 Electromagnetic - relating to a magnetic field produced by an electric current

 A magnetic field is generated when electric charge carriers such as electrons

move through space or within an electrical conductor.
 Electromagnetic induction (or sometimes just induction) is a process where a
placed in a changing magnetic field (or a conductor moving through a stationary
magnetic field) causes the production of a voltage across the conductor.
 A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and
creates its own persistent magnetic field. As the name suggests, a permanent
magnet is 'permanent'. This means that it always has a magnetic field and will
display a magnetic behavior at all times.
 A magnet that retains its magnetic properties in the absence of an inducing field
or current.
 Electromagnet is made from a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an
electric current passes through it. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around a
core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field
produced by the coil.
 The poles of an electromagnet can even be reversed by reversing the flow of
electricity.
 The magnetic field produced by an electric current forms circles around the
electric current, as shown in the diagram below:
 Rotating electrical machines are widely used for the purpose of converting
energy from one form to another. The most commonly used type of such
machines are generators and motors.
 An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy while an electric motor is a machine that convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
 In order for an electric generator to operate, it is driven by a mechanical
machine called a prime mover, such as: steam turbine, gasoline engine, electric
motor, diesel engine, gas turbine, hydraulic turbine, internal combustion
engine.
 Electric motor on the other hand is operated by supplying it with electric energy
and develops torque that produces rotation.
 Two Important Parts of Generators and Motors
1. an even set of electromagnets or permanent magnets.
2. the laminated steel core containing current-carrying copper wires, the latter being
called the armature winding.
 In the dc generator, the armature winding is mechanically rotated through the
stationary magnetic fields created by the electromagnets or permanent
magnets.
 In the ac generator, the electromagnets or the permanent magnets and their
accompanying magnetic fields are rotated with respect to the stationary
armature winding.
 In the dc motor, current is sent into the armature winding, the latter being
placed inside a set of radially supported magnet poles.
 The armature windings of all types of motors and generators, whether of direct
or alternating current, are always wound on laminated steel cores of good
magnetic permeability.
 The current in the armature windings of all motors and generators, whether of
direct or alternating current, is always alternating.
 Alternating voltages are always generated in the windings of ac and dc
generators.
 In the ac generator, the generated alternating electromotive force (emf) is
transmitted directly to the load.
 In the dc generator, the generated alternating emf is first rectified by a
commutator and its brushes, that is, changed to direct current, before it is
transmitted to its load.
 The ac motor receives its energy directly from an ac source and, without any
change whatever in form, uses it as alternating current in its winding to develop
torque.
 In the dc motor, however, direct current is delivered to the brushes but flows
as alternating current in the armature winding after passing through the
brushes and commutator.
 Electromagnets (called field poles) used in all dc generators and motors, in ac
generators, and in one type of ac motor are very simple in construction and are
always an even number of them in a given machine, and each one consists of a
laminated steel core, of rectangular cross section, surrounded by one or more
copper coils. One face of the steel core is concentric with the laminated
armature core and has a larger cross-sectional area than the portion around
which the copper coil of wire is placed.
 When the field structure is assembled for a stationary-field type of machine, the
electromagnets are bolted to a yoke ring, as in so that they project radially
inward toward the rotating armature.

 In the rotating-field type of machine driven by a slow-speed prime mover, the

electromagnets are bolted to a hub fastened to the shaft, as in so that they
project radially outward toward the stationary armature core; this construction
is called a salient-pole field.
 When the alternator is driven by a high-speed turbine, the field winding is placed
in a slotted core; this construction is called a non-salient-pole field.
General Classification of DC Machine
1. DC GENERATOR
2. DC MOTOR
 DC Generators are similar to DC Motors in appearance and construction,
wherein, both have the same type of armature and field poles and are generally
identical.
 DC Generator can be operated as a Motor and vice versa depending on the
mode of operation of the machine.
General types of DC Generator General types of DC Motor
1. Series Wound DC Generator 1. Series Wound DC Motor
2. Shunt Wound DC Generator 2. Shunt Wound DC Motor
3. Compound Wound DC Generator 3. Compound Wound DC
Motor
PRINCIPLES OF DC GENERATOR AND MOTOR
Principle of Generator Action
 Electric Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Principle of generator action
1. the presence of magnetic lines of force (flux)
2. motion of conductors cutting the flux, the voltage is generated.
 A potential is induced in the conductor when it cuts lines of force.
 Faraday's Law. The magnitude of the generated voltage is directly proportional
to the rate at which a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force.
 A coil of wire used as the conductor and rotated in a magnetic field. The leads of
the coil are connected to a commutator to produce direct current.
 If the flux density in lines of force per square inch is constant, 1 volt is generated
for every 100,000,000 (10^8) lines cut per second.
 If the flux density is not constant, the generated voltage will be an average value
determined by the total number of lines of force that are cut and the length of
time it takes to do so. This experimentally verified fact leads to the formula
Direction of a Generated Voltage
The direction of the generated voltage in a conductor or more correctly in a coil of
wire, as it is rotated to cut the lines of force produced by the electromagnets in a
generator, will depend upon two (2) factors:
1. the direction of the flux, which is, of course, determined by the magnet polarity,
and
2. the direction of motion of the conductor or coil.
 Lenz's law states, the direction of the generated voltage in the coil is such that it
tends to produce a current flow opposing a change of flux through the coil.
 The DC Generator has a special type of assembly called a commutator.
 The commutator is a high speed, rotary switch which connects each side of the
armature winding to each brush as the generator turns. Consequently, the
positive half of the armature loop is connected to the same brush all the time.
 The output of such an assembly for one complete revolution is shown in Figure
2-8. As the armature turns through its first half revolution, the output voltage,
as indicated by the meter is positive. As the armature enters the second half
revolution, the commutator switches the armature loops so they are connected
to the opposite brushes. Thus, as the loop completes its firts full revolution, the
output is again positive on the meter.
 The overall result of this is a pulsating dc output voltage,as shown in Figure 2-8.
Clearly, the DC Generator is simply an AC Generator whose output is rectified,
or commutated.
 Principle of Motor Action
1. There must be presence of magnetic lines of force (flux).
2. There must be current through conductors lying in the magnetic field, then
force is developed and torque is produced.
 Force and Torque Developed by DC Motors
The force action exerted by a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
depends:
1. the strength of the main field
2. the value of the current through the conductor
 Experiment has shown that a force of 1 dyne will be exerted upon a conductor 1
cm long carrying a current of 10 amperes when placed under a pole the area of
which is 1 sq cm and producing one line of force (flux density = one line per
square centimeter). If the pole creates more than one line of force, the flux
density will be increased in the same proportion; furthermore, if the pole area is
increased with corresponding increases in the wire length, the force will be still
greater. This analysis, therefore, leads to the equation:
Commutation in DC Motors
 In DC Motor, the function of the commutator and the brushes is to act as an
inverter, that is, to change direct current to alternating current, because the
current in the armature conductors must be alternating.
It should be noted particularly that:
1. In the dc generator the commutator and brushes function to change the internally
generated alternating current to a load-applied direct current.
2. In the dc motor the commutator and brushes perform an inverse function by
changing the externally applied direct current to alternating current flowing in the
armature conductors.
Hence: In both cases, whether Generator or Motor, the current in the armature
winding is always alternating, while the current in the external circuit is always
direct.
Factors affecting the generated or induced voltage:
1. Strength of a magnetic field.
2. The speed at which the conductors are cutting the magnetic field.
3. The length and number of inductors cutting the magnetic field.
4. Angle at which the conductor cut the magnetic field.
CONSTRUCTION OF DYNAMO AND ARMATURE WINDINGS
DYNAMO- rotating electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy or EE to ME.
ELECTRIC GENERATOR AND ELECTRIC MOTORS are two kinds of Dynamo.
Main Parts of Dynamo:
1. Stator- part of electrical machine that is not revolving or moving.
Ex. Frame,End plates,Field poles, Brush rigging, bearings,interpoles.
2. Rotor- part of electrical machine that is revolving or moving.
Ex. Armature, Shaft, Commutator, Fan blade
Two MAjor Parts OF Dynamo:
1. Stator- most important part of which is the fields windings.
2. Armature- portion which rotates; most important part which is armature winding.