DISSERTATION

WRITING: A STUDENT
GUIDE
For
MASTERS AND PHD
STUDENTS

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 Presented by
Dr Kudakwashe Zvitambo
(PhD)
CONTENT (Dissertation Structure)

1. Preamble
2. Preliminary pages
3. Chapter One: Introduction
3.1. Background of the study
3.2. Statement of the problem
3.3. Purpose of the study
3.3.1. Aim of the study
3.3.2. Study Objectives
3.3.3. Research questions
3.4. Assumptions/Hypothesis of the study
3.5. Significance of the Study
3.6. Rationale of the study
3.7. Limitation of the study
3.8. Delimitation of the study
3.9. Definition of Terms
3.10. Chapter Summary
4. Chapter Two: Literature Review
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Theoretical framework
4.3. Independent variable
4.4. Dependent variable
4.5. Reviewing literature on objectives
4.6. Chapter Summary
5. Chapter Three: Research Methodology
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Research Philosophy
5.3. Research Paradigm
5.4. Research Approach
5.5. Research Design
5.6. Population, Sampling Techniques and Sample size
5.7. Data Collection Methods
5.8. Research Instruments

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 5.9. Data Collection, Presentation and Analysis procedure
5.10. Reliability and Validity
5.11. Ethical Considerations
5.12. Chapter Summary
6. Chapter Four: Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Response Rate
6.3. Demographic data Analysis
6.4. Analysis of Core data
6.5. Chapter Summary
7. Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
7.1. Summary of Findings
7.2. Conclusions
7.3. Recommendations
8. Reference
9. Appendix
Preamble
Dissertation writing guide provides an insight into how students can present their dissertation
work. The guide suggests dissertation structure and information which can be included in
each chapter and heading. The guide does not take a prescriptive approach but an advisory
approach. Masters and Doctorate candidates can deviate from this structure and add or
subtract other information to make their work unique. Dissertation report should be written in
the past tense since it is a report of what happen in the field. Candidates are advice to engage
an editor (edit grammar and other academic writing issues) and also ran their work through
plagiarism software. It is not the responsibility of the supervisor/promoter to mark grammar
and other academic writing issues. Supervisors/promoters guide the candidates in terms
information direction. Doctorate candidates can have more than five chapters whilst
undergraduate candidates are confined to only five chapters.

Preliminary chapter outline the pages before the actual report. These pages are number in
roman numerals. Chapter one, Introduction, of the dissertation does not have an introduction
since the chapter is an introduction to the dissertation report. It is optional for students to
write research questions which are derived from the objectives. Qualitative study has
assumptions whilst quantitative study has hypothesis. Mixed Method Approach uses
assumptions instead of hypothesis except if it is bias towards quantitative approach. On the
other hand, all chapters except chapter five should have a chapter summary.

Chapter two, Literature Review, present arguments presented by other scholars pertaining to
theoretical framework and conceptual framework. The candidates are expected to discuss
revealing the research gap instead of stating information without analysis. Literature should
be recent and relevant. Three quarters of the information should not be older than five years
on the date of submitting the dissertation report.

Chapter three, Research Methodology, outlines how the data was collected, presented and
analysed. Masters and PhD candidates have to examine the issues of research philosophy and
paradigms whilst it is optional for undergraduates. Candidate should report practical aspects

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of the research methodology not theorising everything. They must explain what they were
doing on the field when they were collecting data.

Chapter four, Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion, presents data which was collecting
from the field. This chapter depends on the Research Approach adopted by the study.
Quantitative Approach prescribes a different approach to data analysis as compared to
qualitative and mixed methods approaches. Data should be presented then analysed. The
deductions from the analysis should be discussed, that is, comparing them with literature
review in chapter two.

Chapter five, Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations, does not have an introduction
and chapter summary. Summary topic outlines the major findings deduced from the analysis
of the data in chapter four in line with the study objectives. From the major findings
(summary), the study comes up with conclusions. These conclusions are generalisations of
key issues revealed by the data analysis and discussions. The conclusions lead to
recommendations.

Candidates are expected to acknowledge sources of their information, which is, referencing.
The candidates are encouraged to use the referencing style recommended by the University.
The guide provides few examples of referencing. Appendix provides space for candidates to
show their evidence information, for example, research instruments samples, quantitative
large data from analysis software; ethical clearance letter; gatekeeper; etc

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Preliminary pages

The dissertation should contain preliminary pages. Each heading start on a new page.
Number these pages using roman numerals.

 Title page

The recommended format is as follows

 Title of the dissertation

 A statement indicating the programmes and university
 Full names and candidate number of the student
 Month and year in which the dissertation is submitted
 Title, initials and surname of supervisor/co-supervisor/promoter/co-promoter

 Declaration by student
 Indicating that it is original work

 Abstract
Abstract contains the following issues:

 Purpose of the study (aim and objectives of the study)

 Synopsis of literature review (few sentences)
 Description of the research methodology used
 Findings, conclusion and recommendations
 It should not be more than a page
 Dedication
 Scholars dedicate their work to certain people.
 Indicate statements of dedication
 Acknowledgement

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  Scholars thank those who assisted them with moral, social and material
support during the study.
 Table of contents
 List of all headings and sub-headings in the dissertation providing pages
 List of Tables
 Provide the list of table titles and their pages
 List of figures
 Provides the list of figure titles and their pages

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

 It is the part of the research which provides the reader with the background
information of the study. It provides a framework for the study, so that readers
can understand how it relates to other study.
 The Background of the study should:
 Create reader interest in the topic
 Lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study
 Place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature
 Reach out to a specific audience.
 Clearly outline the background history of the problem. Explain how the
problem started up to the current situation.
 State the observed symptoms of the problem.
 For example, when health personnel gather background information of a patient’s
illness, they ask how the illness started. Answering the question, the patient would
be providing ‘background of the study’ to one’s illness. The same approach can be
use by candidates when compiling information on the background of their study.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
 The statement of the problem describes the context for the study and it also
identifies the general analysis approach. A problem might be defined as the issue
that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study.
PhD candidate are encourage to present theoretical statement of the problem
which solve the practical problems (for example, which leads to a model or
Theory)
 Problematically present the key issues in the topic. Why is the topic worth
researching?

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  The problem should stand out that the reader can easily recognize it. Sometimes,
obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In
such cases, reviewers and/or faculty board members will have difficulty
recognizing the problem.
 A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should
be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or
theoretical framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify
and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that
undergirds the study. It is essential in all quantitative, mixed method and
qualitative approaches.
 State the problem in terms intelligible enough to someone who is generally
sophisticated but who is relatively uninformed in the area of your investigation.
 Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to
be conducted?” If as a researcher you are unable to answer this question clearly
and succinctly, and without resorting to hyper-speaking (i.e focusing on the
problems of macro or global proportions, which certainly will not be informed or
alleviated by the study), then the statement of the problem will come out as
ambiguous and diffuse.
1.3. Purpose of the Study
1.3.1. Aim of the Study

Aim of the study is derived from the topic. It is a statement which provides direction to the
study. The aim shows the overall purpose of the study. Include a sentence that begins with
“The purpose of this study is to ………”

1.3.2. Objectives of the Study

 What are you trying to achieve by carrying out the study?
 Objectives must be listed and stated in a more technical way.
 Specify what the research is intended to achieve; it may be to “explore” describe”
explain” assess” “examine” “evaluate” change” design” etc.
 Objectives help to define the scope of the study and provide a clear direction.
 Objectives can be derived from the elements of the independent variable
 These emanate from the aim of the study. These objectives are specific and
concentrate on the certain areas the dissertation needs to address. Research
objectives should be SMART. SMART means S-Specific; M-Measureable; A-
Achievable; R-reliable; and T-indicate timeframe.
 Themes in Literature review will be derived from these objectives. They also
determine the research methodology to be used. Data analyses respond to the state
objectives. Recommended number of research objectives depends on the
requirements of your faculty.
 However, some scholars recommend three or four research objectives.
 The research objectives have to start with “To ...., then followed by a verb”. For
example, “To investigate ....; To examine .....; To establish .....”
1.3.3. Research Questions

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  Should be itemised
 Research questions define the nature and scope of the research topic
 A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but
phrases the relationship as a question, unlike hypothesis which is a declarative
statement of the relations between two or more variables.
 State research questions must be clearly and concisely state.
 It is important not to confuse research questions with questions that you will
use in collecting data during field work.
 They can be reduced to three types: What? Followed by Why? Followed by
How? Questions with variations such as “to what extent……….” ”in what
ways does …….?”
 “What” questions seek descriptions
 “Why” questions seek explanations or understanding
 “How” questions are concerned with interventions to bring about change
 Each of your research question should be related to your research objectives
 Simple technique of getting it right is to turn each of your research objectives
into a research questions
1.4. Assumptions/Hypothesis
1.4.1. Assumptions (Optional)
 This topic is optional in the sense that only qualitative approach advocates
assumptions of the study.
 Assumptions are issues which their absence affect the reliability and validity
of the study.
1.4.2. Hypothesis (Optional)
 Hypothesis is used in a quantitative study.
 You cannot use both assumptions and assumptions in the same study
 Hypothesis is a wise guess of the outcome
 Hypotheses are derived from objectives, i.e. if you have 3 objectives then u
come up with 3 hypotheses.
 Null hypothesis (Ho) supports the status quo.
 Alternative hypothesis (H1) opposes the status quo
1.5. Significance of the Study
The significance of the study addresses two important components, namely, body of
knowledge and stakeholders benefits.
1.5.1. Body of Knowledge
The dissertation should indicate how the study refine, revise or extend existing
knowledge in the area under study. The study may also create new knowledge.
The refinement, revisions, extensions or new knowledge may have substantive,
theoretical or methodological significance.
1.5.2. Stakeholders benefits
The study should benefit certain group of stakeholders. Indicate the stakeholders
and how they benefits from the study.

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1.5.3. When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself the following
questions:
 What the results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
 What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
 What the results mean to practitioners?
 How results influence programmes, methods, and/or interventions?
 How results contribute to the solution of social, political, economic,
educational problems?
 How results influence policy decisions and at what level?
 What may be improved or changed as a result of the study?
 How results of the study can be implemented, and what innovations come
about?
1.6. Rationale of the Study
The candidate justify why the study should be carried. Arguments should be presented.
1.7. Limitation of the Study

Limitations refer to the potential problems or weaknesses which the researcher encountered
during the study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). A limitation is an uncontrollable threat to the
internal validity of the study (Ellis & Levy, 2009). It is of paramount importance that the
researcher states the limitation in order to allow other researchers to replicate the study or
expand on the study. Leedy and Ormrod (2010) posits that stating the limitations of the
research can help other researchers judge to what extent the findings can or cannot be
generalised to other people and situations. The researcher should explain how he/she
overcame the limitations.

1.8. Delimitation of the study

Delimitations refer to the process whereby the researcher outlines the boundaries of the
researcher, the factors, constructs and/or variables (Ellis &Levy, 2009). This means stating
the characteristics that limit the scope of the study. It includes what the researcher is not
going to do. Simon (2011) stated that the delimitation factors include the following:

 Choice of the research objectives.

 The research problem.
 Variables of interest.
 Theoretical perspectives that were adopted.
 Population and sampling.
 Theoretical methodology stance of the researcher.
 The geographical region covered by the study.
1.9. Definition of Terms
 Key words and concepts are explained. The researcher gives meanings to words
which he/she wants the reader to understand in that way. Operational definition of
key concepts must be in the context of the study. Key concepts are derived from
the research topic, statement of the problem and purpose of study.

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  Definitions of key words or phrases can be adopted from those of other scholars;
however, you have to acknowledge them.
 Avoid use of unnecessary abbreviations in your dissertation report as this
frustrates the reader
1.10. Chapter Summary
The chapter summary epitomises key issues of chapter one. It can also highlight major
issues of the following chapter two.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. Introduction

Literature review refers to the process of discussing and analysing theoretical perspectives
and research findings done by other authors on related problems (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).
This help to have a deeper understand of the problem at hand and learn from others how to
tackle problems methodologically, gathering of data and interpretation of the findings.

Chapter two introduction outlines what is going to be covered in this chapter. It has to be
short but covering all essential elements of the chapter.

2.1. Theoretical Framework (for Masters and PhD students)

Theory is what distinguishes academic writing from what may be journalism or essay writing.
The word Theory originate from the Greek word “Theorein” which means “to look upon, to
observe, to consider, to contemplate”. Theoria means looking at, looking more closely,
observation, consideration, insight and scientific contemplation (Peters, 2007:430). Various
scholars defined Theory as following:

 a structured set of lenses through which aspects or parts of the world can be observed,
studied or analysed (Klette, 2011).
 an organised body of concepts and principles intended to explain a particular
phenomenon (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010)
 a coherent and systematic ordering of ideas, concepts and models, with a purpose of
constructing meaning to explain, to interpret, to shape practice (Garrison, 2000).

Theoretical Framework is a framework for explaining “how” and “why” events and
phenomena unfold as they do (Johnson & Christensen, 2007). It is a broad theory based
explanation for the behaviours, actions, opinions, attitudes, feelings etc, of interest to your
study. In other words, a theory/theories you base your study. Theoretical framework serves
the following purpose:

 helps organise ideas

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  shows how your study fits into what is already known
 informs your research objectives, questions and methodology
 shows how your study contributes to the new knowledge
 helps justify your study problem (why it is important).
 You may have more than one theories depending on your objectives

It may be tricky but the aim is to find a theory that involves the concepts you want to explore.
Different fields/disciplines have different theories. You may present your Theoretical
Framework as follows:

 Write the theory as the heading. For example “Ubuntu Theoretical Framework”
 Do the following:
 Explain the principles of the theory
 Relate the theory to the concept under study
 Apply the Theoretical Framework to the study

2.2. Independent Variable

 Your heading will not be Independent variable, instead you use the actual word or
phrase which is independent
 Independent variable is the concept which is not affected but affects other concepts.
 Independent variable is a word or phrase in the topic
 Review literature of the independent variable using methods like funnel approach
 Your objectives are derived from this independent variable

2.3. Dependent Variable

 Your heading should not read the dependent variable, instead use the actual word or
phrase which is dependent
 Dependent variable concept is affected by the independent variable
 Review literature of the dependent variable showing how it depends on the
independent variable within the context of your study
 More information on reviewing literature is provided below on the section on
academic writing

2.4. Literature on Research Objectives

 Key words or phrases are derived from each objective to provide a heading for
literature review on that concept.
 If you have 3 objectives that means three headings.
 Review literature of these concepts.

2.5. Chapter Summary

This section summarises key issues from chapter two.

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How to review Literature

Purpose of a Literature Review

The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work
that you are carrying out.

 To provide background information

 To establish importance
 To demonstrate familiarity
 To “carve out a space” for further research

Characteristics of Effective Literature Reviews

 Outlining important research trends

 Critical and evaluative account of what has been published on a chosen research topic
 It summarises, synthesise and analyse the arguments of other scholars
 Reveals similarities and differences, consistencies and inconsistencies and
controversies in previous research
 Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing research
 Identifying potential gaps in knowledge
 Establishing a need for current and/or future research projects

Comparison across studies

The aim is to extract key points by comparing and contrasting ACROSS studies, instead of
reading one paper after another. Key points for a review may concern areas of similarities
and/or differences in:

 Research aim(s) or hypotheses

 Research design and sampling
 Instruments and procedures used
 How data were analysed
 Results or findings

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  Interpretations

Tips on writing

 Sentences:
Express one idea in a sentence. Ensure that all your sentences have a subject, verb
and object.
 Paragraphs:
Group sentences that express and develop one aspect of your topic. Use a new
paragraph for another aspect or another topic.
 Consistent Grammar
 Use sentences and paragraphs with appropriate use of commas, colours and semi-
colours. Incorrect use of punctuation can affect the meaning.
 Transition Words:
Use words that link paragraphs and which show contrast and development to your
argument e.g. ‘hence’, ‘therefore’, ‘but’, ‘thus’, ‘as a result’, ‘in contrast’.

Pitfalls

 Vagueness due to too much or inappropriate generalisations

 Limited range
 Insufficient information
 Irrelevant material
 Omission of contrasting view
 Omission of recent work

Organization of literature review

A general organization looks like a funnel:

 Broader topics
 Subtopics
 Studies like yours

How to organize studies

 Chronological – By publication date – By trend

 Thematic – A structure which considers different themes
 Methodological – Focuses on the methods of the researcher, e.g., qualitative versus
quantitative approaches

Making links between studies

Agreements

 Similarly, author B points to…

 Likewise, author C makes the case that…

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  Author D also makes this point…
 Again, it is possible to see how author E agrees with author D…

Disagreements

 However, author B points to…

 On the other hand, author C makes the case that…
 Conversely, Author D argues…
 Nevertheless, what author E suggests

Approaching your literature review

There are six stages to your literature review:

1. Find models

Look for other literature reviews in your discipline and read them to get an idea of the types
of themes you might want to include in your research or ways in which you could organise
your final review. You can do a database search to find models – put the words “literature
review” along with your keywords to retrieve references to articles of this type.

2. Problem formulation

You should try to construct a working statement that will form the basis of your literature
review. The statement does not have to argue for a position or an opinion. It will rather argue
for a particular slant on the material.

3. Literature search

The literature search will help you identify scope and key issues. Efficient searching will
help you:


Identify which authors are interested in your specialism and those who take a
generalist’s view.
 Trace authors who are prominent in your subject and who can help you justify
the importance of your research idea.
 Include the authors would or could contradict your ideas.
4. Evaluation of findings

Reading research articles is different from other types of reading. You must develop a good
understanding of the research literature to be able to write a competent literature review.
Understanding the literature requires you to read, re-read and assimilate complex ideas Scan
the article For the preliminary scan, don’t read the articles closely so as to avoid getting
mired in detail. It may help to note down the key points for each article. When reading you
should keep the following in mind:

 What are the authors’ academic reputation?

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  Identify the research question and the specific hypotheses, the findings and how the
findings were interpreted.
 Are the authors objective or does their work appear to have a particular bias?
 Is contrary data considered and discussed or is it ignored?
5. Analysis and interpretation of the literature

After you have an idea of the main ideas in each article, identify the precise methods used
and the theories tested. When you are comparing the work of a number of researchers some
of whom have a different take on the problems of the research question, you will need to have
an in-depth understanding of their work. A close reading may reveal differences in theoretical
outlook. How do different authors cite the same work? One author may explain the method of
an earlier study, describe its results in great detail and cite it repeatedly while another may
give it only a passing reference.

6. Writing the Literature Review

Number of articles reviewed Published review articles may contain more than a hundred
studies. Your sources should not be more than five years old by the date of submission.

Citation styles

• Information prominent citation

Example: – For viscoelastic fluids, the behaviour of the time-dependent stresses in the
transient shear flows is also very important (Boger et al., 1974).
• Author prominent citation
Examples: – Close (1983) developed a simplified theory using an analogy between heat
and mass transfer and the equivalent heat transfer only case. – Several authors have
suggested that automated testing should be more readily accepted (Balcer, 1989; Stahl,
1989; Carver & Tai, 1991)

Figure 2.1 summarises key points on literature review.

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 Major
concepts

current
Tensions
research

LITERATURE
Insights into REVIEW
methods gaps/not
used by other known
scholars

Find how your

THOERIES research fits
related to into what is
your problem known

Fig 2.1: Literature review key points

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0. Introduction

Aspects of research methodology are highlighted under introduction. It serves as a pointer to

things the reader expects to read in the chapter. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is:

 To discuss the research philosophies and research paradigms adopted in

relation to other philosophies.
 To evaluate research approaches and research designs used.
 To expound on research methodologies adopted.
 To introduce the data collection methods and research instruments developed
and used to collect data to answer the research questions.

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  To describe and analyse data processing and the analysis procedure
implemented.
 To describe the research population, sample and sampling procedures.
 To explain the validity and reliability of instruments used to collect data.
 To explain the ethical considerations.

3.1. Research Philosophy

 In their study of the research philosophy, Mora, Gelman, Steenkamp and Raisinghani
(2012) assert that the concept of reality and knowledge is ever-changing. They further
argue that not only is our understanding of the world ambiguous and pluralistic but
the world itself is open and created by people. Reality is not a solid, self-contained
given but a fluid, unfolding process, an open universe, continually affected and
moulded by one’s actions and beliefs.
 The research philosophy can be described as the belief about the way in which data
about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used.

 Still on the same line of argument, Mora, Gelman, Steenkamp and Raisinghani (2012)
assert that a research philosophy is a contiguous paradigm surrounded by and from
which scholars operationalize their study and reflect on it. It relates to the
development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge. The research philosophy
contains assumptions underpinning research strategy and the methods selected as part
of that strategy. These assumptions affect the way one views the world. The
philosophy adopted can be influenced by practical considerations. The main influence
can most likely be one’s particular view of the relationship between knowledge and
the process by which it is developed.

 Adding to the discourse, Nylander and Renberg (2014) point out that it is essential for
researchers to consider the research philosophy stances as it proclaims what we
respect as knowledge as well as the way we perceive the world. They add that the
stance we take on ontology and epistemology affects the research process. Their view
is supported by Gray (2013) who records that the selection of data gathering method
and research instruments are influenced by the research design chosen. He further
points out that the research designs are influenced by the theoretical perspectives
adopted by the scholar, and in turn, by the researcher’s epistemological stance.
 When undertaking a study, it is important to consider different research paradigms
and matters of ontology, epistemology and axiology (Flowers 2009). These
parameters describe perception, beliefs, assumptions and the nature of reality and
truth (or knowledge of that reality), as well as the individual’s values, which influence
the way in which the research is undertaken, from design through to conclusion.
 Mora et al., (2012:47) presented research philosophies in a tabular form. Table 3.1
shows the link among ontology, epistemology and axiology as research philosophies.

Table 3.1 Pluralist Scientific paradigms.

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 Ontology Epistemology Axiology
Different worlds Objective/material Observation Pragmatic
and types of
knowledge Social/normative Participation Moral

Subjective/personal Experience Ethical

Source: Mora et al, (2012:47)

 It is essential to comprehend and discuss these aspects in order that approaches

congruent to the nature and aims of the particular inquiry are adopted, and to ensure
that researcher biases are understood, exposed and minimised. Nylander and Renberg
(2014) emphasise that the stance the researcher takes on ontology and epistemology
affects the research process
 Therefore, in this section, the candidate is expected to address the ontology,
epistemology and axiology issues relating to the study.

3.3. Research Paradigm

 The discourse on the stance of ontology and epistemology lead to the research
paradigm (Camelleri, 2012).
 Researchers have come up with different definitions of research paradigm:
 For example, Mbili-Kuze (2012) defines the research paradigm as the base of
research that informs the researcher on what is there, how to comprehend and
research it.
 Similarly, Gray (2013) describes research paradigm as all surrounding
systems of interconnected practices and philosophy that characterize for the
investigator the character of their investigation.
 The research paradigm explains the group of assumptions or values about
essential aspects of truth which bestow importance to a meticulous philosophy
(Mack, 2010:07; Mulili, 2011).
 Within the same discourse, Nyander and Renberg (2014) also argue that the
research paradigm is a philosophy that guides the researcher in significant
ways in epistemology and ontology as well as the selection of methods.
 It mirrors the investigator’s observation of the communal realism and the
way one intends to study it. In the same way, Mulili (2011) points out that the
research paradigm determines the problems that are creditable of research,
and the methods that can be used to investigate the research problems. His
idea is that the choice of the research paradigm determines the ontology,
epistemology and methodologies to be used in a research study.
 Karley (2014) epitomises the argument on the research paradigm by outlining
what it dictates. It dictates:
o What should be studied.
o How research should be done
o How results should be interpreted.

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  However, regardless of the significance of research paradigms, other scholars do not
explain them in their study. Koffman-Xaba (2012) warned researchers of this mistake.
She argues that ignoring research paradigms can critically affect the excellence of the
research.
 In line with dissimilar ontological and epistemological orientations, a number of
research paradigms have cropped up over time and can be generally grouped as
Positivist, Interpretative and Post-positivist paradigms.
 The candidate should choose one among the three paradigms.
 The candidate should explain the chosen paradigm relating it to the study.
 Each research paradigm advocates specific research approach to be adopted by the
study:
 Positivism paradigm advocates quantitative approach;
 Interpretativism paradigm recommends qualitative approach
 Post-positivism encourages mixed method approach.
 The candidate should select a research paradigm understanding that it will lead to a
specific research approach

3.4. Research Approach

 Three research approaches exists, namely, Qualitative Approach, Quantitative

Approach and Mixed Method Approach.
 The candidate should choose one research approach guiding his/her study
 The research approach guiding the study should be explained and justified.
 Each research approach specify the research design to be adopted by the study.

3.4. Research Design

 Other scholars refer to research design as research strategies.

 Research design to be adopted depends on the research approach selected.
 Each research approach advocates several research designs, so the candidate can
choose a specific research design in line with one’s topic and research objectives.
 The candidate is expected to explain and justify the research design chosen
 The research design should be related to the context and concepts understudy.
 Research design points to the data collection methods to be used.

3.5. Population, Sampling Techniques and Sample size

3.5.1. Population

 The candidate is expected to state the numerical size of the population.

 Population refers to elements understudy

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  If the population exists in strata, then a table can be drawn showing the figures in each
strata and the total at the end.

3.5.2. Sampling Techniques

 Two types of sampling techniques exist, namely, Probability sampling techniques and
Non-probability sampling techniques.
 The candidate is supposed to explain how he/she used the named sampling
technique(s).
 No need to theorise, instead the candidate should explain practical aspect of the
sampling technique

3.5.3. Sample size

 The candidate is supposed to explain how he/she obtained the sample size
 The numerical sample size should be stated
 If the population exists in strata, then a table showing a sample size in each strata
should be drawn.

3.6. Data Collection Methods

 Data collection methods depend on the research approach and research design guiding
the study
 Quantitative approach advocates scientific data collection methods which lead to
figures, namely, questionnaire, experiments etc
 Qualitative approach advocates data obtained through experiences of participants,
namely, interviews, focus group discussions, observations, etc
 Mixed method approach derives its data collection methods from qualitative and
quantitative approaches
 The candidate is expected to explain and justify the use of this data collection
methods
 Data collection methods prescribe research instruments to be used
 Candidate should relate these data collection methods to his/her study
 Candidate should avoid generalisation

3.7. Research Instruments

 Each data collection method prescribe certain research instruments be used.

 Example of research instruments are:
 Questionnaire can use Likert Scale; Summated Scale
 Interview may use Interview Guide
 Observation can use Observation Schedule etc
 The candidate is expected to name the research instrument in relation to the data
collection method
 The candidate should do the following after choosing the research instrument:

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  Explain the principles of that research instruments
 Justify its use
 Explain how he/she constructed/designed that research instruments
 Explain what he/she did to ensure reliability and validity of the research
instrument

3.8. Data Collection, Presentation and Analysis Procedure

The essence of any data collection, processing and analysis procedures must be to return to
the terms of reference, research objectives, purpose of the study and begin to sort and
evaluate the data gathered in relation to the questions posed and the concepts identified
(Maree, 2010). Data processing and analysis, therefore, implies editing, coding, classification
and tabulation of data collected. Data have to be summarised and presented in a way that
communicates the significant features.

The candidate is expected to explain the following:

 How the candidate gained entry into the field

 How the candidate administered the research instruments
 How data was presented in chapter four
 How data was analysed and the instruments/methods used to analyse the data
 If the candidate made use of Theory to analyse data, then it must be explained

3.8. Reliability and Validity

Validity and reliability show how the researcher arrived at his findings, that is, the research
journey travelled (the decision trail). The researcher asks important questions such as: “If
someone uses the same instruments of measurement will they obtain the same findings?” If
yes, then the researcher has passed the test of reliability. Reliability refers to the repeatability
of the process to achieve similar results. Validity is usually about the trustworthiness of the
findings based on the uniformity of method and conclusion, the defensibility or cogency of
argumentation.

3.8.1. Reliability

Reliability refers to the uniformity with which a measuring instrument yields definite results
when the unit being measured has not altered (Ellis & Levy 2009). This means that if another
researcher repeats measuring the same unit using the same instrument, he must get the same
results provided the unit has not changed. Similarly, Leedy and Ormrod (2010:93) describe
reliability as the extent to which the instrument yields consistent results when the
characteristics being measured have not changed. Mbilini-Kuze (2012) concur with Leedy
and Ormrod (2010) that when administering an instrument under the same or similar
conditions to the same population and obtaining similar results, the instrument is deemed to
be reliable, therefore, the more similar the results, the greater the reliability.

Turyasingura (2011) provides several descriptions of reliability but they contribute to the
same meaning. Here are some of his descriptions:

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  Reliability refers to the extent to which a measurement scale or a test is dependable,
consistent, predictable and stable, that is, whether one can obtain the same answer in
repeated use of the same instrument.
 Reliability refers to the extent to which a set of variables is consistent with what it is
intended to measure.
 Reliability is the ability of the research tool to produce the same results when it is
used at different times, but in a similar setting.
 Reliability measures how reproducible survey data are, using the same survey
instrument.
 The reliability of the scale is the degree of accuracy with which it measures what it is
supposed to measure.

The descriptions provided by Turyasingura (2011) all emphasise the ability to repeat
measuring a unit and obtaining a consistent results.

Contributing to the reliability discourse, Zohrabi (2013) argues that reliability deals with the
consistency, dependability, and replicability of the results obtained from a piece of research.
Obtaining the similar results in quantitative research is possible because data are in numerical
form. However, with qualitative approaches to achieve the identical results it is fairly
demanding and difficult because data are in narrative form and subjective. Therefore, when
using the qualitative approach the researcher should instead of obtaining the same results,
think about the dependability and consistency of the data. The purpose is not to attain the
same results but, rather to agree that based on the data collection processes the findings and
results are consistent and dependable.

Leedy and Ormrod (2010:93) outline four forms of reliability, namely, inter-rater reliability,
internal consistency reliability, equivalent forms reliability and Test-retest reliability. Inter-
rater reliability refers to the extent to which at least two individuals evaluating the same
product or performance give identical judgement. Internal consistency reliability means the
extent to which all of the items within a single instrument yield similar results. Equivalent
forms reliability refers to the extent to which at least two different versions of the same
instrument yield similar results. Lastly, the Test-re-test reliability refers to the extent to which
a single instrument yields the same results for the same people on two different occasions.

Instead of forms of reliability, Zohrabi (2013) explains types of reliability, namely, external
reliability and internal reliability. External reliability is concerned with the replication of the
study. Replication of the study can be increased if the researcher classifies his social position,
carefully choose the informants, conducts the study in a natural setting, identifies and
describes the constructs, and also explicitly explains the data collection procedures and
analysis.

Internal reliability deals with consistency of collecting, analysing and interpreting the data
(Zohrabi, 2013). This can be achieved when an independent investigator on re-analysing the
data obtains similar findings as the original researcher. To increase the reliability of the data,
the researcher needs to elaborate descriptions and explanations of variables which cannot be

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quantified and are difficult to measure, for example, attitude and motivation etcetera. The
researcher can also use relevant previous studies’ results and conclusion in their reports
(Zohrabi, 2013) to enhance internal reliability. The interviews can be recorded and preserved;
therefore, the re-analysis or the replication of the data can be easily implemented by other
independent researchers, thus increasing the internal reliability of the data and findings.

3.8.2. Validity

Validity refers to the researcher’s ability to draw meaningful and justifiable inferences from
scores about a sample or population (Ellis & Levy, 2009). The validity of an instrument
means the extent to which the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. The
validity of a study relies on the relationship of researcher’s conclusion to reality. Measuring
instruments yield scores but the significant part is the interpretation researchers make of the
data, which may or may not be valid.

Along the same line, Mbilini-Kuze (2012) describes validity as the extent to which empirical
measures adequately reflect the real meaning of the concept under study. Adding to what
Mbilini-Kuze said, Zohrabi (2013) points out that reality is holistic, multidimensional and
ever-changing. Therefore, validity is concerned with whether the study is believable and true
and whether it is evaluating what it is supposed or purports to evaluate. Validity forms part of
the significant criterion for evaluating the quality and acceptability of the research.

Leedy and Ormrod (2010) describe the forms of validity, namely, face validity, content
validity, criterion validity and construct validity. Face validity refers to the extent to which,
on the surface, an instrument looks like it is measuring particular characteristics. It is useful
for ensuring the cooperation of the people who are taking part in the research study. Face
validity relies entirely on subjective judgement, it is not, in and itself, very convincing
evidence that an instrument is truly measuring what the inquirer wants to measure.

Content validity is the extent to which a measurement instrument is a representative sample

of the content area being measured (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). It is considered when a
researcher wants to assess participants’ achievements in some area. A measurement
instrument has a high content validity if its items or questions reflect the various parts of the
content domain in appropriate proportions and if it requires the particular behaviour and skills
that are central to that domain.

Criterion validity refers to the extent to which the results of an assessment instrument
correlate with another, presumably related measure. Zohrabi (2013) refers to it as utility
criterion, which means the degree of usefulness the evaluation findings have for the
stakeholders. It intends to inquire whether or not the research works. It asks whether the
evaluation generates enough data for the decision makers with regard to the effectiveness and
appropriateness of the programme. When the evaluation process provides the different
stakeholders with proper and ample information, it can be surmised that the utility criterion
has been met and consequently achieved validity requirements.

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Construct validity is the extent to which an instrument measures a characteristic that cannot
be directly observed but is assumed to exist based on patterns in people’s behaviour (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2010). Examples of these constructs are motivation, creativity, racial prejudice
and so on. When investigators inquire present questions or observe behaviours as a way of
assessing an underlying construct, they should obtain some kind of evidence that their
approach does, in fact, measure the construct in question.

Discussing the concept of validity, Ellis and Levy (2009) and Zohrabi (2013), unlike Leedy
and Ormrod (2010), classify it into internal and external validity. Internal validity refers to
the extent to which its design and the data that it yields permit the investigator to draw
accurate conclusions about cause and effect and other relationships within the data. External
validity refers to the extent to which its results apply to situations beyond the study itself, the
extent to which the conclusion drawn can be generalised to other contexts.

Zohrabi (2013) explained that to establish internal validity requires the examining of one or
more of these internal validity procedures, namely, criterion related validity, construct
validity, content validity and statistical conclusion validity.

Criterion related validity, also called instrument validity, is based upon the premises that
processes and instruments used in a study are valid if they are parallel or similar to those used
previously in validated research (Ellis & Levy, 2009:333). In order to establish criterion
related validity it is necessary to draw strong parallels between as many particulars as
possible of the validated study population, circumstances, instruments used, methods
followed, etcetera.

Construct validity is in essence an operational issue. It asks whether the measures chosen are
true constructs describing the event or merely artefacts of the methodology itself (Zohrabi,
2013). The researcher ask questions: “Do measures show stability across methodology, i.e.
are the data a reflection of true scores or artefacts of the kind of instruments chosen?”

Content validity refers to the degree to which items in an instrument reflect the content
universe to which the instrument will be generalised (Ellis & Levy, 2009). The researcher
asks the question whether the instruments measures data obtained from all possible measures
of the properties under study.

Lastly, the statistical conclusion validity, which refers to the assessment of the mathematics
relationships between variables and the likelihood that this mathematics asses merits provides
a correct picture of the co-variation (Zohrabi, 2013).

External validity can be described as the extent to which its results apply to situations beyond
the study itself, the extent to which the conclusion drawn can be generalised to other concepts
(Ellis & Levy, 2009). It addresses the generalisability of sample results to the population of
interest, across different measures, persons, settings or times. It demonstrates that research
results are applicable in natural settings.

N.B. The candidate should not theorise these issues but explain the practical aspects done to
ensure reliability and validity of research instruments and data.

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3.9. Ethical Considerations

This section describes the measures the researcher took to protect the participants against
harm and risk. Research ethics refers to the consideration of the participants’ welfare during
the process of collecting data and also in the final report (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). Any
researcher who involves human participants is obliged to consider the effects of the study on
them and then take necessary measure to eradicate such effects. Some of the ethical issues are
discussed.

3.9.1. Informed consent

Informed consent refers to the right of the participants to know the nature of the research and
voluntarily accept to take part in the research (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). It implies that the
informants are made aware of the nature of data the researcher wants from them, why the
data is being gathered, what purpose it is put to, how they are expected to participate in the
study, and how it directly or indirectly it affects them. It is unethical to collect data without
the consent of the research participants.

3.9.2. Maintaining Confidentiality and Anonymity

Confidential data refers to personal or identifiable data about the participants provided with
the clear understanding that the researcher will not divulge the information to a third party
without the consent of the participants (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). Confidentiality therefore
means it is the duty of the inquirer not to give the data to others without the consent of the
informant. Anonymity also refers to the right of the informant not to be known as the supplier
of the research data.

3.9.3. Avoiding harm or damage to participants

Harm or damage in research refers to social risks, psychological harm, economics risks and
physical harm the participants may suffer as a result of being involved in the study (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2010). Social risks refer to the disclosure of individual attitudes, behaviours or
preferences that may lead to stigmatization, discrimination or prejudice of the participant.
Psychological harm includes stress, depression, confusion, guilt, embarrassment, loss of self-
esteem caused by being involved in the study. Economic risks may occur as a result of
disclosing of a person’s information that may, if revealed to others negatively affect his
employment, insurance coverage, or academic status. Physical harm could happen either by
or against a participant when exploring sensitive topics.

N.B. The candidate should note theorise these issues but explain the actions done.

3.10. Chapter Summary

Issues discussed in chapter three are summarised.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.0. Introduction

The candidate introduces information in chapter 4. In this chapter, data is presented, analysed
and discussed. Various approaches for writing chapter 4 exists, the candidate chooses the
method they are comfortable with.

4.1. Response Rate

Before reporting findings from data analyses, especially when dealing with quantitative data,
the response rate is often described. This allows readers to gauge how many instruments were
distributed, how many were returned, and what the overall rate of response to the survey was.
This section may be included as part of the introduction without a specific section heading.

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4.2. Demographic data

Following the introduction (and response rate data), the next section frequently provides
demographic information regarding the study population and sample. As most surveys
include at least several demographic items, this section provides readers with a picture of the
demographic composition of the respondents/participants. Information such as gender, age,
position, years of experience, etc. are usually reported in this section. This section may also
be included without a specific section heading, although a heading is helpful to the readers.

4.3. Presentation, Analysis and Discussion of Results

Presentation of data differs with the research approach used:

Quantitative Approach- statistical calculations are provided and infer to rich a

generalisation. Make use of table, graphs and diagrams. Software programmes can be used to
calculate various statistics information e.g. SPSS etc

Qualitative Approach- the study deduces meaning from the experiences of the participants.
These experiences are grouped under research questions/objectives listed in chapter one as
sub-headings

Mixed Method Approach – the study triangulates data from qualitative and quantitative
research instruments to reach a generalisation. It combined both statistical data and
narratives. Statistical figures are explained by narratives from the qualitative data.

Chapter 4 report findings related to the hypotheses being tested or research questions being
answered. A specific section heading should be used for each section in Chapter 4 that report
findings resulting from data analysis.

General Format

In general, data are reported in tabular (tables) or graphic (figures) form accompanied by text
describing the salient information contained in each table or figure. A sample table and figure
with possible accompanying narrative for each are included. Note that a table is generally
limited to columns of numbers with appropriate column headings. Figures usually contain
graphics such as graphs, diagrams, or photographs. It is recommended that extremely long
tables/figures or very detailed information not be included within Chapter 4. Due to space
requirements (and questionable interest to most readers), it is better to place this information
in an Appendix and note in Chapter 4 where the detailed information is located in the 20
Appendix. (E.g., A four-page list containing each respondent's answers to every survey item
would be more appropriately placed in an Appendix, while a summary table showing the item
means should be included in Chapter 4.

Discussion

This is not a section, but part of the whole chapter 4. The author link the results to literature
review (chapter 2) in order to come up with a finding.

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4.4. Chapter Summary

The study epitomises key points and findings from chapter 4

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Summary of Major Findings

The section provides summary of major findings deduced from chapter 4.

5.2. Conclusion

This section presents conclusions drawn from the findings and results of the data analysis.
Findings from the present study should provide the primary information for drawing
conclusions. Frequently, conclusions provide answers to hypotheses or research questions
posed in Chapter 1. While conclusions may be written in narrative form or listed one at a
time, listing them one at a time is generally easier for readers to follow and helps maintain
clarity of focus for each conclusion.

An important observation regarding conclusions is in order: Conclusions are not the same as
findings and should not simply be restatements of findings from Chapter 4. A conclusion
should be broader and more encompassing than a specific finding, and several findings may

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be incorporated into one conclusion. While several findings may be used to support one
conclusion, it is also possible that one finding might give rise to several conclusions
(although this is somewhat less common).

Generally, while specific findings are stated in the past tense (e.g., students expressed
greatest satisfaction with university instructors), conclusions are stated in the present tense
(e.g., students are most satisfied with university instructors). The following illustrates the
relationship between findings and conclusions. A study of company directors across
Zimbabwe in 1991 yielded the following findings:

 Only 5% were people living with disabilities

 Only 8% were female

From these findings the following conclusion was drawn: Women and minorities continue to
remain underrepresented in the boardrooms. (Note: This conclusion combined both findings
into a single broad statement that appears well supported by the study findings.)

5.3. Recommendations

The final section of Chapter 5 contains recommendations that emerge from the study.
Generally, recommendations are of two distinct types:

 recommendations for action or practice (based on the study's findings and

conclusions, and sometimes headed Recommendations from the Study or
Recommendations for Practice), an
 a suggested model
 Recommendations for Further Study.

Frequently a separate section is included for each set of recommendations – each with an
appropriate section heading. Recommendations for practice are generally prescriptive in
nature and address what could or should be done by practitioners or members of the intended
audience in terms of professional practice and policy. These recommendations are based
upon results of the study. For example, 1. Since male and female teachers rated elements of
the professional development program much differently, the administration should provide
gender-appropriate training to the teachers that highlights gender differences. 27
Recommendations for further study contain suggestions regarding follow up studies or
replication studies. These recommendations usually acknowledge limitations or delimitations
that the study included and which further studies could help explain or clarify. These might
include different methodologies, expanded populations or samples, or changes in the
instrument itself. For example, 1. Since the current study was completed using a cross-
sectional survey design, a similar study should be planned within the same school that uses a
longitudinal design to determine if changes over time become perceptible.

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Reference

All sources used in the Dissertation should be referenced. Three quarters of the sources
should not be older than fives on the day of submission. The author should use MSU
referencing style.

Appendix

These are some of the documents which can be part of appendix

 Ethical clearance from the University which permits a student to collect data.
 Gatekeeper’s letter
 Research instrument samples
 Large diagrams of data which cannot be part of chapter 4
 Plagiarism note

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