppose D ={ 0,1} the x
belongs to D, Q(x), can be written as binary digits x,
x ˅ x = x.
This is equivalent to 0 ˅ 0 = 0 and 1 ˅ 1=1.
Any Questions!!!!!!!!
Kindly Read Section 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 from the book for more
deep understanding and Practice Exercises Problems
