The Coaches’ Handbook

This comprehensive practitioner guide provides an accessible evidenced based approach

aimed at those new to coaching and who may be undertaking coach training for a
certifcate in coaching or professional credentials or accreditation with the AC, ICF,
EMCC, CMI or ILM.The book will also be useful for those who want to enhance their
coaching skills.
The Coaches’ Handbook is edited by Jonathan Passmore, an internationally respected
expert and executive coach, with chapters from leading coaching practitioners from across
the world. The book is divided into seven sections. Section one examines the nature of
coaching, its boundaries, the business case for coaching and how organisations can build
a coaching culture. Section two focuses on deepening our self-understanding and under-
standing our clients, the non-violent communications mindset and the coaching relation-
ship. Section three focuses on the key skills needed for coaching including goal-setting,
powerful questions, active listening, using direct communications and the role of silence,
emotions and challenge in coaching. Section four offers a range of coaching approaches
including behavioural, person-centred, solution-focused, psychodynamic, neuroscience,
narrative, positive psychology, out-door eco-coaching, team coaching, careers coaching
and integrated coaching. Section fve focuses on fundamental issues in coaching such as
ethics and contracting and evaluation. Section six explores continuous professional devel-
opment, refection and the role of supervision, as well as how to establish your coaching
business. The fnal section contains a host of coaching tools which practitioners can use
to broaden their practice.
Unique in its scope, this key text will be essential reading for coaches, academics and
students of coaching. It is an important text for anyone seeking to understand the best
practice approaches that can be applied to their coaching practice, including human
resources, learning and development and management professionals, and executives in a
coaching role.

Jonathan Passmore is Director of the Henley Centre for Coaching. He has also held
a number of executive and non-executive board roles and worked for global consulting
frms, including PwC and IBM. He has also edited and written 30 books and over 100
scientifc articles.
“This thought-provoking book provides an accessible pathway from current academic
thinking to practical advice. Recommended reading for all coaches wishing to deepen their
knowledge and sharpen their practice”.
Dr Gill Stevens, Programme director – Coaching, University of Cambridge, UK

“Coaching is the personnel development instrument of the future.This handbook provides

an excellent practical and scientifcally sound foundation for preparing for this future as a
coach.”
Professor Dr Carsten C. Schermuly,Vice President of Research at
SRH Berlin University of Applied Sciences, Germany

“This is the go-to book for novice coaches through to seasoned practitioners”.
Jeannette Marshall, Director of Accreditation,Association for Coaching (Global)

“A must-read handbook for students, novice and experienced coaches and academics.With
the right balance of cutting-edge theory and practice, this is by far the most thought-provok-
ing and comprehensive book on coaching currently available.”
Dr Andrea Giraldez-Hayes, Programme Director –
Coaching and Positive Psychology, University of East London, UK

“What a fantastic, science-based practitioners handbook! Great value for all those who
want to become dedicated professional coaches helping to unlock peoples’ full potential in an
increasingly challenging world.An absolute must have for any coaching student!”
Dr Robert Wegener, Co-Responsible of the Coaching Studies FHNW
(University of Applied Sciences North Western Switzerland), Initiator of the
International Coaching Conference, author and editor, and Business Coach

“As professional coaching begins to reach a stage of maturity, it is crucial we have a cred-
ible resource supported by thoughtful and evidence-based refection. This handbook offers
the pathway for sustainable practice and decision-making either for those interested in their
development as coaches or for those looking for a reference book in coaching services.”
Alexandra Barosa Pereira, Programme Director – Professional Certifcate in
Executive Coaching, Nova Business School, Lisbon, Portugal

“I love the way this book is like being able to knock on the doors of the individual expert
practitioners, and have a chat with each of them, all in one place.”
Dr Patricia Bossons, Leadership Development and Coaching Lead,
Massey Business School, New Zealand

“The scope and substance of this book make it ideal as a text for coach education and as a
resource on every coach’s bookshelf.”
Francine Campone, Ed.D., MCC, Coaching & Coach Development
The Coaches’ Handbook
The Complete Practitioner Guide for
Professional Coaches

Edited by Jonathan Passmore

First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park,Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 selection and editorial matter, Jonathan Passmore; individual chapters, the
contributors
The right of Jonathan Passmore to be identifed as the author of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Passmore, Jonathan, editor.
Title:The coaches’ handbook: the complete practitioner guide for professional
coaches/edited by Jonathan Passmore.
Description: First Edition. | New York: Routledge, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifers: LCCN 2020020167
(print) | LCCN 2020020168 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367539207 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780367546199 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003089889 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Executives–Training of. | Mentoring in business. |
Leadership–Study and teaching.
Classifcation: LCC HD30.4 .C6263 2020 (print) | LCC HD30.4 (ebook) |
DDC 658.3/124–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020167
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020168
ISBN: 978-0-367-53920-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-54619-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-08988-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Contents

Editor’s bio ix
Contributors’ bios x

SECTION 1
Coaching context 1

1 Coaching defned and explored 3

JONATHAN PASSMORE

2 The business case for coaching 13

REBECCA J. JONES

3 Developing a coaching culture in your organisation 24

JONATHAN PASSMORE AND KRISTINA CRABBE

SECTION 2
Understanding yourself and your clients 37

4 Understanding yourself as a coach 39

TATIANA BACHKIROVA

5 Understanding your clients 48

ALISON HARDINGHAM

6 Non-violent communication 58
ALISON HARDINGHAM

7 Understanding the coaching relationship 68

CHARLOTTE SILLS
vi Contents
SECTION 3
Core coaching skills 77

8 Goal-setting in coaching 79
RUTH E. PRICE

9 Questions in coaching 92
DAVID CLUTTERBUCK

10 Listening in coaching 104

STEPHEN BURT

11 Affrmations, refections and summaries in coaching 114

TIM ANSTISS

12 Tools and techniques in coaching 125

SARAH LEACH AND JONATHAN PASSMORE

13 Silence in coaching 132

ARTHUR F. TURNER

14 Using emotions in coaching 141

ABOODI SHABI

15 Balancing challenge and support in coaching 152

IAN DAY

SECTION 4
Coaching approaches 165

16 The universal eclectic model of executive coaching 167

ALISON HARDINGHAM

17 Behavioural coaching: The GROW model 176

SARAH LEACH

18 Person-centred coaching 187

RICHARD BRYANT-JEFFERIES
 Contents vii
19 Solution-focused coaching 197
JONATHAN PASSMORE

20 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 208

ROB WILLSON

21 Gestalt coaching 221

ANN JAMES

22 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching 232

KAREN IZOD

23 Neuroscience coaching 243

PATRICIA RIDDELL

24 Narrative coaching 257

DAVID DRAKE

25 Systemic team coaching 267

LUCY WIDDOWSON AND PAUL J. BARBOUR

26 Career coaching 280

JULIA YATES

27 Outdoor eco-coaching 291

ALEX BURN AND ANNA-MARIE WATSON

28 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 301

TIM ANSTISS

29 Positive psychology approaches to coaching 314

CHRISTIAN VAN NIEUWERBURGH AND ROBERT BISWAS-DIENER

30 Developing an integrated approach to coaching 322

JONATHAN PASSMORE
viii Contents
SECTION 5
Coaching issues 331

31 Ethics in coaching 333

IOANNA IORDANOU AND RACHEL HAWLEY

32 Contracting in coaching 344

KAREN FOY

33 Feedback and evaluation in coaching 355

JONATHAN PASSMORE AND DAVID TEE

34 AI and digital technology in coaching 367

EDITH CORON

SECTION 6
Continuing coach development 377

35 Supervision in coaching 379

SUZANNE LINES

36 Manager as coach 393

JENNY ROGERS

37 Refective practice in coaching 403

ANN JAMES

38 Establishing your coaching business 414

MICHAEL BEALE

SECTION 7
Tools and techniques for coaches 425

39 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 427

JULIE FLOWER

Index 443
Editor’s bio

Jonathan Passmore
Jonathan is an executive coach, author and researcher based at Henley Centre for
Coaching, Business School, University of Reading and University of Evora. He was
ranked in the Global Gurus Top 30 (2020) and Top 8 coach in the Thinkers 50 coaching
list (2019). He has worked in consulting for IBM, PWC and Embrion over the past two
decades. He is now professor of coaching and behavioural change at Henley, UK, and
professor of psychology at Evora, Portugal. He has published widely with over 30 books
and 100 scientifc papers and book chapters on themes of coaching, change and leader-
ship. Recent books including: Mindfulness at Work, Top Business Psychology Models, Becoming
a Coach and Excellence in Coaching which have been translated into more than a dozen
languages. He maintains an active coaching and supervision practice supporting leaders
and coaches in their development journeys.
Contributors’ bios

Tim Anstiss
Tim is a medical doctor specialising in behaviour change and wellbeing improvement.
He is a member of the BPS and has been involved in several national and international
behaviour change initiatives. He has written widely on the development of third wave
cognitive-behavioural approaches and their adaptation to workplace coaching.
Tatiana Bachkirova
Tatiana is Professor of Coaching Psychology and Director of the International Centre
for Coaching and Mentoring Studies at Oxford Brookes University, UK. She is a recog-
nised author, international speaker and an active researcher.
Paul J. Barbour
Paul is an executive and team coach. He is also a writer and speaker with strong inter-
ests in team coaching and confict resolution. He has co-authored with Lucy Widdowson
Building Top Performing Teams (2021). Paul is also a Lead Tutor on team coaching at the
Henley Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Michael Beale
Michael is a Goldsmith Certifed coach who works worldwide. He offers stakeholder
coaching to corporates and personal mastery programmes to individuals to help them
develop themselves and their businesses.
Robert Biswas-Diener
Robert is a positive psychologist, author and academic at Portland State University. He
has published widely, including Positive Psychology Coaching (2007), Happiness: Unlocking
the mysteries of psychological wealth (2008) and Practicing Positive Psychology Coaching (2010).
Richard Bryant-Jefferies
Richard is the author of over 20 books on counselling themes, including two novels.
He worked as a primary care and specialist alcohol counsellor and manager of substance
misuse services, and Head of Equality and Diversity at an NHS Trust in London. He is
married and lives in Surrey. He can be contacted via: www.richardbj.co.uk.
 Contributors’ bios xi
Alex Burn
Alexandra is an independent business coach and L&D professional, working with indi-
viduals, teams and organisations. Alex’s passion for coaching and nature has led to her
research into the benefts of outdoor coaching at the Henley Centre for Coaching, Henley
Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Stephen Burt
Stephen is a leadership coach for whom high-quality listening is the core of both
coaching and leadership. He has written on the theme of listening: ‘The Art of Listening
in Coaching and Mentoring’ (2019). He hones his own listening skills through performing
jazz and improvised comedy.
David Clutterbuck
David is one of the original founders of the EMCC, and has written widely on coach-
ing, mentoring and leadership, including Coaching the Team at Work (2007, 2020) and ‘The
Practitioner’s Handbook of Team Coaching’ (2019). He is a Visiting Professor at the Henley
Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Edith Coron
Edith is an executive coach (PCC-ICF) and coach supervisor who previously worked
as a journalist. Her career spans four continents. She chairs the ICF-France Committee on
Digital/Artifcial Intelligence and Coaching.
Kristina Crabbe
Kristina is an accredited coach, coaching super-visor, Time to Think teacher and
Human Resources consultant. She holds an MSc in Coaching and Behavioural Change
and is a Doctoral student researching ‘The value and impact of coaching super-vision for
coach development and the wider system’.
Ian Day
Ian is the co-author of ‘Challenging Coaching: Going Beyond Traditional Coaching to Face
the FACTS’ (www.challengingcoaching.co.uk), an executive coach with over 20 years’
experience of working internationally at c-suite level and course director for the coach-
ing qualifcations delivered at the University of Warwick in the UK. Ian has presented at
international coaching conferences and is a highly respected coach.
David Drake
David is the CEO of The Moment Institute in California, the founder of Narrative
Coaching and Integrative Development, a Thought Leader for Institute of Coaching at
Harvard, and author of over 60 publications.
Julie Flower
Julie is a leadership and team development coach, consultant and facilitator, specialis-
ing in versatility to address meaningful challenges within complex systems. Her eclectic
approach includes techniques from improvised comedy.
xii Contributors’ bios
Karen Foy
Karen is an experienced accredited coach with an MSc in coaching psychology. She
runs an independent coaching practice and is also a lecturer in coaching at the Henley
Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Alison Hardingham
Alison is a psychologist, accredited executive coach and coaching supervisor. In 2004
she wrote The Coach’s Coach, which is still widely read today. She was one of the found-
ing members of the Henley Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of
Reading, UK) and its coach training programmes.
Rachel Hawley
Rachel is a Leadership Associate at the NHS Leadership Academy and co-author of
Values and Ethics in Coaching (2017). Her doctoral study at Sheffeld Hallam University
explores infuences on leadership for public engagement.
Ioanna Iordanou
Ioanna is a Reader in Human Resource Management (Coaching and Mentoring) at
Oxford Brookes Business School, co-author of Values and Ethics in Coaching (2017) and
co-editor of The Practitioner’s Handbook of Team Coaching (2019).
Karen Izod
Karen is a consultant, researcher and academic specialising in group and organisational
dynamics. She is Course Lead for the Doctorate in Consulting to Organisations at the
Tavistock and Portman NHS Trust.
Ann James
Ann is an Executive Fellow at the Henley Centre for Coaching, Henley Business
School (University of Reading, UK), where she tutors on coaching programmes and
provides supervision. She brings the principles of refective practice into the everyday for
herself and her clients.
Rebecca J. Jones
Rebecca is an Associate Professor in Coaching at the Henley Centre for Coaching,
Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK), Programme Director for Henley’s
MSc in Coaching and Behavioural Change and a Chartered Psychologist. Her research
interests lie in examining the factors that infuence coaching effectiveness, a topic on
which she has published widely.
Sarah Leach
Sarah is an experienced Life and Career Coach (ICF PCC). She is the owner of Stride
Coaching and Consulting. Sarah works with senior executives and teams to enable per-
sonal and professional growth. Sarah is also a lecturer in coaching at the Henley Centre for
Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Suzanne Lines
Suzanne is a Master Certifed Coach (ICF, 2012), experienced supervisor, mediator and a
member of faculty at the Henley Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University
 Contributors’ bios xiii
of Reading, UK) and runs her own private practice. She is co-founder of abamentis ltd and
focusses on leadership and top team performance. She has over 25 years of global business
development experience working to board level with FTSE 50 and entrepreneurial compa-
nies with Ernst & Young, DeAgostini-Rand McNally and the BBC.
Ruth E. Price
Ruth is a chartered psychologist, certifed coach and psychometric practitioner. An
experienced consultant who has assessed, recruited and developed individuals internation-
ally at senior levels including c-suite, she is now the director of an executive development
and coaching practice. She holds a Psychology PhD and is a lecturer in coaching at Henley
Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading).
Patricia Riddell
Patricia is Professor of Applied Neuroscience in the School of Psychology and Clinical
Language Sciences at the University of Reading. She has published widely, including The
Neuroscience of Leadership Coaching. She is also a member of faculty at the Henley Centre
for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Jenny Rogers
Jenny is one of the UK’s most experienced executive coaches, with 26 years’ of suc-
cessful experience. Her clients include Chief Executives and Directors of some of the
UK’s best-known organisations. She is a popular speaker and writer, with titles including
Coaching with careers and Coaching with Personality Types.
Aboodi Shabi
Aboodi is currently a lecturer in Coaching and Behavioural Change at the Henley
Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK). He has
worked in executive coaching and coach training since the mid-1990s. He was founding
Co-President of the UK ICF Chapter.
Charlotte Sills
Charlotte is a coach, coach supervisor and also a psychotherapist. She is Professor of
Coaching at Ashridge Business School and teaches on their Masters in Executive Coaching
and Diploma in Organisational Supervision programmes.
David Tee
David is an independent coaching psychologist and researcher. He is the editor of
The Coaching Psychologist, published by the British Psychological Society, and co-editor of
Coaching Researched (2020).
Arthur F. Turner
Arthur is a practising coaching scholar and development facilitator who has taken a
particular interest in the creative side of the topic of executive coaching. His interests
include walking, use of fnger puppets, art and pictures, metaphors and, in a current phase
of investigation, he is exploring silence, laughter and humour in the coaching relationship.
Christian van Nieuwerburgh
Christian is executive director of Growth Coaching International, and Professor of
Coaching and Positive Psychology at the University of East London. He has written
xiv Contributors’ bios
widely, with several books and research articles including Introduction to Coaching Skills,
Advanced Coaching Practice and Coaching in Education.
Anna-Marie Watson
Anna-Marie is an executive coach, coach supervisor and expedition leader with a seri-
ous passion for the outdoors. She’s on a mission to encourage fellow coaches work with
their clients in the natural environment and move more. She co-leads the Global ICF
Executive and Leadership Community of Practice.
Lucy Widdowson
Lucy is an accredited executive and team coach. A thought leader and the UK ICF
lead on team coaching and is the co-author of Building Top Performing Teams (2021). Lucy
is also a lead tutor on team coaching at the Henley Centre for Coaching, Henley Business
School (University of Reading, UK).
Rob Willson
Rob is a cognitive-behaviour therapist, trainer, researcher and author based in London,
UK. He has a keen interest in the relationship between therapy and coaching and teaches
on the MSc Coaching and Behavioural Change at the Henley Centre for Coaching,
Henley Business School (University of Reading, UK).
Julia Yates
Julia is a chartered occupational psychologist and career coach. She is a senior lecturer
in psychology at City, University of London, researching and teaching career development
and coaching psychology and has published several books including: The Careers Coaching
Handbook (2013) and The Careers Coaching Toolkit (2018).
Section 1

Coaching context
1 Coaching defned and explored
Jonathan Passmore

Introduction
Before we can start to coach, we need to understand what coaching is, and what it is not.
However, one challenge coaching practitioners face is that there is no universally agreed-
upon defnition of coaching. In this chapter, we argue that while understanding the ori-
gins of coaching and a variety of its different defnitions, most coaches need to think for
themselves and discern what coaching is in their context, organisation or culture. First, we
explore a range of commonly used defnitions and consider the roots of coaching.Then
we will compare coaching with other popular organisation interventions such as mentor-
ing, performance management, appraisals and 1–1’s as well as discussing counselling and
occupational health, before closing by encouraging coaches to develop their own elevator
pitch to describe what they do and how they do it.

What is coaching?
Answering this question is both simple and complex. Coaching has been around for three
or more decades and most people have an idea of what coaching is.This has been helped
by the fact that most writers have broadly similar views. While there has been broad
agreement over these years, different writers, professional bodies and practitioners have
emphasised different aspects of coaching in their defnitions.
But why should we be interested in discussing a defnition? There are several good rea-
sons why starting with a defnition is a very good place to start. Firstly, if you are provid-
ing a service to clients, individuals or organisations, the coach needs to be able to explain
what they are offering. Having a clear elevator pitch to articulate what you do is vital for
all coaches.A second reason is that if you are learning about a topic, knowing what is or is
not enables you to establish boundaries for what you need to learn and what knowledge is
not part of the topic. A third reason is for research; we need to defne what we are doing,
to ensure what we are doing is X, rather than Y, and thus establish that it is X, rather than
Y that leads to positive outcome.The following analogy illustrates this point. Both French
fries and bananas are yellow and oblong. However, if we eat too much of one of these, we
are likely to put on weight and, over time, increase our chances of coronary heart disease.
Understanding the difference between the two can help us to make better choices based
on their likely effect on the human body.
4 Jonathan Passmore
The roots of coaching?
In her review of the history of coaching, Leni Wildfower notes that the roots of coaching
have spread far and wide (2010).Wildfower highlights several important strands that have
shaped and infuenced coaches for good, as well as ill. One strand is the human potential
movement.This arose out of the counterculture movements in the USA during the 1960s.
At its heart was a belief that the development of human potential was far greater than
we had recognised and humans had within them a capacity for self-development which
can unleash greater happiness, creativity and fulflment. These ideas were picked up by
Michael Murphy, the founder of Esalen Institute in the 1960s, who provided a physical
space for thinkers and practitioners to come together. This in turn infuenced the work
of John Whitmore and Tim Gallwey, as well as Thomas Leonard and Laura Whitworth
(Brock, 2009; Brock, 2012).
A second strand was sports coaching, which emerged from the use of coaching in
debating societies within universities at the turn of the century.The earliest records date
back to the 1910s and 1920s with the work of Trueblood (1911) and Huston (1924),
who report the use of coaching as a tool to improve debating performance. These ideas
were picked up by university sports teams who started applying the ideas to baseball and
American football (Griffths, 1926).
A third strand identifed by Wildfower is the work of the therapists, Sigmund Freud,
Carl Jung Fritz and Laura Perls, who argued that development or change could be realised
through exploratory conversations to develop greater self-awareness.
A fourth, often-ignored strand is the small but growing development of coaching in
the workplace, which dates back to the 1930s. In a short article, the Detroit-based edi-
tor of Factory Management and Maintenance examined the role of worker development
(through training and coaching) to improve factory processes (Gordy, 1937). The article
noted how coaching could be used to reduce waste in manufacturing. Other articles
followed describing the potential of coaching (Bigelow, 1938). While neither Gordy or
Bigelow offered a formal defnition of coaching, the use of the term suggests that coach-
ing was being used in the workplace before the start of World War II. However, the arrival
of the war meant the term seemed to disappear until the 1960s, when it appeared again
in a host of different guises.

How does coaching compare with other interventions?

As we saw in the last section, coaching has drawn from a variety of sources, and differ-
ent cultures have placed different priorities on these different traditions; for example, in
Germany the infuence from counselling is stronger than in the US, where the human
potential movement has been a signifcant driver in defning and shaping coaching as
we know it today. These different traditions have also infuenced professional bodies; for
example, the ICF, which has grown out of the US tradition, focuses more on ideas drawn
from the human potential movement, while the German Coaching federations such as
DBVC have been more infuenced by ideas from counselling and psychology.
One way of thinking about coaching is to consider it alongside other widely used
organisational interventions, such as appraisals, 1–1 and training. A range of similar inter-
ventions is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
We think there are both similarities and differences between each of these. By think-
ing about the similarities and differences we can better understand what coaching is, and
what it is not.
 Coaching defned and explored 5

Careers Action
Counselling
guidance learning sets

Mentoring Coaching Training

Performance
Appraisals 1-1’s
management

Figure 1.1 Coaching boundaries

One common area of confusion is between coaching, counselling and therapy. Clearly
all three types of intervention are usually 1–1 conversations, which are interested in
exploring how things might be different from how they are now. However, how they
do this is one of the ways they differ. For example, we would suggest that counselling is
generally a one-to-one conversation which involves a signifcant amount of time explor-
ing issues in the past and present. In contrast, coaching, while acknowledging the past and
present, encourages a stronger focus on the present and future. In a similar way, therapy
often involves a signifcant focus on the past, with some consideration of the present and
future.The types of themes they deal with also differ. One way of thinking about this is
what I call the three D’s framework (dream, distress and damage). As coaches we can see
these three interventions as traffc lights, as illustrated in Figure 1.2. Coaching focuses a
client’s attention towards their dreams: “What do you imagine being different tomorrow
and how can you make this a reality?” In these cases, the coach is green to go ahead with
coaching. Counselling recognises that we all experience problems in our lives from man-
aging bereavement, relationship breakdown or anxiety at work. In counselling, the focus
is on helping clients manage this distress. These types of issues may be coded as amber.
In these cases, the coach may proceed with caution. However, in doing so they need to

Red Damage

Amber Distress

Green Dream

Figure 1.2 Three D’s model

6 Jonathan Passmore
answer three questions: Is the issue within the boundaries of the contract agreed with the
client? Am I qualifed or trained to help the client with this issue? Do I have suffcient
experience of working with this type of issue? In the cases where the coach is not quali-
fed, or the experience or issue is outside of the boundary of coaching, the coach should
stop and refer the client to another helping professional. Where the scope of the work
is within the experience and training of the coach, and has been contracted for, such as
relationship coaching, the coach may proceed. Finally, a few people need more sustained
and specialist help to manage deeply traumatic events in their life; mental health issues or
habituated behaviours, such as drug or alcohol dependency. Therapy is there to manage
the damage that these events or mental health conditions present. In these cases, the coach
should always stop and refer to a suitably qualifed helping professional.
As you think about other interventions used in the workplace, you might start to think
about training, mentoring, annual appraisals, performance management, 1–1 meetings,
careers counselling, action learning sets and OD consulting. All of these have some simi-
larities with coaching. Most of these are concerned with supporting or enabling learning
and change. Most involve setting goals or objectives. Most use conversations as a means to
bring about learning or change. However, there are also differences between coaching and
each of these. For example, in training there is usually a predetermined syllabus or agenda
that the training is required to follow. The activity is also often undertaken in a group,
and may involve some form of assessment to evaluate the learning or change which has
happened. In mentoring the relationship is likely to be less formal, more long-term and
more focused on career and personal development, while in coaching the line manager or
sponsor may be involved at the start, and a formal contract and short time-frame may be
established for the delivery of the agreed-upon goals between the three parties.We have
summarized the similarities and differences between coaching and mentoring in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Coaching and mentoring

Criteria Coaching Mentoring

Level of formality More formal:Typically involving a Less formal:Typically, word of mouth

written contract or agreement. agreement.
Who’s involved in Two or three parties: Can often involve Two parties: Mentor and mentee.
contracting a sponsor or line manager in an initial
tripartite meeting at the start and at
the end.
Length of contract Shorter:Typically, 4–12 meetings agreed Longer:Typically, unspecifed number of
over 12 months or less. meetings, often runs over 3–5 years (and
beyond).
Focus More performance focus:Typically More career-focused:Typically concerned
concerned with development of skills with the long-term career development.
for current role and performance.
Level of sector More generalist:Typically, coaches have More sector knowledge:Typically,
knowledge limited sector knowledge. mentors are a respected person in the
organisation or sector.
Training More training:Typically, coaches are Less training:Typically, are untrained
trained and accredited. or may have a single day’s worth of
training, but bring formal qualifcations
in the role of sector.
 Coaching defned and explored 7

Table 1.2 Coaching and other interventions

Comparison Similarities Differences

Coaching and counselling

Coaching and training
Coaching and OD consulting
Coaching and mentoring
Coaching and performance management
Coaching and carers counselling
Coaching and annual appraisals

As you refect on these similarities and differences between coaching and mentoring,
other similarities and differences may come to mind in relation to the other interven-
tions we described above, such as training and performance management. Of course, our
individual experiences and how that intervention (such as appraisals) is undertaken in our
organisation will make a big difference, but just refecting on each of these can help us
start to narrow down what it is that is distinctive about coaching.We have set out a table
(Table 1.2) to encourage your personal refections based on your own experiences in your
organisation or culture.
In the next section, we start to move towards a defnition of coaching, or maybe we
should more accurately say defnitions of coaching.We use the plural as we don’t hold the
view that one defnition trumps all.We recognise that coaching is not one single thing but
that its application needs to refect the systemic and cultural context in which it is situated
and the unique needs of the individual and organisation. What is important is that each
coach should be explicit about what they mean by the term coaching, and that they make
this clear to clients in their advertising, contracting and in the delivery of their coaching
services.

Defning coaching
In the previous section we discussed a range of other interventions, which have similarities
with, but are not, coaching. In fact, coaches can often slip into these ways of working, thus
understanding more about coaching’s brothers and sisters (such as appraisals or mentoring)
can help us better understand what true coaching is. In this section we discuss some of the
most popular defnitions. Our aim is to offer a variety of perspectives, or favours. Each
one, while still being “ice cream”, refects the context in which it was developed and the
purpose and audience for which it was intended, and thus come in many favours.
Possibly the most widely cited defnition is John Whitmore’s.Whitmore is widely rec-
ognised as one of the founding fathers of coaching. He suggested that coaching was about:
“unlocking a person’s potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to
learn rather than teaching them – a facilitation approach” (Whitmore, 1992, p. 8).
Whitmore drew heavily on Timothy Gallwey’s inner game model. Gallwey had noted
that, in sport performance, the internal state of a player was a signifcant factor. He went
further, arguing that it was even more signifcant than the opponent in individual sports
like tennis and golf. If the individual could control their self-talk, sizable performance
gains could be made (Gallwey, 1986). John Whitmore built on this idea. He argued that
8 Jonathan Passmore
the purpose of coaching was helping individuals develop greater self-awareness and per-
sonal responsibility: “Performance coaching is based on awareness and responsibility”
(Whitmore, 1992, p. 173).
Other founding writers offered alternative defnitions. Laura Whitworth (Kimsee-
House et al., 2011), one of the pioneers in the US, along with Thomas Leonard (Brook,
2009), developed co-active coaching which defned coaching as “a relationship of pos-
sibilities … based on trust, confdentiality”.These perspectives highlighted the nature of
the coaching process and its dependency on people, interpersonal interactions and col-
laboration.This relational aspect distinguishes coaching from training interventions where,
arguably, knowledge exchange is at the heart of the process.This perspective has led to one
stream of coaching research focusing on interpersonal and relational aspects in the belief
that, if the relationship is sound, effective outcomes will result.
In an academic article, Jonathan Passmore and Anette Fillery-Travis (2011) offered a
more process-based defnition in an attempt to differentiate coaching from mentoring,
counselling and other conversation-based approaches to change.They suggested coach-
ing involved “a Socratic-based dialogue between a facilitator (coach) and a participant
(client) where the majority of interventions used by the facilitator are open questions
which are aimed at stimulating the self-awareness and personal responsibility of the
participant”.
Tatiana Bachkirova, also writing from an academic perspective, suggested that coach-
ing is “a human development process that involves structured, focused interaction and
the use of appropriate strategies, tools and techniques to promote desirable and sustain-
able change for the beneft of the coachee” (Bachkirova, Cox and Clutterbuck, 2010, p.
1), while Yi-Ling Lai (2014) draws our attention to the refective processes involved in
the process. Coaching is defned as a “refective process between coaches and coachees
which helps or facilitates coachees to experience positive behavioural changes through
continuous dialogue and negotiations”. Again, positive behavioural changes are pointed
out as the main purpose of coaching, with a recognition that a structured process is
involved. Moreover, “negotiation” is put forward in Lai’s re-interpretation of coaching,
suggesting that coaching is a relationship-based learning and development process.

Specialist approaches to coaching

While these writers have focused on generic applications of coaching, coaching has been
adopted and adapted to ft specifc applications, from executive coaching to health and life
coaching; safety coaching to learner driver coaching; and from relationship coaching to
prison coaching. Each requires a distinctive approach, to meet the needs of the individual
client and their context and in many cases as seen specifc defnitions offered by writers
ion these felds.

Executive coaching
The application of coaching in the workplace, and specifcally with senior managers, has
led to the development of what has been labelled “executive coaching”. At its simplest,
executive coaching could be defned as coaching for senior, or c-suite, managers. Richard
Kilburg, a US-based psychologist, went further and suggested that executive coaching was
distinctive in being:
 Coaching defned and explored 9
a helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial authority and
responsibility in an organization and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behav-
ioural techniques and methods to help the client achieve a mutually identifed set of
goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and,
consequently, to improve the effectiveness of the client’s organization within a for-
mally defned coaching agreement.
(Kilburg, 1996, p. 142)

Similarly, Erik de Haan, (2013), echoing earlier relational defnitions, suggested that execu-
tive coaching is a relationship-focused development intervention. Both argued that execu-
tive coaching was a form of leadership development that took place through a series of
contracted, one-to-one conversations with a qualifed “coach”, and maintained that the
process itself was tailored to individuals to enable them to learn through a refective con-
versation, but such learning could only occur because of the unique relationship created
by the coach based on trust, safety and support.
Both defnitions of executive coaching highlight the professional working relationship
in the coaching process and the importance of contracting. However, the defnition by
de Haan and colleagues (de Hann et al., 2013) notes that the process is one delivered by a
“qualifed coach”.This raises the awareness of a “standard” of formal coaching qualifcations
held by the coach. Given de Haan’s own background as a facilitator and coach trainer, this is
not surprising, but his defnition opens up the discussion about qualifcations and standards.

Health coaching
A further strand that has emerged and is continuing to grow in popularity is health
coaching.The approach has grown in both the UK, within the National Health Service
(NHS) (Evidence Centre, 2014), and in the US, through private health providers. A lit-
erature review identifed 275 published studies, with the approach now widely used by
nurses, doctors and allied health professionals such as physiotherapists and health advisors
(Evidence Centre, 2014).
The study defned health coaching as:

a patient-centred process that is based upon behaviour change theory and is delivered
by health professionals with diverse backgrounds.The actual health coaching process
entails goal setting determined by the patient, encourages self-discovery in addition
to content education and incorporates mechanisms for developing accountability in
health behaviours.
(Evidence Centre, 2014, p. 3)

A similar defnition was offered by Stephen Palmer and colleagues, who defned health
coaching as “the practice of health education and health promotion within a coaching
context, to enhance the wellbeing of individuals and to facilitate the achievement of their
health-related goals” (Palmer, Stubbs and Whybrow, 2003, p. 91).The distinction being the
focus on self-discovery, which echoes Whitmore’s primary aims of coaching as a process
that focus on two goals: Self-awareness and personal responsibility.
However,what is less clear from these defnitions is where health coaching starts and fn-
ishes. If coaching is employed to help individuals with chronic conditions and to improve
health outcomes, does coaching include approaches such as Motivational Interviewing,
10 Jonathan Passmore
which is widely used for drug and alcohol treatment, or brief solution-focused therapy
and cognitive behavioural therapy, which might be considered for inclusion within the
defnitions above but which the practitioner delivering it might label their intervention
as counselling or therapy? Again, defnitions often refect the context in which they are
developed. In this case, Stephen Palmer has a background as a UK psychologist with
extensive experience in counselling and health psychology.

Life and wellbeing coaching

A parallel sub-domain to health coaching is “life coaching”. Like health coaching, life
coaching has become a popular means of helping non-clinical populations in setting and
reaching goals and enhancing their wellbeing (Green, Oades and Grant, 2006).
Life coaching can be broadly defned as a collaborative, solution-focused, result-ori-
entated and systematic process in which the coach facilitates the enhancement of life
experience and goal attainment in the personal and/or professional life of normal, non-
clinical clients (Grant, 2014). In simple terms, life coaching has been often considered
to be coaching outside of the work arena; for example, in education (Green, Grant and
Rynsaardt, 2007) or coaching for wellbeing (Green, Oades and Grant, 2006).
One possible distinction between life coaching and health coaching is based on who
provides the service. “Health coaching” is delivered by health professionals, while “life
or wellbeing coaching” is delivered by those outside of the health sector. In the UK and
Australia, the term ‘life coaching’ itself has slipped in popularity being replaced by the
term ‘wellbeing coaching’.

The continued growth and adaptation of coaching

Coaching continues to grow and spread to new areas beyond business and sports. Coaching
is now being applied to support driving development (Passmore and Rehman, 2012;
Wilmott and Wilmott, 2018), to improve safety outcomes in safety-critical environments
such as offshore oil and gas (Passmore Krauesslar and Avery, 2015), as well as in construc-
tion and the military. Coaching is also being applied to maternity and childcare (Golawski,
Bamford and Gersch, 2013), to support couples in marital relationships (Williams and
Williams, 2011; Ives and Cox, 2015), in prisons (McGregor, 2015) and in sexual relation-
ships (Britton, 2011).
In each case, the defnition of what coaching is changes to refect the context, clients
and issues that are at the heart of the conversation. As you refect on the variety and
diversity of both the defnitions and the applications of coaching, you may be wondering
whether a single defnition would make life easier. While we are sure it would, a single
one-size-fts-all defnition would ignore the complexity of how and with whom coaches
work. As Palmer and Whybrow note, “defnitions seldom stay static, unless the area has
stagnated” (2007, p. 3). In this sense, we hope coaching defnitions will continue to change
and adapt as coaching moves forward.

Developing your defnition

So where does this leave us? Let’s refocus on three of the most popular defnitions, which
we have titled practical, practitioner and academic in Table 1.3.
 Coaching defned and explored 11

Table 1.3 Three defnitions

Practical defnition Coaching is unlocking a person’s potential to maximise their own performance.
It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them (Whitmore, 2017).
Practitioner’s defnition ICF defnes coaching as partnering with clients in a thought-provoking and
creative process that inspires them to maximise their personal and professional
potential (International Coaching Federation, 2019).
Academic defnition A Socratic-based future-focused dialogue between a facilitator (coach) and a
participant (coachee/client), where the facilitator uses open questions, active
listening, summaries and refections which are aimed at stimulating the self-
awareness and personal responsibility of the participant (Passmore and Fillery-
Travis, 2011).

This, however, is not the end of the story.As you refect on the context and clients who
you work with, what is your defnition of coaching? In thinking about this question we
would encourage you to take into account the essence of coaching being a collaborative,
future-orientated, Socratic conversation. Imagine if you had to explain to a client, in 60
seconds or less, a description of what you do:What is your defnition of coaching?

Conclusion
In this chapter we have set the scene, exploring the development of coaching and the
debate around coaching defnitions.We have offered a variety of defnitions, but ultimately
we invite each coach to consider their clients, organisation and cultural context to defne
their own personal approach to coaching within the spirit of the endeavour of developing
greater self-awareness and personal responsibility.

References
Bachkirova,T., Cox, E. and Clutterbuck, D. (2010). The complete handbook of coaching. London: Sage.
Britton, P. (2011). The art of sex coaching: expanding your practice. New York:W.W. Norton and Company.
Brock, V. (2009). ‘Coaching pioneers: Laura Whitworth and Thomas Leonard’. International Journal of
Coaching in Organisations, 1(1), pp. 54–64.
Brock,V. (2012). The sourcebook of coaching history, 2nd edition. Self-published.
de Haan, E., Duckworth, A., Birch, D. and Jones, C. (2013). ‘Executive coaching outcome research:The
contribution of common factors such as relationship, personality match, and self-effcacy’. Consulting
Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 65(1), pp. 40–57.
Evidence Centre. (2014). ‘Does health coaching work?’ Retrieved on 10 January 2019 from https://eo
eleadership.hee.nhs.uk/sites/default/fles/Does%20health%20coaching%20work%20-%20summary
.pdf.
Gallwey, T. (1986). The inner game of tennis. London: Pan.
Golawski,A., Bamford,A. and Gersch, I. (2013). Swings and roundabouts:A self-coaching workbook for parents
and those considering becoming parents.Abingdon: Karnac Books.
Gordy, C. (1937).‘Everyone gets a share of the profts’. Factory Management and Maintenance, 95, pp. 82–83.
Green, L.S., Oades, L.G. and Grant, A.M. (2006). ‘Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching:
Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope’. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3), pp. 142–149.
Green, S. Anthony, Grant, A.M. and Rynsaardt, J. (2007). ‘Evidence-based life coaching for senior high
school students: Building hardiness and hope’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(1), pp. 24–32.
12 Jonathan Passmore
Griffth, C.R. (1926). Psychology of coaching: A study of coaching methods from the point of view of psychology.
New York: Charles Scribner’s and Sons.
Huston, R.E. (1924). ‘Debate coaching in high school’. The Quarterly Journal of Speech Education, 10,
pp. 127–143.
ICF. (2019) ‘ICF coaching defnition’. Retrieved on 2 April 2020 from https://coachfederation.org/
about.
Ives,Y. and Cox, E. (2015). Relationship coaching:The theory and practice of coaching with singles, couples, and
parents. Hove: Routledge.
Kilburg, R.R. (1996). ‘Toward a conceptual understanding and defnition of executive coaching’.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 48(2), pp. 134–144.
Kimsey-House, H., Kimsey-House, K., Sandahl, P. and Whitworth, L. (2011). Co-active coaching: Changing
business, transforming lives, 3rd ed. Boston: Nicholas Brealey.
Lai,Y-L. (2014). Enhancing evidence-based coaching through the development of a coaching psychology competency
framework: Focus on the coaching relationship. Guildford, UK: School of Psychology, University of Surrey.
McGregor, C. (2015) Coaching behind bars: Facing challenges and creating hope in a women’s prison. Maidenhead:
OUP-McGraw-Hill.
Palmer, S., Stubbs, I. and Whybrow, A. (2005). ‘Health coaching to facilitate the promotion of healthy
behaviour and achievement of health-related goals’. International Journal of Health Promotion, 14(3),
91–93.
Passmore, J. and Fillery-Travis, A. (2011). ‘A critical review of executive coaching research: A decade of
progress and what’s to come’. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Practice and Research, 4(2),
pp. 70–88.
Passmore, J. and Rehman, H. (2012).‘Coaching as a learning methodology – A mixed methods study in
driver development using a randomized controlled trial and thematic analysis’. International Coaching
Psychology Review, 7(2), pp. 166–184.
Passmore, J. Krauesslar,V. and Avery, R. (2015). ‘Safety coaching: A critical literature review of coaching
in high hazard industries’. Industrial and Commercial Training, 47(4), pp. 195–200. doi: 10.1108/
ICT-12-2014-0080.
Trueblood,T.C. (1911).‘Coaching a debating team’. Public Speaking Review, 1, pp. 84–85.
Whitmore, J. (1992). Coaching for performance. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Wildfower, L. (2010). The hidden history of coaching. Maidenhead: Open University Press-McGraw-Hill.
Williams, J. and Williams, J. (2011). Marriage coaching. Springfeld: GTRC.
Wilmott, G. and Wilmott, C. (2018). Who’s in the driving seat: The driving instructor’s guide to client-centred
learning. Oldham:Active Driving Solutions.
2 The business case for coaching
Rebecca J. Jones

Introduction
Does coaching work? What is the return on investment of coaching? Will coaching
improve performance? Why should I choose coaching over other forms of development?
Questions such as these have dominated conversations in both the coaching literature
and amongst organisations using coaching as a development tool. This is not surprising
given the demand for organisations to evidence a return on their investment in human
capital. In this chapter, I will attempt to address some of these questions by reviewing the
evidence-base in relation to coaching effectiveness, with the overall aim of building a busi-
ness case for coaching.

The growth of coaching

In order to establish a business case for coaching, it is frst important to understand why
coaching has beneftted from increasing popularity as a learning and development tool,
addressing the question:Why has coaching become so popular?
Over the last 30 years, coaching has risen to an industry of over 50,000 professional
coaches worldwide, with an annual spend of over $2 billion (ICF, 2016).The CIPD stated
that just over eight out of ten respondents in their 2010 Learning and Development survey
reported that they use coaching in their organisations (CIPD, 2010).There is no indication
that, since these industry reports, the growth of coaching has slowed, therefore it is likely
that the current size of the coaching industry far exceeds these estimates.What explana-
tion is there for the increasing demand from individuals and organisations for coaching?
It is largely agreed that the current business environment is dynamic, volatile, uncertain,
complex and ambiguous. Businesses compete on a global scale and competitive advantage
now relies much less on the uniqueness of the product or service: Instead, the role of
employee talent has become increasingly important. Factors of organisational competi-
tiveness are consequently linked to the knowledge, skills and abilities of the organisations’
human resources. Furthermore, if the business environment is dynamic and volatile, in
order to retain any competitive advantage, the employee talent must also adapt in-line with
the environmental demands. The challenge for individuals to adapt to an ever-changing
environment is evident in the woeful change management statistics that indicate that as
many as 70 per cent of change management initiatives are unsuccessful (Ashkenas, 2013).
Therefore, if we accept the following two assumptions to be true: Human capital is more
important than ever for organisational competitive advantage, and human capital needs to
14 Rebecca J. Jones
be able to effectively adapt to an ever-changing, uncertain business environment, we can
start to understand why coaching has increased in popularity.
The role of training, learning and development is to equip employees with the req-
uisite knowledge, skills and abilities to meet dynamic and adapting organisational objec-
tives. Many decades of scholarly research on the impact of training in the workplace has
established that it works at improving organisational performance; therefore, organisa-
tions have the tools necessary to provide effective training to develop employee talent. In
previous decades, training in the workplace was often focused on imparting knowledge
and information to the workforce in order to educate them as to how to perform their
job roles more effectively. However, in today’s organisations, when you couple the provi-
sion of instructional training with a web-enabled working environment, the challenge for
employees is no longer how to access the information they need to improve and perform
their job more effectively (the traditional function of training in the workplace); instead,
the challenge for employees is how to make sense of the wealth of information that is
readily available at their fngertips – this is where the case for coaching is made.These fac-
tors offer a potential explanation for the rise in popularity of coaching. Swart and Harcup
(2013) propose that coaching helps managers to expand their insight and develop their
sense-making abilities. If the biggest challenge to employees in today’s organisations is not
how to access information but instead how to flter this information into what is relevant,
and understand how to apply this to an ever-changing work environment, then coaching
may provide a solution to this challenge.
Coaching is a learning and development approach that places the learner at the centre
of the learning experience. Coaching provides the employee with the time, mental space,
support and guidance they may need to make sense of the information available to them
and explore how to apply it most effectively in their unique situation. One-to-one coach-
ing provides a tailored approach to help understand and apply work-based learning, ensur-
ing that the employee has the capabilities to move with and adapt to a dynamic working
environment.Therefore, in this challenging, volatile business environment, coaching pro-
vides an adaptable learning and development solution to facilitate sense-making from
work experiences and other more instructional forms of training. This context helps
to explain why the use of coaching has seen such a meteoric increase in recent years.
Evidence suggests that most people believe that coaching is benefcial for them and good
for their business (Law, Ireland and Hussain, 2007). Coaching is also viewed favourably by
the learners as it provides them with one-to-one support from a respected individual; it
can be done on-site so it is convenient; it fts in with the leaner's timeframe and schedule;
and often its results can be seen relatively quickly.
Now that we have established why coaching continues to be increasingly popular in
organisations, the next step in building a business case for coaching is to establish what
“effective” coaching looks like in the context of the following question: Is coaching effec-
tive? To do this, I will now review the literature that examines the types of issues that tend
to be addressed in coaching.

Common coaching goals

One of the key advantages of coaching is that it is a tailored, bespoke approach to learn-
ing and development. Coaching is also lead by the client. This means that the types of
issues, problems, challenges and goals of coaching tend to vary widely depending on the
needs of the client and their organisation. As coaching is inherently goal-bound, with
 The business case for coaching 15
goals generally forming the starting point of any coaching session, in order to understand
what effective coaching looks like, a good starting point is to understand what are the
typical goals that clients tend to focus on in coaching. In order to build the business case
for coaching, we need to understand what clients tend to focus on in coaching before we
can move on to establishing whether coaching actually makes a difference to these issues.
In order to get a clear picture on the types of goals clients tend to address, it is helpful
to use a framework of coaching outcomes in order to group data from the evidence-base.
Jones, Woods and Guillaume (2016) propose a framework of coaching outcomes which
classifes the types of outcomes that can be expected from coaching as affective outcomes
(i.e. how the client feels); cognitive outcomes (i.e. how the client thinks); skill-based out-
comes (i.e. what the client does) and results outcomes (i.e. what the client achieves).
Interestingly, when reviewing the coaching literature, a surprisingly small number of stud-
ies provide specifc details regarding the types of goals that clients tend to set during
coaching. However, a handful of studies were located, and the following section provides
an overview of the research that investigates the types of goals and issues that clients tend
to focus on, using the framework of coaching outcomes.

Affective outcomes as the focus in coaching

Affective outcomes describe outcomes that we would understand as being outcomes felt
by the client or experienced internally by the client; therefore, how does the client feel?
These include outcomes such as changes in attitudes, motivation, satisfaction, confdence,
resilience or stress. Jones,Woods and Zhou (2019) describe the types of goals set by par-
ticipants in their feld experiment to examine the effectiveness of coaching. In their study,
4 1-hour long sessions were provided to 53 working adults. Clients set between one and
four goals each. In terms of the types of goals clients set, 38 per cent of goals were focused
on addressing an affective outcome, for example, “to become more emotionally resilient
and avoid taking on others’ problems”.
Drilling down into the specifc types of affective outcomes that tend to form the
focus of coaching, in the studies reviewed, these fall within three categories: Well-being,
work attitudes and self-confdence. In relation to well-being, Bowles et al. (2007) describe
how goals aimed at improving quality-of-life, such as mental well-being, were the most
frequently set in their sample of 59 participants involved in US Army recruiting who
were participating in a 12-month coaching programme. Similarly, in a large-scale survey
of coaching practices, Passmore, Brown and Csigas (2017) surveyed 2,791 participants
from a total of 45 European countries. From this sample of coaches, 21 per cent specifed
that they support clients wishing to tackle mental health issues and 41 per cent specifed
that they support clients wishing to tackle life style issues, both of which are likely to fall
within the affective outcome category. Also, Wasylyshyn (2003) reports research on 87
executives that she coached between 1985 and 2001, where reducing stress was identifed
as a theme in the focus of coaching across her participants. In relation to work attitudes,
in a sample of 30 participants who had received coaching, Smith and Brummel (2013)
described how each executive in their study identifed between 1 and 3 competencies that
were the target of their coaching engagement, and improving motivation was listed as a
focus of coaching in this sample.Wasylyshyn (2003) reported that managing perceptions
of “ambition” was a theme in the focus of coaching in her research. In the fnal group of
affective outcomes, Wasylyshyn (2003) reported that her participants sought to develop
self-confdence and, in particular, reduce harsh self-criticism.
16 Rebecca J. Jones
Cognitive outcomes as the focus in coaching
Cognitive outcomes are a group of outcomes that we can also describe as knowledge and
understanding, or the client’s mental process or mental actions. In other words, how does
the client think? Examples of cognitive outcomes from coaching can include gaining new
declarative knowledge (facts and pieces of information), procedural knowledge (knowing
how to do something) and cognitive strategies (such as problem-solving, decision-making
or refective thinking). In their experimental study of the effectiveness of coaching with 53
participants, Jones et al. (2019) report that 11 per cent of participants focused on a cogni-
tive outcome, for example,“to gain more subject specifc knowledge in communications”.
In terms of the specifc types of cognitive outcomes that tend to form the focus of
coaching, in the studies reviewed, cognitive outcomes fall within two categories: Cognitive
strategies and knowledge. In relation to cognitive strategies, In Smith and Brummel’s
(2013) study, they described how clients sought to develop strategic thinking and deci-
sion-making in coaching.Wasylyshyn (2003) also details shifting from tactical to strategic
thinking as a desired outcome in her study of 87 executives who had received coaching.
Finally,Yu et al. (2008) explored the effectiveness of coaching with a sample of 105 par-
ticipants.Yu et al. describe the cognitive outcome of gaining career-direction clarity as
one of the reasons why participants sought coaching, with 21.8 per cent of their sample
listing this as a desired outcome. In relation to knowledge, Smith and Brummel (2013)
described the focus of coaching for some of their participants as aimed at increasing busi-
ness acumen.

Skill-based outcomes as the focus in coaching

Skill-based outcomes are a group of outcomes that we can also describe as our expertise or
abilities to complete certain tasks, so what does the client do? Compared to affective and
cognitive outcomes, skill-based outcomes are more easily detected by others. Skill-based
outcomes are often the focus of client goals and may include the development of skills
such as leadership skills, assertiveness, communication, delegation or time-management
skills. In their experimental study, Jones et al. (2019) report that 37 per cent focused on a
skill-based outcome, for example,“to develop informal networking skills”.
In the studies reviewed, the specifc types of skill-based outcomes that tend to form
the focus of coaching fall within two categories: Leadership and interpersonal skills. In
relation to the former, Bowles et al. (2007), Smith and Brummel (2013) and Wasylyshyn
(2003) all specifcally name leadership skills as the focus of coaching for many of their
participants. In addition, Smith and Brummel (2013) name coaching skills, which can be
considered a specifc type of leadership skill, as a focus of coaching. In relation to interper-
sonal skills, Smith and Brummel (2013) identifed that their participants sought to address
communication skills specifcally, as well as interpersonal skills generally. For Wasylyshyn
(2003), skill-based outcomes were the type of outcome most frequently listed in this sam-
ple and include interpersonal skills such as listening skills, tact/diplomacy, collaboration,
persuasion, infuence and fostering stronger relationships.

Results outcomes as the focus of coaching

The fnal group of outcomes we can expect from coaching is results, so what does the
client achieve? We can further differentiate results into individual level results, team level
 The business case for coaching 17
results and organisational level results. Results is a broad group of outcomes that include
any type of outcome where the client’s behavioural change has had an impact.Therefore,
examples at the individual level might include performance at work or fnancial indicators
such as increased sales. By aligning individual goal-setting to team or organisational-level
goals and objectives, achieving results outcomes at the individual level may also impact the
performance of the team and the organisation. Jones et al. (2019) report that 11 per cent of
participant coaching goals focused on a results outcome, for example,“to create a business
case for the organisation to fund an external qualifcation”.
Interestingly, in the studies reviewed, the types of results outcomes that tended to form
the focus of coaching were all individual level (rather than team or organisational level)
goals. For example, Bowles et al. (2007) report that their participants set recruitment/sales
objective-related goals and Passmore et al. (2017) reported that 76 per cent of the 2,791
coaches surveyed specifed that they help clients with their work performance.
Now that we have established the types of outcomes that clients tend to focus on
during coaching, the fnal stage in building a business case for coaching is to review the
evidence to indicate where coaching actually makes a difference to these outcomes.

Does coaching work? Assessing the coaching effectiveness evidence

The fnal stage in establishing the business case for coaching is to explore the evidence-
base that directly tests the effectiveness of coaching. As with the section above, exploring
the types of goals that tend to form the focus of coaching, in order to group together the
research on coaching effectiveness, I will discuss the studies related to coaching effec-
tiveness using the framework of coaching outcomes: Affective, cognitive, skill-based and
results.

Evidence that coaching can produce change at the affective

outcome level
As explained earlier, affective outcomes describe outcomes that we would understand as
being outcomes felt by the client or experienced internally by the client; therefore, how
does the client feel? In the context of the existing coaching literature, Bozer and Jones
(2018) report a systematic literature review summarising the theoretical determinants of
coaching. In this review, Bozer and Jones (2018) report that affective outcomes are the
most frequently assessed outcome, with 93 out of 117 studies exploring affective outcomes
(although some studies reported multiple outcomes). Examples of affective outcomes from
the coaching literature once again can be grouped into three categories:Well-being, work
attitudes and self-confdence.
Studies investigating well-being include Jones, Woods and Zhou (2018) who found
that, in a sample of 161 clients, coaching had a positive effect on work well-being and
that this effect was strongest when coaching was provided by external coaches and used a
blended format (i.e. face-to-face coaching was combined with telephone or videophone
coaching). Grant (2014) found that a cognitive-behavioural coaching programme con-
sisting of 4 90-minute sessions with 31 executives and managers resulted in a decrease
in depression. In a similar study, where 4 1-to-1 cognitive-behavioural coaching sessions
were provided to 41 executives, Grant, Curtayne and Burton (2009) found that following
the coaching, participants demonstrated a signifcant decrease in anxiety. Finally, Bright
and Crockett (2012) conducted a test of telephone coaching to support a classroom-based
18 Rebecca J. Jones
workshop with a sample of 115 working participants, specifcally designed at decreasing
stress. They found a signifcant decrease in stress for participants when compared to a
control group.
Studies investigating work attitudes include research by Bozer, Sarros and Santora
(2014) who found that in a study of 72 executives who received between 10 to 12 weekly
cognitive-behavioural, solution-focused coaching sessions over a period of 4 months, par-
ticipants experienced a signifcant increase in career satisfaction following coaching. In
addition to identifying that coaching resulted in a decrease in depression, Grant’s (2014)
study of 31 executives and managers who received coaching also found an increase in
resilience. Finally, Luthans and Peterson (2003) explored the impact of coaching when
coupled with 360-degree feedback in a sample of 20 managers and found that, following
coaching, participants experienced higher levels of organisational commitment.
Studies investigating confdence have often operationalised confdence as self-effcacy.
Research indicates that individuals higher in self-effcacy have strong beliefs in their task-
related capabilities and set more challenging goals than those with lower self-effcacy
(Bandura, 1986). A number of studies have investigated self-effcacy as an outcome for
coaching. For example, Baron and Morin (2009) investigated the impact of an 8-month
coaching programme with 73 managers and found signifcant increases in the clients’ self-
effcacy following coaching, where they also found evidence to indicate that the impact of
coaching on client self-effcacy was explained by the quality of the coach–client relation-
ship (i.e. improvement in self-effcacy for clients was higher when the relationship was
stronger). In a sample of 23 leaders, Finn, Mason and Bradley (2007) explored the effec-
tiveness of coaching when coupled with a year-long training programme and found that
participants experienced improvements in self-effcacy when compared to a control group
that did not receive coaching. Grant et al. (2017) examined the effectiveness of 6 1-hour
coaching sessions with 31 participants working in public health and found that, following
coaching, participants experienced a signifcant increase in their leadership self-effcacy.
Leadership self-effcacy also increased in a sample of 20 executives who received a com-
bination of group and individual coaching over a 1-year duration (Moen and Federici,
2012).

Evidence that coaching can produce change at the cognitive

outcome level
Cognitive outcomes are a group of outcomes that we can also describe as knowledge and
understanding, or the client’s mental process or mental actions. In other words, how does
the client think? Bozer and Jones (2018) demonstrated that cognitive outcomes are the
least frequently evaluated outcome from coaching, with only 13 of the 117 studies testing
cognitive outcomes. This could be partially due to the challenging nature of accurately
capturing the development of new mental models and problem-solving strategies follow-
ing coaching. Examples of cognitive outcomes from the coaching literature once again
can be grouped into two categories: Cognitive strategies and knowledge.
Studies investigating cognitive strategies include Grant et al.’s (2017) study of 31 pub-
lic health professionals discussed earlier, who, in addition to demonstrating increases in
leadership self-effcacy following coaching, also found that participants experienced an
increase in solution-focused thinking, which indicates a participant’s ability to focus on
fnding solutions in complex systems. Gyllensten and Palmer (2006) interviewed nine
participants who had received coaching in order to understand their perceptions of the
 The business case for coaching 19
impact of coaching.A theme across the participants was that coaching supported problem-
solving, which indirectly contributed to the reduction of stress at work. In their study of
72 executives who received cognitive-behavioural, solution-focused coaching, in addition
to an increase in career satisfaction, Bozer et al. (2014) found that coaching resulted in
an increase in client self-awareness when coaching was provided by coaches with an aca-
demic background in psychology.
Knowledge as an outcome of coaching has been explored less extensively; however,
examples include a study by Taie (2011) who investigated the effectiveness of training
and coaching of nurses in life support skills.Taie found that compared to those who did
not receive coaching, participants in the coaching group demonstrated higher scores in a
knowledge assessment four months after an initial assessment. Additionally, Ammentorp,
Jensen and Uhrenfeldt (2013) found an increase in self-reported learning following coach-
ing, which Ammentorp et al. call “progressive insight”.Their study involved interviewing
fve health professionals who had received between two and four coaching sessions over a
period of ten months. Participants indicated that coaching enabled them to picture their
job and duties from a new perspective.

Evidence that coaching can produce change at the skill-based

outcome level
Skill-based outcomes are a group of outcomes that we can also describe as our exper-
tise or abilities to complete certain tasks, so what does the client do? Following affective
outcomes, skill-based outcomes are the next most popular group of outcomes assessed
in the coaching literature with 57 of the 117 studies exploring outcomes of this type
(although some studies reported multiple outcomes) (Bozer and Jones, 2018). Examples
of skill-based outcomes from the coaching literature once again can be grouped into two
categories: Leadership and interpersonal skills.
Examples of leadership skills from the coaching literature include a study by Williams
and Lowman (2018) who examined the impact of 4 1-hour goal-focused coaching ses-
sions with a sample of 64 senior executives.Williams and Lowman (2018) found that there
was an increase in leadership competencies and behaviours for the coaching group, but not
the control group. Bowles et al. (2007) reported that coaching resulted in an increase in
leadership competencies in their sample of 59 participants involved in US Army recruiting
who participating in a 12-month coaching programme. Specifcally, Bowles et al. (2007)
found that the increase in leadership competencies was highest when participants’ buy-in
to coaching was high. Boyce, Jackson and Neal (2010) collected data from 74 clients who
were participating in a leadership coaching program at a military service academy. Boyce
et al. (2010) found that an increase in leadership performance following coaching was
explained by the clients’ perceptions of the coaches’ commitment to their development.
Goff et al. (2014) explored the effectiveness of coaching with a sample of 26 high-school
principals who received between 2 to 4 coaching sessions and 360-degree feedback and
compared them to a control group of the same size (who received 360 feedback without
coaching). Goff et al. found that coaching resulted in an increase in leadership competen-
cies and, in particular, that coaching and 360-degree feedback together facilitated self-
refection which lead to changes in leadership skills.
Examples of studies reporting interpersonal skills as an outcome include two studies in
a construction context that found that coaching improved communication skills. These
were a quantitative study of 51 site foremen by Kines et al. (2010), and a qualitative study
20 Rebecca J. Jones
of 6 site managers who received coaching by Styhre and Josephson (2007). Improved
communication skills following coaching were also found by Kombarakaran et al. (2008)
in their survey of 114 executives who had received coaching. Other interpersonal skills
that appear to be positively developed via coaching include soliciting ideas for improve-
ment from managers. In their large-scale coaching effectiveness study, Smither et al. (2003)
found that there was a signifcant increase in feedback-seeking skills in their sample of 404
executives who worked with a coach. Kochanowski, Seifert and Yukl (2010) found that
coaching coupled with a feedback workshop to a sample of store managers of a super-
market chain resulted in a signifcant increase in collaboration skills. Finally, in a mixed-
methods study, Dippenaar and Schaap (2017) explored the effectiveness of 9 coaching
sessions over a period of 9 to 12 months with a sample of 30 fnancial services leaders
and compared this to a control group of the same size who did not receive coaching.
Dippenaar and Schaap (2017) found that coaching resulted in an increase in interpersonal
skills, including empathy for others and relationship-building skills.

Evidence that coaching can produce change at the results

outcome level
The fnal group of outcomes we can expect from coaching is results, so what does the
client achieve? We can further differentiate results into individual level results, team level
results and organisational level results. Whilst outcomes at the results level are arguably
most important from an organisational perspective, these are 1 of the least frequently
explored in the coaching literature, with only 17 out of 117 studies investigating outcomes
within the results group (Bozer and Jones, 2018). This is likely because assessing results
level outcomes is highly complex. It is often very diffcult, if not impossible, to isolate the
impact of coaching on results outcomes, as a vast range of factors such as the economic
context and the behaviour of the wider team often infuence outcomes at this level.
Examples of results outcomes explored in the literature include a study by Gardiner,
Kearns and Tiggermann (2013) who investigated the impact of a nine-hour cognitive-
behavioural coaching program with rural GPs in South Australia. Gardiner et al. (2013)
found that coaching had a signifcant effect on retention. Specifcally, they reported that
over a 3-year period, 94 per cent of the coaching group remained in general practice,
compared with 80 per cent of the control group. Olivero, Bane and Kopelman (1997)
found that a managerial training program coupled with 8 weeks of 1-to-1 coaching
with 31 managers in the public sector had a 22.4 per cent increase in productivity
following training, compared to an 88 per cent increase in productivity after training
plus coaching. Libri and Kemp (2006) report a case study where cognitive-behavioural
coaching was provided to a single participant working in fnance sales and found that
coaching resulted in an increase in sales performance. In their study of the effective-
ness of coaching with the sample of 51 site foremen discussed earlier, in addition to
enhanced communication skills, Kines et al. (2010) also reported that coaching resulted
in increased safety performance. Feggetter (2007) reported job promotion as a results
outcome in a sample of ten Ministry of Defence employees who received coaching, and
Andrews and Jones (2020) reported that business students who received coaching were
more likely to successfully secure work placements than students who did not receive
coaching.
An important point to note in relation to the research on coaching effectiveness at the
results level is that, whilst theoretically we can argue that coaching can produce results at
 The business case for coaching 21
the team and organisational level, there is as yet no research that explores outcomes at this
level. The existing literature on the impact of coaching on results focuses exclusively on
individual level results.This is likely due to the complexity of gathering data at the team
and organisational level; however, it clearly signals a gap in the coaching effectiveness lit-
erature that needs to urgently be addressed.

Conclusion
In this chapter, I have sought to create a business case for coaching. I have argued that
the growth in the practice of coaching can be explained by an increasing demand for
employees to be able to make sense of the information available to them and understand
how to effectively apply this to an ever-changing work environment. The tailored, one-
to-one approach to coaching provides the ideal developmental format to meet this need.
The literature indicates that clients tend to focus on a wide range of goals in coaching, and
the evidence gathered to date indicates that coaching is an effective intervention for the
achievement of outcomes such as improved well-being, work attitudes, self-confdence;
the development of new cognitive strategies and knowledge; enhanced leadership, inter-
personal skills and the targeting of a range of individual level results such as retention, sales
and promotion.

References
Ammentorp, J., Jensen, H.I. and Uhrenfeldt, L. (2013).‘Danish health professionals’ experiences of being
coached: a pilot study’. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 33, pp. 41–47.
Andrews, H. and Jones, R.J. (2020). ‘Can one-to-one coaching improve selection success and who
benefts most? The role of candidate generalized self-effcacy’. Unpublished manuscript in preparation.
Ashkenas, R. (2013). ‘Change management needs to change’. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from
https://hbr.org/2013/04/change-management-needs-to-cha.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action:A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Baron, L. and Morin, L. (2009) ‘The coach–coachee relationship in executive coaching: a feld study’.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20, pp. 85–106.
Bowles, S., Cunningham, C.J.L., De La Rosa, G.M. and Picano, J. (2007). ‘Coaching leaders in middle
and executive management: Goals, performance, buy-in’. Leadership & Organization Development, 28(5),
pp. 388–408.
Boyce, L.A., Jackson, J.R. and Neal, L.J. (2010). ‘Building successful leadership coaching relationships:
Examining impact of matching criteria in a leadership coaching program’. Journal of Management
Development, 29(10), pp. 914–931.
Bozer, G., Sarros, J.C. and Santora, J.C. (2014). ‘Academic background and credibility in executive
coaching effectiveness’. Personnel Review, 43(6), pp. 881–897.
Bozer, G. and Jones, R.J. (2018). ‘Understanding the factors that determine workplace coaching
effectiveness: A systematic literature review’. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,
27(3), pp. 342–361.
Bright, D. and Crockett, A. (2012). ‘Training combined with coaching can make a signifcant difference
in job performance and satisfaction’. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice,
5(1), pp. 4–21.
CIPD (2010).‘Coaching and mentoring’. Retrieved from www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/lrnanddev/coachm
ntor/coaching.htm. [Accessed 2 April, 2020].
Dippenaar, M. and Schaap, P. (2017). ‘The impact of coaching on the emotional and social intelligence
competencies of leaders’.South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences 20(1), pp. 1015–8812.
22 Rebecca J. Jones
Feggetter,A.J.W. (2007).‘A preliminary evaluation of executive coaching: Does executive coaching work
for candidates on a high potential development scheme?’ International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(2),
pp. 129–142.
Finn, F.A., Mason, C.M. and Bradley, L.M. (2007). ‘Doing well with executive coaching: Psychological
and behavioral impacts’. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings,
Philadelphia, United States.
Gardiner, M., Kearns, H. and Tiggemann, M. (2013). ‘Effectiveness of cognitive behavioural coaching
in improving the well-being and retention of rural general practitioners’. Australian Journal of Rural
Health, 21(3), pp. 183–189.
Goff, P.J., Guthrie, E., Goldring, E. and Bickman, L. (2014). ‘Changing principals’ leadership through
feedback and coaching’. Journal of Educational Administration, 52(5), pp. 682–704.
Grant,A.M., Curtayne, L. and Burton, G. (2009).‘Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, resilience
and workplace well-being: A randomised controlled study’. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(5), pp.
396–407.
Grant, A.M. (2014). ‘The effcacy of executive coaching in times of organisational change’. Journal of
Change Management, 14(2), pp. 258–280.
Grant, A.M., Studholme, I.,Verma, R., Kirkwood, L., Paton, B. and O’Connor, S. (2017).‘The impact of
leadership coaching in an Australian healthcare setting’. Journal of Health Organization and Management,
31(2), pp. 237–252.
Gyllensten, K., and Palmer, S. (2006). ‘Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace: An
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 1(1), pp. 86–98.
International Coaching Federation.(2016).2016 ICF Global Coaching Study:Executive Summary.Retrieved
5 March 2018 from https://coachfederation.org/research/global-coaching-study.
Jones, R.J., Woods, S.A. and Guillaume, Y.R.F. (2016). ‘The effectiveness of workplace coaching: A
meta-analysis of learning and performance outcomes from coaching’. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 89, pp. 249–227.
Jones, R.J., Woods, S.A. and Zhou,Y. (2018). ‘Boundary conditions of workplace coaching outcomes’.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 33(7/8), pp. 475–496.
Jones, R.J.,Woods, S.A. and Zhou,Y. (2019).‘The effects of coachee personality and goal orientation on
performance improvement following coaching:A controlled feld experiment’. Applied Psychology:An
International Review.
Kines, P.,Andersen, L.P.S., Spangenberg, S., Mikkelsen, K.L., Dyreborg, J., and Zohar D. (2010).‘Improving
construction site safety through leader-based verbal safety communication’. Journal of Safety Research,
41(5), pp. 399–406.
Kochanowski, S., Seifert, C.F. and Yukl, G.A. (2010).‘Using coaching to enhance the effects of behavioral
feedback to managers’. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(4), pp. 363–369.
Kombarakaran, F.A.,Yang, J.A., Baker, M.N. and Fernandes, P.B. (2008). ‘Executive coaching: It works!’
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), pp. 78–90.
Law, H., Ireland, S. and Hussain, Z. (2007). The psychology of coaching, mentoring and learning. Chichester,
England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Libri, V. and Kemp, T. (2006). ‘Assessing the effcacy of a cognitive behavioural executive coaching
programme’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 1(2), pp. 9–18.
Luthans, F. and Peterson, S.J. (2003). ‘360-degree feedback with systematic coaching: empirical analysis
suggests a winning combination’. Human Resource Management, 42(3), pp. 243–256.
Moen, F. and Federici, R.A. (2012). ‘The effect from external executive coaching’. Coaching: An
International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 5(2), pp. 113–131.
Olivero, G., Bane, K.D. and Kopelman, R.E. (1997). ‘Executive coaching as a transfer of training tool:
Effects on productivity in a public agency’. Public Personnel Management, 26, pp. 461–469.
Passmore, J., Brown, H. and Csigas, Z. (2017). The state of play in European coaching & mentoring. United
Kingdom: Henley Centre for Coaching at Henley Business School. Accessed from: https://assets.
henley.ac.uk/defaultUploads/The-State-of-Play-in-European-Coaching-Mentoring-Executive-Rep
ort-2017.pdf?mtime=20171204192802.
 The business case for coaching 23
Smith, I.M. and Brummel, B.J. (2013). ‘Investigating the role of the active ingredients in executive
coaching’. Coaching:An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 6(1), pp. 57–71.
Smither, J.W., London, M., Flautt, R.,Vargas,Y. and Kucine, I. (2003). ‘Can working with an executive
coach improve multisource feedback ratings over time? A quasi-experimental feld study’. Personnel
Psychology, 56, pp. 23–42.
Styhre, A. and Josephson, P.E. (2007). ‘Coaching the site manager: Effects on learning and managerial
practice’. Construction Management and Economics, 25(12), pp. 1295–1304.
Swart, J. and Harcup, J. (2013). ‘If I learn do we learn?’: The link between executive coaching and
organizational learning’. Management Learning, 44, pp. 337–354.
Taie, E.S. (2011).‘Coaching as an approach to enhance performance’. Journal for Quality and Participation,
34, pp. 34–38.
Wasylyshyn, K.M. (2003). ‘Executive coaching: An outcome study’. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice
and Research, 55(2), pp. 94–106.
Williams, J.S. and Lowman, R.L. (2018).‘The effcacy of executive coaching:An empirical investigation of
two approaches using random assignment and a switching-replications design’. Consulting Psychology
Journal: Practice and Research, 70(3), pp. 227–249.
Yu, N., Collins, C.G., Cavanagh, M.,White, K. and Fairbrother, G. (2008).‘Positive coaching with frontline
managers: Enhancing their effectiveness and understanding why’. International Coaching Psychology
Review, 3(2), pp. 110–122.
3 Developing a coaching culture in
your organisation
Jonathan Passmore and Kristina Crabbe

Introduction
There has been much discussion over the past decade about the development of coaching
cultures in organisations. However, in reviewing the papers, books, reports and conference
presentations, while most highlight the value of building such cultures, few offer practical
steps on how organisations can move from where they are towards a more effcient and
effective use of coaching. In this chapter we aim to explore what we mean by the word
‘culture’, and how this might translate into a coaching culture.We will then offer a model,
LEAD, as one way of conceptualising a coaching culture and offer a route map that would
help leaders audit their own organisational practices to enhance the way they use coaching
at all levels of their organisation.

What do we mean by ‘organisational culture’?

The term culture is widely used but, like coaching, it has a wide variety of defnitions that
are applied by different leaders, organisations and sectors. One of the clearest and shortest
defnitions is by Terrence Deal and Allan Kennedy:“the way things get done around here”
(Deal and Kennedy, 1983:501).A more academic defnition was offered by Ed Schein:

a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was a learned by a group as it solved its
problems of external adoption and internal integration, that has worked well enough
to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way
you perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.
(Schein, 2004:8)

More recently others have adapted Schein’s original work to provide a more dynamic
defnition of culture:

the culture of a group can be defned as the accumulated shared learning of that group
as is solves its problems of external adaption and internal integration; which has worked
well to perceive, think, feel and behave in relation to those problems.This accumulated
learning is a pattern or system of beliefs, values and behavioural norms that come to be
taken for granted as basic assumptions and eventually drop out of awareness
(Schein and Schein, 2017:6)

Drawing on this thinking about organisational culture, we have defned a coaching

culture as:
 Developing a coaching culture 25
an organisation that aims to maximise the potential of all who work with it, through
its use of coaching as the default style of leadership and employee engagement, and
where its people are supported and challenged to become more self-aware, with
increased autonomy to deliver their workplace goals.This way of being becomes and
is integral to the behaviours, values, development and strategy of the organisation [and
in time, the distributed network].

To bring a new culture alive, the organisation requires a planned approach: One way of
delivering coaching culture is through the three C’s approach; common mindset, cham-
pions and campaign.
Common mindset:This involves the development of a shared view about the role of
coaching within the organisation which fows from the senior team to frontline employ-
ees, partners and suppliers.
Champions: This requires a cadre of leaders from across the organisation who see
bringing coaching alive as their personal project.This cadre needs to be cross-functional
as well as diagonal across the multiple levels of leadership in the organisation, from board
to team supervisors.
Campaign: This requires an effective campaign to communicate to each and every
employee what coaching is, what role it plays as part of the business strategy, how they are
expected to use the approach with partners, colleagues and team members and how they
can access coaching within the organisation.

The old-style approach to coaching

Coaching has been actively used by managers since the 1980’s. In many organisations it has
remained a personal beneft, almost like a reserved parking space, disconnected from the
wider organisation’s strategy.This old-style approach to coaching is typifed by a number
of common features:
Firstly, the why of coaching. Organisational leaders understand that coaching is valu-
able to its leadership. However, these leaders have yet to integrate coaching into the wider
HR or business strategy. Leaders in the organisation understand how coaching can help
individuals, but less how it serves the wider business strategy.
Secondly, the issue of appointments. The selection of the coach is undertaken by the
individual manager, often without due process and frequently based on personal relation-
ships or recommendations. Such processes differ from the way employees and external
consultants are appointed.
Thirdly, the assignment focus.The focus of the assignment is decided by the individual
manager with little or no reference to the wider organisational agenda or business objectives.
Fourthly, the coach is seen as an external contractor, responsible for their own personal
development and standards, rather than part of the organisation’s wider network of key
suppliers, who need to understand and be part of the wider organisational change agenda.
Finally, evaluation. The evaluation of the coach’s work is based on the perceptions of
the individual manager as to how they felt the coach performed, with limited input from
the wider system of peers, colleagues or a sponsor.
It is clear that, whilst personal coaching may beneft the individual manager, it offers lit-
tle to the organisation. Greater value can be gained by linking the coaching process more
closely to the organisation’s objectives through developing a coaching culture.
26 Jonathan Passmore and Kristina Crabbe
The benefts of building a coaching culture
Building a culture of coaching offers a range of potential benefts for individuals, teams,
the organisation and its wider network. By the very nature of coaching, everyone may
beneft.
A wide number of authors have outlined the benefts of building a coaching culture
(Bresser, 2013; Forman, Joyce and McMahon, 2013; Clutterbuck et al., 2016; Jones and
Gorell, 2014; Hawkins, 2012).The broad consensus from these writers is that they believe
that everyone can achieve their potential if they are given the time and opportunity to
develop personal awareness and generate their own solutions. In building a coaching cul-
ture, the potential value increases through the dimensions of team, group, organisational
and distributed networks.

Organisational snapshot – JK Organisation, India

Building on a legacy excellence: Facilitating a coaching culture
JK is one of India’s largest industrial groups and employs more than 22,000 individuals
across India and the globe. JK defned a coaching culture as:“When we describe a coach-
ing cultures, we’re describing a learning culture that is respectful and that values people’s
potential and promotes innovation”.
The decision-makers at JK chose to adopt coaching as a strategy for talent develop-
ment, leadership enhancement and change management, breaking the mould where sen-
ior employees have all grown up in the culture of expecting instruction from their bosses.
The aim was to overcome the perception that coaching was seen as a remedial inter-
vention.This was helped by explaining “what coaching was” and “was not”.
A trickle-down strategy was used, starting with 124 senior and high-potential lead-
ers engaging in executive coaching relationships where they participated in 360-degree
feedback prior to the process. The process asked participating executives to identify two
to three goals for the coaching engagement with an eye towards the transformations they
believe would most impact themselves, their team and the business, and also one goal that
may not be explicitly related to their professional lives.The coaching engagements lasted
between 8–12 months and included mid-term and end-of-engagement with the coach,
executive and HR team. The coach also checked in with the key stakeholders through-
out the process to monitor the effectiveness of the coaching. At the end of the coaching
engagement the coach, executive and executive line manager all submitted written feed-
back about the process and outcomes to the HR team to continue the development of
the learning process.
JK then took the next step of engaging professionally certifed coaches to provide a
course in coach-specifc training to leaders interested in becoming internal coach practi-
tioners.The mix of leaders involved in the training were senior executives, vice presidents
and functional heads.
The outcomes of the programme were as follows: Revenues grew by 105%, employee
satisfaction increased by 16% and attrition of high-potential employees decreased by 2%.
Leaders reported positive impacts on: Stress management, management skills, role transi-
tions, self-confdence and enhanced teamwork.The improvements were also felt outside
of work, with leaders reporting a higher quality of life at home and with their extended
families.
 Developing a coaching culture 27
The impact is a shift from a top-down management style to a collegial style, with
stronger collaborative relationships between senior and mid-level managers, peers and
direct reporters. The focus of employees has shifted from age and tenure to creativity,
solutions and a more active engagement in the decision-making process. As a result, the
working environment now has a greater sense of belonging, is less hierarchical and has a
stronger team focus.

Benefts at the individual coaching dimension:

• Improved performance and outcome focus;
• Increased motivation, commitment and engagement;
• Effective self-management and management to change, transition and transformation;
• Time effective mastery of role transition, technologies and tools;
• Increased self-awareness, refection into action and relationships with others;
• Leadership skills, personal and professional growth and development leading to an
engaged and committed workforce;
• Resilience, agility, sustainability and wellbeing (balance);
• Communications and clarity of strategy, goals and process.

Benefts at the team and group coaching dimensions:

• Synergy and increased value as a team (not merely the sum of the parts or less);
• Enhanced value from teams of teams all working and connecting within this dimension;
• Deeper level of understanding of team and group dynamics leading to effective
performance, alignment of goals, working relationships and confict, growth and
development;
• Team agility and resilience;
• Access to divergent and different thinking from groups;
• Creating group connections and developing diagonal networks across organisational
structures and hierarchies.

Benefts at the organisational coaching dimension:

• Reduce turnover by increasing retention;
• The coaching approach attracting new talent to the organisation;
• Developing and motivating all employees, driving effciency, quality and customer
service;
• Enabler for change;
• Boosting fnancial performance;
• Improving overall business performance;
• Bedding in and practice of organisational behaviours, values and success factors;
• Effective processes, structures and systems to deliver strategy;
• Loudspeaker for learning and continuous professional development;
• Environment for learning, generation of ideas and innovation;
• Wellbeing and resilience for employees – ‘healthy organisation’;
• Builds a networked web of connections across the whole organisation;
• Organisational capacity for complexity and change on change.
28 Jonathan Passmore and Kristina Crabbe
Benefts of coaching beyond the organisation and into the
distributed networks:
• Effective use of resources across the organisational network and partners;
• More effective use of natural resources;
• Positive perception and greater impact of the business’ products and services in the
market place;
• Maturity of processes across network and partners for sustainability;
• Shared learning and development, knowledge and wisdom for win–win;
• Stakeholder intelligence and collaboration;
• Positive impact on society, wider systems and potentially ecosystems.

In crafting the coaching aspects of the organisational strategy, each organisation needs
to consider its own distinctive challenges, from organisational culture, to operating envi-
ronment to competition. Underhill (2018) echoes this view, suggesting an evolutionary
approach in the journey towards the implementation of coaching.The LEAD framework
follows this, providing zones of development through a step-by-step approach within
each zone to realise the benefts from all of the dimensions outlined above.The acronym
‘MODEL’ associated with the LEAD framework provides further components to mobi-
lise and evaluate the LEAD framework.These components add clarity and transparency
to the benefts of the coaching culture. Ideally these benefts form the basis of organi-
sational stories which underpin the momentum to take up and understand the value
of the coaching approach throughout the organisation, as well as concurrently building
sustainability.

The LEAD coaching framework

LEAD offers a framework that can help organisations to move away from an old-style
personal coaching approach towards a more integrated, strategic approach. By doing so,
organisations are best placed to maximise the true value that coaching can offer as a tool
for employee management, development and engagement.
To develop a coaching culture, we have suggested four broad zones. Each zone contains
a checklist that the organisation can apply to evaluate its progress towards full implementa-
tion of the coaching culture. See Figure 3.1.

Zone 1 – Leaders – Managing access to external coaches

Some key starting questions that the HR Leader and Practitioner need to ask at this stage
are:

I. Who owns ‘culture’ on the board? What culture do we have, what type of coaching
do we want?
II. Why? What contribution will coaching make? Are we ready as a business to take this
forward?
III. What do we already have in place in terms of values and competencies working
towards our current business strategy that are relevant and can be built on?
IV. What existing systems, processes and technology can support us and what is the addi-
tional need to be put in place?
 Developing a coaching culture 29

Leadership coaching Coaching for all

(external execu ve coaching) (internal coaching pool)

Zone 1 Zone 2
Leaders Everyone

Leaders have managed Everyone able to access

access to external coachess internal coaches

Zone 0
Personal coaching
Distributed coaching Approach to coaching
across the boundary becomes the management
style

Zone 4 Zone 3
Distributed Approach

Coaching across boundaries Management coaching

(stakeholders and partners) (default management style)

Figure 3.1 The LEAD framework

These frst three questions form the fundamentals in taking the frst step of integrating
coaching into HR strategy, taking realities and current relationships forward to build ini-
tiatives that support the integration of coaching, the business and HR.
The next step drives the commission, management and supervision of external coaches
to facilitate, co-ordinate and orchestrate the buying in of the coaching capability whilst
keeping control of developing and maintaining measurement and feedback.
Step three of this zone is where coaching is positively acknowledged, identifed and
actively managed with a dedicated line in the budget. Coaching is understood and val-
ued by senior managers and then, in time, coaching is also understood and valued by
all employees. Discussions and leadership decisions start to consider more and more the
impact, standards and outputs linked to strategy.

Zone 2: Everyone – Access to internal coaches

In this zone the focus is on how coaching can be extended from the top team to all man-
agers, supervisors and employees. Using external coaches is an expensive option and thus
one which most organisations preserve for senior leaders.While it may be cost-prohibitive
30 Jonathan Passmore and Kristina Crabbe
to extend the use of external coaches to all managers, the organisation can develop its own
in-house pool of coaches. Zone 2 focuses on how organisations can select, train, manage,
support and evaluate internal coaches.

Organisational snapshot – CareSource, Ohio, USA

An initiative started with a six-month programme to enable new leaders to address the
challenges of their roles.The programme was extended and expanded to training manag-
ers and leaders in using coaching skills.
The programme has been credited with retaining high-potential employees and lead-
ers, with an estimated saving of $396,600 USD.Additional estimated savings in leader and
employee effciency ($201,972 USD), overtime reduction ($91,023 USD) and avoidance
of contracting/consulting fees ($55,036 USD). Overall, CareSource estimates savings of
$744,632 and a return on investment (ROI) of 211% over 5 years from its development
of a coaching culture.

The key starting questions that the HR Leader and Practitioner need to ask at this
stage are:

I. What are the principles underlying the development of our internal professional
coaching capability?
II. How do we ensure confdentiality and create psychological safety?
III. What can we do to support our internal coaches to carry out their role professionally?
IV. What systems and technology that we currently use can support us and what do we
need to put in place?

The frst step in this zone is to build an internal coaching pool by building and developing
the internal coaching capability structure.This can be achieved by engaging with profes-
sional bodies like the ICF (2020) or Asssociation for Coaching, as well as providers of
accredited coach training.This provides the recognition necessary for business value and
impact.An alternative approach is to develop and deliver bespoke programmes for internal
coach development. Each organisation needs to determine its own approach taking into
account its size and the estimated scale of its internal demand and required outcomes.
The role of internal coach comes with a number of complexities not experienced by
external coaches, and these are best considered at the initial phase and issues planned for
through the commissioning and contracting process. Support is an important element.
Coaching supervision should form part of this process as a way to both keep coaching
quality in place, and also to manage ethical and practice issues which are likely to emerge.
The next step of the Everyone Zone is for managers and leaders to select their coach
from the internal coaching pool. Success of the internal coaching pool is when there is
a clear link between expectations in terms of both personal and professional growth and
alignment to personal development plans and business initiatives.This is key for alignment
of the coaching provision and business performance.
The fnal step of this zone is to provide access to internal coaches, such that the coach-
ing pool refects the organisation in terms of its diversity, facilitating the opportunity of
divergent and different thinking, the range of functional capabilities, development oppor-
tunities, growth of organisational capacity through knowledge and wisdom across the
generations and beyond; ultimately representing all communities within the organisation.
 Developing a coaching culture 31
Zone 3: Approach – Coaching is the default leadership style
In this zone the focus is on how organisations can develop a coaching style of manage-
ment. By this we mean how can they enable managers to use coaching as their default
leadership style.This requires coaching skills to be an integral part of leadership, manage-
ment and supervisor training programmes, managers need to understand what manage-
ment coaching is, when to use it and how to use it best within the line management role.
They also need to understand how it fts alongside other styles of managing from directive
(giving clear, explicit instructions) to a democratic employee consultation style and objec-
tives setting. Each has a place, but we would advocate that for most businesses and for
most employees, the coaching style can be a dominate style to be used for 50% or more
of conversations with team members, encouraging self-refection and personal autonomy.
One danger of a default style is that it becomes seen as the silver bullet:The solution to
all employee problems and for use in all situations.We are not advocating that. Coaching is
not a silver bullet for managers, any more than it’s a silver bullet for employee performance
management or development. While it’s highly effective, it’s just one tool that managers
need to use alongside other styles of engagement. Our argument is that it’s the ‘go-to
tool’, the default setting, before the manager evaluates and decides if to switch to directing,
consulting, empathising or goal-setting interventions.
These key questions take us through the Approach Zone to continue to build the
coaching culture:

V. What is our route map to train all managers in coaching skills and to give them the
confdence that they can coach?
VI. How do we use our employee lifecycle to develop coaching as a default manage-
ment style?
VII. Which other coaching modalities can we use and do we have the expertise inter-
nally to use team and group coaching to develop business performance?
VIII. What are the existing systems and technology that can support this or need to be
put in place?

We believe it is important that the coaching approach continues to be managed by the

HR department, ensuring that coaching strategy is embedded in the broader HR strategy.
HR strategies and initiatives will need to fex and evolve with the changing and dynamic
organisational strategy. As the managers and leaders themselves are recognised as compe-
tent coaches, the business outcomes will enable further steps to be taken towards full align-
ment and sustainability. Coaching becomes the capstone within the HR strategy.
The accumulated learning and development evolving from coaching, and forming the
default management style, ensure that these approaches become embedded in the system
of beliefs, values and behaviours. Over time the philosophy which underpins coaching, of
empowering others, becomes part of the way the organisation works, part of the organisa-
tion’s unconscious.

Zone 4: Distributed – Coaching across organisational boundaries

In this zone the focus is on extending coaching beyond the organisation’s boundaries.
A century ago most organisations purchased the raw materials and built their product.
Today, most organisations now work with multiple partners: contractors, suppliers, agents
32 Jonathan Passmore and Kristina Crabbe
to manufacture or deliver their products or service.The modern organisation’s ‘bound-
ary’ has become blurred, as a result of these multiple relations. No longer do organisa-
tions simply employ workers as employees on a weekly or monthly contract.They have
added to this core through zero-hours employees, day rate contractors, agents, sub-
contractors and customers, all of whom may contribute to the co-creation of content
or assemble of parts. Many of these relationships are critical to organisational success, as
for all intents and purposes these partner’s act as if they were employed. If organisations
are aspiring to create a coaching culture, this culture must fow seamlessly across these
fuid boundaries.
In the public sector, relationships may be equally complex, with agencies working
together to deliver public goods or social impact. In terms of a coaching culture this may
mean creating cross-organisational pools, where health workers, police, fre, government
and social housing collaborate. In the commercial sectors it may mean moving away from
win–lose arrangements, with a model which instead focuses on win–win outcomes.

Organisational snapshot – Rentokil Initial, UK

The appetite for group coaching has been both surprising and exciting. Managers have
deeply appreciated the high levels of trust they have developed with their peers and the
resulting relationships have been sustained beyond the life of the programme. The man-
agers really value working in this way and have taken the learning back into their teams.
(Brigid Garvey, Group Director of Talent, Rentokil Initial)

Developing talent
Rentokil’s initial approach to talent development was based on 5 principles:

1. Learning is transferable to the workplace and learning opportunities are created from
work situations;
2. Adults learn best through experience, and refecting on experience, rather than being
taught or told;
3. Great leadership starts with emotional maturity and increased self-awareness;
4. Personal change has to begin with oneself and fow outward;
5. Sustainable change comes from working on several levels, including behaviour, mindset,
emotions and purpose.

Developing a coaching culture – Living Leadership

Rentokil committed itself to an innovative and substantive approach to learning and
development and designed its signature ‘Living Leadership’ programme in 2009 with
group coaching at its heart.The programme is still running.
The programme involves four group coaching sessions over six months of the pro-
gramme. The experience deepens delegates’ emotional and psychological development
and builds their coaching capability through working with fellow group members on real
practical business challenges.
The group coaching is designed to create a sense of a management community and a
forum for managers to network, share experiences and ways of working with each other,
as well as driving the development of a culture based on a coaching style of leadership.
 Developing a coaching culture 33
Feedback and learning from the group coaching
• “Feedback is positive from both managers and employees”;
• “Being part of a coaching group was a life changing experience”;
• “The group coaching work … has given me a chance to refect inwards and really
identify my strengths”.

The programme’s impact on the organisation

• Delegates reported increased confdence, enhanced leadership capability and knowl-
edge and report being more equipped to respond to challenging situations;
• Improved work relationships;
• Improved business results – increasing sales, improving employee engagement and
retaining customers and employees;
• Sustainable changes in leadership style.

Here are some suggested questions to start to build the landscape of the organisation’s
distributed network and determine possible value linked to organisational strategy:

• Which of our coaching modalities and practices can we share within our distributed
network?
• What coaching initiatives have the potential to add-value across the distribution to
create win–win?
• How can we measure the impact of this coaching approach across organisational
boundaries? See Figure 3.2 and Table 3.1.

Figure 3.2 The LEAD framework, MODEL components and development pathways
Table 3.1 The LEAD Framework Zones Mapped to MODEL Components

MODEL Pre-LEAD LEAD – Zone 1 LEAD – Zone 2 LEAD – Zone 3 LEAD – Zone 4
Component Framework Leaders Everyone Approach Distributed

M Ad hoc individual exec HR commissions and HR builds internal coach HR expands team, HR partners with peers in
Modalities mix coaching. manages external practitioner pool. group and coaching the distributed network
34 Jonathan Passmore and Kristina Crabbe

coaches. supervision capability. to share expertise.

O Led by individual. Steps 1–3 of the 12-step Steps 4–7 of the 12-step Steps 8–11 of the 12-step Step 12 of the 12-step plan
Outcome focus plan (see steps below). plan (see steps below). plan (see steps below). (see steps below).
D Led by external coach– Aligned to personal Aligned to personal and Aligned to personal and Extending, sharing and
Development mindset coachee relationship. objectives and organisational capability organisational capacity harnessing development
competence (horizontal). (vertical). (diagonal). across the distributed
network.
E Based on individual E.g., Individual personal E.g., Interpersonal E.g.,Team and group E.g., Additional benefts
Evaluation and satisfaction. development – impact, development – impact, outputs – impact, across the distributed
management standards, strategy and standards, strategy and standards, strategy and network – impact,
values. values. values. sustainability.
L Not evaluated. Building self-awareness and Building experience Leaders as coach and Extending the coaching
Leadership maturity of others. through perspective and building knowledge of approach through the
practice. ‘The Deeper work’. distribution.
 Developing a coaching culture 35
Twelve steps to developing a coaching culture
At a practical level, what can organisations do to move forward towards a coaching cul-
ture? The LEAD frameworks and its associated audit tool offer multiple actions at each
level for organisations to review their practices. Here are 12 steps that organisations can
consider to help them move forward with their own approach to coaching:

1 Integrate coaching as part of the HR strategy;

2 Commission, manage and supervise individual external coaches, not frms;
3 Coaching is acknowledged as a dedicated line in the budget;
4 Build an internal coaching pool;
5 Managers should select their own coaches from the pool;
6 Pool mirrors the make-up of the organisation;
7 Internal coaches are outside the line management relationship;
8 Train all managers in coaching skills;
9 Encourage coaching as the organisation’s default management style;
10 Use team coaching to develop team performance;
11 Maintain development, wellbeing and ethical approach to the coaching provision
using coaching supervision;
12 Developing a coaching style of the organisation with partners and suppliers focusing
on a win–win business model.

Conclusion
Coaching is a key tool for organisations that can help them deliver change, as well as more
effectively engage, develop and lead their workforce. However, to achieve maximum value
from coaching, organisations need to adopt a strategic approach, integrating coaching
into every part of their business. The LEAD framework offers a practical, hands-on tool
for organisations to review their existing practices, from their employment of external
coaches to building internal coaching pools, developing coaching skills in their managers
and extending coaching beyond the boundaries of their organisation to contractors, part-
ners and supplier relationships with a focus on win–win outcomes.

References
Bresser, F. (2013). The global business guide for the successful use of coaching in organisations. Cologne: Bresser.
Clutterbuck, D., Megginson, D. and Bajer, A. (2016). Building and sustaining a coaching culture. London:
CIPD.
Deal, T.E. and Kennedy, A.A. (1983). ‘Culture: A new look through old lenses’. The Journal of Applied
Behavioural Science, 19(4), 498–505. doi: 10.1177/002188638301900411.
Forman, D. Joyce, M. & McMahon, G. (2013). Creating a Coaching Culture for Managers inYour Organisation.
Abingdon: Routledge
Hawkins, P. (2012). Creating a coaching culture. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
ICF. (2020).‘Prism awards’. Retrieved on 27 March 2020 from https://coachfederation.org/prism-award.
Jones, G., and Gorell, R. (2014). How to create a coaching culture. London: Kogan Page.
Mann, C. (2016) Ridler Report 2016. London: Ridler & Co.
Schein, E. (2004). Organisational culture and leadership, 3rd edition. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Schein, E. and Schein, P. (2017). Organisational culture and leadership, 5th edition. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley.
Underhill, B.O. (2018). ‘Centralizing coaching provision’. In J. Passmore, B.O. Underhill and M.
Goldsmith, eds., Mastering executive coaching.Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 178–193.
Section 2

Understanding yourself and

your clients
4 Understanding yourself as a coach
Tatiana Bachkirova

Introduction
The motivation to become a coach often comes because of an individual’s interest in
people and a desire to help them to reach their potential (Anderson, 2016). Quite often
this interest originates from an interest in oneself. Coaches are usually curious about their
drives, values and qualities that allow them to be productive and happy.They are also curi-
ous about qualities that make it more diffcult for them to achieve what they want and
create obstacles to their success and wellbeing.
This chapter is about how this desire to understand oneself is an important prerequisite
for being a good professional coach. I will make a case for three levels of self-understanding
that a professional coach benefts from developing: self-inventory, self as an instrument and
a fully professional self. Starting with a brief discussion of what the self actually is, in each
of the following sections I will introduce one of these three levels of self-understanding
and suggest ways to develop them.

The nature of self in a nutshell: A precursor for self-understanding

On a very basic level, understanding oneself often means knowing one’s strengths and
weaknesses. However, there could be much more to this process than that. In order to
expand this picture, it is probably useful to start by asking how the ‘self ’ is defned.This is
not an easy question to answer in spite of the many disciplines of knowledge dealing with
it: philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, phenomenology and education, to name just a
few.The actual fact that the puzzle of the self attracts so many disciplines indicates that this
is a very complex matter. It is also a plausible explanation for why it is not easy to arrive
at some consensus as to the notion of the self (Gallagher and Shear, 1999).
The discussion about what the self is can be highly theoretical and this is not the pur-
pose of this chapter. However, in recognising the effort of many approaches to exploring
this topic and trying to arrive at something that can be useful for practitioners, I offer three
ways of looking at the self (Bachkirova, 2011).When we think about the self, we usually
mean one of these three ways:

• How we experience things – A very unique frst-person perspective, like a personal

window on the world;
• How we act – What allows us to respond to challenges, make decisions and engage
with things, supporting our sense of agency;
• How we describe ourselves – A narrative about oneself, the description of who we
think we are, creating a sense of identity.
40 Tatiana Bachkirova
From these descriptions, we can see how diffcult it is to arrive at one defnition of
the self. Different disciplines tend to concentrate on one of the ways described above.
Phenomenology studies the way we experience things; biology and neuroscience look at
how we function and act; and social psychology explores our identity and narratives.
In my book (Bachkirova, 2011), while exploring the nature of the self for coaching
practice, I suggest that we should accept the fact that these three ways of conceptualising
the self are quite legitimate. None of them can be reduced to another.Accordingly, the self
can be seen as a combination of three centres:

• Centre of awareness;
• Executive centre;
• Centre of identity.

Centre of awareness is the most basic pre-refective sense of self, a subjective perspective on
the world. Even animals have it, as it allows an organism to locate itself in space and time
and recognise experiences as ‘mine’ (Claxton, 1994).This centre is crucially important for
our functioning but very diffcult to study, as it can be described only from the frst-person
perspective and is by defnition subjective.
Executive centre represents a perspective that can be more objective. It means that there
are various properties and areas of the brain that are associated with the actions of the
organism.To put it simply, the executive centre is a neurological network responsible for
the coherent behaviour and functioning of the individual in the world (Gazzaniga, 2012;
Kurzban, 2010).
Centre of identity could be seen as a narrative construction; a linguistically based aspect
of human nature that enables us to make sense of our engagement with the world by
creating various stories of who we are and what we are like.This is also a subjective and
very fuid view on the way we see ourselves in certain contexts and certain periods of life.
It is important to notice that I label these notions of self as ‘centres’ only for uniform-
ity and simplicity. Neither of them implies a specifc place in the mind/brain which can
be clearly identifed. For example, what I name the ‘executive centre’ can be seen as a
neurological network of multiple mini-selves. Each mini-self is a particular pattern of
links between different areas of the brain that becomes activated or inhibited when the
organism is involved in an act (Bachkirova, 2011).The centre of identity should be under-
stood as a combination of fuid stories that we construct about ourselves depending on
the circumstances. Only the frst of these notions may actually feel like a centre, but the
frst-person perspective nature of it means that a physical centre for it is unlikely to be
discovered.
There are some obvious implications of this view on the self for coaches.The frst sug-
gests that the nature of self is not as simple as we might assume. It would be diffcult, for
example to make some typically blunt and forceful recommendations to discover “your
true self ”, to be “true to yourself ”, etc., as each of them would imply a further question:
“Which self?”. We need to recognise that our own nature is complex, that it may be as
complex as the nature of organisations, events and anything else that is described by the
complexity and systems theories. In light of this, as coaches, we need to be much more
thoughtful and appropriately tentative about how we understand our clients’ selves and
avoid imposing on them strong expectations for an ‘objective and accurate’ evaluation of
oneself (e.g., Hullinger, et al., 2019).
 Understanding yourself as a coach 41
It would be wise to adopt the same attitude when we think about the nature of our
own self. If we recognise the complexity of our own selves, we need to continue learning,
observing ourselves in action, gathering feedback and questioning our perceptions that
depend on many interrelated factors in complex contexts. I would also argue that for us
this is not a choice – it is a requirement of being a professional coach.To discuss further
the role of such learning for professional coaches, we shall explore three different ways,
or processes, for understanding oneself as a coach in the next sections.These processes are
not just discrete and random activities that we might be involved with when we wish to
understand ourselves. I refer to them as levels because they, arguably, indicate the degree of
complexity involved for each process and represent a typical sequence of a coach’s profes-
sional development path.

Level 1: Self-inventory
This frst level can be called self-inventory in the context of being a coach because, frstly,
it involves undertaking an honest assessment of one’s professional capabilities. It requires
that we identify our basic strengths and weaknesses and what we need to do to fll in the
gaps.This level starts from some very important conditions, such as understanding that you
need to have the suffcient knowledge and skills required to do the job. It includes con-
sideration of the level of experience needed for particular assignments and a monitoring
of how the changes in your experience with time infuence your practice. For example,
this monitoring should help you to establish how you deal with the complexity of the
different contexts in which you work.These three aspects (knowledge, skills and experi-
ence) have to be regularly reviewed and improved with the use of coaching supervision
and through the process of continuing professional development (CPD).
There is another category of knowledge about oneself that goes beyond this basic
professional assessment. The self-inventory level of self-understanding can include extra
information about oneself that could help to identify an important professional niche or
specialisation in the wider feld of coaching. For example, if coaches are trained within
a particular school of practice, such as cognitive-behavioural, gestalt or existential, they
may clearly associate their professional identity accordingly. Similarly, their growing level
of expertise in a particular context or modality may allow them to identify specifcally as,
e.g., business coaches, maternity coaches or team coaches, etc.
Sometimes this level of self-inventory can help in building a more nuanced profes-
sional identity in addition to one’s training or context of practice. For example, during the
training to become a coach, and later through one’s CPD, coaches may become engaged
with many tools and exercises that are aimed at gauging their psychological preferences,
traits, values and attitudes that have relevance to their practice. Coaches could experiment
on themselves with these procedures or various psychometric instruments. This might
assist them in enhancing their self-inventory by developing extra knowledge of their own
psychological traits. With enhanced awareness of these traits, coaches might decide that
some elements of their professional identity would beneft from ‘fne-tuning’ and make
the necessary adjustments.
There are specifc examples as to how this extra multifaceted information about oneself
as a coach can be used in a more formal way. For example,Walker (2004) has developed
a model about different styles of working in the business of people development using
three bipolar dimensions of capabilities which he identifes as logic, empathy and control.
42 Tatiana Bachkirova
Using this model, coaches who know their characteristics and preferences in terms of
these dimensions can identify their own ‘coaching signature’, which could help them to
become more congruent with their approaches to practice.
To summarise, self-inventory as a level of self-understanding as a coach is important
because it is necessary simply in order to identify oneself as a professional coach. It would
be unprofessional, for example, not to have an appropriate qualifcation and commitment
to further development.This level of self-understanding is a prerequisite for starting your
practice. It implies importance of the focus on oneself as a coach.This focus is pursued not
in the session, where attention is fully on the client, but in any other professional activities
that are undertaken. However, with further experience, refection on one’s practice and
focused professional development enable coaches to reach more advanced levels of self-
understanding, and it is to this that we now turn.

Level 2: Self as an instrument

This level of self-understanding usually emerges when coaches become more experi-
enced. They begin realising that they are much more than just a ‘bag of tools’, however
useful and productive these tools may be.Their observations, confrmed by research (e.g.,
de Haan and Gannon, 2017), show how important the role of relationships is in the pro-
cess of coaching. Simple logic suggests that effective relationships require the coach to be
trustworthy in the eyes of the client. It is not surprising, then, that connecting with clients
on a personal level and building relationships that are based on trust cannot be created
only by the coach’s skills and knowledge. It requires more than that.
Clients often bring to a coaching session issues that affect their whole lives.They need
to feel that, by engaging with topics of such personal importance, the coach is not just
playing a role, however professionally.They want to connect with a person. Coaches also
know that when they are at their best, what they offer comes from personally resonating
with the client in the moment and, therefore, from the coach as a person. Such interven-
tions are perceived as genuine because they are the expression of the coach’s life experi-
ences, current worldview and feelings that came to fruition ‘right now’ and not only a
recollection of the “right thing to say”. I call this level of coach self-understanding as
‘coach as a main instrument of coaching’ (Bachkirova, 2016).
When a coach comes to the realisation that they are the main instrument of coaching,
this entails a new level of self-understanding.The difference at this point is that, in the ses-
sion, they begin to pay a great deal of attention not only to the content of the client’s story,
or what is happening to the client in the process of coaching, but also to their own internal
states: their feelings, thoughts and intuitions. This level of self-understanding requires a
much higher degree of self-awareness because it implies a double focus during the session,
including both the client and the coach.
In terms of the actions which usually follow from this level of self-understanding, it is
possible to notice several specifc features. For example, coaches feel more confdent in
bringing to the process an appropriate level of self-disclosure (Jourard, 1971). This is no
longer a compulsive ‘sharing’ of their experiences, nor a timid holding back of any infor-
mation in fear of deviating from the client’s agenda.The ability to do this confdently and
effectively is determined by the coach’s suffcient and non-judgmental attention to the
impulse to share something personal with the client.This impulse is then checked in light
of other observed nuances; e.g., the client’s receptivity, timing or the importance of the
implied message, before being regulated in terms of the length and the form of sharing.
 Understanding yourself as a coach 43
Another important change that comes with this level of self-understanding is a differ-
ent relationship with one’s own intuition (Sheldon, 2018), which is referred to as ‘imme-
diacy’ in other felds of practice (Egan, 2017).A practitioner who develops this ability can
notice their own emotions, hunches and subtle messages from their body as they occur,
and utilise them in the session. Such information becomes additional data that can be used
to infuence the course of the conversation.This can be done explicitly by including this
data in the conversation, or implicitly – by informing the immediate or future interven-
tions. Research by Sheldon (2018) has provided some interesting ideas that illustrate this
level of work. She discusses the differences in the effectiveness of these type of interven-
tions as attempted by novices and by more experienced coaches.This fnding, in my view,
confrms that the second level of self-understanding is qualitatively different from the self-
inventory level as it requires further developmental work from coaches.
My assumption is that this level of self-understanding is also a foundation for the ellu-
sive quality of ‘presence’ that is now highly promoted in the professional coaching milieu.
Noon (2018) has argued, on the basis of the results of his study, that presence is a way of
being that is developed through the practice and experience of the coach. He advocates a
more contextual and tacit understanding of this quality which, in my view, would clearly
require a higher level of self-understanding than provided by self-inventory.
Capacity for self-disclosure, immediacy and presence are undoubtedly the benefts that
this level of self-understanding brings to the quality of a coach’s service to their clients. I
would also argue that there are additional benefts to coaches themselves when they reach
this level of self-awareness. Seeing their whole selves as instruments of coaching enables
them to act in ways congruent to their current thoughts, beliefs and feelings.Their work
becomes part of their natural self-expression. As they do not feel that they need to play
a role in their professional encounters, this becomes more liberating, involving less emo-
tional labour and is therefore less tiring.
All the above suggest that enhancing the quality of self-understanding to the level of
the self as an instrument is a worthwhile endeavour. Educational literature on coach devel-
opment suggests what can be done in this regard. It is noted, for example, that this process
usually starts with a genuine curiosity about oneself, not just strengths and weakness, but
emotions, physical states and feeting thoughts.This focus of attention could be practised
in more ‘easy’ contexts than coaching sessions, and recorded and refected on after you
noticed them at a more convenient time and environment.There are many useful exercises
in the Gestalt tradition, and I can particularly recommend the book by John O. Stevens
(2007), Awareness: Exploring, Experimenting, Experiencing, which is full of interesting activi-
ties designed to facilitate this process.
When it comes to coaching practice, supervision can play important role in develop-
ing this level of self-understanding as all its functions involve explicit work with the self-
awareness of the coach.Although the experiences of this level are discussed in supervision
‘after the event’, an opportunity to explore them in a detailed and focused way enhances
learning that can be derived from them.This helps to promote the sensitivity and readiness
of the coach to ‘catch’ them in time and in the midst of new events.

Level 3: Fully professional self

This level of self-understanding implies a wider focus of attention, expanding further
from the self-inventory level and even the self as an instrument.At this new level, coaches
see themselves not only as an instrument that is part of a complex dynamic system with
44 Tatiana Bachkirova
a client, but also as being part of a much wider set of social relationships that are at play
when they coach. The focus of the coach’s attention includes not only the client’s story
and its unfolding in the session, and not only the coach’s internal states and processes, but
also a complex interplay of the many different relationships in the interdependent envi-
ronment of which both the client and the coach are part (Stacey, 2003). It could be said
that, in the coaching session, this level involves a triple focus of attention.
Coaches who reach this level of self-understanding come to see coaching engage-
ments as a self-organizing process of continuously active living systems (Thelen and Smith,
1994) and understand themselves as an integral part of such systems. Haämaälaäinen and
Saarinen (2008) argue that practitioners operating at this level have ‘system intelligence’,
as they are aware of the infuence of the whole on them, as well as of their own infuence
on the whole. It is important, of course, to consider what abilities such system intelligence
involves in the context of coaching.The following are the constituents of system intelli-
gence that I have adapted for coaching from Martela and Saarinen (2013).They include a
broad set of skills or abilities that are required of the coach a), in the session and b), outside
of it:

(a)
• Awareness of the changing situation in the session that includes variation in states
and actions of both the coach and the client, and the dynamics of the session;
• Tuning into this dynamic by sharing emotions and observations in order to facili-
tate intersubjective perception of the process;
• Agency as ability to adapt and act in different situations in the session.
(b)
• Refexivity as the ability to refect on one’s motives, behaviours, ways of thinking
and values that infuence practice;
• Perspective-taking as the ability for adopting new perspectives and interpreta-
tions of practice;
• Long-term systemic orientation as an ability to recognise and attend to the
cumulative and long-term effects of changes in the profession.

All of these abilities also need to be seen in the context of wider infuences that coaches
are subjected to. For example, coaches at this level of self-understanding are aware that
they are affected by two dominant worldviews that co-exist at the moment: modern-
ism and postmodernism. Being infuenced by the modernist science-centred worldview,
they may aspire for their coaching interventions to be evidence-based and supported by
knowledge and theories provided by the core disciplines such as psychology. Being infu-
enced by the postmodernist view that emphasises the world as socially constructed, these
coaches aim for their intervention to be focused on the meaning-making conversations.
Coaches with this level of self-understanding can recognise that modernist and postmod-
ernist infuences work at the same time and create various incompatible beliefs about our
practice. For example, we, as coaches, believe in the unique self-expression of individuals,
but create uniform competences frameworks. We may hate hierarchies but develop cat-
egories of professionalism, e.g., master-coach (Bachkirova, 2017).
Some of these coaches recognise being infuenced by another worldview - pragmatism.
Bachkirova and Borrington (2019) advocate philosophical pragmatism as the most appro-
priate philosophy of coaching.This position can be differentiated from both modernism
and postmodernism because it avoids reducing strategic action to a single model, and
 Understanding yourself as a coach 45

Table 4.1 Comparison Between Competent, Dialogic and Pragmatic Selves

Aspects Competent Self Dialogic Self Pragmatic Self

Worldview Modernist Postmodernist Pragmatist

Role of the Expert at least in the process Partner in a dialogue Co-experimenter

coach of coaching
Skills and Are the main assets of the Are secondary in comparison Are means for
tools coach to a meaningful experimenting
conversation
Concerned Good practice, effectiveness, Joined meaning-making in New ideas for responding
with impact the session to client’s situation
Coaching Is a means for successful work Is a purpose in itself:A model A product of working
relationship (development of trust) of meaningful dialogue collaboratively
Aiming for Resolutions and action points Often does not lead to Extended ability to cope
closure and/or appreciate with issues and to act
the value of issues
remaining unresolved.
Potential Excessive structures and Coaching process without The criteria for success
problems frameworks may stultify structures could become might not be explicit
the process and reduce circular without
creativity benchmarks for progress
Adapted from Bachkirova, 2016 and Bachkirova and Borrington, 2019.

allows greater fexibility for the role of the coach relevant to context and the task in hand.
This attitude is compatible with complexity theories and with an understanding of self as a
network of different mini-selves described above (Bachkirova, 2011). In this way, pragma-
tism allows the coach to act strategically in different ways according to changing situations.
Table 4.1 shows the differences between three mini-selves that are in tune with the
three worldviews just described. The coach can recognise their dominant worldview, as
modernism/postmodernism/pragmatism and a corresponding mini-self, as competent/
dialogic/pragmatic, which may capture most appropriately their predominant style of
coaching.At the same time, coaches can develop a capacity to act as any of them depend-
ing on the requirements of the situation. For example, the focus of attention by coaches
on good practice and impact (competent self) may be highly appropriate at the point of
contracting but then can shift to mainly meaning-making in a conversation (dialogic self)
and, gradually, to experimenting and generating new ideas for the client’s actions (prag-
matic self).
What is important for the level of self-understanding as fully professional self is that
coaches are able to take a look at who they are in relation to their practice and explore
the ways they function in light of various important infuences rather than being blindly
led by them.This does not mean that they become fully independent from the ideas and
discourses that affect them.This is not possible – we are part of our professional world as
another complex and dynamic social system, and as such we are constantly being ‘re-made’
by this system. However, awareness of such infuences allows a little more fexibility and
space to manoeuver in how we act, which also makes a contribution to this system and
has some infuence in the longer term.
Another feature that differentiates coaches at this third level of self-understanding is
their ability to create a rationale of their approach to practise – their individual model
46 Tatiana Bachkirova
of coaching as a unique professional offer to their clients. This ability requires a sophis-
ticated analysis of their knowledge, skills and their own values and principles, examined
through the lens of good number of theories and perspectives that have been infuenc-
ing their view on human nature, change and development. Building such a model has
been described as the ‘Three Ps’: philosophy, purpose and process (Bachkirova, et al, 2017;
Jackson and Bachkirova, 2019), which can be simply presented as answering three ques-
tions:‘why, what and how’ in relation to the approach to coaching.
‘Why’ refers to examining values and theoretical frameworks, a philosophy of practice,
something that could be called a ‘mission’ on a wider scale, something that explains the
‘what’, which is what you as a coach are trying to achieve in your work. ‘How’ is about
the process – what you do as a coach, what actually happens in your coaching sessions.
What is important is that these three Ps are well aligned. For example, it would be a mis-
aligned model if your ‘why’ includes allegiance to a pure person-centred perspective, but
your ‘what’ is about helping a client to ft with specifc demands of the organisation and
your ‘how’ includes extensive use of psychometrics and other instruments. The model
altogether should also be congruent to who you are as a person. It is in this way that this
level of self-understanding builds on the previous level of the self as an instrument.
In order to develop this level of self-understanding of a fully professional self, coaches
may need to invest in further education or re-visit a wide range of theories and conceptual
perspectives.They need to develop a good level of criticality in relation to various infu-
ences, particularly to the food of popular ideas that might be otherwise taken on board
without any discernment (Bachkirova and Borrington, 2020). In terms of more specifc
skills, coaches would beneft from learning to observe themselves in their practice and
actions in the same way that they observe others.This could help in taking a detached per-
spective to how we are in the midst of the complex dynamics of various systems. Finally,
this level of self-understanding depends almost entirely on our refexivity as a unique
human capacity of paying attention to our own actions, thoughts, feelings and their effect
in the interplay with the events in our environment. Good supervision for this work is
simply invaluable.

Conclusion
Each level of self-understanding that I have explored in this chapter corresponds to the
three centres that represent the notion of self on a theoretical level, which were introduced
earlier.The level of self-inventory responds to the needs described in the centre of identity
– this is how coaches build their professional identity.The level of the self as an instrument
responds to the needs of the centre of awareness – bringing more of your self-observation
for the needs of practice. Finally, the level of a fully professional self is about coaches in
action, having a coherent rationale and taking responsibility for the interventions that they
offer to their clients. These parallels show that theories of selfhood are not that far from
our self-understanding and self-realisation in coaching practice – a fascinating union that
we can and should promote.

References
Anderson, N. (2016). Becoming a coach. MA in coaching and mentoring practice dissertation. Oxford: Oxford
Brookes University.
Bachkirova, T. (2011). Developmental coaching:Working with the self. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
 Understanding yourself as a coach 47
Bachkirova,T. (2016).‘The self of the coach: Conceptualization, issues, and opportunities for practitioner
development’. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 68(2), pp. 143–156.
Bachkirova,T. (2017).‘Developing a knowledge base of coaching: Questions to explore’. In T. Bachkirova,
G. Spence and D. Drake, eds., The SAGE handbook of coaching, London: Sage, pp. 23–41.
Bachkirova, T., Jackson, P., Gannon, J., Iordanou, I. and Myers, A. (2017). ‘Re-conceptualizing coach
education from the perspectives of pragmatism and constructivism’. Philosophy of Coaching: An
International Journal, 2(2), pp. 29–50.
Bachkirova,T. and Borrington, S. (2019).‘Old wine in new bottles: Exploring pragmatism as a philosophical
framework for the discipline of coaching’. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 18(3), pp.
337–360.
Bachkirova,T. and Borrington, S. (2020). Beautiful ideas that can make us ill: implications for coaching.
Philosophy of Coaching:An International Journal, 5(1), pp. 9–30.
Claxton, G. (1994). Noises from the darkroom. London: Aquarian.
De Haan, E. and Gannon, J. (2017).‘The coaching relationship’. In T. Bachkirova, G. Spence and D. Drake,
eds., The SAGE handbook of coaching. London: Sage, pp. 195–217.
Egan, G. (2017). The skilled helper:A problem-management and opportunity-development approach to helping, 9th
ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Gallagher S. and Shear, J. (eds.). (1999). Models of the self. Thorverton: Imprint Academic.
Gazzaniga, M. (2012). Who’s in charge? Free will and the science of the brain. London: Constable and Robinson.
Hämäläinen, R.P. and Saarinen, E. (2008). ‘Systems intelligence – The way forward? A note on Ackoff's'
why few organizations adopt systems thinking’. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 25(6), pp.
821–825.
Hullinger, A., DiGirolamo, J. and Tkach, T. (2019). ‘Refective practice for coaches and clients: An
integrated model for learning’. Philosophy of Coaching:An International Journal, 4(2), pp. 5–34.
Jackson, P. and Bachkirova, T. (2019). ‘Three Ps of supervision and coaching: philosophy, purpose and
process’. In E.Turner and S. Palmer, eds., The heart of supervision. London: Routledge, pp. 20–40.
Jourard, S. (1971). The transparent self. New York:Van Nostrand Reinhold Inc.
Kurzban, R. (2010). Why everyone (else) is a hypocrite: Evolution and the modular mind, Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Martela, F. and Saarinen, E. (2013). ‘The systems metaphor in therapy discourse: Introducing systems
intelligence’. Psychoanalytic Dialogues:The International Journal of Relational Perspectives, 23(1), pp. 80–101.
Noon, R. (2018).‘Presence in executive coaching conversations – The C2 model’. International Journal of
Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, S12, pp. 4–20.
Sheldon, C. (2018). ‘Trust your gut, listen to reason: How experienced coaches work with intuition in
their practice’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 13(1), pp. 6–20.
Stacey, R.D. (2003). Complexity and group processes: A radically social understanding of individuals. Hove, UK:
Brunner-Routledge.
Stevens, J.O. (2007). Awareness: Exploring, experimenting, experiencing. Gouldsboro, ME:The Gestalt Journal
Press.
Thelen, E. and Smith, L.B. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Walker, S. (2004).‘The evolution of coaching; patterns, icons and freedom’. International Journal of Evidence
Based Coaching and Mentoring, 2(2), pp. 16–28.
5 Understanding your clients
Alison Hardingham

Introduction
This chapter is about the most important person in the coaching encounter.Where most
of social life is about trades and trade-offs, coaching is one of those special asymmetric
relationships where one side’s needs trump all. That side is the side of the client. In this
chapter, I aim to give you frameworks for thinking as well as practical tools that will enable
you to understand, accept and demonstrate respect for your clients.You may fnd that your
coaching increases many times in effectiveness as a consequence.

Starting out
It is never too early to begin to imagine what life may look like through your client’s eyes.
From the frst moment of contact with the industry, the organisation, the sponsor or refer-
ring individual and, of course, the clients themselves, we can use every bit of information
gained, every experience we have had and every spark of our own imagination, to begin
to generate hypotheses about how the clients themselves might see their worlds.We will
need to be seen as prepared and knowledgeable when we meet with our clients and their
organisations for the frst time.
Having done this diligent work of preparation, we will then need to set it all aside. For
what we most need to offer our clients is openness, a willingness to learn about them and
collaborate with them on a project of change of their choosing.
How can we walk this tightrope, between being prepared and yet unprepared, demon-
strating that we are interested in our prospective clients and yet infnitely open to their
truth, willing to learn what only they know? How can we, to borrow an expression from
O’Connell’s (1998, p. 42) description of solution-focused therapy, “develop a respectful
collaborative stance which is oriented towards client goals”?
You will have noticed that I used the phrase “generate hypotheses” in the frst para-
graph.That is because this is the best way to think about all “knowledge” that we might
infer about a client.A focus on generating hypotheses ensures we think about our clients,
but keeps our thinking tentative. It is a way of thinking that demands of us that we listen
and look for evidence to prove or disprove our hypotheses. It is a way of thinking that
encourages us always to proceed slowly and, in proceeding slowly, we allow our client to
teach us.We don’t “know” anything about how the client perceives his world until he tells
us, and even then we must always be prepared for developments, surprises and unfathom-
able depths. How often has your understanding of a person fundamentally changed fol-
lowing a sudden revelation of some fact about their life?
 Understanding your clients 49
What is important in our wish to understand our clients is to know that, in truth, we
never can fully know them. That ability to be comfortable with not knowing is of pro-
found signifcance in all human endeavours. It is so important that Keats gave it a name,
and saw it as at the heart of all creativity. He called it “negative capability”:“the capability
to be in the midst of mysteries, wonders and miracles, without irritable reaching after fact
or reason” (1899).As coaches, we need to develop that negative capability in ourselves.We
need to recognise that when we label, or decide on how, what, who and where a person is,
we are “irritably reach[ing]” after a model or fact that gives us the certainty that we crave.
Instead we would do better to follow Jung’s advice, as quoted in Sedgwick (2001, p. 8):
“Learn your theories as well as you can, but put them aside when you touch the miracle
of a living soul”. Or, as Bob Thomson (2009) captured for coaches in the title to his book,
“don’t just do something, sit there”.
Thinking about our clients in this way helps us also to address our primary task, which
interestingly enough is not “understanding”, but rather acceptance.We need to accept who
and what our client is.As Jung is reputed to have said, we cannot change anything until we
accept it, and of course as coaches we are in the business of change.This deep acceptance
of another’s way of being in the world – even though we can never hope to understand it
completely – is what we mean by “respect”. It is the basis of rapport, and the foundation
of trust. Interestingly, it is when, and only when, the client feels wholeheartedly accepted
in this way that he begins to create his agenda for change (O’Connell, 1998).

A word of caution
Some readers may expect a psychologist (which is what I am) to provide them with a
model for understanding their clients. Many abound, (see Passmore, 2012 for a review of
psychometric models). Coaches may use these tools to stimulate discussion, raise aware-
ness and identify strengths and weaknesses in their clients, and they can be very useful if
properly introduced and handled.
But I am talking in this chapter about understanding, not diagnosis. I am talking about
the sort of understanding which builds and sustains the coaching endeavour, and which is
the foundation of the safe and trusting relationship on which most coaches would agree
all effective coaching depends. Sometimes psychological models are useful here, but more
often than not they can lead to pigeonholing and to assumptions about who and what
the client is. More dangerously, they can encourage the coach to take an expert position
in relation to the client, a position in which the coach imagines that they know the client
better than the client knows him or herself.
Carl Rogers contrasted the attitude of many psychologists with that of a truly person-
centred practitioner: “there are … many whose concept of the individual is that of an
object to be dissected, diagnosed, manipulated” (1951, p. 21). How far that is from the
coach, who seeks to develop with his clients a “partnership of equals” (Rogers, 2012, p. 9).

Developing our ability to understand: A golden opportunity

There is one thing we can do that will open our eyes to what our client may be thinking
and feeling about the coaching in the frst session and beyond. It is to be coached our-
selves. So much can be learned from literally sitting in the client’s chair! Every would-be
coach should have plenty of opportunities to be coached and to refect on that experience.
50 Alison Hardingham
This experience can be a rich one, to engage in a full coaching experience for yourself
quite independently of any coach training you may do. Indeed, people who have had one
or several experiences of coaching are very aware of the vulnerability of being the client,
the time it takes to reassure oneself about confdentiality, the diffculty of providing honest
feedback to their coach and many more aspects of the coaching encounter.All these things
they might have known about, indeed been taught about, but their true signifcance is
only apparent when you have an experience of them at an emotional level.
Let me give you an example. Many novice coaches remain sceptical about the need
for coaches to put aside advice giving. How can it not be helpful, they say, when you can
see the problem clearly and know exactly what the client should do? And, of course, we
may present all the rational arguments against advice, and they grudgingly begin to accept
them, with their minds.
But they don’t become convinced until they have the experience.Then they notice, for
example, how annoyed they are when their coach gives them a solution.They notice how
delighted they are when their coach gives them enough respectful space to work things
out for themselves.They notice how joyful it is, and how challenging, when their coach
asks them a question which they hadn’t thought of that creates new lines of thinking in
their mind. They become convinced, a conviction of the heart which can only be born
from experience.
In order to learn from the golden opportunity being a client gives you, you need to
keep four questions in your mind. Refect on them before, during and after every coach-
ing experience and you will grow inestimably in awareness of what can infuence your
client.These are the questions:

• What does my coach say and do which makes me feel confdent in his ability to coach
me?
• What does my coach say and do which makes me feel I can rely on them?
• What does my coach say and do which makes me feel comfortable with them?
• What does my coach say and do which makes me feel that they really care about me
and my future (and care about that more than their own self-interest)?
(after Maister, Green and Galford, 2002)

The answers to these questions will develop your ability to understand your clients more
than any psychological model I could give you. The opposites are at least as informa-
tive: “What does she say and do which makes me doubt her competence, her reliability,
her genuine care of me?”; “What does she say and do which makes me feel less safe?”
Mistakes and ruptures in the relationship can be as informative as good moments (de
Haan, 2008, 2019).

Understanding how your client feels about you

People are generally ambivalent about meeting a coach. On the one hand, they may have
feelings of pleasurable anticipation; on the other, they are likely to have some apprehen-
sion. How this mix of hope and fear (Hardingham, 2004) plays out in a particular indi-
vidual will largely depend on how we have been introduced into their world, what their
previous experience of “people like us” is, and the context of their life at the moment. I
shall look more closely at each of these three factors in turn.
 Understanding your clients 51
How we have been introduced into the client’s world, and how they perceive us to
have been, are very important to understand. When they have chosen us they are likely
to have much more hope; when we have been forced upon them, more fear. I remember
a client who I believed had a choice: I was recommended to him by a colleague who
had become his boss. I accepted his ensuing ‘choice’ of me as his coach at face value, no
doubt because it suited me, and also because I had enjoyed working with his boss. (I was
expecting another enjoyable assignment!) Eventually, after two or three sessions in which
he was very guarded with me, I realised that the relationship had always felt to the client
like much more of a forced than a free choice. He had elements of hope, but he felt that
if he did not go along with his boss’s recommendation he would be unlikely to a have
a future in the organisation. I had not spent enough time exploring his point of view; I
had not spent enough time establishing a relationship in which he felt safe and accepted,
a relationship of our own.
A client’s previous experiences of coaching will also be key. If they have had a good
relationship with a coach before, the client will generally expect good things from us. If
the client has had a coach who failed, they will generally be more wary.These are things
which are worth exploring in early conversations.You want to hear about their previous
experiences because they may provide you with invaluable information about how you
should proceed.
Similarly, the context of the coaching is very relevant. For example, are we seen as a
“remedial coach”, a last chance before redundancy? Or as someone who is a “tick in the
box” before becoming eligible for promotion?
Throughout a coaching assignment, we can return to simple questions which, when
asked in a calm and unthreatening way, will enable both coach and client to understand
the client’s starting point and current attitude better. Here are just a few.

• How did you come to this coaching relationship?

• How do you feel about it?
• What hopes do you have of our work together?
• And what fears?
• Have you had coaching in the past?
• What was your coach like?
• How is coaching seen in your organisation?
• How do you feel about coaching in your organisation?
• Do you know anyone who has been coached by me? What kind of relationship do
you have with them?
• If our work together is successful, what will be different for you?

The intention is not to deliver a battery of questions at the start, but rather to have them in
mind. Perhaps the question which drives all of these is:What do I represent to this client?
And how does that serve them? And how does that change over time? Because the answers
to these questions will in large part determine the balance of hope and fear in them, and
therefore how much they are willing to disclose and therefore able to achieve.
If you are genuinely interested in this, you will notice many signals apart from their
answers to direct questions.You will notice when they look away and when they engage
with you directly; you will notice when they become comfortable with silence; you will
notice when their tone is sharp, when neutral, when animated; all these things and many
52 Alison Hardingham
more will interest you and cause you to have hypotheses about what is going on for your
client. Some of them you may gently enquire about: “I notice how you dropped your
voice then”. Some of the “noticings” you make you will hold in mind and wait to see if
a pattern emerges before you enquire. Some you will simply hold lightly for a while and
then you will turn your attention to other things.
You can see that one of the keys to understanding your client is to be interested in him,
always and perhaps some would say obsessively so.And another key is your noticing, what
is sometimes called “sensory acuity”.Without sensory acuity, I believe we have no chance
of understanding anyone.
I don’t think curiosity serves us well here. Curiosity can too easily slip into wanting
information for its own sake. We should only want information for our client’s sake. We
are interested in what he wants to tell us, and we are interested in “glimpses of brilliance”
and “glimpses of resistance” – that is, things which will help them achieve their goals and
things which will impede them. This is why we need to understand them as a unique
individual.
For example, I have coached many people who do fascinating jobs about which I am
intensely curious. But when I am in the role of coach, that curiosity is replaced by interest
in the person in front of me, and in what they need to achieve and in how they believe I can
be of use to them. Similarly of course I, like most other people, prefer others to like me and
trust me. But that is not why I am so attentive to signs in my client that they do or don’t. I
know that I can only be useful to them if I am constantly building and maintaining a warm,
safe relationship, removing at every opportunity obstacles to the work. And it is important
that I don’t take it personally when I uncover that the client is ambivalent about me.The
question is, do they have enough hope to bring about change? And do they feel safe enough
to use me and our relationship to do that? I remember one client who told me at the end
of the work that she had initially engaged me to “get her boss off her back”. (She knew that
I came recommended by a consultant who had the ear of her boss.) Over time she felt safe
enough to work on some quite sensitive issues that were important to her, with consider-
able success. I had noticed her reserve initially and, having understood that she was wary of
me, I was able to allow time, and her experience of me, to enable the growth of hope. How
differently that relationship might have worked out if I had been in a hurry to persuade her
of my potential value as a coach, or if I had taken her reserve as a personal affront!

How can you communicate your interest and openness?

The messages a person hears about us are primarily determined by our intent, not by what
we say. For example, when I say,“how are you?” you know whether I am truly interested
or whether I am in a hurry to get to my agenda. I can even say,“I am interested in what-
ever you want to tell me”, and be heard as merely going through the motions of interest.
It will be my intent in that moment which gives me away.
We need to be sure that our intent is to understand as much of our client’s world as
they wish to share.The answer is to make that our conscious intent, especially at the start
of the coaching relationship.
I have two thoughts that I take very consciously with me into every coaching encoun-
ter. One is from Flaherty (1999, p. 12): “Clients are always and already in the middle of
their lives”. The other is: “There is always pain in the room” (a comment attributed to
Peter Frost, author of Toxic Emotions at Work). These two thoughts ensure that I begin
every encounter with interest in and sensitivity to the world of the other, the world I am
about to enter.
 Understanding your clients 53
I also fnd it useful to remember that “in every consulting room there ought to be two
rather frightened people. If there are not one wonders why they are bothering to fnd out
what everyone knows” (Bion, 2014, pp. 9–10).That simple statement reminds me of my
purpose in coaching: To fnd out something that is not common knowledge, something
that perhaps neither I nor my client knows, something that will change things.This saying
also reminds me that it can be a frightening space I am about to enter and enables me to
bear my anxiety.
John Whittington, a systemic coach and author, recommends that all coaches hold a
picture in their mind as they begin every coaching encounter: Imagine a peacock’s tail
fanning out behind your client, each feather representing a system with which the indi-
vidual is connected.The feather’s barbs and barbules represent the vast and complex array
of interconnections which are at play. His recommendation ensures that we begin with
respect for the total system of which the client is part, and awareness of the resources they
have to draw on and the complexity they have to navigate.
These are all ways of drawing the coach’s attention to the diffculty and excitement of
the endeavour, and to the importance of working in that space of not knowing, the space
of “negative capability”.
You may have your own way of accessing your interest in and openness to another
human being, and so communicating to them that you are a prepared and well-inten-
tioned person.The important thing is to have a way.

Understanding their “model of change”

You need to understand what “model of change” your clients have.This will not gener-
ally be a fully worked out schema of how they believe change happens (although it can
be!); it is more likely an amalgam of experiences of change that has worked and change
that hasn’t, a few general beliefs about change, things that they have noticed and have
stuck with them and some views about how much change is desirable and what the risks
are. If you can understand how they see change as happening in their lives, and in doing
so enable them to understand it, then they can begin to explore what they already have
which will help them.
The most straightforward route to understanding this is simply to ask, with interest,
“When have you brought about a change?”You may need to prompt them, with questions
like “In your professional life? What about your personal life?”You may need to stay close
to the matter at hand, “When have you had this reaction to someone before? How did
things develop from there?”You may need to go quite far away in your “fshing expedi-
tion”: “Have you ever at any time been aware of anything changing in you?”The ques-
tions are infnite, but what you are doing is following your interest in their change process
and helping them to become interested in it themselves. Patience, ingenuity and conf-
dence are key here. Patience because your client may need a lot of time to think: They
may be thinking about this for the frst time so it could be diffcult for them. Ingenuity
because you need to be able to generate a path for them to follow, you need to think of
different lines of questioning when one doesn’t yield fruit and you need to be able to spot
when your client is onto something. And the confdence which goes with knowing that,
however hidden from view and however diffcult to access they are, the client does have
relevant experiences of change.
You do not have to proceed in this straightforward way.You should in any event always
have your antennae out for mention of change, explicit or implicit. For example, a cli-
ent of mine once told me about a habit he had established of six-monthly silent retreats.
54 Alison Hardingham
These were times, he described, when he could recover from the stresses of his job. My
antennae were very active at this point! By the end of our coaching relationship, he was
able to identify much more fuidly and responsively when he needed a retreat, and took
to scheduling them at times when he was beginning to lose patience with people around
him.This enabled him to regain perspective and ultimately played a signifcant part in his
being seen differently at work and being promoted to Finance Director.
If you are attuned in this way, you will pick up on many things in your client’s conversa-
tion which will give you clues on how he sees change.A casual comment, when repeated
enquiringly by you, becomes something to explore and yields initially unexpected divi-
dends. I remember a client who remarked about her issue “I know what it’s all about: I
saw a psychiatrist when I was younger. What I need is something I can do about it!” In
that moment I abandoned all thoughts of insight-driven methods and opted to work in a
much more immediately practical way.

Using their words

I have already discussed how being a client increases our understanding of what clients
feel by giving us an experience of it. Using the client’s unique words can sometimes have
a similar power. Language is the medium through which we understand the world. The
words we use are not random; they carry enormous amounts of meaning about the world
as we see it. As coaches, we may choose to use the client’s exact words to capture the
unique aspect about the situation or circumstances. But in doing so we need to be careful
to avoid becoming a parrot, our aim is to refect back our deep understanding of what the
client is communicating.
When we repeat a word or phrase that our client has used, we fnd our emotional state
changing to match that of our client. Let me give an example.Working with a client on
his relationship with his boss, he used the phrase “pocket rocket” to describe her.When I
refected back “pocket rocket?” he laughed. He eventually realised he gave that nickname
to women whom he found intimidating, and that opened up a whole new line of think-
ing. But I noticed how it changed my perception of her, too, and I was able to appreci-
ate how he had been feeling about her constant change initiatives and “Duracell bunny
energy” (to quote my client further).
Using the client’s own words (but never parroting!) can be a powerful way to under-
stand their world. Of course, the insights we gain can only be hypotheses until our clients
confrm them, but they are hypotheses well worth having. In contrast, conventional sum-
marising with our words may reassure us we have understood what they have said, but
rarely provides new emotional insight.At worst, it will sound to the client as if their words
weren’t good enough and needed rephrasing, and so fail to build equality in the relation-
ship. Nancy Kline (1999, p. 165) is particularly vehement on this point:“the best wording
is the thinker’s own … Those words mean something to the thinker. They come from
somewhere and are rich with the thinker’s history, culture, experience and any number of
associations in the thinker’s life”.

Understanding their “resistance”

The word “resistance” belongs to the battlefeld model of the helping relationship. In
this model, the helper is on one side, fghting the good fght against the client’s dark side,
 Understanding your clients 55
which is trying to drag him back into his “old ways”. In this model, resistance has to be
“overcome” if the client is to truly move forward.
I think there is another way to understand “resistance”. It is the part of our client that
protects what they are, the part of our client that is not yet ready to risk change.As a part
of our client it also must be understood, accepted and respected. In fact, its appearance can
be welcomed as a sign that the client is seriously contemplating making a change.
If we can embrace our client’s resistance when we experience its push-back, then our
client will be reassured at a deep level that we are safe and mean them no harm. If we
can be as interested in their resistance as in their cooperation, they may well themselves
become interested and so learn something of great value to them.
Here is an example.A client of mine brought a very diffcult work situation to the table.
The representative of HR and a consultant who had been engaged to work alongside this
client said in the three-way meeting that the organisation needed her to learn new skills.
The reason why the consultant had been engaged was that he had those skills, and my cli-
ent could learn them from him. Once she had learned them, she would be ready to move
fully into the role which she was currently sharing with the consultant.
Once these two people had left the meeting, my client asked for confrmation of the
confdentiality of our meetings, and then promptly broke down in tears. She couldn’t get
on with this consultant, and her tears prevented her examining why.You could say that the
tears were her “resistance” to change. But I was patient and waited to see what happened. I
thought (but of course didn’t know) that the tearful part of her might have some informa-
tion that neither the calm part of her nor I had, and that information was what the tears
were about. Eventually, after about three sessions of profound distress, she found that she
had evidence that the consultant was planning to take her place in the organisation with
the full support of her boss. She became able to face that painful and in some ways humili-
ating truth, check that it was real and ultimately plan a way out of that dead-end situation.
Ultimately, she found a way to continue to develop her career in the organisation.
This brings us back to the central point of this chapter.We need to be endlessly inter-
ested in every aspect of our client that they choose to reveal to us. Because that is who
they are, and they will fnd a way to use everything that they have, including their resist-
ance, to achieve what they want.Whether they are hopeless, helpless, angry, complacent,
hostile, manipulative or any number of other things that might irritate us, the challenge is
for us to fnd a way to stay patient and interested.The more of themselves they show us,
the more there is to work with.

Staying close: Little questions and feedback forms

We cannot understand our clients when we make assumptions about any aspect of their
lives. To borrow and plunder a popular phrase: The price of understanding is eternal
vigilance!
I know of no better way of practising the art of eternal vigilance in coaching than by
the regular use of what I would call “little questions”.These are questions that ensure we
remain close to, and in touch with, our client’s experience as we do the work together. I
give some examples below:

• How is it going?
• What has helped you so far?
56 Alison Hardingham
• Are you closer to your goal?
• How are we working together?
• How are you feeling about our work together?
• How helpful is this?

In every case, the little question can lead to an exploration of the client’s perspective. It is
important that we ask these questions with intentionality (even though they are small, they
may well open up large issues).We also need to be ready to move on if the client is happy
with the work and can see value in what we are doing.We are asking them so that we can
know how the coaching process, for which we are responsible, is working for the client.
It may not be until we articulate the questions that the client begins to see themselves as
having not only responsibility for the work but also for making ongoing evaluations of the
process of working with us.
Whenever we feel the need to take an even more considered look at the client’s per-
ception of our work and indeed of the relationship between us, a feedback form will open
up the areas we need to explore. The feedback form below is a suggestion, to be used
certainly when we have had our frst meeting and then at other times as we feel the need.
See Table 5.1.
Questionnaires like this one are simply tools to assist refection and discussion. Some
clients fnd it hard to say how things are going; they fear offending us. But when they
have the opportunity to give these ratings, they may indicate their dissatisfactions with
perhaps a 9 or an 8. It is worth exploring any rating which is below 10, and the ensuing

Table 5.1 Questionnaire to help a coach and client to assess their working alliance

To what extent did I feel comfortable in the session?

Very uncomfortable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Completely comfortable

To what extent does the coach clarify the coaching process?

I am still very confused 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I now feel very clear

To what extent do I feel I am heard and understood?

Coach didn’t seem to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Coach heard and
listen understood me perfectly

To what extent do I feel I am making progress towards my goals?

Not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely

How open am I able to be?

Not very 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Completely

How supported do I feel?

Rather unsupported 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very supported

How much new thinking am I doing?

None 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A huge amount

To what extent do I believe we can continue to work well together to achieve my goals?
Not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Strongly
 Understanding your clients 57
conversation will provide you with a great deal of information about your client that
might otherwise remain hidden. Not only that, it will provide you both with opportuni-
ties to understand the relationship which is developing between you, to communicate at
the “meta level”, which is so profoundly important in enabling dynamic shifts and break-
throughs (de Haan, 2008).

Conclusion
Hopefully I have achieved what I set out to in this chapter:To demonstrate and provide
frameworks that help you to understand your client in ways which will support your
coaching of them. That will not be a static understanding (such as a diagnosis) but a
dynamic understanding, always changing and shifting along with the client’s understand-
ing of themselves. For as O’Connell (1998, p. 15) put it, “the purpose of [your] dialogue
is to negotiate jointly a meaning to the client’s situation which will create the possibility
of change for him”.

References
Bion, W.R. (1974). Bion’s Brazilian lectures: 1. In C. Mawson, ed., The complete works of W.R. Bion pp. 3-10
(2014). London: Karnac.
de Haan, E. (2008). Relational coaching: Journeys towards mastering one-to-one learning. Chichester: John Wiley
and Sons.
de Haan, E. (2019). Critical moments in executive coaching: Understanding the coaching process through research
and evidence-based theory. Abingdon: Routledge.
Flaherty, J. (1999). Coaching: Evoking excellence in others. New York: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Frost, P.J. (2003). Toxic emotions at work: How compassionate managers handle pain and confict. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School Press.
Hardingham, A. (2004). The coach’s coach: Personal development for personal developers. London: CIPD.
Jung, C.G. (1928). Contributions to analytical psychology. London: Kegan Paul.
Jung, C.G. (1933). Modern man in search of a soul.Abingdon: Routledge Classics.
Keats, J. (1899). The complete poetical works and letters of John Keats. London: Houghton, Miffn and Company.
Kline, N. (1999). Time to think: Listening to ignite the human mind. London:Ward Lock.
Maister, D., Green, C. and Galford, R. (2002). The trusted advisor. London: Simon and Schuster.
O’Connell, B. (1998). Solution-focused therapy. London: SAGE.
Passmore, J. (2012). Psychometrics in coaching. Using psychological model and psychometrics for development.
London: Kogan Page.
Rogers, C.R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. London: Constable and Company.
Rogers, J. (2004). Coaching skills:A handbook. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Sedgwick, D. (2001). Introduction to Jungian psychotherapy: The therapeutic relationship. New York:
Brunner-Routledge.
Thomson, R. (2009). Don’t just do something, sit there: An introduction to non-directive coaching. Oxford:
Chandos.
Whittington, J. (2012).Systemic coaching & constellations:An introduction to the principles, practices and application.
London: Kogan Page.
6 Non-violent communication
Alison Hardingham

Introduction
Non-violent communication sounds a strange title for a style of communication for a
coach, but this model of communication sits at the very heart of good coaching practice.
In this chapter, I shall be applying various principles of non-violent communication to
our work as coaches. I shall illustrate how they help us to coach effectively, and also give
suggestions as to how we can develop our non-violent communication skills.

A brief overview of non-violent communication

Marshall Rosenberg invented the term “non-violent communication” in the 1960s
(Rosenberg, 1999). Since that time, it has grown and diversifed its appeal and become an
international movement which seeks to replace the more manipulative and coercive forms
of communication with communication based on understanding, compassion and peace.
It has been used in confict-torn environments of all kinds, often to great effect, enabling
communication between, for example, Israelis and Palestinians, and police and revolution-
aries. Its infuence has also spread to parents and children, doctors and patients, the rich
and the poor, the mentally unwell and society as a whole; indeed, to any groupings which
were originally based on a dynamic of power. In this sense, it is a perfect foundation for
thinking about our communications in coaching.
Marshall Rosenberg was a psychologist by education and profession, who acknowl-
edged Carl Rogers as a key infuence. Much of his theory is based on Rogers’ humanistic
practice.
Non-violent communication requires attention to be focused on four aspects of a
communication: Observations, feelings, needs and making and receiving requests with
empathy.
An observation is an honest and specifc description of something which needs to be
addressed in the speaker’s mind. For example,“I notice you roll your eyes when I speak”.
So as not to cloud the communication with emotion (a tactic often used by people
in “violent” communication) the observation is made calmly, and the words are chosen
with care.
Then attention is paid to the feelings of the speaker. He might say,“I feel undermined
when you do that”.You can only describe your own feelings and not those of another
person. (You can already see how different this exchange is from normal,“violent”, com-
munication, which would probably have already combined observation and feelings with
some comment like “You are always raising your eyes to the ceiling as if I was stupid!!”)
 Non-violent communication 59
Then comes the identifcation of what need in the speaker is or isn’t met and has given
rise to that feeling of being undermined. Again, it is his own needs that the speaker is
focusing on. He might say “I see how I need more respect than I am currently receiving”.
He is still speaking calmly.
Finally, he makes a request, which he believes will satisfy that need. “Would you be
willing to tell me what you are thinking when you roll your eyes?”
In non-violent communication the listener frst listens empathically.Then he responds
with attention to his own observations, feelings, needs and requests, and the original
speaker listens empathically. And so the process continues. As it does, it builds an atmos-
phere of mutual respect, interest, compassion and concern for the other’s unmet needs.
Non-violent communication requires us to differentiate between what is observable
(and hence a matter of objective fact) and our feelings about it (which result from our own
needs, values, culture and are in essence a judgement). Not only that, it requires us to begin
to understand ourselves and others at a deeper level and see the unmet needs behind the
feelings and actions.That is why it is a practice of compassion.
It also requires of us that we can speak truthfully about what we need, and put requests
to others which may of course be denied but are at least clearly understood.That is why
it is a practice of collaboration.
I am sure you can see how much self-discipline is present in non-violent communica-
tion.We have to discipline ourselves to hold back and ultimately set aside our judgements
for they will hamper our understanding and block the path to collaborative enterprise.
Non-violent communication is at heart a spiritual practice, something which Rosenberg
readily acknowledged. But the lessons it teaches are relevant to us all, and particularly rel-
evant to coaches, whether or not we choose to practise at a spiritual level.

First principle: Separating our observations from our responses

When we coach, of course we are responding all the time. Many of our responses will
be judgements about our clients, about the gravity of their situations, about what they
should do next and so on.We cannot become a tabula rasa on which the client can write
his own story, nor should we. For it is our experiences of being human which make us
uniquely valuable to our clients and give to us the foundations of empathy. In short, it is
who we are that has the potential to build a relationship, and who we are is the sum of all
our experiences.
But we need to hold our judgements at arm’s length, because they are not necessarily
going to be helpful to our clients. In fact, they will probably be positively unhelpful, for
they introduce an element of evaluation into the conversation which is likely to make the
coaching space feel less safe for the client. Evaluations also discourage independence of
thought and personal responsibility in the client, both of which are necessary for a suc-
cessful coaching relationship.
One of the most useful tools here is the ability to separate our observations from our
responses.This is in fact exactly what Rosenberg writes about in the third chapter of his
book, and he sees it as the foundation of non-violent communication. It is also the foun-
dation of effective coaching.
One way to support novice and experienced coaches to enhance their ability to sepa-
rate observations from responses, is the “The Henley Eight”.This consists of eight ques-
tions which a coach can ask herself in order to understand a response she has to something
60 Alison Hardingham
the client said or did. In understanding it, she can achieve more distance from it. It runs
as follows:

Box 6.1: Worked example of the Henley Eight

Imagine a client starts a session saying “I don’t really have a goal today”.That is what the coach
observed: It is factual, can be observed by anyone present and could be recorded if so desired. So
the answer to the frst question the coach asks herself is:“What did I observe?”
The coach may respond in a number of ways. She may, for example, feel anxious about what
she will do in the session, or critical of the client for not doing enough preparation, or concerned
to help the client “get a goal”. (I have heard all these responses to a comment like the one we are
considering here, and many more, reported by coaches.)
To draw her attention to that response, she simply asks the second question: “How did I
respond?”
It can take time and practice for us all to disentangle our responses from our observations.The
response follows the observation within microseconds, and often one has the impression that the
response came frst, that it is actually what happened. For example, a coach may report in a frus-
trated tone: “My client came without a goal!”We all need to learn how to put distance between
our observations and responses, and we all will fnd it particularly diffcult when our responses
to certain behaviour are ingrained, or imbued with our deepest held values. Imagine a coach, for
example, who places a high value on preparation. Her sense of being disrespected by this client
who says “I don’t really have a goal today” might be immediate and strong.
The next question in the Henley Eight is therefore essential, if a coach is to be encouraged
in drawing this diffcult distinction. That question is: “What does the relationship between my
observation and my response tell me about me?” That is when the coach sees that in separating
the observation from the response there is the opportunity to build self-awareness. She becomes
interested in her responses rather than being captivated by them. She asks herself, what does it
say about me that I responded to that innocent statement “I don’t have a goal” with a feeling of
being disrespected?
There is even more for the coach to get out of exploring this relationship between observa-
tion and response. The remaining questions in the Henley Eight point the way: What does that
characteristic of mine (which I have just discovered/re-discovered) tell me about me as a coach?
What does it tell me about my strengths? And what does it tell me about my potential pitfalls? So
what do I need to learn to do right now, to capitalise further on my strengths and to mitigate the
risk of my pitfalls? How will I know how effective that learning has been? What will I observe?
My client talked for the frst ten minutes without pausing.
How did I respond?
I felt like there was something I should have been doing to stop him, but I didn’t feel I could interrupt. I
felt pretty useless.
What does that response tell me about me?
I am not used to being out of control. I like to help others by getting involved.
What does that tell me about me as a coach?
I might fnd it diffcult just to listen.
What does it tell me about my strengths as a coach?
I suppose I really care about my clients and want to help them. I am really keen to learn and do the right
things.
And what does it tell me about my potential pitfalls?
I might not be patient.And I might do something just to get less anxious, and it might not be helpful.
What do I need to learn?
The frst thing is probably to check with more experienced coaches what they do.
How will I know how effective that learning has been?
My anxiety will come down.And I won’t feel so useless.
 Non-violent communication 61
Box 6.1 takes you through a complete worked example, from a novice coach who was just
learning to separate her observations from her responses.
You can practise separating observations from responses in all areas of your life. Once
you have learned this technique, you may well fnd it opens up to you the possibility of
becoming more self-aware in many respects.
There is another, related technique for developing this capability. It is the left-hand
column (see Senge et al., 1994, pp. 246–252). Next time you are in a meeting, divide
your note paper into two columns. On the right, you record things that people do or say
(observations). On the left, you jot down any reactions you are having (for example, bored,
what is he repeating himself for?, don’t believe him). Senge suggests many uses of the “left-hand
column approach”, from improving team work to problem solving. But you can use it as
a way of simply understanding yourself better, as with the Henley Eight.
The practice of refection, which is an essential part of being an effective coach, starts
with the ability to separate what happened (observations) from how we responded at the
time. So any self-refective tool is helping us to develop this core capability.
But be warned.As Daniel Kahneman notes “What can be done about biases? How can
we improve judgments and decisions … ? The short answer is that little can be achieved
without a considerable investment of effort” (Kahneman, 2012, p. 417).

Second principle: Identifying and expressing feelings

Just as it is vital for a coach to enable their client to express their feelings so it is also vital
that they, the coach, can identify and express their own feelings. And this is the second
capability which non-violent communication develops.
The coach quite naturally has all sorts of feelings about the client.These can either be
put to good use, or they can get in the way of effective coaching. Let me give an example
of each.
I worked with a client who I really admired. She was an HR Director and before I
coached her I had worked alongside her on a number of projects. I had always found her
to be impressively smart and knowledgeable, extraordinarily diplomatic, hard-working,
well connected, egalitarian and humble. After an amazing career she felt burnt out, and
asked me to be her coach. Session after session came and went; she was in despair at the
prospect of “abandoning” her colleagues, the “impossibility” of fnding consultancy work
as an independent practitioner, and the general pervasive misery of the way she felt.The
one thing I held onto, for her as much as myself, was my certainty that should she fnd
it possible to take the step, she could succeed in any way she chose. Even when she was
at her most distressed (and I too) I admired her. Had it not been for those feelings of
admiration, which I did not speak about explicitly, I doubt I could have resisted being
dragged down with her. Suffce to say, she did leave her organisation and she crafted a
great second career for herself. She has always said that my coaching had enabled her to
see this through.
I saw another client who made me nervous. I never overcame the sense of fear with
which I approached every meeting, and I know that fear led me to avoid saying what
needed to be said. I was unable to talk about it in our coaching. Had I been able to do
this, it could have been transformational, as I picked up enough about this client from
interviews which she had asked me to conduct on her behalf to know that I was not the
only one she intimidated.At the time, I was not in regular supervision and so had no one
to whom I could talk about my nervousness.
62 Alison Hardingham
In non-violent communication, it is an essential part of the dialogue for both parties to
be able to identify and express how they feel. Not only that, it is essential for the speaker
also to be able to step away from the feeling – which can of course be overwhelming in
the moment – and say calmly what it is. In that moment the speaker masters herself suf-
fciently to be able to speak about a possibly intense emotion calmly.
This is an ancient idea. Lao Tzu, the ancient Chinese philosopher and founder of
Taoism, said: “He who controls others may be powerful, but he who masters himself is
mightier still” (Lao-Tzu, 2000).
As coaches, and as non-violent communicators, we do not need absolute self-mastery
as advocated by Lao-Tzu, but we do need to be able to become calm about some of our
strongest feelings, so that we can refect on what they might mean, and judge whether
or not it could be helpful to communicate them to others. In both my examples of the
power of my emotion in enhancing or interfering with my coaching, that calmness (and
its absence) were key. In the frst example, I was able to acknowledge my deep admiration
of that HR Director, and calmly judge that it would not be appropriate to voice it. In the
second example, I was never able to articulate my nervousness calmly, but continued to
suffer from it throughout.
How can we build this capability in ourselves, to be able to put the intensity of feeling
to one side and refect calmly on what it tells us and what it would be best to do about it?
First, the simple act of noticing that we are feeling something intensely can be calm-
ing. In that moment of noticing, we have begun to separate, to become an observer of
ourselves.
Then again, the simple act of putting a name to what we are feeling continues this
process of separation. We might like to keep a diary of feelings that we have at different
moments in our lives, to practise this art. We might like to watch flms, and identify the
feelings of the characters.There are all sorts of everyday activities which build our ability
to identify our feelings (for example, see “The EQ Edge”, Stein and Book pp. 53–65).
To build a vocabulary of emotional language, you could begin with the lists of emo-
tions in chapter 4 of Rosenberg’s book. Practise using these words in your diary or
when you are watching flms; that way you will become more able to identify your own
feelings.
Finally we need to develop the capability to articulate calmly to our client what we
are feeling.At the moment of speaking about our emotion, there is a risk that we become
emotional. It is so important to avoid this in non-violent communication, because oth-
erwise we will start a chain of emotionally charged and hence “violent” communica-
tion with our frst utterance. It is also important in coaching if and when we decide to
articulate our feelings. If I had said in a nervous manner to the second client I described
above, for example,“When you speak like that about your colleagues, I feel intimidated”,
he would no doubt have felt something in his turn, and gone on to reassure me, intimi-
date me more, deny angrily, or communicate in some other emotional way; our coaching
would have been derailed. If I had been able to speak and act calmly, saying, for example,
“I am wondering about why it is that I feel intimidated when you talk about your col-
leagues in that way, and I am wondering whether we could explore this together, whether
it might be a reaction that others feel too”, then the path to useful coaching would have
remained clear.
Sustaining an attitude of purposeful refection is the key to this calmness. If we enter
any communication with an attitude of curiosity rather than with a feeling, we can remain
 Non-violent communication 63
in this state of calmness even when we are talking about our feelings.We are inviting our
client to become curious with us: What could this emotion, experienced by my coach,
mean? Have I ever elicited it before? Or is it about her, to do with how she is prone to
feel? How did I notice it? What am I learning about myself here? Refective conversation
about emotions that are strongly felt is the bread and butter of effective coaching.

Principle Three: Seeing needs behind behaviours

and communications
This principle is where non-violent communication teaches us as coaches a practical
method of developing our compassion, both our compassion for ourselves and our com-
passion for our clients. We develop this compassionate stance by looking beyond the
behaviours to the needs which gave rise to those behaviours. It is a compassion which
results from the effort we put into understanding why a client might be behaving in the
way that he is. It is not compassion that simply is or is not in you, it is not emotional empa-
thy; it is intelligent compassion, cognitive empathy, (Bloom, 2016), which requires work
and time to bring forth, and which is therefore available to everyone.
I shall illustrate this too with an example drawn from a coaching encounter. A coach
whom I was supervising came to our session very upset. He had met his client for the
frst time the week before, and had been offended and hurt by what the client had said in
that frst meeting.The coach had introduced himself, and had mentioned his background
(he had been a teacher for many years, then held a post in a local government authority
and was now starting to develop his coaching abilities).The client was a business woman.
When the coach had fnished his personal introduction, his client leant back in his chair,
and what the coach described as a “smirk” crossed her face.Then she said, with a laugh:
“Ha! No experience of the real world then”.
The coach had struggled on with the coaching and managed to regain a temporary
composure. But he brought this story to supervision because he recognised that his own
feelings of hurt were interfering with the relationship. He couldn’t get back that calm
concern for his client with which he had started the coaching. His own strong feelings
meant he wasn’t able to listen to his client as attentively (Stone, Patton and Heen, 2000,
pp. 89–90).
It is at this point that the hard work of compassion begins. The coach needed to
refect on the many possible reasons for the hurtful comments by their client. At the
start he felt that the client didn’t value him as a coach and didn’t respect him.That may
have been true; but the coach needed to think further.What other possible explanations
could there be?
I am sure you, as an objective and distanced observer, can already think of many. For
example, perhaps the client felt uncomfortable, being the vulnerable one in this encounter.
She needed to identify the coach’s vulnerability as a way of avoiding hers. Perhaps she was
just clumsily making a joke: She needed to reduce her own anxiety in that way. Or perhaps
she needed to assert the “reality” of the situations she faced, because she was fearful of not
being taken seriously by this coach who had not experienced them.
I do not, and neither will I ever, know what the true explanation is. More importantly,
neither will the coach. What is important is that he brought the issue to supervision
and did some hard thinking about what needs of his client may have given rise to that
comment. In that thinking, he regained both his calm and his compassion. He was then
64 Alison Hardingham
well-placed to engage in the next coaching conversation holding all these possibilities
lightly in mind, having compassion for all the possible circumstances of the client’s life and
calmly interested once more in whatever his client wished to focus on.
There is one question which unlocks this kind of thinking more than any other.Assume
frst that the client is smart and well-intentioned. (This would be a good starting point
for most coaching conversations!) Then ask yourself: Why might he have said or done
this thing? Generate at least three possible hypotheses, applying each time your criteria of
assuming his intelligence and positive intention.That simple but disciplined approach will
in all likelihood elicit your compassion. In many cases, it can do so very quickly, if it is a
practised habit, as it needs to become for a coach.

Principle Four: Making and receiving requests with empathy

The next principle takes the application of empathy further. It is worth making the dis-
tinction here explicit, between emotional and cognitive empathy. It is the latter we need
and not the former.
Emotional empathy is the shared feelings which ultimately arise from the identifca-
tion of one human being with another. It means “your suffering makes me suffer, …
I feel what you feel” (Bloom, 2016, p. 17). It is without doubt powerful, it is largely
unconscious and instinctive, and is the basis of much good in the world, including our
enjoyment of literature and flms. It is also why emotions are contagious and can be
overwhelming in their effects. Emotional empathy is not a choice. It cannot be switched
on or off at will.
Cognitive empathy is quite different. It is a conscious choice, to imagine the life of
another person. It lacks the immediacy of emotional empathy, and requires us to make the
effort to understand another fully.The fourth principle of non-violent communication is
to use cognitive empathy to make and receive requests.
In a sense, the coach is making requests of their client all the way through their coach-
ing encounter. In fact, you could say, coaching is making requests of your client! From the
frst question, which is requesting a focus from your client (What do you want to achieve
in this session? What do you want to think about? What’s going on in your world?), to the
last, which is requesting a commitment (What do you want to do? How will you know?
When would you like to meet again?), we are asking the client to think and marshal their
thoughts in a particular way.That is no doubt why people often comment on how much
hard work it is to be coached.That is almost certainly one of the reasons why some people
avoid it.
One of the most important things here is knowing and making the distinction between
requests and demands (Rosenberg, 1999, pp. 79–81). The coach is entitled, expected, to
make requests. But she is not entitled to make demands. Any request, however phrased,
however spoken, can be heard as a demand.The only way to be sure we as coaches have
made a request is to notice how it lands, and to be responsive to that.
A simple example will perhaps clarify things. It can be found in Box 6.2.
In this exchange, the client knows that the coach has made a request of them rather
than a demand because of the way the dialogue develops.The paraphrasing that the coach
uses demonstrates that they are open to any response to their request for a focus, includ-
ing a statement that appears to deny the request.That is how the client knows that it was
indeed a request and not a demand. The tone throughout from the coach is calm and
accepting, indicating neither impatience nor urgency.
 Non-violent communication 65

Box 6.2 An example of making and receiving requests

Coach: Well what do you want to think about today?
Client: I’m not sure.
Coach: You’re not sure what you want to think about today.
Client: I’m so tired.
Coach: Is it possible for you to say if you need anything from me right now?
Client: Some space to gather my thoughts, I guess.
Coach: Some space to gather your thoughts. What does that space to gather your thoughts look
like?
Client: I think it’s quiet, and up to me, and I will let you know when I’ve had enough.
Coach: OK. I can be quiet and you will let me know when you’ve had enough.We have 30 min-
utes today for our coaching.
Client: I’m not sure that’s long enough.
Coach: You’re not sure that will be long enough for you to gather your thoughts?
Client: Uh, no.
Coach: I will need to be elsewhere after our 30 minutes. What will you need from me, if you
haven’t had long enough after 30 minutes?
Client: We can schedule some more time next week.
Coach: OK. Let’s agree that if we get to the end of this 30 minutes and you haven’t had enough
time to gather your thoughts, we will schedule some more time next week.

What is also going on in this example is the establishing of empathy by the coach.This is
one of the reasons why it appears to be such a painstaking piece of communication. It is
indeed an effortful process, to engage in truly empathic communication. Empathy requires
we listen, not just to the words, but also to the feelings and needs behind the words. As
Peter Drucker, is said to have quipped, “the most important thing in communication, is
hearing what isn’t said”.The kind of painstaking paraphrasing shown in Box 6.2 is where
we feel and demonstrate empathy with our client.As we speak their words, we gain insight
into what it is like to be them. As we speak his words, he feels understood in a way he
is generally not used to. Carl Rogers (1964, quoted in Rosenberg, 1999, p. 113) put this
very powerfully:

When someone really hears you without passing judgement on you, without try-
ing to take responsibility for you, without trying to mould you, it feels damn good.
When I have been listened to and when I have been heard, I am able to re-perceive
my world in a new way and go on. It is astonishing how elements that seem insoluble
become soluble when someone listens. How confusions that seem irremediable turn
into relatively clear fowing streams when one is heard.

Non-violent communication is the essence of coaching communication, which enables

our clients to make soluble what seemed insoluble before. Practising the disciplines of
non-violent communication is the key to deep listening, listening which enables our cli-
ents to replace confusion with a clear fowing stream.
There is a fnal point to be made about empathetic communication of the kind which
is recommended in non-violent principles. Because it is based on hard work, on an act of
will and discipline to listen and speak from a place of cognitive empathy, it guarantees the
66 Alison Hardingham
coach’s presence. Presence stops being a mysterious quality which a coach must strive for
at all times. It becomes instead a consequence of disciplines applied painstakingly through-
out a coaching conversation.When we are seeking to understand the points our client is
making, seeking so hard that we repeat their words, reframe our misunderstood requests,
enquire for clarity until our client feels understood and check that they do at all times,
then we are present with them.When we make assumptions about what our clients mean,
make careless demands on them, let ambiguities and generalisations pass without enquir-
ing further and rarely check whether they feel understood, then we are not present with
them.When we are listening for the feelings and needs behind our client’s speech, we are
present with them.When we are taking what he says at face value, we are not.

Appreciation
Compliments have no place in non-violent communication. They imply a judgement,
albeit a positive one. They imply a hierarchy between the two people, one who has the
authority to offer the other a compliment. It is too in coaching. If I as a coach say to my
client:“Well done!” or “Good solution!” or even “Fantastic that you delivered on all your
commitments”, it undermines the safety and the equality of our coaching relationship.
Appreciations are different. If I notice something that you have done that has met a
need of mine, and also notice how I felt in consequence, and then tell you about it, then
we are both affrmed. There is no question of judgement and so no risk of inequality.
That atmosphere of affrmation is a good and informative thing, entirely at one with the
coaching endeavour.
Just to give one example of this from my own practice, I had been coaching a Finance
Director for some time. I recognised that he had allowed himself to be vulnerable in my
presence. At the end of our coaching session, I said: “When you spoke of your sadness, I
felt trusted and that reminded me of why I do the work I do. I thank you for enabling me
to appreciate it anew”.
Similarly, do not take pleasure in compliments that your clients pay you. If they say you
are great, ask them what you have said or done that they valued, how it made them feel
and what they were able to do in consequence. Enabling your clients to follow the non-
violent principle of appreciation will enable you to grow in confdence and skill as a coach.

Conclusion
Non-violent principles are at the heart of the coaching encounter, and have power to
achieve some of the most important goals of our enterprise: Deep listening, presence,
rational compassion, collaboration and a non-judgmental stance. As you move forward
you may like to refect on how you can build non-violent capabilities in yourself and
develop as a coach. I will end with a quote which underlines the spiritual nature of non-
violent communication wherever it is practised.

The more you become a connoisseur of gratitude, the less you are a victim of resent-
ment, depression, and despair. Gratitude will act as an elixir that will gradually dissolve
the hard shell of your ego – your need to possess and control – and transform you
into a generous being.The sense of gratitude produces true spiritual alchemy, makes
us magnanimous, large souled.
(Rosenberg, 1999, p. 184)
 Non-violent communication 67
References
Bloom, P. (2016). Against empathy:The case for rational compassion. London: Bodley Head.
Kahneman, D. (2012). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Penguin.
Lao-Tzu (2000). Tao-Te-Ching (Book of the way). London: Kyle Cathie.
Rosenberg, M.B. (1999). Nonviolent communication:A language of life. Encinitas, CA: PuddleDancer Press.
Senge, P.M., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R.B. and Smith, B.J. (1994). The ffth discipline feldbook:
Strategies and tools for building a learning organisation. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Stein, S.J. and Book, H.E. (2003). The EQ edge: Emotional intelligence and your success. Toronto: MHS.
Stone, D., Patton, B. and Heen, S. (2000). Diffcult conversations. London: Penguin.
7 Understanding the coaching
relationship
Charlotte Sills

Introduction
The 21st century has seen a signifcant shift in the philosophical, theoretical and methodo-
logical focus in coaching. It is a shift that has mirrored similar movements in many walks
of life, from philosophy, organizational theory and psychotherapy, to art and architecture.
It has become known as “the relational turn” and it acknowledges, in coaching and psy-
chotherapy in particular, that the human personality is largely formed in a relationship and
therefore is likely to change in a relationship. It involves a shift in emphasis from the indi-
vidual to the social, and from the intrapsychic to the interpersonal. It moves from focusing
on the development of individual insight and skills to engagement with patterns of relat-
ing. It places the relationship – to self, to colleagues, to coach – at the heart of the work.
In this chapter, I start by describing what is known about the importance of the
relationship in coaching and then go on to describe the impact of the relational turn on
the work.

Why has the relationship become so fgural?

Many factors have infuenced the increasing recognition of the coaching relationship’s
importance. They include discoveries in neuroscience, sociology and child psychology,
which come together to highlight relationships as being key to the development of human
beings: to the quality of their well-being; to the formation of their ways of living and
behaving; and – most importantly for coaching – to change and growth.
Most convincing evidence is the information that emerged from the now well-known
psychotherapy outcome research. Coaching shares many features with counselling and
psychotherapy (for example, two people in a relationship, both committed to the growth
and development of one party who is willing to share and explore their situation in order
to discover more effective ways of living). Coaches can therefore learn important lessons
from some of the research into successful psychotherapy outcomes, the data from which
has been gathered over the last 70 or 80 years.This research has identifed the “common
factors” that contribute to positive change and studied their relative importance. In the
last 25 years, new research and several meta-studies have been carried out (e.g. Asay and
Lambert 1999;Wampold 2001; Norcross and Lambert 2011, 2019; Norcross and Wampold
2019; Flückiger et al. 2019) which have confrmed again and again that a signifcant
contribution to a successful outcome is the existence, from the client’s point of view, of
a positive therapeutic relationship. That means a relationship in which the client feels
themselves to have been met and understood, with empathy and acceptance, even after
 Understanding the coaching relationship 69
they have begun to show aspects of themselves that they are anxious about or ashamed of.
There are other factors of course, but many of them are, in any case, a part of establishing
this relationship – in particular, the making of clear agreements about the broad goals of
the engagement and how therapist and client are going to work together.With that core
foundation of the secure relationship, all manner of different theoretical approaches and
methods can be effective, provided they pay attention to the establishing and sustaining of
a working relationship.
Interestingly, it seems also that the therapist needs to be both confdent and commit-
ted to his approach and, at the same time, fexible about responding to the client “where
he or she is” so that they can work in a way that suits the individual client. Norcross and
Wampold (2019, p. 2) quote Osler (1906) whom they describe as the “father” of modern
medicine, as saying “It is much more important to know what sort of a patient has a dis-
ease than what sort of disease a patient has”!
As coaching is a much newer profession, the research is necessarily less extensive, but
initial fndings into coaching outcomes support the same conclusion (see, for example,
Baron and Morin 2009; De Haan and Duckworth 2013, De Haan, Grant, Burger and
Eriksson 2016). Having a relationship in which the client feels understood and accepted is
signifcant to a good outcome. Interestingly, De Haan et al. (2016) suggest that, in terms of
outcome, the agreement about goals and tasks (in other words, the contract) is as, or even
more, important an aspect of the relationship than the bonds of warmth and respect.This
points to a need for further research.
In a way, however, we have no need of research to tell us that people learn best in sup-
portive relationships. If people are asked to recall a relationship or conversation they have
had which has been generative, productive and even transformative, they will consistently
report that they were in the presence of someone who gave them space to think and
speak their own thoughts and feelings, did not judge them and, on the contrary, seemed
to really understand and empathise. The reader is invited to do this exercise themselves.
Leading psychotherapists and neuroscientists put it even more strongly: Fosha (2000, p. 60)
says ‘The roots of resilience and the capacity to withstand emotionally aversive situations
without resorting to defensive exclusion are to be found in the sense of being understood
by and existing in the mind and heart of a loving, attuned, and self-possessed other’; Schore
(2019) emphasises the importance of “positive affect interactions” and non-verbal affec-
tive connection between right hemispheres of brains – what he calls the “right brain to
right brain connection”. Of course, they are echoing the ideas of Carl Rogers, who wrote
about the six “necessary and suffcient” conditions for growth as long ago as the late 1950s
(Rogers 1957).They are summarised in Table 7.1.
The implications for practice are clear.The coach needs to consciously pay attention to
building a strong working alliance, including a bond of warmth, empathy and non-judge-
ment.The coach does that by listening attentively, both verbally and non-verbally, offering
back summaries of what they have heard in terms of content, values and perhaps unspoken
feelings.They are empathic and engaged, with a spirit of open inquiry.They also attend to
such boundary issues as confdentiality, clarity and a contract about broad goals and how
to meet them.There is a skill to agreeing a clear enough direction or goal to create a safe
container, without tying the work down so tightly that it restricts the possibility of new
issues emerging. Clients (and their organisations) may well feel safer making measurable,
behavioural-outcome goals at the beginning of the work, but coaches need to be ready
to talk about perhaps deeper, more complex or more distressing issues later if clients feel
warmth and acceptance from the coach.
70 Charlotte Sills

Table 7.1 Rogers’“necessary and suffcient” conditions

1. Two people (in this case coach and client) in “psychological contact” with each other – in other
words, a meaningful encounter.
2. The client experiences what Rogers described as “incongruence”.They are at odds with themselves
and feeling some distress for which they are seeking help.
3. The coach experiences congruence, which means they are as fully self-aware as possible, authentic and
true to themselves.
4. The coach demonstrates “unconditional positive regard” – in other words, warmth, acceptance and
respect for their client, even in their less likeable aspects.
5. Empathic understanding for “the client’s private world as if it were your own, but without ever losing
the ‘as if ’ quality” (Rogers 1957, p. 829) – without becoming merged with the client.
6. These core attitudes of the coach are at least somewhat successfully communicated to the client.
Interestingly, this involves, to a certain extent, the client being open and empathic to the coach and
enters the domain of the relational approach (see below).

Of course, all this does not mean that the coach needs to be nurturing, agreeing,
offering support and never confronting the client. It is by joining the client in a bond of
trust and then bringing their separate mind to bear on an issue that the coach will offer a
valuable experience. It is the complex balance of sameness and difference that makes the
nature of the encounter between coach and client so rich.
Carl Roger’s “sixth condition” for change is an important one here. The other fve
involve two people in relationship, one (the client) sharing their diffculties and the other
offering empathy, congruence and unconditional respect. However, the sixth condition
states that the client must genuinely experience the coach’s warmth and acceptance, and
this might be easier said than done. It is not OK if the coach “knows” they are empathic
but the client feels missed or misunderstood. In order for the trust to be real, they will
have to explore differences and expectations, projections and perhaps historical biases.
Differences of gender, race, nationality, age and sexuality can all be experienced as poten-
tial barriers to the establishment of the bond and the coach needs to fnd a way that these
things can be spoken about.

Box 7.1: Story

Jo was one of a team of coaches involved in a consulting intervention into Sam’s organisation. Jo
was assigned randomly to Sam for six sessions of coaching. Jo was a white working-class woman
from the north of England. Sam was a black African American from a professional family in
Philadelphia, who had relocated with her husband to London.
They spent the frst session identifying what Sam wanted to work on, setting goals think-
ing about a three-way meeting with Sam’s manager and fnding out what impact the consulting
intervention was having on Sam. Jo noticed that they were being rather polite and formal with
each other.
After a pause, she said

I am aware that we have quite a lot in common – we are the same sort of age and gender, we are both
married … And I am also aware that we are very different as well. I am wondering how that is going to
be for us – and what we can do to make our differences a source of something interesting and helpful –
not an obstacle. I imagine that you will have some experiences of being you in DL [Design Life – the
 Understanding the coaching relationship 71

organisation] that I might not understand – and I really hope that won’t stop you bringing them so we
can both engage with them.

Looking relieved, Sam agreed.They spent some time talking about their very different experiences
(both positive and negative) of being “other” in DL and in London, and gradually a feeling of
warmth and trust began to build.

Relational coaching
In many felds, including coaching, the focus on relationships has gone beyond recognis-
ing the importance of a trusted, empathic bond. This extended focus is founded on the
premise that the relationship – including the coaching relationship – is the central vehicle
for change (see, for example, Sills, Critchley and Smith 2002; de Haan 2008; Denham-
Vaughan and Chidiac 2008, 2010; Critchley 2010; de Haan and Sills 2012; Critchley and
Sills 2017, Cavicchia and Gilbert 2018). Relational coaching, as it is known, emerges from a
particular view of people and organisations.
First and foremost, human beings are “hard-wired” to connect. Relatedness is an organ-
ising principle of life and we develop our sense of ourselves in relationship with others.
In other words, we are born in relationship, shape and are shaped by others in relationship
and develop relational patterns which tend to endure. Sometimes these relational patterns
become unconscious and habitual and, as the world changes, the person fails to adapt to
the new reality. Change comes about, again in relationship, as we experiment and co-
create potentially new ways of relating. Our sense of reality and the world is constructed
socially.The meaning we make of our experience is therefore an inter-subjective process.
This worldview extends to organisations, seeing them not as fxed entities but as complex
social processes, which are constantly moving between fux and stability, ever-changing.
This way of thinking means that coaches – in addition to the usual tasks of helping
clients develop the skills and insight they need for their jobs – are always interested in the
processes of relating: the client to themselves, the client to their organisation, their col-
leagues, the world and also to the coach. They will be aiming to use here and now data
from the coaching encounter to help the client recognise the way the client is in the world
– out of choice or out of habit – and question whether it is still appropriate.This means
that the coach cannot simply be a supportive sounding board.They must bring themselves
to the encounter – a “two-way street” which has the possibility for both repetition of old
patterns and novelty.
The relationship will have its stumbles and moments of misunderstanding. If they are
to be used as information about the client’s (and, no doubt, the coach’s) way of being in
the world, they must be welcomed and explored. It is important to keep attending to
the relationship – checking with the client about how it is going, repairing any ruptures
that emerge, exploring. Another way of thinking about this, is Stark’s (1999) now famous
model of “one-, one-and-a-half- and two-person” approaches to helping relationships. In
a one-person approach, the client brings their problems and the coach helps them fnds
answers.The coach aims to be a skilful instrument. In one-and-a-half-person approaches,
the coach becomes more of a supportive guide or mentor. In other words, the person of
the coach is important, but largely in a helping role. In two-person approaches, there are
two full human beings in the room together, both bringing themselves, their habits and
72 Charlotte Sills
their experiences and mutually shaping each other. The coach as person is completely
relevant although always, of course, in the service of the client.

Relational coaching in practice

Relational coaching, therefore, has some particular biases when it comes to practice.
Neuroscience tells us that change comes from re-experiencing an old pattern, feeling or
reaction in the present at the same time as observing it and refecting on it.The coach will
be paying attention to the dynamic that is created between themselves and the client and
be ready to raise the client’s awareness of it in collaborative inquiry. When making the
contract about their work together, they will have explained a little about how people can
often get in their own way by using old patterns of relating – sometimes learned way back
in childhood – and that their way of working is to invite noticing and inquiry about how
the client is relating in the here and now – to themselves, to the coach and also to others
in the client’s life. Getting an agreement about that way of working engages the client in
collaborative curiosity and awareness.
As part of exploring the relational dynamic between them, the coach will take seriously
all of her own here and now responses in the room, be they thoughts, intuitions, images,
feelings, pieces of music – anything. She will use it not as truth but as data about what
might be happening, and she will be willing also to share some of it.This can be valuable
feedback for the client to learn that at least one person in the world experiences him a
particular way – and the hypothesis is, of course, that it might be a response the client
commonly evokes in others. Alternatively, the coach may be resonating with a feeling or
experience that the client has not allowed himself to connect with. In this case, offering it
in a spirit of inquiry can help the person to know himself more deeply.

Box 7.2: Story

Eddie’s client, Robert, was a large man, muscular and assertive. His small engineering frm had
been taken over by a big global operation, and he had been made COO.The HR Director recom-
mended him for coaching as his “people management skills” were not thought to be strong. Eddie
sensed that his client felt somewhat humiliated by being “sent” to coaching and was therefore
quite empathic about Robert’s frequent rather dismissive and scornful comments to him. Eddie
often felt quite attacked, but (having read all the research about successful helping relationships!)
felt that it was his job to stay empathic and understanding.
One day the attack was particularly vicious – with Robert brusquely asserting that coaching
was a waste of time and that he didn’t want to listen to someone “talking about feelings all the
time”. In that moment, Eddie felt as if a bucket of water had been thrown over him. Frozen, he
simply agreed to Robert’s demands, empathising with his need to take charge of the process and
merely suggesting that they give each other feedback more regularly.
In supervision, Eddie refected on what had happened. He knew that he wanted to be seen
as the robust, understanding coach. But he realised that he had actually felt hurt, frightened and
humiliated in the session and he recalled his school-day experiences of having to show that he
was tough in order to avoid being bullied. As Robert had taken the bully role, Eddie had avoided
feeling vulnerable by being understanding and interested in Robert’s thoughts.
In the following session, he said,

I was thinking about last session and what was happening between you and me. It made me feel a bit like
how I felt at school.And it brought to mind something you told me about your father. I wondered if your
father made you feel scared and ashamed when you were little.
 Understanding the coaching relationship 73

Robert looked shocked and then began to talk about his experience with his bullying father and
his decision never to let anyone see him as vulnerable. The growing closeness in the coaching
relationship began to “open the edges” of his rigidity.
Both of them had been trapped in an old relational dynamic. Bringing it to awareness, they
could regain their capacity for mentalising and contribute to the development of meaning and
thought. Robert gradually realised that he had been using the same self-protective measures in
his role at work.

The vignette points to a valuable area for relational coaching concerning the phenome-
non known as parallel process.This was frst described by Harold Searles (1955) and refers to
a relational dynamic in one place being repeated in another.What this means for a coach
is that they need to be aware not only of the client in their organisation – their patterns,
strengths and weaknesses – but also of the organisation in the client and the organisational
dynamic in the consulting room.The relational dynamics of an organisation can be very
signifcant; frequently they have been unconsciously practised and emphasised for years
and this can be a very powerful shaper of the individual’s experience and way of being.
Certain ways of relating are amplifed and repeated while others are “disappeared”. If the
coach notices those in the coaching sessions, it can be extremely useful for a client to
begin to understand the “sea” in which he is swimming (see Chidiac 2018).

Box 7.3: Story

Sarah was a recently promoted senior manager in a consulting organisation and came for coaching to
help her develop into her role. Harriet was disconcerted at how well the coaching seemed to be going!
Normally she ended each session receiving glowing praise from Sarah and she felt very happy with
the good job they were doing together. She began to wonder, however, when after three sessions, they
paused for review and Sarah had absolutely no “developmental” feedback for Harriet. She had nothing
but rather generalised positives to say. More tellingly, Harriet found herself reluctant to say anything but
warm appreciation for Sarah. She also noticed that she did not seem able even to comment on their
mutual appreciation.The expression “spitting in the soup” drifted unbidden across her mind.
She plucked up courage and said “Have you noticed, we seem both to be having trouble giving
each other any negative feedback at all?” Sarah said she hadn’t particularly noticed. However, as she
refected, she realised that her own organisation – psychologically sophisticated as it was – never
seemed to exchange any robust feedback internally.They were excellent at supporting each other
and rather poor at helping each other develop. As they talked, Sarah wondered whether it was
because they felt united in “dealing with” the demands of clients and couldn’t bear any criticism
from colleagues. She saw that the effect was not only that she did not get much clear guidance
from her superior or her colleagues. She also realised that she did not quite trust the good and
appreciative feedback she received.
They began to talk about how she might make a difference in her organisation, starting with
her own team and also identifying some colleagues with whom she might be able to “change the
conversation”.

Caveat: Relational yet fexible

Coaching approaches are not “one size fts all”. Relational coaching means focusing on
the person in the room. As was described above, the research shows that, paradoxically,
while the coach needs to whole-heartedly believe in their approach, she also needs to be
74 Charlotte Sills
willing to fexibly respond to the client where the client is and in the way they fnd most
useful. For the coach, this means being alert to what makes sense and seems helpful to the
client.Are they someone who works best with clear behavioural objectives, do they prefer
to think things carefully through a situation before doing anything else, are they someone
who needs to be met in their feelings and invited to pay attention? The coach needs to
be aware of their own proclivities in these matters and consciously adapt to the client’s
preference, meeting them in the way that makes sense and perhaps later inviting them to
explore other aspects or ways of working.
In other words, a relational approach is an attitude – even a philosophy – not a model
or theory, so it can be used in many ways. Box 7.4 lists a number of core skills that the
relational coach can employ, whatever their approach.

Box 7.4 Relational skills

• Paying full attention (holding the paradox of intention without investment in particular
outcome);
• Refecting back/paraphrasing;
• Offering summaries;
• Asking open questions (inquiry);
• Noticing own feelings and responses;
• Noticing relational dynamics;
• Self-disclosing as appropriate;
• Noticing language, pattern and metaphor;
• Offering feedback;
• Allowing intuition to work on the unfolding story;
• Offering hypotheses;
• Suggesting options.
(Adapted from Critchley 2002)

Relational style
In recognising the need to be fexible in approach, it can be useful to think about attach-
ment styles – a way of understanding a person’s life-long patterns of relating, developed by
Mary Ainsworth and colleagues (2015) from the work of John Bowlby (see, e.g. 1975).
Their ground-breaking research into children’s reaction to separation from and reunion
with an attachment fgure, their response to strangers and their capacity to engage with
their world, identifed four patterns of relating that seem to endure over time and form
the basis of the adults’ attachment styles. The frst style is secure – a person who relates
easily and comfortably to people, who trusts the constancy of their attachment fgures
(e.g. spouse, partner, friends, colleagues) and who engages confdently in the world and
the challenges of their professional role.These “securely attached” individuals are likely to
respond well to the intimacy of a relational approach and be interested in learning about
themselves in the immediacy of the here and now.Then there are three styles of less con-
fdent or “insecure” relating: avoidant/dismissive, preoccupied and disorganised. The avoidant
style is a person who has learned to relate only minimally to their own experiences and
feelings. They fnd it diffcult to get close to colleagues and can appear rather aloof and
dismissive. It is important that coaches regulate their own style so that the avoidant person
 Understanding the coaching relationship 75
does not feel intruded upon but experiences the coach’s interest and attention. She needs
to be active, but not too active, as they build the alliance, probably meeting the client in
their thinking about the task.The “preoccupied” person is preoccupied with relationships
and making sure to avoid aloneness. Clients with a more preoccupied style can give the
impression of engaging well with coaching, but they can get dependent and invite the
coach to do the thinking for them. In their professional roles, they have a tendency to sac-
rifce creative thinking and rigour in favour of the relationship and they get uncomfort-
able with disagreement. The coach’s task is to meet them in their emotional experience
and then invite them to think and plan for action.
Disorganised attachment styles are hugely emotional and changeable – quick to anger,
usually controlling and scared by what they experience as an unpredictable and danger-
ous world.They are unlikely to come to coaching and would probably be better off with
psychotherapy. However, if the client does seem to have this style, the coach’s job will be
to provide a safe calm space in which the client can learn to think about their feelings and
begin to mentalise about themselves and the people around them. (Mentalising, in brief,
is being able to notice, think about and make sense of one’s own motivations, thoughts,
beliefs, feelings and behaviour, and also experience another’s behaviour and think about
what feelings and thoughts might underlie it).
The two styles of preoccupied and dismissive – or favours of them – are not uncom-
mon in coaching clients. It is important to think about the emotional distance – getting
too close or standing too far back? – taking into account the likely effect of their own
attachment proclivities. The original attachment theory was developed before the rela-
tional turn had its impact on the therapeutic world. As a result, although it emphasised
that attachment styles are a direct result of early relationship, the adult’s attachment style
was seen to be something of a fxed pattern.A relational coach on the other hand will be
fully aware of their impact as they co-create relational opportunities for repetition as well
as for experiment, change and growth.

Conclusion
The core work of coaching of course remains the same – raising awareness, identifying
unhelpful patterns, supporting clients in learning new skills and behaviour and so on.
However, research, as well as developments in our understanding about the importance of
relationships, have provided a new context for the work of coaching. The implication is
that coaches need to recognise that they in their “personhood” are their most important
“active ingredient” in the coaching. They need to get to know themselves, their attach-
ment styles, their biases and preferences and notice how they shape the coaching encoun-
ter.They need to pay attention to building a steadfast working alliance and then invite the
client to “play” and explore as they engage with new strategies and new ways of being in
their organisations.

References
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M.,Waters, E. and Wall, S. (2015). Patterns of attachment. New York: Routledge.
Baron, L. and Morin, L. (2009). ‘The coach–coachee relationship in executive coaching. A feld study’.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20(1), pp. 85–106.
Bowlby, J. (1975).‘Attachment theory, separation, anxiety and mourning’. In Silvano Arieti, ed., American
handbook of psychiatry, 2nd ed,Vol. 6. New York: Basic Books, pp. 290–308.
76 Charlotte Sills
Cavicchia, S. & Gilbert, M. (2018) The Theory and Practice of Relational Coaching. London: Routledge.
Chidiac, A.-M. (2018). Relational organisational gestalt. Oxon: Routledge.
Critchley, B. and Sills, C. (2017).‘A relational approach to coaching’. Coaching Perspectives, 12, pp. 40–45.
De Haan, E. and Sills, C. (2012). Coaching relationships. London: Libri.
De Haan, E. and Duckworth,A. (2013).‘Signalling a new trend in coaching outcome research’.International
Coaching Psychology Review, 8(1), pp. 6–19.
De Haan, E., Grant, A., Burger, Y. and Eriksson, P.-O. (2016). ‘A large scale study of executive and
workplace coaching: The relative contributions of relationship, personality match, and self-effcacy’.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research American Psychological Association, 68(3), pp. 189–207.
Denham-Vaughan, S. and Chidiac, M. (2008). ‘Dialogue goes to work – Relational organisational
gestalt’. Paper presented at International Association for Advancement in Gestalt Therapy, (AAGT)
Conference, Manchester, UK (July 2008).
Denham-Vaughan, S. and Chidiac, M.-A. (2010). ‘Dialogue goes to work: Relational organisational
gestalt’. In R. Hycner and L. Jacobs, eds., Relational approaches in gestalt therapy. Cambridge, MA:
Gestalt Press.
Flückiger, C., Del Re, A. C.,Wampold, B. and Horvath, A.. (2018).The Alliance in Adult Psychotherapy:
A Meta-Analytic Synthesis. Psychotherapy, 55. 10.1037/pst0000172.
Fosha, D. (2000). The transforming power of affect:A model for accelerating change. New York: Basic Books.
Norcross, J. C., & Lambert, M. J. (2011). Psychotherapy relationships that work II. Psychotherapy, 48(1),
4–8.
Norcross, J. and Lambert, M.J., eds. (2019). Psychotherapy relationships that work. Volume 1: Evidence based
therapist contributions, 3rd edition. Oxford: OUP.
Norcross, J. and Wampold, B., eds. (2019). Psychotherapy relationships that work. Volume 2: evidence based
responsiveness, 3rd edition. Oxford: OUP.
Rogers, C. (1957).‘The necessary and suffcient conditions of therapeutic personality change’. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 21, pp. 95–103.
Schore, A. (2019). Right brain therapy. New York:W.W. Norton.
Searles, H.F. (1955). ‘The informational value of the supervisor’s emotional experiences’. Psychiatry, 18,
pp. 135–46.
Section 3

Core coaching skills

8 Goal-setting in coaching
Ruth E. Price

Introduction
Goal-setting is a key component of many coaching conversations. In recent years widely
accepted best practice has been challenged through new research fndings, and new think-
ing is encouraging the testing of what has previously been held as unquestionably true.
The coach lore that we as coaches have practised has largely been based on theories and
research drawn from organisations, and specifcally from management models for con-
trolling performance. How generalisable is this to the messy and multifaceted world of
coaching?
This chapter assumes no prior knowledge of coaching theory or practice. It takes
the reader on a journey in four parts. First, the presentation of the traditional guidance
for goal-setting, namely the use of SMART goals and the need to situate these early on
in the coaching process. Second, a summary of how understanding and acceptance of
goal-setting has started to move away from the traditional approach.Third, an identifca-
tion and description of the salient factors at play – the goal, the client, the coach, the
organisational sponsor and the environment – in order to raise awareness of the nuances
of goal-setting in the coaching context. Fourth, a broadening of the two concepts of tra-
ditional goal-setting to encourage fexibility, sophistication and thoughtfulness in coach-
ing practice.

Traditional goal-setting practice

Start with a goal
A popular type of coaching practice begins with the early articulation of a goal.Typically
this means setting a goal at the start of a single session, determining what result the client
would like to achieve. Here, the coach’s role is to distil the client’s presenting topic into a
“bite-sized chunk that is achievable in the timeframe” through questioning and probing
(Alexander, 2010, p. 84). For greater coaching success, ownership for the goal lies with the
client and not the coach (Gessnitzer and Kauffeld, 2015).
The setting of the goal becomes the catalyst that drives the remainder of the coaching
conversation.This is demonstrated in the linear application of a coaching model, such as
GROW (Alexander, 2010;Whitmore, 2017), where:

• Goal – The desired outcome for coaching is determined;

• Reality – The distance between the current situation and the desired outcome is
established;
80 Ruth E. Price
• Options – The ways of closing this gap are identifed and evaluated;
• Will/Way Forward/Wrap-Up – The client decides and commits to action that will
help them achieve their goal.

In the traditional practice, the aim of goal-setting is to create the direction and motivation
for the individual to attain the goal set. How, therefore, can goals be framed to ensure goal
success?

SMART goals
The pervasive SMART framework, originally published as a method for setting objectives
within organisations, states that a goal must fulfl fve specifc criteria, which results in the
SMART acronym (Doran, 1981).The original framework, and variations of it, are shown
in Table 8.1.
This framework probably originates from the work of Edwin Locke, who in the
late 1960s conducted a review of existing research to create a theory explaining the
link between setting conscious goals and successful task performance (Locke, 1968).
Amongst his conclusions were that diffcult goals produce a higher level of perfor-
mance output than easy-to-achieve goals, specifc hard goals produce a higher level
of output than “do your best” goals and working towards a goal is a strong form of
motivation in itself. This prompted Gary Latham to put the theory to the test in a
workplace setting, providing empirical evidence for the link between goal-setting and
performance. Their combined work resulted in fve principles of goal-setting (Locke
and Latham, 1990):

• Clarity.To be motivating a goal needs to be clear. It is not open to interpretation and

it is obvious when it has been achieved;
• Challenge. Ensure that the goal is stretching, but achievable. Setting a goal that is too
easy or too hard to achieve will not be motivating;
• Commitment. Individuals have to understand and buy-in to the goal from the outset;
• Feedback. To keep motivation levels high, provide regular feedback throughout the
whole process.This also ensures progress is kept on-track;

Table 8.1 SMART framework and its variations

Variations

S Specifc – Target a specifc area for improvement Simple

Single
M Measurable – Quantify or at least suggest an indicator of progress Meaningful
A Assignable – Specify who will do it Agreed
Actionable
Achievable
Attainable
Attractive
R Realistic – State what results can realistically be achieved, given available resources Relevant
T Time Related – Specify when the results can be achieved Time-phased
Time-bound
 Goal-setting in coaching 81
• Task complexity. For a goal to motivate, it must be kept relatively simple. Highly
complicated goals can be overwhelming and should be broken down into sub-goals.

Use of the traditional approach in coaching

Given the wealth of supporting evidence for traditional goal-setting, it makes sense that
coaches are keen to adopt these principles and models in their practice: In order for the
client to achieve their desired outcome, a goal is frst set and this goal is framed as SMART.
There is also evidence that coaching clients want to set goals that are specifc and measur-
able (Wastian and Poetschki, 2016).
There are certain coaching issues and coaching contexts that are likely to beneft from
this approach. Research in the 21st century, albeit outside of the coaching context, has
shown that this type of goal-setting has positive effects where the task is straightfor-
ward, the task is routine, the person believes they have the competence and self-effcacy
to achieve the task and they are looking to improve their performance. Grant (2013a)
studied solution-focused, cognitive-behavioural coaching over a four-session coaching
engagement, at the start of which clients described a goal they would like to achieve.
He concluded that a goal-focused relationship, where the coach facilitated the setting of
stretching yet attainable goals and achievable action plans, along with asking about pro-
gress and blockers, was the strongest predictor of coaching success (i.e. goal attainment).
But coaching encompasses a much wider range of contexts and issues than this; what
does that mean for goal-setting?

A challenge to traditional goal-setting

Thought leaders have been articulating, documenting and debating the realities of the
multifaceted ways of approaching goal-setting in coaching (see, for example, David,
Clutterbuck and Megginson, 2013). Interview studies with coaches found that they utilise
different forms of goal-setting in their practice, and do not stick solely to the SMART
approach (Kotte, Müller, Diermann and Möller, 2018, cited in Müller and Kotte, 2020).
Coaching research is overturning and clarifying earlier fndings on which practice is
based (e.g. Braunstein and Grant, 2016 study on approach vs avoidance goals).There is a call
for more testing of what we hold to be true, where no evidence in either direction exists.
Professional bodies are revising competencies for coaching practitioners; for example,
replacing the competency of Planning and Goal-Setting, including explicit reference to
setting SMART goals, with Facilitating Client Growth (ICF, 2019). From this, there is an
expectation that coach training and practice will similarly follow suit and realign to new
ways of thinking and doing.This chapter hopes also to play a part in this change.
Other writers have provided a wide-ranging critique of classic goal-setting theory,
criticising the over-prescribing of goal-setting within organisations and arguing that goal-
setting can be more damaging than benefcial (see, for example, Ordoñez, Schweitzer,
Galinsky and Bazerman, 2009).

Factors that impact goal-setting in coaching

What is it about coaching that means the traditional model of goal-setting is not always a
good ft? I set out fve salient factors, which are not intended to be exhaustive, but rather
serve to illustrate the point about the complexity of goal-setting in coaching.
82 Ruth E. Price
The goal
SMART goals are just one type of goal, even if popular use of the term leads us to consider
them as synonymous. Goals are much more multi-dimensional in nature than this nar-
row defnition suggests. In order to encompass this multi-dimensionality, I am adopting a
broader defnition of goals, which also captures the purpose of goal-setting in coaching as
a mechanism for change: Goals are “internal representations of desired states, where states
are broadly defned as outcomes, events or processes” (Austin and Vancouver, 1996, p. 338).
The SMART framework was designed nearly 40 years ago, as guidance for creating
objectives in a steady, top-down organisational context. How can the more recent, alterna-
tive and broader literature inform our approach to goal-setting in a coaching context? At
present, there remains a call for a single perspective to draw together all of the theories and
research fndings related to goals (Clutterbuck and Spence, 2017).Table 8.2 summarises a
selection of the various dimensions of goals, based on theory and research, in relation to
their practical application for goal-setting in coaching.

The client
Clients are all individuals with their own idiosyncratic preferences and characteristics.
We can expect that they will differ in their preference for working with goals. A study
on SMART goals found that 25% of people are motivated by them, 25% preferred to
work with the image of a desired state, 25% preferred to focus on incremental steps
towards the goal (rather than the goal itself) and 25% preferred not to explicitly plan at
all (McKee, 1991, unpublished PhD dissertation, cited in Clutterbuck and Spence, 2017).
Where SMART goals were not preferred (all in the latter three groups), people reported
greater stress and reduced motivation. Observation has also been made that some clients
have become down-heartened by past attempts to reach their goals and so are not ener-
gised by the idea of setting specifc goals (Drake, 2015).
Clients will also differ in their readiness to change and move to action. Part of the
coach’s role is to identify where their client is, as rushing a client who is not ready to
set a goal is likely to lower coaching success. A helpful distinction can be made between
clients in a contemplation stage, where they are considering making a change but have not
taken any steps to do so, and those who are in the preparation stage, where commitment to
change has increased and the client intends to make changes in the near future.These are
two of the six stages from the Transtheoretical Model of Change (Prochaska, Norcross and
DiClemente, 1994).
This may play out in the purpose behind why the client has sought coaching – what are
their reasons for engaging with a coach? If a client is looking for broader life coaching and
deeper growth and development (cf. incremental improvement in workplace performance
coaching), they may be in the contemplation stage. Here, more time for learning, insight,
exploration and self-refection will best serve them rather than goal-setting (at least, goal-
setting in the traditional sense).
A client’s current (adult) developmental stage will also infuence their goal selection
(Kegan, Congleton and David, 2013). To apply the fve stages of Kegan’s (1994) theory,
the majority of adults are considered to be at stage 3 – the “socialised mind”, where what
matters most are the ideas, norms and beliefs of the people and systems around them.We
would therefore expect to encounter clients who wish to set goals that satisfy how they
appear in the eyes of others, driven by the “should” or “ought” self (a controlled goal).
 Goal-setting in coaching 83

Table 8.2 Goal dimensions and their practical application to goal-setting in coaching

Goal dimension Summary Practical application to goal-setting in

coaching

1 Approach or Approach goals are a state Approach goals have been advocated as more
avoidance goals the client wishes to move benefcial as they are more concrete and
towards (what they want); attainable and evoke positive possibilities.
conversely, avoidance goals However, it may be that what matters
are a state the client wishes most is not the type of goal set, but that
to move away from (what the exploration of the goal is solution-
they do not want). focused rather than problem-focused
(Braunstein and Grant, 2016).
2 Proximal or distal Goals vary in their time Proximal and distal goals are both important,
goals horizons, from the short- as proximal goals encourage detailed
term proximal goal (i.e. action planning that help to achieve the
what will be done today) distal goals. Distal goals also serve as the
to the long-term distal “dream goal” (Whitmore, 2017) and
goal (i.e. what will be inspiration to carry out the proximal goals.
done by the end of this Combining both leads to an increase in
year). long-term performance (Weldon and Yun,
2000).
3 Concrete or A concrete goal is one that Coaching clients may typically be around
abstract goals is highly specifc, whereas the middle of this concrete–abstract
an abstract goal is one that continuum – they have a general striving
is highly expansive (i.e. or intention for a consistent desired future
vague or fuzzy). state (Clutterbuck and Spence, 2017).
An abstract goal may be suffcient to
create motivation and change. For others,
facilitating more concrete goals may be
best.
4 Autonomous or Autonomous goals are those Goals are more effective when they are
controlled goals that have been chosen aligned with an individual’s intrinsic
freely, based on an intrinsic interests, motivations and values – the
desire, interest or value. autonomous goal.This alignment is
Controlled goals are those known as self-concordance (Sheldon and
that are chosen either Elliot, 1999).“Should” or “ought” goals
because of an external may appear in the coaching engagement,
inducement or an internal and be mistaken by the client as an
sense that they “should” autonomous goal. Client goal-setting may
or “ought” to (Deci and also be “controlled” by their organisational
Ryan, 2000). sponsor. Coaches can assist their clients in
increasing the self-concordance of their
goals.
5 Reactive or A reactive goal is one that a The goal that the client initially wishes to set
adapted goals client may present with in coaching may not be the “best” one to
early in the coaching serve their needs.Taking time to explore
engagement. An adapted and refect on the goal will help the client
goal is the changed or new to confrm whether a new goal needs to
goal that results following be set or not.
opportunity to refect on
the original reactive goal
(Clutterbuck and David,
2013).
(Continued)
84 Ruth E. Price

Table 8.2 (Continued) Goal dimensions and their practical application to goal-setting in coaching

Goal dimension Summary Practical application to goal-setting in

coaching

6 Vertically Vertically congruent goals are Vertical congruence is preferential for two
congruent or those where higher-order, reasons.The frst is that the lower-order
incongruent more abstract goals (i.e. actions need to be kept on track in
goals values) are aligned with order to achieve the higher-order goals.
lower-order, more specifc Highlighting any disconnect can provide
goals (actions to be taken). useful insights to the client here. Second
Vertically incongruent is that the higher-order goals provide
goals are those where the the motivation to carry out the lower-
lower-order goals (actions) order actions, which can themselves feel
do not support the higher- unrewarding and unenjoyable.When a
order goals. client over-focuses on the lower-order
actions and “forgets” their higher-order
goal, this is known as “goal neglect”.
Taking the client back to their higher-
order goal helps them to avoid or
overcome any feelings of dissatisfaction
and disengagement which comes from
goal neglect.
7 Performance and Performance goals are Performance goals can be highly motivating,
learning goals focused on task execution especially if a client has a “quick win”.
– performing well They may be less effective when the
or winning positive task is too complex, too challenging or
judgements about the individual feels they do not have the
competence. Learning resources (internal or external) to achieve
goals are focused on task it. Learning goals can better support task
mastery. performance. Complex tasks are seen as
a challenge and not as a threat, there is
greater immersion in a task and higher
levels of intrinsic motivation.
8 Public and private Private goals are those If an organisational sponsor is involved, and
goals that are shared only it becomes clear through exploration that
between the coach and the coaching offered does not ft with the
their client, compared client’s own interests, then there may be
with public goals, which opportunity to set private goals, separate
would be known by the to the public goal(s).The contracting stage
organisational sponsor also will have determined whether this was
(Downey, 2002). within the remit, including whether any
private goals need to contribute in some
way to organisational performance.
9 Horizontally Horizontally congruent goals Horizontal congruence is preferential.
congruent or are those that complement Highlighting any confict between
incongruent each other (i.e. the client goals, facilitating alignment of goals and
goals has multiple goals that are developing complementary goals supports
in harmony). Horizontally client goal-setting.
incongruent goals are
those that compete with
each other in some way.
(Continued)
 Goal-setting in coaching 85

Table 8.2 (Continued) Goal dimensions and their practical application to goal-setting in coaching

Goal dimension Summary Practical application to goal-setting in

coaching

10 Stretch or shift Stretch goals “exist on the Shift goals, which are both challenging and
goals fringes of possibility” realistic, are seen as preferable for greater
(Clutterbuck and Spence, engagement and success to extreme stretch
2017, p. 225); shift goals goals.As coach, understanding the accuracy
encourage an increase, but of a person’s self-awareness about an
with less distance to cover. appropriate level of challenge is important.
Top performers do not set high goals,
rather they set goals just slightly above their
current performance levels. Conversely
low performers do not set low goals,
rather they set goals that are far beyond
their competence level, resulting in failure
(Latham, 2000).A reality check could be in
order, to either encourage clients to have a
sense of what more is possible for them, or
to test the reality of their goal (whilst being
careful not to place your own limitations
on their ambitions!).
11 Understood or A goal that is understood There is a risk that coaches (particularly new
assumed goals means the coach and the coaches) who are keen to set a goal with
client share an accurate their client may attempt to force what
representation of the goal. the client is saying into their own mental
A goal that is assumed model (Cavanagh and Spence, 2013).This
means the coach has their assumed goal can be avoided through
own interpretation of the exploration with the client, increasing
client’s goal (e.g. a “better understanding and goal clarity.
work–life balance” means
different things to the
coach and the client).
12 Deep or shallow Deep and shallow goals are The greater the sense of connection, the
goals terms I have adopted greater the desire and likelihood of
to refer to the strength achieving the goal (Downey, 2002; Starr,
of connection the 2016). Strengthening the connection
client has with the goal, could come through linking goals to
where a deeper goal values, exploring how the goal will
means a greater sense of positively impact the client’s life, and
connection. through visualisation techniques (what can
you see, hear, feel?)
13 Power to infuence A goal can either be within Check the client’s power to infuence the
or no power to or outside of the control goal set (Starr, 2016;Whitmore, 2017).
infuence goals of a person.A goal can Changing the behaviour of someone else
only be reached when it is (e.g. a line manager’s leadership style)
within the control of the is not feasible, but changing the client’s
individual who wants it. response and feelings about this is.An
end goal, such as securing a particular
job, is not within absolute control, but
identifying the performance level required
can give you a good chance of achieving
it – reframe goals to give the control and
infuence back to the client.
(Continued)
86 Ruth E. Price

Table 8.2 (Continued) Goal dimensions and their practical application to goal-setting in coaching

Goal dimension Summary Practical application to goal-setting in

coaching
14 Overt or hidden An overt goal is one that Being aware of and surfacing any hidden
goals is known and shared goals is suggested as a critical skill when
between the parties working with goals (Clutterbuck, 2013).
involved in the coaching His recommended technique is “painful
relationship. A hidden goal honesty” where “each party is
goal is not shared. It may encouraged to refect on the motivations
be known by one of for the relationship and to push the
the parties (e.g. that the boundaries of their openness” (p. 318).
coaching intervention
has been requested in the
hope of moving someone
on from the organisation)
or it may be unconscious
and unknown to all.
15 Conscious or A conscious goal is one Coaching can perhaps help to uncover
unconscious that has been set wilfully the unconscious goals (reasons) that sit
goals and knowingly; it is the behind undesirable behaviours and actions,
prompt for any following re-setting these goals and better facilitating
action or behaviour.An change (Custers and Aarts, 2010; Grant,
unconscious goal is one 2013b).
that the person is unaware
of, but has prompted
them to behave or act in a
certain way.

Equally, we may work with clients who are at stage 4 – the “self-authoring mind”, where
the individual defnes who they are, rather than being defned by others. Goals set by these
clients will be driven by their intrinsic values and interests (an autonomous goal).
Whether a client comes with a fxed or growth mind set is likely to impact whether
they set a goal that prioritises task attainment over task mastery. A fxed growth mind
set is one where people believe their qualities are set and cannot change; they focus on
demonstrating their current qualities rather than working to develop or improve them (a
performance goal-orientation). Conversely, those with a growth mind set have an under-
lying belief that they can change and develop over time with experience (a learning
goal-orientation).
Client self-awareness of their competence is likely to play a part in the level of stretch
that they set.Those who are highly self-aware set goals that are just ahead of their current
performance, leading to more success in achieving them.Those with lower self-awareness
set goals that are beyond their bounds of competence and are unrealistic to the point of
not being achievable (Latham, 2000).

The coach
Just as clients are all individuals, so are coaches, and their approach to goal-setting will not
be homogenous. They come to coaching with a particular preference (or not) for goal-
setting, based on the experiences they have had in their own personal and working lives.
 Goal-setting in coaching 87
As well as individual differences, a preference for goal-setting has been found to differ
based on the location of the coach, length of training they have undertaken and duration
of their coaching experience (David, Clutterbuck and Megginson, 2014).This study with
194 coaches from across the US and Europe found that coaches from the US were more
goal-oriented than their European peers, perhaps due to the differences in how coaching
developed in each region. Regardless of location, coaches who received more training
(fve weeks or longer), when compared with those who undertook shorter training or
no training, were found to be the most goal-oriented in their practice. There was some
evidence to suggest that the more experienced a coach is, the less goal-oriented they are.
However, this fnding held only for European coaches, and not for coaches from the US.
The authors commented that this lessening of goal-orientation may be due to coaches
feeling more confdent to “let go” of the traditional models, or it may refect that new
coaches in the feld are being trained to be more goal-oriented in their practice than their
predecessors ever were.
Ultimately each coach will have adopted and developed their own approach to coaching,
which will vary in the emphasis placed on the importance and centrality of goal-setting.

The organisational sponsor

Along with the client and the coach, there may be a third stakeholder in the coaching
relationship:The organisational sponsor, typically the client’s line manager or HR repre-
sentative. Given that they have made a fnancial investment and have a legitimate stake in
the coaching outcome, we can expect them in some way to infuence the goal set (which
may be particularly relevant for Autonomous vs Controlled goals). This third party may
have requested the coaching on behalf of the client, perhaps to address a performance gap
identifed through 360-degree feedback.The coaching may form part of a wider develop-
ment program for future leaders, focusing on the development of key competencies. In
these scenarios, the goals set by the organisational sponsor may or may not align with what
the client sees as important or relevant to them.
Even when the organisational sponsor has agreed to the coaching at the request of
the client, say to support them in career progression or promotion opportunities, and has
stepped away from goal-setting per se, there will be an expectation that the goals of the
client are aligned in some way to beneft the organisation.Another situation may be where
the client sets goals because they feel it is what they “should” or “ought” to do within their
organisational context.

The environment
Goal-setting does not live in a vacuum, free from context and environment. Rather it
exists within a system – the outside world, which can sometimes be linear, predictable
and slow moving, and can sometimes be messy, complex and fast-paced. In a linear, pre-
dictable and slow-changing environment, it is possible to know how cause and effect are
related to each other and that this connection will remain stable for a period of time.
In other words, when a goal is set (the effect), the ways to achieve it (the cause) can be
articulated and actioned, and the goal ultimately achieved. Feedback is used to adapt
behaviours to keep on track for achieving the goal.The traditional approach of SMART
goals and the linear application of a coach process model (e.g. GROW) appear to be
suited to this context.
88 Ruth E. Price
Where a person is not operating within this kind of system, this form of traditional
goal-setting is unlikely to be effective.When things are changing, particularly at a fast pace,
a specifc goal may quickly become redundant or it may not always be clear what actions
need to be taken to achieve the goal. Drake (2015) observed that clients sometimes do not
know what actions will lead to the outcome they want. In this environment, feedback is
used to adapt the goal itself, rather than keeping the goal in-place and adapting the behav-
iour to reach it. In the coaching world, it is suggested that clients may be best served by
goals that are evolving (Cavanagh, 2006).

Broadening goal-setting in coaching

Now is a good point to take stock.The above is not intended to lead to the conclusion
that the traditional view of goal-setting has no value, or that goal-setting should be aban-
doned altogether! Indeed, goals and moving towards a new future state – whether defned
as a vague vision or a specifc objective – are a feature of the coaching conversation that
distinguishes it from both an everyday conversation and a therapeutic conversation (Grant,
2013a). Even the new wave of thinking acknowledges that it is “a misnomer to sug-
gest that coaching can be conducted ‘goal free’” (Clutterbuck and Spence, 2017 p. 229).
Instead, the conclusions drawn so far are to:

• Rethink and reconceptualise what we mean when we refer to goal-setting in coach-

ing, and not limit ourselves to only the classic tradition;
• Appreciate and understand the wide variety of factors at play in the coaching context;
• Approach goal-setting in a more fexible way, considering how we work best in the
service of each individual client.

This fnal section revisits the classic approach to goal-setting in this new light.The propo-
sition “Start with a Goal” is recast as “Goals Evolve and Emerge”; and “SMART Goals”
are recast as “The Skilled and Mindful Art of Goal-Setting”.

Goals evolve and emerge

Early stages of coaching
A coaching conversation may start with a goal early on; although, unlike the traditional
approach, this goal may not necessarily be concrete, but more of an abstract vision. Indeed,
as captured in Table 8.2, it is asserted that the more likely starting point for clients is the
middle of this concrete–abstract continuum; clients present with general intentions for a
desired future state (Clutterbuck and Spence, 2017).

During coaching
Whilst it is conceivable that an initial goal may remain the same throughout the coaching
engagement, it is more likely that the goal will change in some way. Research with 140
coaches found that for all but 8 coaches, the focus of the coaching sessions did change
during the course of the engagement, and the greatest reason cited for this was a move to
“deeper goals” (Kauffman and Contu, 2009, p. 8).
 Goal-setting in coaching 89
It may help to think of goals changing in two ways: First, the original goal adapts or
evolves in some way; second, the original goal is discarded and makes way for a new
emergent goal.
In the frst way, a goal that was initially articulated as a general intention may increase in
its specifcity over time.This echoes the traditional approach presented at the start of this
chapter, where a general topic is distilled into a specifc goal.The difference here is that it
is not intended as a strict imperative to move from an abstract to a specifc goal, nor does
this need to be achieved as a starting point for the remainder of the coaching conversation.
Rather, this may naturally be the course that the conversation takes in service of the cli-
ent, and it could occur at a later stage of the coaching process.This is captured in various
process models (e.g. Grant’s (2011) REGROW model). Remember that for some clients,
however, learning and motivation may not be contingent on setting specifc goals.
In the second way, there is more dramatic movement in goal-setting. As captured in
Table 8.2, clients may enter coaching with a reactive goal, an initial presenting goal that
may not be the “best” one to serve their underlying needs. If the coach fxes too early on
the “wrong” goal, blindly accepting this goal without exploration, coaching is devalued
and motivation is likely to be limited. With time for thinking and refection, the cli-
ent acquires greater understanding of self, questions their original goal and a new goal
emerges, known as the adapted goal (Clutterbuck and David, 2013).

The skilled and mindful art of goal-setting

Rather than present you with a new framework or an extended acronym, I invite you
focus on developing your skill set and mind set around the use of goal-setting in coaching.

Skill set
Familiarise yourself with all the nuances and factors that play a part in goal-setting to
enable you to work in a more tailored and bespoke way with goal-setting, based on the
salient factors laid out earlier (goal dimensions; client characteristics; your own position;
the organisational sponsor; the environment).
Develop your questioning and listening skills so you gain a comprehensive understand-
ing of your client at the contracting stage and continue to update your understanding of
them throughout the coaching engagement. Clutterbuck and Spence (2017) identifed
three areas for understanding:

• The client’s preference for using goals, and their mind set and readiness for learning
and personal growth;
• The client’s development status – are they operating from a more socialised or more
self-authored stage? (Kegan, 1994);
• The contexts, such as home or work, in which the client functions.

Be an educator – part of the coaching conversation can be to share with your client
how goals are more multi-dimensional and dynamic in nature than the SMART defni-
tion. This will help you and your client fnd what approach has greatest value for them
(Clutterbuck and Spence, 2017).
90 Ruth E. Price
Mind set
Having a goal gives a sense of direction and, as such, provides a sense of security about
what you, as coach,“need to do in the conversation” (Starr, 2016, p. 172).To help you let
go of the need to set a goal, think of coaching as a learning conversation rather than a goal
based conversation
Increase your own self-awareness. How comfortable are you working with or without
goals (in the traditional sense)?
Keep your practice client-centred. How can you take what you know about goal-
setting and work with goals that best serve their needs?
Expect the unexpected. Goals may shift, change and emerge. Become comfortable with
being fexible and open.Trust the coaching process – even when there is no fxed process!

Conclusion
The traditional approach to goal-setting is just one of a range of options in the context of
coaching. Coaching is more multi-faceted than the contexts within which these frame-
works were developed and applied. Time has also marched on, and the environment we
and our clients operate in has changed. Rather than feeling obliged to apply and stick
rigidly to a particular framework in your practice, think instead about how you can remain
fexible and tailor the use of goal-setting to best serve your individual client in support-
ing them to achieve their desired outcome. Expect twists and turns along the way as the
coaching relationship, exploration and client’s insights deepen.

References
Alexander, G. (2010). ‘Behavioural coaching – The GROW model’. In J. Passmore, ed., Excellence in
coaching – The industry guide, pp. 83-93. London: Kogan Page.
Austin, J.T. and Vancouver, J.B. (1996). ‘Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content’.
Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), pp. 338–375.
Braunstein, K. and Grant,A. (2016).‘Approaching solutions or avoiding problems? The differential effects
of approach and avoidance goals with solution-focused and problem-focused coaching questions’.
Coaching:An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 9(2), pp. 1–17.
Cavanagh, M.J. (2006).‘Coaching from a systemic perspective:A complex adaptive conversation’. In D.R.
Stober and A.M. Grant, eds., Evidence-based coaching handbook: putting best practices to work for your clients,
pp. 313-354. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley & Sons.
Cavanagh, M.J. and Spence, G.B. (2013). ‘Mindfulness in Coaching: Philosophy, Psychology or Just a
Useful Skill?’ In J. Passmore, D.B. Peterson and T. Friere, eds., The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of the
psychology of coaching & mentoring, pp. 112-134. Chichester:Wiley Blackwell.
Clutterbuck, D. (2013).‘Working with emergent goals:A pragmatic approach’. In S. David, D. Clutterbuck
and D. Megginson, eds., Beyond goals: Effective strategies for coaching and mentoring, pp. 311-325. Surrey,
England: Gower.
Clutterbuck, D. and David, S.A. (2013).‘Goals in coaching and mentoring:The current state of play’. In S.
David, D. Clutterbuck and D. Megginson, eds., Beyond goals: Effective strategies for coaching and mentoring,
pp. 21-35. Surrey, England: Gower.
Clutterbuck, D. and Spence, G. (2017).‘Working with goals in coaching’. In T. Bachkirova, G. Spence and
D. Drake, eds., The SAGE handbook of coaching, pp. 218-237. London: Sage.
Custers, R. and Aarts, H. (2010). ‘The unconscious will: How the pursuit of goals operates outside of
conscious awareness’. Science, 329, pp. 47–50.
 Goal-setting in coaching 91
David, S., Clutterbuck, D. and Megginson, D. (2013). Beyond goals: Effective strategies for coaching and
mentoring. Surrey, England: Gower.
David, S., Clutterbuck, D. and Megginson, D. (2014). ‘Goal orientation in coaching differs according to
region, experience, and education’. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 12(2),
pp. 134–145.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (2000). ‘The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and self-
determination behaviour’. Psychological Inquiry, 11, pp. 227–268.
Doran, G.T. (1981).‘There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management’s goals and objectives’. Management
Review, 70, pp. 35–36.
Downey, M. (2002). Effective coaching. London: Texere.
Drake, D.B. (2015). Narrative coaching: Bringing our new stories to life. Petaluma, PA: CNC Press.
Gessnitzer, S. and Kauffeld, S. (2015). ‘The working alliance in coaching: Why behavior is the key to
success’. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51(2), pp. 177–197.
Grant,A. (2011).‘Is it time to REGROW the GROW model? Issues related to teaching coaching session
structures’. The Coaching Psychologist, 7, pp. 118–126.
Grant, A. (2013a). ‘Autonomy support, relationship satisfaction and goal focus in the coach-coachee
relationship:Which best predicts coaching success?’ Coaching:An International Journal of Theory, Research
and Practice, 7, pp. 18–38.
Grant, A. (2013b).‘New perspectives on goal setting in coaching practice: An integrated model of goal-
focused coaching’. In S. David, D. Clutterbuck and D. Megginson, eds., Beyond goals: Effective strategies
for coaching and mentoring, pp. 55-83. Surrey, England: Gower.
ICF. (2019). https://coachfederation.org/core-competencies.Accessed 25th March 2020.
Kauffman, C. and Conntu, D. (2009).‘The realities of executive coaching’. Harvard Business Review: HBR
Research Report, January, pp. 1–25.
Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads:The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Kegan, R., Congleton, C. and David, S.A. (2013).‘The goals behind the goals: Pursuing adult development
in the coaching enterprise’. In S. David, D. Clutterbuck and D. Megginson, eds., Beyond goals: Effective
strategies for coaching and mentoring, pp. 229-243. Surrey, England: Gower.
Latham, G. (2000).‘Motivating employee performance through goal setting’. In E.A. Locke, ed., Handbook
of principles of organizational behaviour, pp. 107-109. San Francisco, CA: Blackwell.
Locke, E.A. (1968).‘Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives’. Organizational Behavior & Human
Performance, 3(2), pp. 157–189.
Locke, E.A. and Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliff, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Müller, A.A. and Kotte, S. (2020). Of SMART, GROW and goals gone wild: A systematic literature
review on the relevance of goal activities in workplace coaching. International Coaching Psychology
Review, 15(2), pp. 69–97.
Ordoñez, L.D., Schweitzer, M.E., Galinsky, A.D. and Bazerman, M.H. (2009). ‘Goals gone wild: The
systematic side effects of overprescribing goal setting’. Academy of Management Perspectives, 23(1), pp.
6–16.
Prochaska, J.O., Norcross, J.C. and DiClemente, C.C. (1994). Changing for good. New York:Avon Books.
Sheldon, K. M. and Elliot, A. J. (1999).‘Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being:The
self-concordance model’. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, pp. 482–497.
Starr, J. (2016). The coaching manual, 4th edition. London: Pearson.
Wastian, M. and Poetschki, J. (2016). ‘Goal setting and goal attainment in coaching’. Coaching Theorie &
Praxis, 2, pp. 21–31.
Weldon, E. and Yun, S. (2000).‘The effects of proximal and distal goals on goal level, strategy development
and group performance’. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 36, pp. 336–344.
Whitmore, J. (2017). Coaching for performance, 5th edition. London: Nicholas Brealey.
9 Questions in coaching
David Clutterbuck

Introduction
One of the common myths about coaching is that it is about helping clients fnd solutions.
But, as one CEO expressed it to me: “I have an abundance of potential solutions. Before
I can decide which one to go for, I need to fnd the right question”. If we defne coach-
ing in line with its origins in the mentoring dialogues of Athena, the Greek Goddess of
Wisdom, as “helping another person with the quality of their thinking about issues that
are important to them”, then the role of a coach is to help the client fnd the questions
that will enable them to think more clearly.This does not mean that the coach necessar-
ily has to provide those questions. Highly skilled coaches do ask powerful questions, but
they also create the environment where clients can generate questions of their own that
stimulate insight. In this chapter, we explore the nature of questions as the fundamental
underpinning of effective coaching from six perspectives: How questions work; choos-
ing the type of question; what makes a powerful question; helping the client build their
skills of self-questioning; common errors in questioning; and avoiding the “tyranny of the
question”.

How questions work

The purpose of questions in coaching is to support the client’s thinking in greater width
and depth. In particular, they:

• Enable a constructive challenge to the client’s assumptions;

• Promote refection;
• Support paraphrasing and summarising;
• Enable creativity;
• Bring structure to the coaching conversation without imposing control.

Studies of goal achievement suggest that, if you want to get something done during the
day, instead of telling yourself “I will do X today”, you should ask instead “Will I achieve
this today?” The reason for this counterintuitive conclusion is that, in the frst case, our
mind envisions the future with the assumption that we have done what we set out to.
We are this vulnerable to distractions that prioritise other things that happen during the
course of the day. And we go home with our good resolution unfulflled. If we pose the
goal as a question, on the other hand, the issue remains in our consciousness and we are
more likely to give it priority.
 Questions in coaching 93
Choosing the type of question
There are many types of question. A useful way of categorising is by structure, purpose and
perspective.

Question structure
Among the most commonly cited are:
Open v closed questions. Closed questions elicit a yes/no answer. Open questions
encourage the client to think and are therefore much more aligned with the coaching
mind-frame. However, closed questions do have their place – for example, in challenging
a statement:

• Do you really believe that?

• Is that always true?
• Is it your opinion I am hearing, or that of your boss?

It is relatively easy, with thought, to reframe closed questions. For example, “Do you
expect to be here in 12 months’ time?” can become “What are your thoughts about how
long you want to stay in this role?”
Closed questions can also be highly leading. So, for example,“Are you annoyed about
this?” not only leads to a yes/no answer but may stimulate an emotion that was not
strongly present before, while “What are you feeling when you look back at this?” gener-
ates a much wider range of emotional recognition.
Choice questions.The question just above is also an example of these. Other examples
might be:

• Which of these two (or more) options do you feel most intuitively drawn to?
• Which of these job options gives you more career choices in the future?

The danger with choice questions is that we focus the client’s mind only on the options
presented. Before we use them, therefore, it is important to ensure that a full range of
options is considered.
Rhetorical questions. Often a subset of closed questions, these are not intended to pro-
duce answers but rather to gain permission or approval to carry on with a line of think-
ing. For example,“So, we are agreed that your key objective is to lead the culture change
working group?” A problem with rhetorical questions is that, in our own heads, we have
already decided what the answer is, so we may ignore the nuances of the client’s response.
I recently observed a client responding to a rhetorical question with a hesitant “Yeeessss
…”, only for the coach to continue without pause.A more observant, less process-focused
coach would have picked up on the hesitation and explored what lay behind it.As it was,
the coach ended up steering the client towards a solution that seemed good to the coach
but clashed with one of the client’s personal values.
Simple v complicated questions.As we shall see later, in general, the simpler a question is,
the more impact it is likely to have. Consider this choice question:“Would you prefer, X,
or Y or Z?” It requires a substantial mental effort from the client. We can make it easier
with a simple reframe:“So, we have three choices here – X,Y and Z.What is it that stands
out about each of these for you?”
94 David Clutterbuck
Who, where, what, when, which … And why? Although we have many ways to ask a ques-
tion without using a question format (for example, a statement with a question implied,
as in “So, that’s it then?”), most questions rely on one of these interrogative openers. Some
sources suggest that coaches avoid using why questions because they can appear confron-
tational. Yet the 5 whys technique, derived from quality management in Toyota, is one of
the most useful available to a coach.When someone answers a why question, you can drill
down into their reasoning by asking why again and again, until they have reached the
foundations of their thinking and emotions. Used appropriately and sparingly, why can
be very effective in signalling to someone that they are not being logical or honest with
themselves.

Question purpose
Coaches use four main types of questions for different purposes:

• Challenging questions are particularly used to help people unfreeze existing assump-
tions, values and beliefs, which may be self-limiting or preventing them from taking
alternative perspectives;
• Probing questions are aimed at opening horizons and creating insights by building on
the new perspectives;
• Testing questions are aimed at drawing ideas together, setting boundaries and creating
self-confdence (for example, that different outcomes are achievable);
• Confrming questions help people to focus on their inner values and beliefs and
explore their motivation to bring about change.

Challenging other people can be confrontational, but then they are unlikely to really listen
and may respond by defending rather than thinking about what has been said. Challenging
is much more effective when it is done in a learning manner. Here are some useful guide-
lines and phrases that can be adapted to make challenging easier and more acceptable in
most cultures, even in those where there is a high level of concern about losing face or
causing another person to lose face.

• When challenging logic: Help me to understand … This makes the other person work
through their logic, often leading them to see gaps they had not noticed;
• When challenging behaviour: Can you please explain to me what you were intending to
achieve there? This takes away the sense of being judgemental;
• When challenging assumptions: What factors were you taking into account here? What
assumptions were you making? This prevents the other person feeling that we are ques-
tioning their intellect;
• When challenging perceptions: Can you explain to me the context in which you were look-
ing at this? – so we don’t appear to be questioning their judgement;
• When questioning values: What are the personal/organisational values you are trying to
apply here? What’s important to you in this situation?

Some questions can achieve additional importance as a touchstone for diffcult decisions.
We call these benchmark questions because they have a long duration and can be applied
time and again. They fade in impact over time, as people become older and wiser and
 Questions in coaching 95
adopt different priorities in their lives. They are especially important in helping clients
become more authentic. Be prepared, however, for clients to ask you about your own
benchmark question(s)!
For example:

• Will each of these choices make you respect yourself more or less?
• Is this truly taking you where you want to go?
• Where does this support or confict with your deepest values?
• What would your hero do now?

Perspectives of questioning
There are several frameworks to categorise questions. One that has emerged from my own
observations as particularly relevant to coaching and mentoring is as follows:

• Questioning to demonstrate superiority or to undermine. For example:“Who do you think

you are?”“Do you really expect that to work?”These questions are all about the ego
of the questioner.
• Questioning to elicit specifc information. This is a transactional mode of questioning. In
general, it requires no depth of relationship with the person receiving the question.
For example:“Do you have a pair of these in size 11?” In coaching, however, a reason-
able level of trust may be needed to address questions, such as: “What’s the purpose
of this team?”
• Questioning for self-curiosity.At an extreme, this is voyeurism.When the client says “And
then I made the mistake of getting drunk with one of my team and sleeping with
him” (real case), it tends to arouse in the coach an instinct to explore all the salacious
detail.Well-grounded coaches deftly avoid this trap but may still fall into more subtle
distractions when the client’s story invokes strong associations from their own experi-
ence – going into more detail when it is not needed. An important question for the
coach is “How will exploring this help the client better understand their issue?”
• Questioning for other-curiosity.This is the bread and butter of effective coaching.We are
curious not only on our own behalf, but to understand how the client makes sense
of his or her circumstances. It is curiosity on behalf of the client, and the question for
coaches is “How will delving this help the client understand their world and their
place in that world?”This other curiosity in turn has several levels. At the frst level,
the coach is focused simply on the client’s process of sense-making. At the second
level, the focus is on multiple perspectives – how both the client and their stakehold-
ers interpret events.At the third level, the focus becomes holistic and systemic – what
is going on in the client’s systems that is shaping both their sense-making and that of
the systems?
• Seeking the right question. Frequently when I give a demonstration of coaching, I am
asked how I structured the sequence of questions that resulted in a shift of the client’s
thinking. There is always some disappointment when I say that there is no planned
structure or sequence, that each question is an experiment based on what the client
has just said. The “right” question – the one that will unlock the door to insight –
emerges from this experimentation, not from any piece of cleverness on the part of
the coach. Rather than make it happen, the coach allows it to happen.
96 David Clutterbuck
The importance of shifting perspectives
Observation of coaches and mentors in a variety of settings revealed that one of the
secrets to keeping the conversation purposeful and moving forward was to frequently shift
perspective (Lancer, Clutterbuck and Megginson, 2016). The stepping in/stepping out
model has two axes: Rational v emotional; stepping in (exploring the client’s perspective)
v stepping out (exploring the perspectives of other players or stakeholders). A client pre-
senting in the stepping in/emotional quadrant may be stuck in this perspective, unable to
think rationally about their issue or understand that other people may have a different and
legitimate perspective on it.The coach helps them gradually to move into other quadrants,
deepening their understand of the context until they are ready to seek a more productive
way forward.The same principles apply wherever the client’s starting point.
Some examples of questions for each quadrant are:

Stepping in/emotional
• How do you feel?
• What values are you applying?
• What would that mean for you?

Stepping in/rational
• What (really) happened?
• What do you want to achieve?
• What’s the impact on your job?
• What choices do you have?

Stepping out/emotional
• How do you think the other person felt?
• How might your colleague feel if you handled it this way?
• What could you do to reduce their fears?

Stepping out/rational
• Who might mediate to help you have the conversation you need with this person?
• How would you advise someone else?
• What resources can you draw upon?

These (and similar) approaches are simple ways to access the wider client system. At root,
all coaching other than basic skills coaching uses questions to help the client understand
both their inner world (for example, their identity, values, aspirations, fears, assumptions,
biases and self-limiting beliefs) and their external world (for example, the threats and
opportunities, their champions and rivals, how the technology and the context of their
role is changing). Coaching and mentoring create conversations that link understanding
of the internal and external worlds to achieve clarity and better decisions.
Circular questioning (Brown, 1997;Athanasiades, 2008) is a technique developed from
the work of Gregory Bateson (1979) used in family therapy that has practical application
in group and team coaching. It encourages people within a system to identify connections
 Questions in coaching 97
that would not otherwise have been obvious to them. It has three key elements. In the frst,
each person in the system is asked about relationships or interactions between other people
in the system – not as usual in therapy about their own emotions and reactions. For exam-
ple,“How does your team leader show his resentment towards Peter’s insubordination?”
The second element, neutrality, is expressed by the therapist (or coach) taking the side
of the family (or team) as a whole, rather than individuals within it.
The third element, hypothesizing, encourages the family or team to make connections
amongst aspects of the stories other members tell and the behaviours within those stories.
The therapist or coach may also offer additional, different hypotheses, with different pat-
terns of connection, and ask the team to determine the relevance of these.
Another useful model of changing perspectives is the Refective Space Curve
(Clutterbuck, 2013), based on a theory of how people think through Signifcant Unresolved
Issues (SUIs).The pivotal point in this refective process, whether done alone or with the
help of a coach or mentor, is the achievement of insight – either a breakthrough in clarity
or the reaching of an understanding that the issue is not the same as initial assumptions may
have suggested.Where the client is on the curve may be pre-insight (where they are trying
to work out what the issue is and how to put it into context) or post-insight (where they
want to fgure out what to do now they see the issue differently). Each position requires
a different style and focus of questions. For example, pre-insight questions may be more
probing and clarifying; post-insight questions aim more at releasing creative thinking.
The process of achieving insight is unpredictable. Neither the coach nor the client
knows when it will happen. Carson (2011) describes it thus:“During moments of insight,
cognitive flters relax momentarily and allow ideas on the brain’s back burner to leap for-
ward into conscious awareness”. Researchers at Northwest University (Salvi et al., 2016)
observed brain behaviour as participants reached the “Aha! Moment”. First there is a
period of alpha wave activity (which they suggest turns attention inwards), then a sudden
burst of alpha waves as a solution bursts into conscious awareness. Insight typically occurs
involuntarily, rather than as a product of structured thinking and tends to lead to better
solutions. So, questions that explore context rather than focus on a defned goal may lead
to more rapid resolution of issues.
Similarly, the phase of the coaching relationship also infuences the format and nature
of questioning. Once the relationship is established, questioning is most effective when it
is unplanned and emergent. (If you know where the conversation is going, it isn’t coach-
ing!) At the beginning, however, having a structured approach to learning about the cli-
ent and their circumstances is justifed by the need to establish as complete a picture as
possible. A checklist helps to provide consistency and can be the foundation for a much
wider enquiry.

Powerful questions
The art of coaching is fundamentally posing the right question at the right time, taking
the client’s attention and imagination to places that they may not have explored on their
own. Powerful questions cannot be manufactured – they are the “in the moment” product
of deep intuition and attentiveness on the part of the coach.The power of the question is
not exerted by the coach but in how the client chooses to internalise it.
The power of questions can be illustrated with a simple experiment. Set out at the
beginning of the day with the intention to tackle a task you have been avoiding.You might
say to yourself “Today I will get this done”. But the likelihood of achieving the task is
98 David Clutterbuck
greater if you ask yourself the question “How am I going to get this done today?”With the
frst statement, you may mentally tick the action off in your mental “to-do” list as if it were
done – and fnd at the end of the day that other things have got in the way.With the ques-
tion, this is much less likely to happen, because the probability of success remains open.
However, rote use of questions can be counterproductive and may deeply frustrate a
client. While questions such as “On a scale of 1 to 10 …”; “If you could wave a magic
wand …”; or “If you did have the answer, what would it be?” can be effective in the right
circumstances, they rapidly lose impact if used frequently with the same client.Worse, such
clients report that they feel manipulated and that the trust essential between coach and
client has been undermined.
The phrase “Socratic questioning”, after the ancient Greek philosopher, Socrates, is
often loosely associated with coaching, but with little concept of what specifcally is
involved. In its “purist” form, Socratic dialogue involves asking a logical series of questions
that test assumptions until they reach the point of reductio ad absurdum – no longer tenable
because they are patently ridiculous.1 Using this approach in therapy has been criticised
(Padesky, 1993) as emphasising the therapist’s superiority. Equally, it is not the role of the
coach to expose the absurdity of his or her client’s thinking or assumptions.
A more person-centred adaptation of Socratic questioning, says Padesky, involves asking
the client questions that:

a) The client has the knowledge to answer;

b) Draw the client’s attention to information which is relevant to the issue being discussed
but which may be outside the client’s current focus;
c) Generally, move from the concrete to the more abstract;
d) Allow the client to apply the new information to either re-evaluate a previous conclu-
sion or construct a new idea.

In Padesky’s model, the therapist (or coach) has no idea where the conversation is going
but trusts the conversation to create its own logic. She explains:“Sometimes if you are too
confdent of where you are going, you only look ahead and miss detours that can lead you
to a better place”.The difference is between trying to change the client’s mind and help-
ing them to understand their own thinking.

Creating powerful questions

Context is all! A question that stimulates a signifcant response in a client at one time
might not have any noticeable effect on another client at another time.
In my analyses of hundreds of powerful questions – most of them used by coaches in
observed “real plays” – a clear pattern emerged.All of the questions that made clients stop
and think had most or all of the following characteristics, summarised in the acronym
PRAIRIE:
These questions were Personal – even if the coach had used them before, they felt as if
they were crafted specifcally for this client at this time.The vast majority used the word
“you”.
They were also Resonant – they had immediate and sometimes very strong emotional
impact. For example,“When did you last feel truly listened to?” can frequently lead to tears.
They were Acute and Incisive – getting straight to the point or “cutting to the quick”.
They were succinct, precise and delivered with quiet confdence.
 Questions in coaching 99
They were Reverberant – so full of meaning for the client that they cannot be fully
answered in the moment. Many highly experienced coaches can recall cases where clients
have referred back to a question asked months (and sometimes years) ago. Both con-
sciously and unconsciously, such questions stimulate long-term refection. For example, to
an executive who had no time for any activities outside work, the question “How do you
reward yourself?” led them to tell me weeks later: “I’ve been constantly trying to answer
that question and I am still working on it”. Several months later, she quit her high paid job
in a bank and took a role in a charity at a much lower salary but with much greater job
satisfaction and an opportunity to rediscover life outside work.
They were Innocent – as free as possible of the coach’s agenda and focused on the cli-
ent’s agenda.This includes letting go of the need to fnd a solution during the coaching
conversation, which tends to be more about the coach’s desire to show they have been
effective.
They were Explicit – leaving little room for avoidance, yet not leading to yes/no answers.
Recommended good practice for coaches is to keep a record of questions that appear
to have had an impact. (The client’s view of this may be different from yours – often the
questions which have struck home deepest for them may be ones you regard as obvious or
routine.) Review these questions against the PRAIRIE elements and consider how you
might sharpen them should a future opportunity to use them arise.
Another point at which a structured approach to questions may be useful is in summa-
rising at the end of a coaching session.The “Four Is” are a useful framework here:

• What Issues did we explore?

• What Ideas emerged?
• What Insights were generated? (What did you learn about the situation and about
yourself?)
• What Intentions do you now have as a result?

Helping the client build their skills of self-questioning

One of the ways in which coaches assist clients in developing their competence and iden-
tity is to role model the crafting of questions.When students are taught self-questioning
skills, their learning agility increases (King, 1995).A pragmatic approach initially is to end
each coaching session with one or more questions that the client can refect upon before
the next session, but with the eventual aim that they will create the refective space to
generate their own insight-provoking questions.
Creating questions with the client can also help to build competence in self-question-
ing.Among many techniques here are:

• Giving the client half the question and asking them to complete it;
• When the client jumps to a solution, asking:“If that’s the answer, what is the question?”

In the context of teams, team coaches encourage team members to pose positively chal-
lenging questions to each other and for the team as a whole. This promotes both co-
learning and psychological safety. It also helps the team reduce the volume of “elephants
in the room” (issues that need to be discussed but which the team avoids addressing) and
hence makes it easier to maintain a pace of change better aligned with what is happening
in the team’s external environment.
100 David Clutterbuck
It is common for coaches to use questionnaires as a substitute for conversations with
their clients, or to give clients one or more standard questionnaires at the beginning of
assignments.While this can be helpful in getting to know the client, there are some down-
sides. In particular:

• Questionnaires only produce information on a limited range of issues. Conversations

can open up much wider issues, making it less likely that the assignment may focus
on the wrong things;
• Senior executives and leaders in particular may feel “questionnaired out” – resistant to
completing other, more issue-specifc questionnaires and diagnostics later;
• Unreliability – many diagnostics, such as the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator, have low
test-retest validity, in spite of the marketing hype (Grant, 2013).

Common errors in questioning

Novice coaches, in particular, tend to fall into a number of frequently observed traps,
including the following:

• Asking too many closed questions.While closed questions can be very useful, particularly
when challenging (for example,“Are you asking me to make the decision for you?”),
they tend to close down the conversation and may lead to yes/no answers.
• Queggestions. Questions that suggest the “right” answer tend to prevent people from
working things out for themselves and can steer them towards solutions that might be
right for you, but not for them. For example:
{{ Wouldn’t it be a good idea if …

{{ Have you thought of …

{{ Why don’t you …

• Multiple questions in one.The coach asks several questions, leaving the client confused
as to which to answer.The cause of this is that the coach is doing their thinking out
loud, trying out different questions until they fnd the right one. The cure is to do
that thinking silently.
• Rote questions. As noted above, rote questions can undermine the quality of the rela-
tionship. If you fnd yourself using the same questions all the time that may be a sign
that your coaching is getting lazy – a routine process rather than a genuine, curious
exploration.
• Being distracted by the need to have a question ready. If you are thinking about the next
question, you are not attending fully to the client. Develop the habit of allowing
a short silence whenever the client pauses. If a question doesn’t naturally occur,
encourage the client to continue and have confdence that one will be there when
you need it!
• Not allowing the client time to refect on the question. Sometimes inexperienced coaches
ask a really potent question, then spoil the effect by jumping in with another ques-
tion too quickly. Like any powerful medicine, small doses tend to be most benefcial!
• Doing their thinking out loud.The process of crafting a question taxes the reasoning cir-
cuits in our brains. In supervision, when we review the audio tape of a coaching ses-
sion, it is common to hear the coach start to ask a question, then modify it and repeat
this until fnally they hatch a fully formed question.Thinking out loud, may help the
coach, but by the time the question is asked, the poor client is utterly confused. One
 Questions in coaching 101
of the benefts of listening to yourself asking questions is that you learn habits, such
as taking all of this emergent thinking back internally, while the client waits. If all else
fails, ask the client “Give me a moment, please, to fnd the right words for what I’m
thinking”.

Avoiding the “tyranny of the question”

Novice coaches tend to be overly conscious of the need to have a question ready for
when the client stops talking. As a result, their attention can turn inwards, towards “what
am I going to say next?” rather than outward, towards the client.With greater confdence,
coaches can let go of this instinct, which is more about the coach’s need to appear com-
petent than about the client’s need to be stimulated to think.
Observation of coaches at various levels of coach maturity, in coach assessment centres,
indicates that less experienced and less confdent coaches ask signifcantly more questions
than more mature coaches. Moreover, these questions tend to be less impactful.
A technique I fnd helpful starts from the premise that the time we spend thinking
about the next question to ask is time we are not spending attending to the client. Novice
coaches often become anxious about what they are going to do, if they don’t have a
question ready, when the client stops talking. This is one of the factors that drives them
towards rote questions – had they been listening completely, a more powerful question
would probably have emerged on its own! If a question occurs to them, a better approach
is to park it at the back of the mind and turn attention back to the client.Then, when the
client pauses, say nothing. Deliberately create space, where the client (and the coach) can
refect on what has been said.
During this refective period, the question may come back. Ask yourself these four
questions:

• How might I make this question more impactful?

• Will it interrupt or enhance the fow of the client’s thinking?
• Does it need to be voiced right now, or is it OK to hang on to it for a while?
• What else might the client have to say, before it is the right time to ask this question?

A simple nod and sound of encouragement – “Mmhm” – is usually enough for the client
to resume talking. If not, ask “What else?”
When you have done this twice, give yourself permission to ask your question if it is still
relevant. Most of the time, you will fnd that one of four things happens:

• The client asks the same or a similar question of themselves;

• The client asks a better question of themselves;
• The question is reshaped in your unconscious, so that it emerges in a much more
powerful form;
• The question is no longer needed.

Alternatives to questions
When we observe highly experienced and effective coaches, they tend to ask far fewer
and far more insightful questions than novice coaches do. It’s almost as if they save up their
questions for when they will have greatest impact. They also typically understand that
102 David Clutterbuck
when we ask a question, we are exerting a level of control over the conversation – there is
no such thing as a non-directive question!
Instead of overwhelming the client with questions, they use a wide repertoire of meth-
ods to enable the client to “have the conversation they need to have with themselves”.
For example:

• “I’m curious about …”;

• “And …” / “Therefore …” / “So …”;
• “Tell me about this from the perspective of …?”
• “I’m noticing …”/ “I’m feeling …” / “I’m wondering …”;
• “Tell me what you are noticing about this …”;
• “Let’s pause and refect …”;
• “Remind me …”;
• “Assume that the opposite is true …”.

So, when they do ask a question, it is a signal to the client that a new train of thought may
be required – and this learned response in the client enlarges the depth and scope of their
refection.

Conclusion
Questions are at the very heart of coaching, not least because they help to prevent us slip-
ping into a telling mode.With practice, they can be constructed to help a client radically
reframe their assumptions and consider alternatives that might never have occurred to
them; to reconnect with their values; make better decisions; and otherwise step outside
their normal modes of thinking. However, overused questions, questions that pursue the
coach’s assumptions about what is important, rather than honour the client’s, and badly
constructed questions can all stunt the client’s self-enquiry.

Note
1 This made Socrates so unpopular that he was forced to commit suicide by drinking hemlock!

References
Athanasiades, C. (2008). ‘Systemic thinking and circular questioning in therapy with individuals’.
Counselling Psychology Review.
Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature:A necessary unity (Vol. 255). New York: Bantam Books.
Brown, J. (1997). ‘Circular questioning: An introductory guide’. Australian and New Zealand Journal of
Family Therapy, 18(2), pp. 109–114.
Carson, S. (2011).‘The unleashed mind’. Scientifc American MIND, April.
Clutterbuck, D. (2013). Everyone needs a mentor, 5th edition. London: CIPD.
Clutterbuck, D. (2013). Powerful questions for coaches and mentors. European Mentoring and Coaching
Council, ISBN: 978-0-9576945-1-4.
Grant,A. (2013).‘Goodbye to MBTI, the fad that won’t die’. Psychology Today Blog posted, September 18.
King, A. (1995).‘Inquiring minds really do want to know: Using questioning to teach critical thinking’.
Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), pp. 13–17.
Lancer, N., Clutterbuck, D. and Megginson, D. (2016). Techniques in Coaching and Mentoring, 2nd edition.
London: Routledge.
 Questions in coaching 103
Padesky, C.A. (1993). ‘Socratic questioning: Changing minds or guiding discovery?’. Keynote address
delivered at the European Congress of Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, London, September 24.
Salvi, C., Bricolo, E., Kounios, J., Bowden, E. and Beeman, M. (2016).‘Aha is right: Insight solutions are
more often correct than analytic solutions’. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(6), pp.
1064–1072. doi:10.1080/13546783.2016.1141798.
10 Listening in coaching
Stephen Burt

Introduction
One of the frst challenges when you start out as a coach is to become a better listener.
Without listening well, it is impossible to discover what concerns a client and why. It’s not
that new coaches can’t listen or that they are uniformly poor listeners, it’s more that we all
have accumulated habits, preferences and blind-spots that limit the quality of our listening.
So it is a priority for each aspirant coach to get to know themselves as a listener and begin
to build on their strengths, fll the gaps and tackle their weaknesses.
This chapter explores what happens when someone listens well, particularly the impact
on the client when he or she feels they are being heard. It describes what might get in the
way of good listening. It then sets out how – systematically – to listen well and what to
listen for. But frst we need to be clear what we mean by listening and what is involved if
we do it well.

What is good listening?

Wolvin and Coakley (1996) claim that in communications theory there are over 50 dif-
ferent defnitions of listening.The coaching literature similarly abounds with descriptions
of what coaches do when they listen and what they attend to. Many of these accounts
suggest a progression through various levels of competence.They start with describing the
everyday behaviours associated with poor listening, progress through “quiet attending” to
active listening, and on to high levels of listening which often include noticing non-verbal
clues and the listener using their intuition.
This mapping of listening has led me to suggest a defnition of listening with coaching
in mind:

Listening encompasses all the ways in which a listener becomes aware of what a
speaker is experiencing and expressing in a given moment. It is therefore, over time,
how the listener gets to know who the speaker is.”
(Burt, 2019, p. 3)

In the presence of a good listener, the skills and behaviours involved are integrated, fuid,
responsive and elegantly demonstrated. But if we are to reach those heady heights, we
need to understand the component parts in a way that enables us to focus and improve.
With that in mind, I have offered a model of listening which includes four modes, each of
which captures an area of expertise that contributes to good listening.The four modes are:
 Listening in coaching 105
• Attention – The quality of concentration, focused on the speaker and what they are
saying, fully engaged without distraction or presumption;
• Inquiry – The skill to respond and explore the speaker’s account, being curious in a
way that deepens both the coach’s understanding and the client’s awareness;
• Observation – The ability to notice non-verbal clues and use them to lay bare fur-
ther levels of meaning in what the client is recounting;
• Resonance – The sensitivity and awareness that allows the coach to notice how they
are impacted emotionally and somatically by the client and their issue; and make what
they notice available to the client.

In practice, these four modes are rarely discrete. Indeed, there is evidence that good listen-
ers engage in “multi-modal listening” (Wolvin and Coakley, 1996) in which good atten-
tion is the foundation for all other modes: Observation and resonance feed inquiry, and
inquiry gives rise to what the listener sees and feels. But for the purposes of development,
a coach can use the four modes to bench-mark their listening, identify their learning edge
as a listener and prioritise where they intend to improve. Before we get more deeply into
the four modes I would like to expand on why listening matters in coaching and highlight
what can get in the way.

Why does listening matter in coaching?

Coaching is a dialogue in which the topic, the direction of exploration, the judgements
about what is signifcant and ideas about action and resolution all come from the client.
In order to be a partner in this activity the coach needs to listen well to what the client is
saying.Without listening well, the coach will struggle to follow the interest of their client.
In that sense, listening is a fundamental and foundational practice in coaching.
However, listening has its own impact.Although many coaching approaches and tech-
niques build on listening, it is not simply a basic skill on which more refned, elegant and
impactful skills will build. As a coach listens and as a client feels heard, positive changes
happen in the client, in the coach and in the relationship between them.
Being heard impacts the client emotionally, cognitively, physically and spiritually. The
emotional impact partly refects the rarity, the novelty, for many people, of receiving non-
judgemental attention (Myers, 2000). What they experience is beautifully captured by
David Augsberger:“Being heard is so close to being loved that for the average person they
are almost indistinguishable” (1982).This poetic formulation is increasingly supported by
neuroscience because “love alters the structure of the brain” (Lewis, Amini and Lannon,
2000, p. 123) and clients are affected by the compassion inherent in good listening.
This emotional impact often goes hand in hand with a cognitive impact. Quietening
emotional turmoil, leaving the amygdala unstimulated and generating a positive emotion
can release the cognitive brain so that the client starts to think more clearly (Brann, 2014;
Kline, 1997). Further, the coach’s interest, their encouragement, their pertinent questions
and other interventions that are part and parcel of good listening enable the client to
explore, expand and refne their thinking. Or, as Nancy Kline puts it, this is listening to
“ignite the human mind” (1997, p. 37).
The idea of listening having a physical and spiritual beneft may surprise you. But a few
observations suggest that this can happen.The emotional and the physical are inextrica-
bly linked.We carry and express our emotions physically – whether it is tension, despair,
106 Stephen Burt
excitement or love. And as those emotions change or are released, we change physically.
That means that a client’s felt sense of themselves can shift as they explore an issue and feel
heard.And the observant coach can see that happen.
Where these emotional and physical changes are strong, they can have a bearing on a
client’s sense of purpose, their search for meaning and their sense of hope. Although we
may each have a different understanding of “the spiritual”, affecting purpose, meaning and
hope takes us into the spiritual realm.
With these deep and important impacts and benefts, it is not surprising that listening
well and feeling heard also contribute signifcantly to the development of the relationship
between coach and client. The coach gets to know the client and what concerns them.
That supports the quality and usefulness of their responses and interventions. It generates
empathy and compassion. It requires the client to trust their coach and encourages them
to do so. Overall, listening and being heard create the conditions in which the client feels
able to speak.To play their part in this, the coach needs to quieten both their mind and
their body, and they beneft from doing so (Kohlrieser, 2006).
Listening well and the experience of being heard contribute signifcantly to many of
the benefts from coaching that clients report. In coaching, listening well is powerful, it
is necessary and, in my experience, it is sometimes suffcient.This means that all coaches
could beneft from investing in their listening not only when they start out, but also
throughout their professional development.

What gets in the way of good listening?

Listening well is as much about unlearning and unleashing as it is about acquiring and
adding. It is a natural ability which is affected both positively and negatively by life experi-
ence. It is useful for a coach to know their listening strengths so that they can make sure
to value them and build further.Their strengths may well provide a central pillar of their
listening as they grow. Equally, each coach will have accumulated habits and behaviours
that may be inimical to listening well and they need to be aware of them in order to
overcome them.
Some habits will simply be poor listening; for example, listening for the gap so you can
respond (Downey, 2003). Other behaviours might hitherto have served a coach well in
their personal or professional life. Quick analysis and conclusion, agreeing and amplify-
ing, challenging and correcting can all be useful in a work context. But they need to be
unlearnt if a coach is to listen and coach well.
What gets in a listener’s way will vary from person to person. But it is helpful to think
about listeners encountering barriers that fall into three over-lapping categories:

1. Distractions and internal “noise” that attract or muffe a listener’s attention;

2. Unhelpful intentions refected in habitual responses and behaviours;
3. Beliefs about the speaker, themselves as a listener or the situation or relationship.

In the frst category come all the everyday distractions – both internal and external – that
can make it hard to listen. Listening is hard if we are emotionally agitated, perhaps by a
recent or anticipated “diffcult” conversation or feeling a pressure to perform.We can be
unfocused, with part of our attention still solving an earlier problem, or starting to wrestle
with tomorrow’s. Or we can be physically distracted by hunger, discomfort and injury, or
simply affected by an environment that is not conducive to listening.
 Listening in coaching 107
Barriers in the second category, unhelpful intentions, are often about meeting the needs
of the coach rather than the client.The resultant behaviours include listening to judge the
person, their views or arguments; listening for the meaning to you rather than the speaker;
or listening to respond, argue, refute or give your view (Clutterbuck, 2017; See Burt, 2019,
p. 13 for a fuller list).
For a coach, these habitual behaviours can turn up as a desire or need to “solve” the
client’s issue, or reveal that they like being an expert or source of wisdom. These inten-
tions can drive an urge to give advice. They go hand in hand with an assumption that
the client’s reality is similar to the coach’s (and therefore prompt an inference about what
action the client should take) but, as Downey (2003) points out, each client has a unique
map of reality.
Finally, unhelpful beliefs seem particularly to turn up when someone starts to focus
on “doing coaching”. As coaches, we all want to help our clients.We feel we have done a
good job if their issue is resolved.We want to support and validate them and help them
get perspective. But these values can become introjects – i.e. “shoulds” or “musts” that
drive our behaviour.We then push for ideas and resolution rather than being patient and
continuing to listen to the emerging story.We rescue and move away from pain in order
to protect the client and, perhaps, ourselves. If we do these things, then we listen poorly
and fail in our primary purpose to serve our clients as well as we can.
This range of barriers, of distractions, habits, behaviours and beliefs may be daunting.
And there is no magic bullet for overcoming them. But they are all forms of “interference”
(Downey, 2003), and coaches can progressively minimise the interference and support
their listening by honing and maintaining their attention.

Mode 1: Attention
A clear intention and sustained attention are two of the foundations for good listening,
and they need to be initiated, monitored and supported.
The frst phase is to set an intention to pay good attention.This may seem obvious,
but much can get in the way or seem more important. Particularly if you are a new coach,
you may be carrying a range of conscious and unconscious intentions: to ask “good”
questions, to help the client fnd an outcome or action, to apply techniques that you have
learnt, to perform, to be a good coach, not to get lost or stumble and not to show yourself
up.These and many other intentions can overwhelm your listening.A simple intention to
listen can help you keep it in mind.
The second phase is about focusing your attention and preparing to listen. Each
coach needs to fnd what works for them by experimenting and learning from more
experienced coaches. My approach is simple: Focus my attention outward, leaving my
concerns behind and check in with myself that I am ready to listen.The frst part I do by
consciously noticing what is around me, both as I walk to a session and while I am in the
coaching room.The second part involves me noticing my posture, energy and breathing:
After many years of coaching, I know what this feels like if I am ready. But I got there by
using a simple mnemonic that I learned when I trained as a coach: FOE, checking that my
Focus is strong and outward, that I am Open and free of assumptions and baggage, and that
my Energy is high but calm.You can give each FOE a score out of 10 and often the aware-
ness that comes from a score of less than an “8” is suffcient to make the change required.
The third phase involves ensuring that you sustain your attention.The bad news is that
your attention will almost inevitably weaken, waver and wander.The good news is that you
108 Stephen Burt
can simply notice this and return your attention to the client (Downey, 2003). That does
however require you to be aware of what is happening to your attention in the moment.This
takes practice.And it is supported by your knowledge and understanding of when and how
your attention can drop.And that takes refection, supported by supervision.
The fourth phase is about developing your power of attention so that you are
“resourced” when you need to be. Each mode of listening – attention, inquiry, observa-
tion and resonance – is like a muscle: It needs to be used, stretched and given a work-out
if it is to be strong. I shall come back to how you can do such “work-outs” at the end of
the chapter.

Mode 2: Inquiry
The skills and mind-set of inquiry are at the heart of good listening. How to fnd powerful
questions, follow the client’s interest and summarise well are covered in other chapters.All
these are part of listening well.Along with the quality of the coach’s attention, they gener-
ate the benefts and impacts described earlier. In particular, the benefts of inquiry are to:

• “Encourage the speaker to speak and facilitate their freedom of expression;

• Build a relationship based upon trust;
• Support the speaker’s thinking and refection;
• Deepen the speaker’s awareness of their issue and themselves.”
(Burt, 2019, p. 62)

So inquiry is about helping the client fnd out what they mean by what they say. The
coach’s questions are fuelled by their curiosity, but their purpose is to raise the client’s
awareness. The coach will come to understand more about the client’s issue and about
them as a person, but they neither need a “complete” understanding of the issue nor is it
their role to analyse the person.

The problem with words

Helping the client become clearer is, however, not straightforward. There is a problem
with how we all use words.When someone expresses themselves in words, particularly if
the topic is complex, personal and emotional, how they express what they are feeling or
have experienced can be incomplete, fltered and oblique. Similarly, the coach’s under-
standing is based on their own sense-making. This dual process is fraught with risks of
misunderstanding.As Laquercia explains,“Language is a double-edged sword. It can foster
communication and yet can also limit our experience of what the (speaker) is conveying”
(2005, p. 62).That is why coaches ask questions and check their understanding.
This prompts two practical questions:

• What can I most usefully inquire and be curious about?

• How do I inquire into what the client means?

About what, and how, do I inquire?

When a client describes an issue or event they are often fnding their way to communicate
it as they speak.Their frst attempt may be imprecise and generalised, so precision can be
 Listening in coaching 109
a useful outcome from a coaching conversation.And the tools of precision are the familiar
clarifying questions that begin with:When, who, where, how much and how often, etc.
It is also worth looking out for “lazy” words; words that are close to becoming clichés.
I have in mind nouns and verbs like “teamwork”, “communicate or communication”,
“support”,“vision”, that occur frequently in a business context. It’s important to be alive
to such words – the more common they are, the more curious you can usefully be – and
simply explore what they mean to the client, particularly what, in their view, good team-
work, etc., looks like.
But, as well as fnding out precisely what a client means, or how they are using a famil-
iar word, it is useful to explore what, for them, lies behind the words. When we speak,
whether consciously or unconsciously, we choose the words we use. What lies behind
that choice? As Treasure (2017) points out, what a word means is not simply a matter of
“denotation”, i.e. what it refers to; meaning also involves connotation, i.e. its signifcance
to the speaker. My “alerts” to what might be signifcant, and how I might respond, include
the following:

• Unusual words, words out of their usual context – “tell me more about …”;
• Repeated words that feel weighty – “I notice that you have said … a number of
times”;
• Metaphors – “Tell me more about how it feels to be …”;
• Emphasised words – simply repeat the word with a questioning infection;
• Words with a different energy and / or emotion – simply refect back the difference
I noticed.

This may sound straightforward but it is very easy to miss the client’s choice of words, par-
ticularly if you are intent on completing the story or moving onto possible action. So to
listen well and notice the words, slow down, allow yourself time to notice and be curious.

Listening for the person and the narrative beneath the words
If you listen carefully to the words that the client uses, you not only get a sense of what
their issue or story means to them, you also begin to notice patterns of behaviour and
thinking, how they regard themselves (their self-identity) and who they are.
A good start on getting into this deeper territory is to notice a client’s generalisations,
the comparisons they make and the imperatives to which they subscribe. On hearing a
generalisation, the coach’s simplest response is to ask for evidence, to probe for counter-
factuals, to ask for an example.This can help the client become aware that their perspective
is skewed or out of balance and enable them to feel more positive or resourceful.
Sometimes however the truth of a generalisation may be emotional rather than eviden-
tial. If, for example, someone claims that a colleague or their boss never listens to them, it
may be factually untrue (because they do sometimes listen) but nevertheless be an accu-
rate refection of how they are feeling – unheard.The coach can then help their client to
explore that feeling, its signifcance for them and how it impacts them.
In comparisons the reference point may be hidden or unexpressed.“I want to be a bet-
ter leader” sounds clear and a coach might assume that the client wants to improve and
build their leadership skills. As a minimum the coach can tease out what being “a better
leader” might look like for their client. But more than that, they can probe the comparison
that gave rise to that goal. Better than they have usually been? Better than they were in
110 Stephen Burt
a recent situation? Better than the norm in their organisation? As good as the best? The
answers to such questions make the implicit explicit, enable the client to be more aware
and guide the coach.
Imperatives often speak with voices from the past.“I should do this” or “I must do that”
refect a client’s personal history, the culture that has shaped them and the authority fgures
who still whisper in their ear. Imperatives drive and constrain behaviour so they may be
at the heart of patterns of behaviour that don’t serve the client and limit their options. So
when you hear an imperative you can ask “who says that you should/must …” and “what
might happen if you didn’t?”

The feel of inquiry

Good inquiry is skilled, but it is not just a technical activity. Good inquiry involves inviting
the client to explore their issue in a way that creates clarity and helps them with their goal.As
well as asking good questions, two things can help the coach inquire well: Using a broad and
developing range of invitations; and aligning their presence and mind-set with that intention.
Often a summary acts like an invitation to say more or to emphasise something. Other
invitations include gentle requests like “tell me more about …”; refecting back what has
been heard, perhaps adding an inference or connection to something else (see Miller,
2018); or simply holding an attentive and respectful silence (see Burt, 2019, pp. 57–59).
This variety not only expands the coach’s armoury, it also helps make the dialogue more
natural.
The presence and mind-set of the coach refect the work they have done to become
ready to listen and the intention they have set to do so.They matter because the client will
not only respond to the coach’s invitations, they will also be affected by the coach’s non-
verbal communication, their focus and what it feels like sitting with them. If the coach
truly slows down and gets curious, the client will notice and be encouraged to speak.

Mode 3: Observation and non-verbal communication

People communicate non-verbally as well as through the words they use. Non-verbal
clues “complement, contradict, replace, repeat or accent the verbal messages (Wolvin and
Coakley, 1996 p. 106). So coaches can listen with their eyes as well as their ears. All they
need to do is notice when and how their client expresses themselves non-verbally (in a
way that might be signifcant), draw attention to what they have noticed and invite the
client to explore what it might mean.
Like much of listening this sounds simple but, in practice, it can be far from easy.
Observation is another element of listening in which any coach can encounter barriers or
blockages and needs to know themselves well. In my experience, this is principally a product
of habits and fears. Habits might include focusing mainly on the words and little on the non-
verbal signs, ignoring emotions that are expressed physically or not noticing feeting non-
verbal clues. Fears might include the fear of being wrong or of damaging the relationship by
drawing attention to something physical (see Burt, 2019, pp. 35 and 87–89).
Once again, intention matters and helps with habit-breaking. Intending to notice and
refect back the non-verbal acts as a mental reminder to do so. Coaches can support them-
selves in this by explicitly contracting with their client to act as a mirror in this way.They
can be instinctive – simply noticing something and refecting it back immediately, or more
deliberate: Occasionally taking a moment to pause and refect on what they are noticing
 Listening in coaching 111
about their client. They can also use focused observation to notice specifc bits of non-
verbal communication or use a “soft gaze” to notice and refect back a broader impression.

The art of refecting back

Once you begin to notice and get curious about non-verbal communication the chal-
lenge is to use it well. Here are some ideas that can guide you:

• Treat what you notice as a clue;

• Look for clusters of clues to support your perception that your client is communicat-
ing something signifcant. For example, if a client appears tense in their upper body, is
that tension also evident in their facial expression and their hands?
• Notice whether the physical clues are congruent or not with what the voice and
words are saying.The client’s words might be animated but their body still and their
voice fat.You can then draw attention to either the similarity or the difference;
• Be aware of culture and start by understanding your own. Different cultures have
norms that involve different levels of expressiveness. Beware of your own culturally
determined assumptions;
• Focus on what you saw not what you think it means. If you have an interpretation,
hold it lightly, offer it if you think it might help. Be prepared to let it go if it does not
“land” with the client;
• Compare people with themselves. Get to know their “normal” physical state and their
expressive range;
• Notice when and how they shift across that range;
• Keep your refecting back simple – “I notice that …”;
• Be courageous – simply “blurt” out what you notice and be OK with it being “wrong”.

Many people speak in way that is rich with non-verbal clues. But this does not mean that
you need to refect back what you see at every opportunity. Listen with your eyes to notice
and draw attention to when and how your client is different to usual or how they change
as they explore an issue. You can offer both specifc observations and a more general
impression that comes from observing with a “soft gaze”.And combine your observations
with your inquiry – use what you notice to fuel and inspire your questions so that your
listening is “multi-modal”.

Mode 4: Resonance: Using yourself as a listener

Most people can recall when and how an emotional story impacted them physically:
A surge of joy, a stab of fear, a wash of sadness. These are the signals of empathy and
compassion.
These reactions are potential sources of understanding for the coach and awareness
for the client. But they pose two problems for the coach: How to be empathetic without
being swamped by the resultant emotion; and how to know whether what is being trig-
gered in them is empathy for the client or “stuff ” from their own experience.
Meeting these challenges requires the coach to work hard to develop their own self-
knowledge and resilience and points to ways of sharing their responses. Both self-knowl-
edge and resilience are deep and long-term areas of development. However, you can do
well by adopting two key practices:
112 Stephen Burt
• Noticing what triggers your “stuff ”, particularly any “unfnished business” (see
Clarkson, 2004, pp. 51–53) from your own life.Then use supervision to explore and
understand;
• Regularly step outside your comfort zone. Learn what it feels like to be on the edge.
Get more familiar with not knowing what to do.

Courage and humility are at the heart of using yourself as a listener: Courage because you
will be entering emotional territory that might be hard for you, the client or both; and
humility because what you notice might not “land” with the client.
This may sound tough but the potential benefts are huge. If you try to keep your own
responses at bay then you close down a part of your humanity.Your physical-emotional
self is both a receiver and, as discussed earlier, a transmitter that impacts the client. It is a
potentially a powerful source of awareness and validation for the client. Using this facil-
ity can be hard to balance with staying focused on the client, prioritising their needs and
following their lead. But, like sharing an observation, it is something to do occasionally,
when the impact on you is strong and could be signifcant. And always in the service of
the client – not to show how empathetic a coach you are.
In practice, using yourself is simply a matter of noticing how you are affected and shar-
ing it. I’ll say more on how you get better at noticing below but committing to share what
you notice is a sound intention. Share even though you are not sure what you are feeling.
Just “blurt”. Just have a go. Embrace the risk of being unclear or incoherent.Your client
will forgive you for being inarticulate and will value your effort and commitment to them.
And the more you do it, the easier it gets.

Developing as a listener
In many ways, the whole of this chapter has been about how you can develop as a listener.
An essential part of developing is to get to know yourself as a listener – your strengths,
habits, gaps or weaknesses and what can get in your way. Finding your learning edge as a
listener enables you to use the four modes of listening to focus your development.All this
takes place within a framework of refective practice and experimentation.
As you practise, you learn to integrate the four modes of listening, using one to sup-
port another, responding to what the client offers and always looking to enable the client
to speak and become more self-aware.You also learn to integrate your learning with who
you are as a listener – fnding and developing your signature listening style.
There are techniques to try out and learn. But all aspects of listening build on, harness
or release natural abilities.And we can all practise these outside of the coaching room and
build familiarity, skill and resourcefulness.

• Practising attention is about getting used to being still, silent and outwardly focused.
Mindful meditation helps many coaches do this. But many other practices and activi-
ties that require stillness and silence – like running or fshing – can help too;
• Practising inquiry involves parking assumptions and being curious about the familiar.
You can fex your curiosity by writing down the open questions you would like to ask
a current politician, celebrity or historical fgure, particularly if you don’t instinctively
warm to them;
• You can practise observation by listening without the words. Follow a drama on TV
with the sound turned down or observe others in a public place and guess at their
relationship or notice the energy of their dialogue;
 Listening in coaching 113
• Practising resonance means using your “interoceptive awareness” – getting used to
noticing what you’re feeling.You can do that by listening to music, through art, thea-
tre, sport or opera – anything that hits you frst somewhere in your body without your
cognitive-self becoming involved.

You may now feel that the road to being a good listener seems long and arduous. But
simple steps matter: Set a positive intention, get to know yourself as a listener, fnd your
learning edge, work at it and enjoy your progress. And remember: Being heard is so pre-
cious and impactful that simply listening to someone, giving them your full attention, is a
generous and valuable act; and it might be enough.

References
Aubsberger, D. (1982). Caring enough to hear and be heard.Ventura, CA: Regal Books.
Brann, A. (2014). Neuroscience for coaches. London: Kogan Page.
Burt, S. (2019). The art of listening in coaching and mentoring. London: Routledge.
Clarkson, P. (2004). Gestalt counselling in action, 3rd edition. London: Sage.
Clutterbuck, D. (2017). Powerful questions for coaches and mentors. Brussels, Belgium: European Mentoring
and Coaching Council.
Downey, M. (2003). Effective coaching, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Centage Learning.
Kline, N. (1997). Time to think. London: Cassell.
Kohlrieser, G. (2006). The hostage at the table. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Laquercia,T. (2005).‘Listening with the intuitive ear’. Modern Psychoanalysis, 30(1), pp. 60–72.
Lewis,T.,Amini, F. and Lannon, R. (2000). A general theory of love. New York:Vantage.
Miller, S. (2018). Listening well.The art of empathetic listening. Eugene, OR:Wipf & Stock.
Myers, S. (2000). ‘Reports on the experience of being heard’. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 40(2),
pp. 148–173.
Treasure, J. (2017). How to be heard. Coral Gables, FL: Mango Publishing.
Wolvin,A.D. and Coakley, C.G. (1996). Listening. Madison,WI: Brown and Benchmark.
11 Affrmations, refections and
summaries in coaching
Tim Anstiss

Introduction
Coaches need to be skilful questioners and good listeners. They need to pay particular
attention to developing and strengthening the relationship factors which evidence shows
strongly infuences outcomes regardless of the approach used – factors like empathy, alli-
ance, congruence, positive regard and warmth. Three conversational skills help coaches
get better outcomes, but have been almost universally ignored in the coaching literature:
Affrmations, refections and summaries. In this chapter I will look at each of the three
skills in turn and consider how coaches can enhance their use of these skills in their coach-
ing conversations.

Affrmations
Affrmation are statements made by the coach about something positive about the person.
Things which the coach might affrm include the client’s:

• Values;
• Achievements;
• Character Strengths – like caring, persistence, fexibility, creativity;
• Effort;
• Progress;
• Determination;
• Intentions.

To offer clients affrmations the coach frst may have to get better at spotting what is right
with their client; what is strong about them, not what is wrong with them, and what mat-
ters to them, not what is the matter with them.
Affrmations can be quite brief and commonly take the form of clear words of recogni-
tion and appreciation.They may sound something like:

• “You are the kind of person who cares a lot for other people …”;
• “You’re someone who can build a good team”;
• “You didn’t want to come in today, but you did anyway, I appreciate the effort that
took”;
• “You are really trying with your public speaking, even though you fnd it a struggle”;
• “Being the best mum you can be is really important to you”;
 Affrmations, refections and summaries 115
• “Managing your frustration with certain other people is something you’re really try-
ing to do …”;
• “Fairness is important to you”;
• “Putting up with all this, you sound like quite a resiliente person”;
• “You are the kind of person who cares a lot for other people …”;
• “You’re quite a determined person”;
• “You’re someone who can stop smoking – you managed to quit for three weeks”;
• “You’ve been working hard”;
• “You’ve been successful in the past”;
• “You are really trying with your weight, even though you fnd it a struggle”;
• “Your technique has really improved since you’ve started coming regularly”.

Affrmations may help to build a client’s feeling of personal agency and control, strength,
confdence, self-effcacy and hope.They can also signifcantly strengthen the relationship
and sense of alliance.They help to show the client that they have many of the resources
and strengths within them to improve and make progress, and they can also induce a mild
positive emotional experience which can be important for openness and personal growth
(Fredrickson, 2004).
It’s worth noting at this stage that affrmations are not the same as complements or
praise. They do not take the form “well done” or “that’s great” or “excellent”. They are
more precise, more specifc, pointing to something about the client – an observation if
you will – and are based on specifc evidence or information the client has shared with
the coach.
Two other things about making good affrmations – they should be genuine and used
sparingly. If the client thinks the coach is just trotting out some complement or technique,
this is less likely to “land” and have the impact the coach wishes.And, similarly, if the coach
uses them every few minutes, they will have diminishing and potentially negative returns.
I might try and offer a client three or four affrmations in a typical session.
Making affrmations are one of the ways in which the coach can express positive regard
– one of three critically important interpersonal qualities Carl Rogers (1965) thought
essential for therapeutic success (the others being genuineness/congruence and empathy).
In research studies, positive regard is sometimes measured using the “level of regard” scale
of the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (Wampler and Powell, 1982), which seeks
to operationalise the ideas of Carl Rogers. If we change the word counsellor for coach,
some of the items in this scale would read:

• “My coach respects me as a person”;

• “My coach is friendly and warm towards me”;
• “I feel appreciated by my coach”;
• “I feel that my coach disapproves of me” (reverse scored);
• “My coach is impatient with me” (reverse scored);
• “At times my coach feels contempt for me” (reverse scored).

In one meta-analysis, involving 64 studies and 3,528 subjects, the strength of the link
between positive regard and outcomes was found to perhaps be as high as 0.36 – indicat-
ing that better outcomes are to be expected when practitioners affrm their clients and
convey unconditional warmth and liking (Farber et al., 2018). Extrapolating from the data,
the reviewers made the following recommendations for practice:
116 Tim Anstiss
• Practitioners should embody and express positive regard for their clients. At a mini-
mum, it “sets the stage” for other active ingredients in client progress and, at least in
some cases, may be suffcient to effect positive change;
• Affrming clients seems to serve many valuable functions. It may strengthen the cli-
ent’s sense of self or agency and belief in their capacity to be engaged in an effective
relationship, reinforce engagement in the therapeutic process and facilitate psycho-
logical growth and resilience;
• Practitioners should ensure they communicate a caring, respectful and positive atti-
tude that affrms a client’s sense of worth.This does not mean a stream of compliments
or a gushing of positive sentiment which may overwhelm or even terrify some clients;
• Positive regard is best conveyed through multiple channels, including offering reassur-
ing, caring words, creating positive narratives, active listening, fexibility in scheduling,
speaking in a gentle tone of voice, establishing responsive eye contact and maintaining
positive body language;
• Practitioners are advised to monitor their expressions of positive regard and adjust
these as a function of particular client and specifc situations. Practitioners vary in the
extent to which they convey positive regard and clients vary in the extent to which
they need, elicit and beneft from it. It seems likely that the inevitable ruptures in
alliance result not only from a practitioner’s technical errors, but also from their occa-
sional inability to demonstrate minimal levels of positive regard.

Box 11.1: Affrmation example

Barry came for coaching as he was struggling with a wayward son, whom he shared custody with
his ex-wife. He was trying to get work whilst trying to maintain a good relationship with his teen-
age son who had been excluded from school for fghting.After talking about the situation and the
effort Barry was making, the coach said “you’re juggling many things right now, trying to build a
better life for you and your family.You son’s future is obviously really important to you, and you’re
being the best dad you can be”.

Refections
Offering a client a refection, or making refective listening statements, is a key skill for
strengthening key aspects of the relationship, whilst encouraging clients to talk and expand,
helping them learn about themselves and helping them get unstuck and grow.
Refective listening involves saying back to the person something of what they have
said. Many coaches believe that the coach should use the exact words or phrase the cli-
ent has used and should not “put words in the client’s mouth”. But this is not what Carl
Rogers or the research evidence on empathic listening recommends, nor the research
evidence on empathic listening. Just repeating or mirroring what the client says can some-
times be irritating to the client (“I just said that”) and does not demonstrate deep listening,
going “under” that the client has said to connect with what they might mean. It’s paying
attention to the words, but not the music. Empathetic refections aim to accurately capture
the meaning of what the client has said, and also to let them know you are really (and
deeply) listening and are trying to understand them.This doesn’t happen with pure mir-
roring or repeating types of refections.
 Affrmations, refections and summaries 117
Here are some of the things refecting listening can do:

• Express empathy and help build the alliance;

• Check for correct understanding;
• Move the conversation along without asking a question;
• Help the client get a better understanding of themselves;
• Encourage exploration;
• Build confdence and self-effcacy;
• Create momentum;
• Structure the conversation;
• Gently guide the session in more productive directions;
• Convey warmth and non-judgement;
• Keep the session on track for the beneft of the client.

Refections come in different shapes and levels of depth.These include simple and com-
plex refections.

Simple refections
Simple refections don’t add anything to what the client has said, and typically involve
making a few word changes while staying as close as possible to the client’s intended
meaning.
For instance:

Client: “I wasn’t really sure about coaching, but I thought I’d give it a go”.
Coach: “You’re willing to give it a try”.

Complex refections
Complex refections “go underneath the surface” of what the person has said, to what
the coach senses or imagines the client may be feeling or meaning. Sometimes they use a
“metaphor” to convey this “guess”.
For instance, using the same client statement:

Client: “I wasn’t really sure about coaching, but I thought I’d give it a go”.
Coach: “You had mixed feelings, but you are open-minded”.

Other ways of refecting can be to:

Say what was said back, changing one or two words. For instance:

Client: “I used to really enjoy exercise, but don’t have the time these days”.
Coach: “You used to enjoy being active, but you’re too busy at the moment”.

Rephrase the sentence. For instance:

Client: “I used to really enjoy exercise, but don’t have the time these days”.
Coach: “You’re missing something which was important to you”.
118 Tim Anstiss
Capture the imagined feeling:

Client: “I used to really enjoy exercise, but don’t have the time these days”.
Coach: “Which must be frustrating for you”.

Finish the sentence:

Client: “I used to really enjoy exercise, but don’t have the time these days”.
Coach: “And you’re looking forward to getting back into it”.

Use a metaphor:

Client: “I used to really enjoy exercise, but don’t have the time these days”.
Coach: “All the other things you’re doing has squeezed out time for yourself ”.

All of these refections are acceptable and each might have a slightly different impact on
the client. All, hopefully, will encourage the client to keep talking and exploring the idea
or the topic.The coach uses these to guide the conversation and focus on specifc aspects
of what the client is saying.
And, depending on how the client reacts, the coach might continue to offer refections,
or make an affrmation if the opportunity arises:

“Staying healthy is important to you”.

Or ask a question:

“When do you see this changing?” or

“What kind of exercise did you used to enjoy?”.

The refection can be question-like, in that the client might respond with a yes or a no,
depending on whether or not the refection is accurate. Sometimes this leads to a client
response of:“Exactly!” or a “defnitely”, if you’ve really nailed it.
One of the ways you make a refection more like a statement is to pay attention to the
intonation at the end of the refection. For example, compare the impact of the coaches
response spoken with different intonations:

Client: “Since I’ve moved back in with my parents, I’ve started to get angry with my
mum”.
Coach: “You’re getting angry with your mother” (spoken/read with voice going up at the
end).
Coach: “You’re getting angry with your mother” (spoken/read with voice staying fat or
going down at the end).

It might be helpful when trying to understand what refections are by exploring what
they are not.Thomas Gordon (1970) describes 12 “roadblocks” which get in the way of
refective listening.They are “roadblocks” in that they often “divert” the client away from
the continued exploration and elaboration of their train of thought and can stop forward
 Affrmations, refections and summaries 119

Table 11.1 Roadblocks to coaching conversation

1. Ordering, directing, or commanding;

2. Warning or threatening;
3. Giving advice, making suggestions, providing solutions;
4. Persuading with logic, arguing or lecturing;
5. Moralising, preaching or telling clients their duty;
6. Judging, criticising, disagreeing or blaming;
7. Agreeing, approving or praising;
8. Shaming, ridiculing or name calling;
9. Interpreting or analysing;
10. Reassuring, sympathising or consoling;
11. Questioning or probing;
12. Withdrawing, distracting, humouring or changing the subject.
(Adapted from Gordon, 1970)

momentum. This doesn’t mean to say they are wrong, or course. Just that they are not
refective listening.These roadblocks are summarised in Table 11.1.
Refective listening can be hard to do, and even harder to do well. But the good news
is coaches can get better at offering refections with practice. It is also helpful to cultivate
the right mindset and attitude.This includes:

• Having a genuine interest in what the client has to say;

• Having respect for the client’s knowledge and opinion (they know a lot more about
themselves than you do!);
• A willingness to “stay close” to what the client is talking about rather than rush ahead;
• The humility to check that what you think the client means is actually what they
mean.

Because our minds often go straight to questions when coaching, it can be helpful to have
some “starter” words or phrases to help get into the refection habit. Here is a selection
(obviously, the one you use will be tailored to what the client has just or recently said). It’s
worth keeping in mind that with a refection you are not questioning or gather facts, but
trying to understand them and communicate your attempt to understand them.

So, it’s important to you that …

You’re fnding that …
You really care about …
You’re learning that …
You’re hoping …
You want too …
You need …
Part of you realises that …
You’re realising …
You’ve put a lot of thought into …
Sometimes it feels like …
You’re tired of the same thing…
120 Tim Anstiss
It seems like …
You’ve been really thinking about …
You’re the kind of person who …
And that shows a lot of …
On the one hand … on the other … (a double-sided refection)
In some ways … in other ways … (another double-sided refection).

Skilful, accurate, empathic listening is one the key ways in which the coach conveys
empathy.The American Psychological Association (Elliot et al., 2018) evaluated the links
between how empathic a practitioner seems to be (in their own eyes, their client’s eyes or
those of a trained observer) and outcomes. Their fndings are of importance to coaches.
Two of the modes of therapeutic empathy they described were:

• “Empathy as the establishment of empathic rapport and support, in which the prac-
titioner exhibits a benevolent, compassionate attitude toward the client and tries to
demonstrate that they understand their experience”;
• “Empathy as an active effort to stay attuned on a moment-to-moment basis with the
client’s communications and unfolding experience during a session, an effort most
commonly showing itself in empathic responses”.

Analysing 82 studies, they found a mean correlation between empathy and outcomes
of 0.28, equating to an effect size of 0.58 – a statistically signifcant, medium-strength
relationship, which explains about 8% of the difference in client outcomes, similar to the
difference accounted for by the quality of the therapeutic alliance and greater than that
explained by the specifc therapeutic method used.Thus, the more the practitioner com-
municates their understanding of (and compassion for) the client, the better the outcomes
tend to be. One way in which empathy (as perceived by the client) is measured is the
empathy scale of the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory mentioned above. Here are
some further examples of statements which have been adapted from the Inventory:

“My coach usually senses or realises what I am feeling”.

“My coach looks at what I do from his/her own point of view” (reverse scored).
“My coach may understand my words but he/she does not see the way I feel.” (reverse scored).
“My coach wants to understand how I see things”.
“My coach nearly always knows exactly what I mean”.

Over 80 studies and multiple meta-analyses indicate that empathy is a robust, medium-
sized predictor of outcomes in counselling and psychotherapy and there is very reason to
assume these benefts would transfer across the parallel world of coaching. The effect of
empathy shows itself across different theoretical orientations, formats and client problems.
In summaries we can conclude from these studies the following:

• Coaches should continuously try to understand their clients and to demonstrate this
understanding through responses that address their client’s perceived needs;
• Coaches should avoid parroting clients’ words back and aim to refect back meaning;
• Coaches seek to understand overall goals and tasks, moment-to-moment experiences
and unspoken nuances and implications;
 Affrmations, refections and summaries 121
• Empathy should be valued as both an “ingredient” in a healthy relationship and a
specifc, effective response which strengthens the client’s sense of self and promotes
deeper exploration;
• Coaches continually adjust their assumptions and understandings, attending to the
“leading edge” of client experience to facilitate awareness of emerging feelings and
perspectives;
• Coaches should not assume that their clients are mind readers, nor that their experi-
ence of understanding the client will be matched by the client themselves feeling
understood;
• Empathy is shown as much in how well the coach receives, listens, respects and attends
to the client as in what they do or say;
• Empathy should always be offered with humility and held lightly, ready to be corrected;
• Empathy entails tailoring the response to the client. For example, some clients may
fnd the usual expressions of empathy intrusive, while hostile clients may fnd empa-
thy too directive, and others may fnd any empathic focus on feeling alien;
• Coaches should seek to offer empathy in the context of positive regard and genuine-
ness. Empathy will probably not be effective unless it is grounded in authentic caring
for the client.

Summaries
Summaries bring together some of the things the person has said or has been talking about
in a longer statement, checking you have understood things correctly and helping them
develop an overview or see the patterns which are emerging in the conversation. In this
way, the summary is like the fnal paragraph in a chapter, drawing one part of a conversa-
tion to a close, and acting as a signal to the client that the opportunity to move to the next
part of the conversation is there, if they are ready to do so.
Jonathan Passmore has compared the refection to a rose, which the coach hands to the
client. It is a beautiful thing, which makes the client feel special, while the summary is akin
to handing the client a bouquet, which draws together many fowers and arranging them
in such a way as to help the client see them anew and be able to move forward.
Bill Miller and Steve Rollnick consider the summary as a “special application” of
refective listening (Miller and Rollnick, 2013) that can be used at different times during
the session.

Start of a session
They can be used at the start of a session, if you’ve seen the client before:

Last time we met, we spent some time talking about X and Y.As I recall, you said you
were thinking of doing A and perhaps B, and I said I would look into Z. Is that your
understanding?

Periodically
They can be offered periodically throughout the session, perhaps after, for instance, using
the decisional balance strategy:
122 Tim Anstiss
So, can I just summarise … the good things for you about changing jobs are A and B
and also possibly C.The downside is that H might happen, and also J.The advantages
of you as staying as you are are P and Q, but if you don’t change jobs you are worried
that X and also that Y. Is that about right?

Change direction
And they can be used to help change direction, or before gently bringing the session to
a close:

So, just to check where things are … we talked about X and you were strongly of the
opinion that A and B and C, and we also spent some time exploring what that would
be like if it did happen, and you felt X and Y and Z.
We’ve got about 15 minutes left, and I know you said you also wanted a quick chat
about Z. Shall we do that now?

We often ask permission to offer a summary:

Can I check my understanding ….

Is it OK if I check I’ve heard you correctly.

Or use a starter such as:

So, what you seem to be saying is that X and Y and Z, and also A and B and C … is
that correct?.

Summaries by their very nature are shorter than what the person said, and involve selec-
tion by the coach.The elements of the conversation which the coach chooses to include in
the summary will in part be infuenced by the approach and theoretical orientation of the
coach. For instance, coaches using a motivational interviewing style (Miller and Rollnick,
2013) might include both sides of the argument for and against change when summaris-
ing, but perhaps fnish on the “change talk” (client arguments in favour of change) rather
than the “sustain talk” (client arguments against change), depending on the context.
Different types of summaries have been described (Milner and Rollnick, 2013),
including:

• Collecting;
• Linking;
• Integrating;
• Transitional.

Whilst they overlap, they serve slightly different purposes.

Collecting summaries gathers information together, presents it back to the client and
helps to keep the conversation moving forward.
The aim of linking summaries is to contrast ideas heard recently in the conversation
with information picked up earlier – literally linking things together. This can help the
client become more aware of any confict or contradiction between different parts of
themselves, as well as further explore their ambivalence or mixed feelings about an issue:
 Affrmations, refections and summaries 123
Can I just summarise … you seem to be saying that X and Y and also Z. And earlier
in the conversation you said you felt A was important to you, and also B …
What do you make of this?.

Integrating summaries can bring together, or integrate, information from outside or col-
lateral information:

You’ve said you feel unappreciated by the organisation, and that many of your ideas
are ignored or not taken forward.You also feel your boss undermines you. And yet
you’ve shown me your performance reviews, which are glowing, they are paying for
you to have this coaching with me and you won that internal award last year.
How do you make sense of this?

Transitional summaries are used to choose or change the direction in the session. They
may be slightly longer summaries and come before an open-ended question that leads in
a new direction or can be used to close a session.They can also be used as a prelude to the
“key question” – about whether or not the client is going to change, e.g. after exploring
two possible futures with them:

So can I summarise …? If you did leave you partner, in 12 months’ time you think
that you would be A and B, doing more C and D, and hope also to be E. But you are
worried that F. And if you stay in the relationship for another year, you feel in one
year’s time that P and Q would be the case, and also that perhaps W.
Is that about right?
So, what do you think you will do? (the “key question”).

Generally speaking, succinct summaries are best. The coach should try not to talk until
they see the client’s eyes glaze over! The aim is to get to the heart of the message conveyed.
Before attempting to provide a summary the coach needs to think about the reason for
offering the summary and focus on their client’s needs.Too much talking will mean the
summary loses its power or impact. Keeping the summary to 3–4 sentences means this is
more likely to be achieved.

Conclusion
Affrming, refecting and summarising are key skills for coaches to use, practise and
develop. They signifcantly impact those all-important relationship factors like empathy,
warmth, congruence, alliance and positive regard. Like any skill, they can be improved
with practice, but deliberate practice of the right things will lead to more rapid skill devel-
opment than letting things improve by chance. I hope this chapter helps to deepen your
appreciation of these important conversational elements, and guides you towards being a
more skilful, engaging and effective coach.

References
Elliott, R., Bohart, A.C.,Watson, J.C., et al. (2018). ‘Therapist empathy and client outcome: An updated
meta-analysis’. Psychotherapy, 55(4), pp. 399–410.
Farber, B.A., Suzuki, J.Y. and Lynch, D.A. (2018). ‘Positive regard and psychotherapy outcome: a meta-
analytic review’. Psychotherapy, 55(4), pp. 411–423.
124 Tim Anstiss
Fredrickson, B (2004). ‘The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions’. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society London B, 359, pp. 1367–1377.
Gordon, T. (1970). Parent effectiveness training. London: McKay/Random House.
Miller,W. and Rollnick, S. (2013). Motivational interviewing. New York: Guildford Press.
Rogers, C. (1965). Client-centred therapy. New York: Houghton Miffin.
Wampler, K.S. and Powell, G.S. (1982). ‘The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory as a Measure of
Marital Satisfaction’. Family Relations, 31(1), pp. 139–145.
12 Tools and techniques in coaching
Sarah Leach and Jonathan Passmore

Introduction
Exploring new tools and techniques is one aspect which many new coaches get excited
about. New coaches are often fascinated about what new tools they can add to their rep-
ertoire, and how such tools can provide a fast or even magic solution to a client’s problems.
We believe that tools and techniques can be really helpful, and having a diverse range of
tools in one’s kitbag is a strength. Some techniques may ft within a specifc approach or
model we are using. Or we might develop a particular skill in using a technique.Whatever
the reason, coaching tools and techniques are like a doctor’s stethoscope or a farrier’s
irons, in that they can support the coach in their task. But we also recognise tools are not
the solution in themselves. In fact, tools can be a distinct disadvantage on some occasions.
They can stop the coach forging a genuine relationship with their clients, or can end up
driving the direction of the coaching as the coach falls back on their old favourite tech-
nique or tool, rather than working with each client as a unique individual. In this chapter
we look at what we mean by coaching tools and techniques, when they might be helpful
and what some of the risks might be if we start to rely on them too much. Finally, we will
offer some guidelines to help coaches decide what tool or technique to use and when.

What are coaching tools and techniques?

Coaching tools and techniques are in one way a mechanism to introduce a creative process
for clients which has a well tried and tested process, a little like a recipe.
Similarly, they can also be an effective means of communication by way of comple-
menting a client’s preferences and understanding of the presenting issue. John Whitmore
(2009, p. 9) suggests that “coaching delivers results in large measure because of the sup-
portive relationship between the coach and the client, and the means and style of com-
munication used”.Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the use of coaching tools and
techniques are important resources to support the means and style of communication that
enables your client to do their best thinking.
Coaching tools and techniques are practical and often very tangible interventions that
you can use whilst coaching, to complement powerful dialogue and active listening, the
basics of any great coaching conversation. Some are universally relevant and others, as sug-
gested by Bossons, Kourdi and Sartain (2012), work best when addressing a specifc issue;
for example, decision-making or dealing with diffcult relationships. Depending on your
style and approach to coaching, tools and techniques can be used in different ways. Some
126 Sarah Leach and Jonathan Passmore
coaches prefer to use models or techniques in isolation from others, in their most pure
form, and perhaps concentrate on ones related to their individual specialism or coaching
perspective.Whereas, others adapt and develop individual techniques or may blend them
with another tool.This group are more likely to create and fex their coaching style in the
moment depending on a client’s needs. Hardingham (2004) describes this approach as a
more eclectic style of coaching, which often comes with more confdence and experience
in coaching. Neither approach is right or wrong, just representative of the individual and
personal nature of coaching both from a practitioner and client’s perspective.
The language we use to describe these interventions, such as tools, techniques, models
and approaches, gets used interchangeably; however, you might like to consider the fol-
lowing to help distinguish one from the other.
Perspective – A coaching perspective may be described as the theory or source upon
which a coaching tool or technique is based such as behavioural psychology, cogni-
tive behavioural psychology or positive psychology. In other words, a particular feld or
domain on which a certain style of coaching is developed. For example, the person-
centred, previously named client-centred, approach to coaching is based on the perspec-
tive that people are their own best experts.This approach, aligned to humanist psychology,
was originally developed by Carl Rogers during the 1950s and was seen as a response to
other perspectives such as behaviourism (Cox, Bachkirova and Clutterbuck, 2011)
Approach or method – This terminology is often used interchangeably with tech-
niques but is more concerned with the application of a perspective, such as cognitive-
behavioural theory (CBT), a method informed by the cognitive-behavioural perspective,
or positive psychology coaching, which is the application of positive psychology perspec-
tive in coaching;
Model – This is a structure to enable clients or the coach to logically structure the
conversation. The GROW model is one example of this. The model is based within the
behavioural coaching approach and is informed by the behavioural psychology perspec-
tive. The model offers four stages to guide the conversation and thus provides a logical
structure that is easy to remember and use;
Framework – The word is often used interchangeably with model;
Toolkit – This is a collection of tools which the coach has at their disposal. The
coach understands the tool, its origins, when it may be most useful to a client, how to
use it and how to integrate it with their other tools, models and methods.The tools may
be clustered or grouped in some way such as in PERFECT (physical, environmental,
relational, feelings, effective thinking, continuity, transcendence) as described by Scoular
(2011). This toolkit is a way of helping coaches to guide them on “what to do and in
what order”;
Tools – These are individual exercises that form part of a coach’s toolkit. For example,
the ABC client sheet used to capture clients’ thinking, having applied the ABCDE frame-
work, could be considered a coaching tool. Another example might be FLOW, a positive
psychology tool that enables clients to defne what optimum performance might look like
for them (Scoular, 2011) or “Three Good Things”, a very simple but effective exercise for
increasing feelings of positivity (Passmore and Oades, 2016). In addition to exercises we
would also include psychometric tools such as 16Personalities,VIA or Strengthscope in
this category;
Technique – While similar to a tool, a technique may be considered to be less formal.
It might include ways of refection; for example, using amplifed refection rather than a
 Tools and techniques in coaching 127
simple refection (Passmore, 2011), mirroring or matching a client’s language or behaviour
in our communications.
For the purposes of the rest of this chapter, we will use the term tools and techniques.

How can tools and techniques help in coaching?

If used correctly within the context of the overall coaching relationship, tools and tech-
niques can be sources of creativity, enhancing clarity and promoting change (Hardingham,
2004). They can help clients to think out of the box, away from their normal thought
patterns, and to take a different or new perspective on a familiar situation or challenge.
They become an integral part of the coaching practice and, when used well, are almost as
unobserved as any specifc coaching tool or technique by the client.
For the coach, tools and techniques can help expand the range of interventions that the
coach can use while working with a client.This can help the coach to feel more confdent
in the way in which they coach, but also help them to be more resourceful in terms of
what they bring, and how they apply themselves, to the role of coach.
Tools and techniques can also bring a degree of rigour to the coaching relationship,
providing a useful frame of reference, as well as encouraging a degree of discipline and
professionalism in the way in which the coach fulfls his/her role.They can be used by the
coach as a way to remain objective, detached from the issue and provide a process which is
tried and tested for clients, thus increasing the prospects of a successful outcome.
When clients are particularly challenging, or presenting with multiple or complex
issues, tools and techniques can help both the coach and client to maintain a degree of
focus (Scoular, 2011).This is also useful when working at speed or under pressure as the
tool can help to structure the client’s thinking, encourage a more specifc outcome and,
consequently, help the client move towards action.
When a client is caught up in the presenting issue, it can be diffcult for them to see the
connections and/or implications for other areas of their life.A coaching tool can be help-
ful in prompting additional thinking, insights and observations regarding related topics
that might not have otherwise come up. In other words, it helps the client, and often the
coach, to see beyond the obvious, and get beyond the limiting belief or barrier to change
that might be keeping them “stuck” in a perspective. For example, the miracle question
is a technique originating from the solution-focused therapy perspective, which enables
clients to imagine what could be different and how to make it happen. This technique
is demonstrated beautifully in a case study of a fercely independent client whose need
to do things her own way was causing signifcant team issues and had left her employer
questioning her organisational ft (Watts and Morgan, 2015, see chapter 4). In asking the
miracle question, the client was able to see beyond her current situation and consider a
range of future options she’d not been able to see before.
As coaches we are continuously looking for ways to enable the client to learn more
about themselves and the topic they are trying to address, to enable forward momen-
tum. Models, often pictorial diagrams, can be used to support further learning (Bird and
Gornall, 2016) by simplifying a complex situation or making the learning more accessible.
Depending on the success or otherwise of the technique introduced, a positive knock-on
impact may occur.The client learns how to apply this technique for themselves, enhancing
their personal responsibility for the future.
Tools and techniques may also appeal to clients who like to follow a more structured
approach to analysing and refecting on a given situation or challenge. Some tools and
128 Sarah Leach and Jonathan Passmore
techniques can help clients interpret events differently, reframe negative interpretations
and change their behaviour accordingly. They can be used to stretch a client’s thinking
and help them to see a new and different perspective that might not otherwise be avail-
able to them.
In a very practical way, tools and techniques can help a coach to build credibility with
a client.They can be used specifcally as a marketing tool, highlighting a specialism or set
of skills that might appeal to a certain client group. Examples might include cognitive-
behavioural coaches or career coaches who might attract clients by describing a defned
approach and an associated set of techniques that are used in supporting clients in a given
situation. Being able to describe a niche in this way can really help coaches to focus on
and target their ideal client.

What are the risks of using tools and techniques?

However, there are always two sides to a story! Jenny Rogers (2016) suggests that “you
have to know all the techniques yet restrain yourself from using them except when they
are totally appropriate”. Rogers makes the distinction between “doing coaching” and
“being a coach” where you can get stuck in and work too hard on using the tools and
techniques, forgetting that being a coach is easier and more fuid when you “trust the
process” (2016, p. 287). In other words, if you’re constantly searching for a tool to use, you
have probably stopped listening. Rogers suggests that “the point about coaching is to ask
wise, not clever questions, and to keep out of the client’s way” (2016, p. 287). Using too
many tools and techniques has the potential to interfere with this easy and natural process
of coaching and inadvertently you fnd yourself stuck in the client’s way.
The danger is the coach focuses on the process of using the tool or method instead
of paying attention to the client. Hardingham (2004, p. 93), for instance, talks about that
moment when “they sensed my absolute attention to them had been disrupted by my
interest in the application of some technique”.Tools can easily detract from your authentic
approach to coaching and ability to be totally and completely present. Hardingham (2004)
goes on to suggest that the use of a technique does not imply coaching effectiveness and
by relying too much on a technique the coach will remain a “craftsperson”, causing the
relationship with the client to become superfcial.
When the coach becomes focused on the technique, the client may follow suit! The
client may become focused on following the coach’s instructions and become too con-
cerned about using the tool in the right way. The client may feel like the model becomes
a test or a hurdle, rather than an enabler to their learning and progress.This could result,
at an extreme, in a degree of performance anxiety over using the tool rather than dealing
with the issue itself.
It is inevitable that overuse of tools and techniques can lead to more of a “painting by
numbers” approach to coaching, where the coach has not fully integrated the technique
into his/her own way of being.This might inhibit the coach’s creativity and spontaneity,
as the coach becomes too formulaic in their approach and their coaching becomes clunky
and doesn’t necessarily follow a natural fow.
The other risk associated with a more formulaic approach is that it can limit the client’s
thinking in one direction and, at an extreme, force a particular outcome.They can appear to
manipulate the client’s thinking with the coach fnding themselves drawn into a more direc-
tive style of coaching.This happens as a result of guiding the client through the tool and, at
an extreme, the coach starts giving advice and providing solutions on behalf of the client.
 Tools and techniques in coaching 129
Over time, it is inevitable that the coach may get trapped into using the same tools
and techniques because that is all they know or because it’s a tool they enjoy using.
Consequently, there is a risk that the coach attempts to “ft” the tool to the presenting issue
regardless of its appropriateness or match to the client’s need. In addition, the tool may not
appeal to the client or indeed match their preferences. Being able to choose a tool ft for
purpose assumes a level of knowledge and understanding about the client, or a willing-
ness to be open about trying something different with a risk that it may not work out. It
is possible that the introduction of a tool, if not applied and interpreted in an appropriate
way, may simplify the client’s issue and fail to address the root cause.

Guidelines for using tools and techniques in coaching

Powerful dialogue and active listening are at the heart of any great coaching conversation;
however, tools and techniques can be used very effectively to draw out specifc learning
and actions.
The experienced coach will be able to decide, in the moment, when it is appropriate
to introduce a new tool into the coaching conversation and, perhaps most importantly,
which tool or technique to use to address the particular client’s need, matching the client’s
preferences as appropriate.
The only way, as with most things in life, to become skilled in the use of coaching tools
and techniques is to practise! Depending on your style of coaching there will be some
that you fnd more or less useful, and depending on the type of client you attract, you will
fnd that you naturally reach for a core set of techniques that you know will work in a
particular situation.
However, keep it fresh! Continue to keep your practice up to date with new and
different approaches, experimenting with coaching peers, friends or even clients! Some
clients love the idea of learning something new; be open and honest with them about
your level of skill in a technique and ask them openly if they’re prepared to experiment.
This collaborative partnering with your client can lead to greater levels of rapport and
trust. It might be useful for the coach to discuss, in the contracting phase of the rela-
tionship, the idea of using a selection of coaching tools and techniques, including the
possibility of “experimentation”. Contracting also provides an initial opportunity to
explore the client’s preferences, which would be useful in determining whether tools
and techniques will be helpful or disruptive for the work the client wishes to under-
take. However, it is important for the coach to continue to test their assumptions with
regard to the client’s needs throughout the relationship and avoid “forcing” the client
in any way.
Tools and techniques can be adjusted and adapted to suit the situation. Don’t feel like
you must always stick to the rules. Be prepared to bend and fex as appropriate.This con-
fdence will come with more experience of using your tried and trusted techniques; how-
ever, don’t be afraid to stretch the boundaries of the technique to suit the situation you
fnd yourself in. For example, an adaptation of the Gestalt Empty Chair technique (Pugh,
2017), is aimed at helping individuals to shift their perspective on a particular issue and to
allow for greater empathy when it comes to relationship building. However, it could easily
be adapted for team environments that help teams explore relational dynamics.
Similarly, adapting organisational business change techniques to individual challenges
can also help. For example, communication plans or stakeholder engagement matri-
ces might be useful in a one-to-one coaching session when thinking about developing
130 Sarah Leach and Jonathan Passmore

Table 12.1 Five top tips for using tools and techniques in coaching

5 Top Tips Description

Ensure ft for Use tools and techniques that are aligned and appropriate to the presenting client issue.
purpose Be mindful of “forcing” clients through an unnecessary or inappropriate process.
Build a core set Build and develop a core set of tools and techniques that you are skilled at using and
know will work in a given situation. However, try not to become more attached to
the tool than the need to address the client’s issue.
Practise and Keep it fresh, keep practising and don’t be afraid to introduce something new to your
experiment repertoire.This will enable more choice, creativity and resourcefulness in your
coaching.
Push the Be prepared to adapt, blend or even deconstruct tools and techniques to suit the
boundaries situation at hand, bringing your wider experience to bear in a way that is useful and
complementary to the way in which you coach.
Contract for Be open with your client about the use of tools and techniques from the start of
their use your relationship, including the possibility of experimenting with new or adapted
approaches.

infuencing and negotiation strengths. Experienced coaches bring what they know from
their coaching and business backgrounds and apply it in a way that is of service to their
clients.
Not every technique or approach is suitable for every coach. Learn and spend time
on those techniques that you fnd comfortable, useful and complementary to the way in
which you coach and the types of clients you tend to work with. In fact, John Whitmore,
in talking about his very structured approach to coaching with the GROW model sug-
gested that, as confdence builds and the framework becomes more and more familiar, the
coach will “destructure the concept” (2009, p. 19) as it becomes their own.
We would encourage coaches to take the same approach to tools and techniques to
master a dozen or three dozen tools and techniques and, through practice, deconstruct the
tool and be able to adapt and apply it appropriately to each individual client and situation,
which enables the client to focus on their issue and not the tool or technique, thereby
fnding the process that enables them to make a positive step forward. See Table 12.1.

Conclusion
In conclusion, feeling enabled, being inspired and getting creative with the tools of the
trade, so to speak, rather than being constrained by their structure or perceived boundaries,
is essential in building your coaching practice.
Tools and techniques can prove valuable to clients, helping them to think in new and
fresh ways about their issue.
Finding a set of tools that you feel able and confdent in using, but are not wedded or
attached to in a way that forces your client through an unnecessary or inappropriate pro-
cess, can enrich and enable the most effective coach.
Finally: Practice, practice, practice!
 Tools and techniques in coaching 131
References
Bird, J. and Gornall, S. (2016). The art of coaching:A handbook of tips and tools. Oxford: Routledge.
Bossons, P., Kourdi, J. and Sartain, D. (2012). Coaching essentials: Practical proves techniques for world-class
executive coaching, 2nd ed. London: Bloomsbury.
Cox, E., Bachkirova, T. and Clutterbuck, D. (2011). The complete handbook of coaching. London: Sage
publications Ltd.
Hardingham, A. (2004). The coach’s coach: Personal development for personal developers. London: CIPD.
Passmore, J. (2011).‘MI techniques – refective listening’. The Coaching Psychologist, 7(1), pp. 49–52.
Passmore, J. and Oades, L.G. (2016). ‘Positive psychology coaching techniques: Three good things’. The
Coaching Psychologist, 12(2), pp. 33–34.
Pugh, M. (2017).‘Pull up a chair’. The Psychologist, 30, pp. 42–47.
Rogers, J. (2016). Coaching skills:The defnitive guide to being a coach, 4th ed. Maidenhead: Open University
Press.
Scoular, A. (2011). Business coaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for Performance: GROWing Human Potential and Purpose:The Principles and
Practice of Coaching and Leadership, 4th ed. London: Nicholas Brealey Publications.
Watts, G. and Morgan, K. (2015) The Coach’s Casebook: Mastering the 12 Traits That Trap Us, Cheltenham,
UK: Inspect & Adapt Ltd.
13 Silence in coaching
Arthur F. Turner

Introduction
In this chapter I will be exploring the role of silence in coaching and explicitly the role of
silence in executive coaching. I will draw from a broad range of human activities, includ-
ing music, computer sciences and theatre, before looking at those experiencing coaching
or learning how to coach and their views of silence within their practice. It is hoped
that this exploration will encourage coaches of all persuasions to work with silence in a
much more incisive and deliberate manner. It could be argued that silence itself is an act
of communication, although it may spell refectiveness (taking time to consider inwardly)
or, in a more negative sense, withholding or not communicating (Stevenson, 2016). In this
chapter we are holding onto silence as a skill to be learn and a technique to be utilised.

How is silence treated outside of coaching?

Literature, art and science understand silence in different ways and their refections on
silence are helpful before reviewing silence in the feld of coaching. In order to explore
silence in this context of executive coaching, I have looked at silence in three other very
different felds: Computer science, music and the use of silence in writing scripts for
plays and within literature. Computer science allows us a glimpse into the importance of
silence and, in its balance with energy (in terms of an electronic pulse) (see, for example,
Dhulipala, Fragouli and Orlitsky, 2010), it reminds us that the gaps between these pulses
are as important as the pulses themselves.
Music, too, has a long history of using silence to emphasis difference in tempo and
melody. One example is John Cabe’s piano musical piece “4 minutes, 33 seconds”.
Experiencing this silent concerto will be explored further on in the chapter through a
vignette explaining the reaction of a group that is listening to it. The Cabe concerto is,
throughout, a musical entity, a period of time where no notes are struck and, in the silence,
as well as in the minds of the listeners, potential music is formed (Kania, 2010).The lyrics
of a famous Bossa nova song,‘Silencia’, (Buena Vista Social Club, 2010) also hint towards
the role of positive silence has, as a refective space between two people.
These examples of music remind us of the ways in which the silences are affectively
turning the listeners thoughts back inside their brains, inducing a state of refection
(whether or not that refection is viewed in a negative or positive way). The creation of
a suitable rapport between the coach and the client leads towards a much more positive
view of the refective silence, one could argue.
 Silence in coaching 133
Cain (2013) and Maitland (2009) from their different perspectives of introversion and
solitude, respectively, have both extoled the virtues of silence in everyday life. Cain tried
to fnd the voice of introverts within business life by identifying silence as “a tool of con-
templation”.While Maitland wrote about the pleasures and powers of silence and how, in
her very auto-ethnographic research, she noticed silence causes “the dissolving of barriers”
and “the presence of something that is not sound” (2009, p. 29).
In forms of artistic impression, silence is identifed as being similarly important. For
example, Qi and Wang (2010) write extensively about the role of silence in theatrical
expression and communication. Here, they write about Harold Pinter’s plays and his
rational for the use of silence:

The speech we hear is an indication of that we don’t hear. It is a necessary avoidance,

a violent, sly, anguished or mocking smoke-screen which keeps the other in its place.
When true silences fall we are still left with echo but never nakedness. One way of
looking at speech is to say it is a constant stratagem to cover nakedness.
(p. 30)

This stance can also be seen in the flms of Francis Ford Coppola (such as Apocalypse
Now), which juxtaposes eerie scenes set in silence with music from Wagner.
In order to understand the phenomenon of silence within coaching I will take a social
constructionist approach (Burr, 2015) in which the coach and their client are critical of
any taken-for-granted notions of truth. This means that both the coach and their client
extract from the questions, feedback and refections their own type of meaning from a
conversation.Therefore, carefully held and constructed silences, within a coaching conver-
sation, act as portals into the mind of the client. Beyond these portals lie the different land-
scapes of challenge that can be described, re-defned and articulated. Many of these new
portal-reached terrains look and feel different and unusual (like walking into an unknown
or unfamiliar land or country) (Lee, 2010). A balance between the exploration of ideas
and inner knowledge is key. Peering through new portals, wandering, metaphysically, in
new terrains and articulating the differences is potentiated by the silence controlled and
enhanced by an ego-free coach intent on providing space for the client to hear their own
truth (Watson, 2018).This uncomfortable yet supportive liminal space (Zaeemdar, 2017)
holds the coaching relationship and shapes the very contours of trust and interest that are
so vital in a coaching dynamic and a productive coaching relationship (Mocci and Penna,
2009).
A wide review of the role of silence in coaching and other leadership development
topics reveals a patchy and sometimes disinterested passing interest in the topic, but one
that can be related to the traps and challenges involved in coaching practice.Turning my
gaze to organisational literature,Vakola and Bouradas (2005) have suggested that supervi-
sors and managers who are used to and more tolerant of silence create more trust and have
a more positive effect on members of staff, breeding greater input into decision-making
and a positive employee attitude.
These can be partially explained by looking into the work of Myles-Downey (Hill,
2004), who articulated the ideas of a spectrum of interventions between telling and lis-
tening to understand often referred to as the push-pull model. Of course, these tensions
exist elsewhere in organisations at all levels (Morrison and Milliken, 2003) and at all times
when employees make the decision to say something or not more strongly identifed, for
example, with the role of “whistle-blowers”.
134 Arthur F.Turner
As Hilary Armstrong suggested:

Trusting the dialogue to do its work can mean at times feeling apprehensive about the
turbulence and discomfort that is always possible in an open, undirected and unfet-
tered space. It can also mean a charged atmosphere of anticipation and expectation.
(Armstrong, 2012, p. 34)

When I looked at the defnitions of silence I used at the start of my journey (Turner,
2019), I was surprised by how many of the words were so negative in sound and yet
seemed to have a positive root; words such as muzzle, censor, stife, dumbness, muteness,
taciturnity, reticence, uncommunicativeness and unresponsiveness.
However, in the context of the coaching process and what has been covered so far, the
more helpful and appropriate synonyms for the coaching context include words such as
still, stillness, tranquillity, peacefulness, quiescence and “peace and quiet”. These positive
synonyms relate very strongly to refective and mindful/liminal spaces that the successful
coach hopes to take their clients to.
Listening and the use of silence can be easily linked in the dynamics of a coaching
conversation. As has been recently identifed by Myles Downey himself (Downey, 2015),
people are surprised how much listening (and therefore, elements of silence) are involved
in good practice. However, this has been covered by several key writers (see for example,
Megginson and Clutterbuck, 2004).Yet remarkably this topic remains hidden from view
within coach training. Even further back in time, authors (Nicholls and Stevens, 1957)
were recognising how silence can be a very effective tool in providing space and room for
thinking and refection.The research of Ralph Nichols found expression, many years later,
in coaching practice (see Gillingham, 2014).

Let the person answer the question. Silence can be diffcult, especially around chal-
lenging issues, but resist the temptation to give advice or answer the question yourself.
Your silence is a gift to others—it allows them to express emotions that need to be
expressed in a safe atmosphere.
(Gilllingham, 2014, p. 50)

Lee, in 2010, outlined the ways in which those working in one-to-one work need to rel-
ish the:

particular appreciation of the role of restraint and silence in one-to-one work.Viewed

as a space for thinking more than doing, refecting more than solving, coachees come
to experience the coach’s restraint as an invitation to go deeper into oneself, to ask
the question “why”, to sit with the discomfort of not knowing, to tolerate distressing
feelings, and to discover the transformative potential of awareness.
(Lee, 2010, p. 34)

This quotation from Graham Lee may point to one possible function of silence within
coaching. Silence seems to be one of the least understood of the skills needed to be a
good coach (cf. Passmore, 2010). However, the coach is often in control of the place in
which coaching occurs by setting the space and pace of the interactions (Heneberry and
Turner, 2016).The gaps between speaking are important – not that the environment could
or must be quiet; I am not talking about environmental noises and intrusions but the
 Silence in coaching 135
gaps between the questions and answers.These silent gaps provide a space for refection,
thought, quiet inquiry and the emergence of ideas, views and slants on a topic or an issue.
Having scanned many articles, papers and periodicals it is clear that silence is not as
commonly covered as the usual skills of questioning, listening and giving feedback are
(Stanier, 2016, Hill, 2004,Whitmore, 2010). More recently, Starr (2016) has mentioned, in
passing, the topic of silence. She identifes some of the ways in which skilful use of silence
can be used as an important ally in the coaching process by helping to produce refective
moments, constructive pauses in the fow of thought and quiet insights into resolving the
need for new action and changes in purpose.
Although the topic of silence in coaching remains ill-researched, some writers have made
claims about silence and its profound value within coaching interactions. Papatriantafllou
(2014) suggests that silence is a way of communication:

It has many faces, can mean different things to different people, can communicate
different things and its meaning depends on the context. Even though there are times
that the use of silence can block communication, there is also the constructive use of
silence, which enhances and strengthens it.
(p. 1)

Olga Papatriantafllou goes on to identify a number of different ways of using silence.

Amongst the categories she identifes are caring, busy, mindful, magical and being centred.
In practice, of course, the use or value of silence cannot be programmed or stipulated, as
it is an organic and often spontaneous factor in any session. Indeed, it may be that what
we are talking about is not just one thing but, as Inuit people would attest to in their
description of snow, something which has many different facets; for example, the silence
that descends on the thoughtful moment, the silence that is used as the coach thinks of
the next question or the silence that hangs heavily on a turning-point in understanding or
pivotal moment in the coaching (Day et al., 2008).
However, since 2010, researchers have started to look in more detail at the empirical
data offered in the understanding of silence in coaching. For example, Passmore (2010)
suggests that silence is a powerful tool:

which participants in this study recognised as useful in helping them refect in a way
they had not previously done about the issue.
(p. 54)

In a model in which Fillery-Travis and Cox (2014) coined the term “linguistically poor”,
they have suggested that silence, whilst not linguistically rich (the other end of the spec-
trum), is rich in meaning and impact. Being termed as linguistically poor may sound like
an anathema to a practising coach. Indeed, intolerance of silence may lead to one of the
traps of coaching practice: that of interruption, or the coach being drawn into suggestions
and advice. A micro-analysis of any coaching conversation would always reveal, I suggest,
silences, both large and small; brief betrayals of thought, perhaps, as well as gaps between
streams of co-produced words, narratives and ideas.What, for me, is emerging is a view of
silence can and should be an active “thing”, another tool to use for the coach and client,
not a mere marker along the passage and fow of a conversation. Fillery-Travis and Cox’s
plea was that silence was one of many factors in the dyad relationship need further forensic
investigation and analysis.
136 Arthur F.Turner
Two examples from practice
A creative coaching session
During the last coaching session with a coaching client, “Joe”, we had been working
together to look at elements of confdence. “Joe” manages mental health services in a
“halfway” house and had been having challenges with his own confdence as he worked
with managerial and leadership issues mainly linked to staffng problems.We had agreed a
creative focus for the session.
“Joe” and I had already experienced silence in the previous fve sessions.These included
various types of silence. One was the usual silence between my questions/explanations
and “Joe’s” response – these had a variety of lengths and “tones”. There were elements
of silence in our co-delivery of our words and sentences. These silences felt normal, in
the sense that they were familiar to us in terms of other types of silence that inhabit our
spoken and listening world.
I have been working with mediating objects in my coaching practice following Material
Engagement Theory (See Ihde and Malafouris, 2019), and often bring random collections
of objects to my coaching sessions. The use of these objects is often very refective, and
induces much more silence than might normally be the case when following a more tra-
ditional question-and-answer type of coaching format framed by a coaching model such
as GROW (Whitmore, 2017).
The coaching “task” that I set out was three-fold. I had casually bought with me three
sets of six similar objects (similar to each of the six versions of three types of object:
Patterned coasters, fridge magnets and illustrated strengths cards). Firstly, to choose a pat-
terned coaster out of six and refect upon its relevance to the topic brought out of previ-
ous discussions – that of confdence (or lack of it).This brought about several minutes of
quiet (silent) contemplation or refection from us both, but mostly “Joe”, who had not
expected this new approach (although he was quite open to trying a new technique as
identifed in our original contracting meeting). Secondly, a set of a dozen fridge magnets
depicting Arabic/Moroccan doorways were offered to “Joe” and he again was asked to
pick one door that was, to him, the most “confdent”.The one he chose “carried” with it
the descriptive words of solid, colourful and simple (as in non-ornate).The supposed room
behind it he described as being empty and bland. Finally, the client chose one card from a
randomly offered set of strengths cards. First, he chose the picture of a small child engaged
in active play.The card on the back of the picture read:“Conscientious”.This again led to
a long period of silence (punctuated with some quiet and slow mutterings and murmur-
ings under his breath).
Although this exercise only took about 20 minutes, in total, it was characterised by
both the coach and the client sitting in silence.This was not truly silent; there was a lot of
soft ambient noise around (it was a quiet corner in a hotel lounge), such as the murmuring
of voices, the slow hum of a nearby motorway and the soft roar of the distant wood fre.
Offering these mediating objects (Malafouris, 2014) to induce refection produced more
silence than a set of direct questions would, ftting in well with the psychodynamic idea
of coaching as expressed by Graham Lee (2010).
One further element of this exercise was that, as my client drew out his card from the
offered six cards, the grandfather clock situated behind us chimed 6 o’clock. Both coach
and client burst into gentle laughter. Humour, established through contracting, built rap-
port and the development of a productive relationship and, mediated by an enforced
period of refective silent space, spilt out into the coaching session in a way that was light-
hearted but also part of a deeply warm moment of coaching.
 Silence in coaching 137
The feedback from this session was stated in a text message – “Out of all the sessions
we have had I found this one to be the most interesting and helpful as it got me looking
at things in a totally different way … and I didn’t feel awkward at all”.

A silent vignette from a facilitated session with a master’s group

studying coaching
As part of a coaching module held at a British university, I was working with ten students.
As part of the third-day session, we were working on higher level skills and this included the
exploration of silence.As described in this chapter’s second section, I asked the participants
to listen, in silence, to the John Cabe musical piece “4 minutes, 33 seconds” without any
explanation, other than to listen to the music and then write a short response to what they
had thought of as they listened to the track.The participants listened to the recording as a
YouTube clip on the internet. Eight of the participants refected on how they responded to
the silence with random thoughts and matters of daily concerns such as washing, children’s
homework, work, boredom and frustration (even thought this musical “clip” was only less
than fve minutes). However, two of the delegates produced some interesting feedback.
Firstly, one wrote:

The longer the silence went on the more curious I became.

The second delegate wrote at greater length:

It made me think how everything in life is such a rush. How expectations are for the
instant. It made me realise how impatient I am, the temptation to tap the screen and
see how long was left of the performance was strong, but I didn’t and was proud that
I didn’t!
It made me think how much we underestimate the power of silence; the space of
silence.
It made me think what are my fears of silence, why does it make me feel
uncomfortable?

Discussion
Over the past four or fve years I have had a long look at the topic of silence in the con-
text of coaching. By looking at the ways in which other forms of human communication
(such as literature, computer science and music) use silence I have tried to shed light on
the ways in which silence can be used in coaching practice, not just as a peculiar adjunct
to the practice of questioning, listening and feedback (arguably three of the keys skills in
coaching), but also to focus the attention of the practitioner on the subtleties and possibili-
ties of being more cognisant of silence in their own practice. For some, particularly those
at the beginning of their coaching experience (either as being coached or coaching as a
new skilled behaviour), silence can be a feared occurrence that quickly has to be flled in
with words, actions or advice. For others, it can be a constituent of a toolkit that can be
used in ever-more subtle ways, crafting the coaching session and interactions between the
coach and client in ever-more fascinating ways.
I return to work that I had undertaken a few years previously with my colleague
(see Heneberry and Turner, 2016) where, amongst other ideas, we explored the triad of
138 Arthur F.Turner
notions, namely space, place and pace as part of our action learning model.This model can
provide a framework for understanding silence in a coaching session:

Space: This is where the coach and client utilise the notion of liminality – the creation
of a space that has within it the notion or possibility of change.Within that specifc
liminal space lies the potential for elements of silence between, and silence around, the
coaching relationship.This potential for a silent space can be set to provide the right
set of circumstances for the client and the coach (see co-coaching in Garvey, Garvey,
Stokes and Megginson, 2017) to consider options and plan actions for change.
Place: This can be a check to where the coaching takes place as a consideration to the
noise and impact of the “outside” intruding into the space allocated.With this consid-
eration checking the backdrop of the conversation so that it is “quiet enough” for a
space to be made, for what Stelter, in 2009, described as the “space for the unfolding
narratives”.This is the optimal place for the emergence of a co-constructed coaching
narrative
Pace: This is also primarily under the control of the coach, so that the gaps between the
words spoken and the questions raised provide a thoughtful use of silence as a power-
ful adjunct to the words, emerging narrative and sense of refection.

Conclusions
In this chapter I have looked at the role of silence (and possibly listening and being quiet
too) in coaching practice, using samples and ideas from a broad range of human activity,
while also including examples from my own teaching and continued practice as an execu-
tive coach. Silence captures many things and must be seen in the lived experiences of both
the coach and client (Walker-Frazer, 2011). Silence is not, I believe, a topic to be taught
per se, but an awareness to be held by both the coach and their clients.
It was in the writings of Parker J. Palmer that I found the way to end this chapter
(Palmer, 2018).
He spoke, in a recent podcast, these words:

The impact of silence is not only solace, but disturbance. Silence forces you to look at
your life in some very challenging ways. I think in our culture that’s one of the rea-
sons silence is not popular. It’s one of the reasons we fll the air with noise, and we fll
our minds with noise, because we avoid having to take that deep dive into ourselves.

I urge all coaches, whatever their specialist feld, whatever their experience, to begin to
consider the role of silence in their coaching relationships and take to their peer support
groups and one-to-one supervision refective moments and insights from silence that will
continue to nurture and develop their practice.

References
Armstrong, H. (2012). ‘Coaching as dialogue: Creating spaces for (mis) understandings’. International
Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 10(1), pp. 33–47.
Burr,V. (2015). Social constructionism. London: Routledge
Buena Vista Social Club (2010). ‘Silencia’ Accessed 19 June 2020 from https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=0mStndtGGOE
 Silence in coaching 139
Cain, S. (2013). Quiet:The power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking. London: Penguin.
Day, A., De Haan, E., Sills, C., Bertie, C., & Blass, E. (2008). Coaches’ experience of critical moments in
the coaching. International Coaching Psychology Review, 3(3), 207–218.
Dhulipala,A.K., Fragouli, C. and Orlitsky,A. (2010).‘Silence-based communication’. IEEE Transactions on
Information Theory, 56(1), pp. 350–366.
Downey, M. (2015). Effective modern coaching. London, LID Editorial.
Fillery-Travis,A. and Cox, E. (2014).‘Researching coaching’. In Cox, E., Bachkirova,T., & Clutterbuck, D.
A. (Eds.). (2014). The complete handbook of coaching. Sage. The complete handbook of coaching, pp. 445–459.
Garvey, R., Garvey, B., Stokes, P. and Megginson, D. (2017). Coaching and mentoring: Theory and practice.
London, Sage.
Gillingham, D.K. (2014). ‘Spirit house/life coach women winter 2014’. awomanshealth.com. Accessed
on the 24 January 2020 from www.dkgcoaching.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/1-Spirit-Hous
e-Winter-2014.pdf.
Heneberry, P. and Turner,A. (2016).‘Critical action learning-rituals and refective spaces’. Action Learning:
Research and Practice, 13(1), pp. 60–68.
Hill, P. (2004). Concepts of coaching:A guide for managers. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Limited.
Ihde, D. and Malafouris, L. (2019).‘Homo faber revisited: Postphenomenology and material engagement
theory’. Philosophy & Technology, 32(2), pp. 195–214.
Jobin, A.C., and Lees, G. (1960). ‘Quiet nights of quiet stars (Corcovado)’. Accessed 27 February 2020
from http://keyboardimprov.com/the-jazz-pianists-ultimate-guide-to-the-real-book-table-of-conte
nts/quiet-nights-of-quiet-stars-corcovado-from-the-jazz-pianists-ultimate-guide-to-the-real-book/.
Kania,A. (2010).‘Silent music’. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 68(4), pp. 343–353.
Lee, G. (2010).‘The psychodynamic approach to coaching’. In E. Cox,T. Bachkirova, and D. Clutterbuck.
The complete handbook of coaching. London: Sage, pp. 23–36.
Maitland, S. (2009). A book of silence. London: Granta Books.
Malafouris, L. (2014). ‘Creative thinging:The feeling of and for clay’. Pragmatics snd Cognition, 22(1), pp.
140–158.
Megginson, D. and Clutterbuck, D. (2004). Techniques for coaching and mentoring. Oxford: Routledge.
Mocci, S., and Penna, M.P. (2009). ‘The systematic approach to communicative silence’. Sixth Congress
European Congress for Systemic Science. Accessed on 5 January 17 from www.afscet.asso.fr/resSystemic
a/Paris05/penna.pdf.
Morrison, E.W. and Milliken, F.J. (2003). ‘Speaking up, remaining silent: The dynamics of voice and
silence in organizations’. Journal of Management Studies, 40(6), pp. 1353–1358.
Nichols, R.G. and Stevens, L.A. (1957). Are you listening? (pp. 4–6). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Palmer, Parker J. (2018).‘On the brink of silence’.Accessed on the 22 March 2020 from https://encount
eringsilence.com/parker-j-palmer-part-1-on-the-brink-of-silence-episode-33/.
Paptriantafllou, O. (2014). ‘Silent coaching’. Accessed on 10 August 2018 from https://coachfederation
.org/blog/silent-coaching.
Passmore, J. (2010). ‘A grounded theory study of the coachee experience:The implications for training
and practice in coaching psychology’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 5(1), pp. 48–62.
Qi, X. and Wang, Z.X. (2010).‘Silence:True communication’. Canadian Social Science, 3(4), pp. 30–32.
Stanier, M.B. (2016). The coaching habit: Say less, ask more & change the way you lead forever.Toronto: Box of
Crayons Press.
Starr, J. (2016). The coaching manual:The defnitive guide to the process, principles and skills of personal coaching,
4th ed. London, United Kingdom: Pearson Education.
Stelter, R. (2009). ‘Coaching as a refective space in a society of growing diversity-towards a narrative,
postmodern paradigm’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 4(2), pp. 207–217.
Stevenson, H. (2016). ‘Coaching at the point of contact: A gestalt approach’. Gestalt Review, 20(3), pp.
260–278.
Turner,A.F. (2019).‘Silence and its role in coaching’. The Coaching Psychologist, 15(1) 56–58.
Vakola, M. and Bouradas, D. (2005).‘Antecedents and consequences of organisational silence:An empirical
investigation’. Employee Relations, 27(5), pp. 441–458.
140 Arthur F.Turner
Walker-Fraser, A. (2011). ‘An HR perspective on executive coaching for organisational learning’.
International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring, 9(2) 67–79.
Watson, A.M. (2018).‘Coaching confdence’. Accessed 19 June 2020 from www.coachingconfdence.co
.uk/tag/silence/
Whitmore, J. (2010). Coaching for performance: Growing human potential and purpose-the principles and practice
of coaching and leadership. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Zaeemdar, S. (2017). ‘Coaching as a liminal space: Exploring the use of theatre in management training
and development’. In Black, K.,Warhurst, R., and Corlett, S. Identity as a foundation for human resource
development. Oxford: Routledge, pp. 179–192.
14 Using emotions in coaching
Aboodi Shabi

Introduction
Although it is now widely accepted that emotions are a legitimate and important part of
coaching, the feld of emotions remains one of the more challenging areas for both new
and seasoned coaches.
In this chapter, we will consider some of the background to these challenges, before
exploring some approaches.
It is important to bear in mind from the outset, however, that working with emotions
in coaching is not so much about using tools and techniques as it is about the coach’s
capacity to show up in the coaching relationship in such a way that emotions can be
acknowledged, expressed and worked with.

History
The importance of emotions has not always been recognised in coaching. It was a com-
mon claim in the early days of the coaching profession that coaching was about the future
rather than the past, more about action and less about emotions, and that there were clear
differences between coaching and counselling. Hart and colleagues, in a study of the dif-
ferences between therapy and coaching, revealed that practitioners “relate to coaching and
therapy coachees differently and described coaching as more goal directed, action based,
and outwardly defned. By contrast, there is an assumption that in therapy the client is
often ‘damaged’, lower functioning, or in crisis” (Hart, Blattner and Leipsic, 2001, p. 235).
That view has been changing as the coaching profession has matured over the past two
decades. There has been a turnaround in coaching research from seeking to distinguish
and effectively polarise coaching from therapy to seeing virtue in drawing from research
in counselling, recognising that they share much in common (Kilburg, 2004; O’Broin and
Palmer, 2007; McKenna and Davis, 2009; Smither, 2011).
Given the limited research within coaching, this chapter seeks to fully acknowledge
the contributions of counselling and therapy, and thus most of the referenced literature is
from those professions.
Emotions are now seen as an important territory to cover in our work with clients.
The International Coaching Federation’s core competency model now contains multiple
references to emotions:

• Develops and maintains the ability to regulate one’s emotions;

• Mentally and emotionally prepares for sessions;
142 Aboodi Shabi
• Acknowledges and supports the client’s expression of feelings, perceptions, concerns,
beliefs and suggestions;
• Manages one’s emotions to stay present with the client;
• Demonstrates confdence in working with strong client emotions during the coach-
ing process.
(ICF, 2019)

As an essential part of human life, emotions play a crucial role in coaching and behav-
ioural change.They are not just about how we feel but are also a pre-disposition to action.
“Emotions condition not only our experience, but also our actions.They defne the range
of possible behaviours. Just as a calm mind is well suited for relaxing or taking photos, an
alarmed mind is effcient at self-defence or fight” (Kofman, 2006, p. 242).
If all that human beings needed in order to make behavioural change was informa-
tion or instruction about which behaviours to adopt, then there would be no need for
any of the talking professions, coaching included: A simple manual for living would be
suffcient. But “self-help books are like car repair manuals: you can read them all day, but
doing so doesn’t fx a thing” (Lewis, Amini and Lannon, 2000, p177). It is emotions that
shape our actions and our capacity for change, and which make context and relationship
at least as important as content in coaching. And, as Daniel Kahneman notes, drawing
on the work of Slovic and Damasio, emotions, even so-called ‘negative’ emotions play a
central role in decision-making: “people who do not display the appropriate emotions
before they decide … also have an impaired ability to make good decisions. An inability
to be guided by a “healthy fear” of bad consequences is a disastrous faw” (Kahneman,
2011, p. 139).

The challenge
Emotions are not just something that we have or are born with – emotions are also
something that we learn. From very early life, we are learning how to relate to others, and
about which emotions are acceptable and which are not.Attachment theory highlights the
importance of a baby’s frst relationships in shaping their emotions into adulthood.“Mary
Ainsworth … found that the kind of mother a baby has, predicts his emotional traits in
later life” (Lewis,Amini and Lannon, 2000, p. 73).“Securely attached children … learn that
they can play an active role when faced with diffcult situations … children with histories
of abuse and neglect … are being conditioned to give up when they face challenges later
in life” (van der Kolk, 2015, p. 113).
It’s not only psychologists who have recognised this. Charles Dickens in Great
Expectations (Dickens, 1861) created two characters who were emotionally scarred as a
result of past experiences. One, Estella, is brought up to mistrust others, by a mother, Miss
Havisham, who hated men after she had been jilted at the altar by her lover. Boarding
school children often learn to shut off their emotions – they will often tell themselves, for
example, that they don’t need affection in order to cope with being separated from their
parents and their affection (Duffel, 2000). In the early days of the kibbutz movement in
Israel, there were idealistic experiments with communal child raising. Noam Shpancer
(2011) noted that children “were socialised to be strong and sunny, simple and similar.
Emotional expression was demeaned as weak and self-involved.We learned to numb our-
selves. I haven’t cried since I was 10. I'd like to, but I can’t”.
 Using emotions in coaching 143
In coaching, we will be seeing people with these kinds of emotional backgrounds – the
leader who gives up easily when she is faced with challenges, or the client who fnds it
hard to express his sadness, etc.
The narratives of the world we live in continue to impact emotional learning through-
out adulthood. Organisations with their drive for effciency and focus on the bottom line
reinforce the still-common belief that emotions are not always compatible with working
life. The over-riding emphasis on the bottom line means that compassion is not always
valued in the workplace, and that employees can feel that they are disposable for the sake
of proft (Hardingham, 2003). In the US, the time off from work allowed for bereavement
has shrunk to just 72 hours (Levine, 1997). In fact, ideally, we wouldn’t even show our
grief at all – mourning is often seen as self-indulgent; we almost admire those who can
conceal their feelings and carry on as if nothing had ever happened (Didion, 2012). It’s
not just so-called “negative” emotions that are problematic – Calvinism, with its emphasis
on the virtues of hard work, saw enjoyment and fun as a “non-productive” use of time
(Ehrenreich, 2007).
Even the word “emotional” itself can be used as a criticism when talking about some-
one’s behaviour, especially when talking about women. Madeleine Albright, the frst
female US Secretary of State, is just one example of women feeling that they have to
behave “rationally” and “unemotionally” in order to succeed socially and professionally
(Brescoll and Uhlmann, 2007).
We also learn that that some emotions are “better” than others, that some emotions are
positive while others are negative. It’s not just kibbutzim that want people to be “strong
and sunny” – this drive for positivity is a part of modern life, with signifcant impact on
much of life.The pervasiveness of the fetishisation of positive thinking is neatly summed
up by Barbara Ehrenreich:

Optimism wasn't just a psycho-spiritual lifestyle option; by the mid-’00s it had

become increasingly mandatory. Positive psychologists, inspired by a totally overop-
timistic reading of the data, proclaimed that optimism lengthens the life span, ame-
liorates ageing and cures cancer. In the past few years, some breast-cancer support
groups have expelled members whose tumors metastasized, lest they bring the other
members down. In the workplace, employers culled “negative” people, like those in
the fnance industry who had the temerity to suggest that their company's subprime
exposure might be too high.
(Ehrenreich, 2009)

This is especially relevant for coaching, which has drawn much from the feld of positive
psychology; coaches often fall into the temptation to look for the positive when clients
present with so-called “negative thinking”, which only reinforces the cultural narratives
about emotions.
As we consider these examples, we can refect on what narratives might have shaped
our clients in their emotional lives, but also (and perhaps even more importantly for us as
practitioners) how we have been shaped.
We have all been steeped in narratives where emotions are relegated in favour of eff-
ciency, rationalism or ideology, and where some emotions are seen as negative.With this
background, none of us can be said to be neutral about emotions, and it’s not surprising
that it is hard for clients to express some emotions, and for us as coaches to be comfortable
144 Aboodi Shabi
with emotions when they show up in coaching. We all have conscious and unconscious
biases about both negative and positive emotions, and about whether (and which) emo-
tions are a legitimate area of professional and personal life.

Emotions
Despite all this, however rational or effcient we might want to be or think we are, we are
still primarily emotional beings.We don’t stop grieving just because the offcial mourning
period is over, childhood trauma and attachment diffculties affect us well into adulthood,
and children separated from their parents in kibbutzim would try to get back to their
parents’ room every night and beg to be let in (Shpancer, 2011).
Awareness of this is growing, even in organisations.A Google study of 180 of its teams
revealed that “the best indicator of a team’s success or effectiveness was how well the team
worked together or communicated, and that the most important factor was ‘psychological
safety’” (Hall, 2019, p. 34).
Whether explicit or implicit, emotions are always present in coaching. The coachee
who sits in front of us has been shaped by narratives which impact their behaviour, world-
view and choices as they contemplate their coaching issues.
Sometimes emotions are at the heart of the stated objectives.An individual may ask us
to help them improve their relationships with colleagues, or to be more infuential in the
boardroom, for example. Or a coaching sponsor may contract with us to help an otherwise
talented and promising leader to stop fying off the handle at their direct reports. (Hall,
2013, p. 177)
At other times, the clues might be in the client’s language or in the way they show
up, and the coach can be curious about the underlying emotions.When a client says, for
example, “there’s nothing I can do about my workload”, or “I don’t know how to get
my manager to listen to me”, there will be emotions behind those statements, which
careful listening and questioning from the coach can elicit. Or the client’s body might
reveal emotions – the client’s voice shakes when they talk about a diffcult relationship
at work, or they may fdget when they are talking about the deadlines they are strug-
gling to meet.
Emotions are not just about our feelings – they pre-dispose us to action. Emotions
shape both how we act, and what actions are available to us.When I am happy, I will see
different options available to me than when I am sad; when I am resentful, I will perform
the same tasks differently than I might if I were feeling grateful or content. Another way
of putting this is that emotions tell a story – sadness tells us that we have lost something
we care about; anger tells us that a boundary has been violated or an injustice perpetrated;
boredom tells us that there is nothing to engage us; a client who is feeling hopeless will
experience coaching itself very differently from one who is enthusiastic.
This last example is especially relevant; if a client is resigned and doesn’t believe they
can change, then no coaching goal or idea for action is going to mean much until we
address the underlying emotions. Whilst it is true that coaching is about helping people
choose different futures, the coach has to be able to be with a client who feels that she has
no choices. A coach who is not prepared to say,‘I just can’t see a way forward for you on
this one’ … and share the coachee’s sense of frustration and impotence, is likely to seem
out of touch with the coachee’s world. (Hardingham, 2003, p. 30)
 Using emotions in coaching 145
The path for the coach
It would be so much easier for coaches if there were specifc tools and techniques for
working with emotions in coaching.
Those new to coaching (and also experienced coaches at times) will often ask for lists
of powerful coaching questions, or ask what to do when a coachee is sad, tearful or angry,
but that’s like asking for effective chat up lines; it ignores that chat up lines and coaching
questions and interventions are useless out of context – what makes both effective is the
connection. It requires leaving the “script” behind and being fully present with the other
person.
It’s not so much what the coach does that matters in coaching as how the coach is – the
coach’s presence in the coaching relationship:“When we meet the other, it is our presence
that helps them more than our words” (Murdoch, 2011). Or, as Jung advised his students,
“learn your theories as well as you can, but put them aside when you touch the miracle of
the living soul” (Jung, Baynes and Baynes, 1928).
The importance of the relationship in coaching cannot be overstated.
When we are really in tune with someone else, we know a lot about what they are
feeling. As Lewis and colleagues noted, the attuned therapist “doesn’t just hear about a
[client’s] emotional life – the two of them live it” (Lewis,Amini and Lannon, 2000, p. 178).
Stephen Burt observes that “when my children were young they often knew how I was
feeling before I did. From another room, they could hear how I put my keys and bag down
when I arrived home and sometimes ask,‘What’s the matter, daddy?’” (Burt, 2019, p. 4).
That kind of listening is not something we can develop a technique for – it’s something
that can only come from working on ourselves. “What makes the difference between a
good coach and a great coach is on-going work on yourself ” (Whitmore, 2006).
Sometimes techniques can even get in the way. Coaches can be drawn to questions like
“What would you do if you weren’t afraid?”, and, whilst such questions might get the client
to think beyond their fear and consider different actions – if they don’t push them away
completely – they are likely to close down curiosity about the client’s fear and prevent a
deeper enquiry.When the coach listens more deeply, they also feel, and express, empathy
and compassion.They not only get insights and understand the nub of a coachee’s issue,
they are also affected by how a coachee experiences what they are describing.They learn
to feel who the coachee is and how they are. (Burt, 2019, p. 21)
The big question for coaches is how to meet the client where she or he is, without
needing to get away from the moment.
In order for coaches to be able to work comfortably with coaches’ emotions, the frst –
and on-going – priority is for the coach to do her or his own work. If we fnd a client’s
emotions diffcult then, as John Whitmore observed, we will be more concerned with
managing our own discomfort than being present with the client (Whitmore, 2006).
Moreover, we also need to think about what it is that makes us label an emotion as
diffcult:

We want to defne diffcult emotional situations as those that give the coach a ‘bad
feeling’, i.e. those that tend make the coach feel uncomfortable in some way, and to
acknowledge that what is termed a diffcult emotion may vary from coach to coach.
(Cox and Bachkirova, 2007, p. 180; my emphasis)
146 Aboodi Shabi
The therapist’s “every preconception about how a person should feel risks misleading
him as to how that person does feel”. (Lewis,Amini and Lannon, 2000, p. 183) Instead of
jumping away from an emotion that we as the coach fnd diffcult, how can we meet it,
honour it, legitimise it, so that we can connect with the client?
What has shaped our own learning about emotions? We can see from the examples in
the frst part of this chapter that coaches are just as immersed in narratives about emotions
as our clients; and that is the frst place for our work:We need to explore our own nar-
ratives. “Nietzsche claimed that a philosopher’s system of thought always arises from his
autobiography, and I believe that to be true for all therapists” (Yalom, 2013, pp. 31–32).As
coaches, how has our autobiography, our emotional history, shaped our own systems of
thought and our approaches to coaching?
The more work we do on ourselves, exploring our own uncomfortable emotions, etc.,
and the more we understand that it is not the truth that sadness is “bad” or “negative”, that
it is not the truth that being emotional is a sign of weakness, the more we can be present
and simply listen and encourage a coachee who is sad, or stuck, or unable to feel joyful or
optimistic without having to “fx” anything or reassure them. Simply put, doing our own
work enhances our capacity to be of service to our clients – this is not an intellectual or
theoretical journey, but a lived experience. Hassidic wisdom tells us that,

if you want to raise a man from mud and flth, do not think it is enough to stay on
top and reaching a helping hand down to him.You must go all the way down yourself,
down into mud and flth.Then take hold of him with strong hands and pull him and
yourself out into the light.
(Buber, 2002, p. 85)

In a very real sense, the coach can be said to be taking a lead in opening up the emotional
space. As we’ve seen, clients might not legitimise, nor even acknowledge, some of their
emotions. If the coach isn’t able to acknowledge and legitimise those emotions in them-
selves frst, then there is no space for those emotions to be expressed and worked with
in coaching. If a client is telling themselves to “get over” their sadness, or that their anger
is not OK, and the coach goes along with that, then no useful work can be done. If the
coach is comfortable with their anger or sadness, then they open a door for the client to
acknowledge it and be present with it.
As John Whitmore observed, this work is an on-going process, a lifetime’s work; it can
take many forms – the most obvious of which is supervision – a place where we can start
to explore any emotions that come up in coaching (either our own or the client’s) which
we fnd challenging, or cause us to react.Whilst supervision is a great professional resource,
sometimes we need to do more personal work; for example, by exploring our emotional
selves in individual therapy, or by looking at how who we are impacts others and at how
we are impacted by the feelings of others in group therapy. All of these will help us to
develop our own emotional intelligence, which “for the purpose of coaching … can be
understood as the ability to understand our own feelings, notice the emotions of others,
and, importantly, change our behaviour based on this information” (Van Nieuwerburgh,
2017, p. 128).
A coach is not just a neutral or distant observer of the client.We also need to be inti-
mately involved in the coaching conversation, immersed in the connection and, if we are,
then we will be impacted on many levels by the client, by what she or he is saying, and
not saying, and by how they are being. It’s this intimate relationship that forms the heart of
 Using emotions in coaching 147
working with emotions in coaching, and it requires, as we have seen, deep and on-going
personal work on the part of the coach.

Approaches to working with emotions

Whilst the importance of our own work in this area cannot be overstated, there are things
we can do in our coaching work that, while they wouldn’t really be called techniques, are
helpful approaches in opening up the world of emotions in coaching.
Firstly, we can be curious about the coachee’s emotions.
What do we notice in the client, as they are speaking about their issue or goal? What
emotions do they show or consciously speak about? What might we notice in their bodies
or language that might be a cue for an unexpressed emotion? For example, a client might
say,“I don't see a way out of this”, or “I should keep going” or “I have to do everything”.
Or the client might sit forward and become animated when speaking about some aspect
of their coaching topic, or tense up their shoulders as they speak about their boss. We
can be curious about what we notice, bringing our client’s attention to what we see, and
we can ask questions about what emotions that language or somatic behaviour might be
conveying.
Of course, we need to approach all of this with care and with the client’s permission,
but the primary preparation lies in developing our own comfort with emotions and sen-
sitivity to them, and in sharpening our curiosity about what we observe.

Box 14.1
Yitzhak comes to coaching, talking about his diffculties in managing his team. Initially, he speaks
in a matter-of-fact way, and talks about his frustration with the pressures he and they are facing,
and how hard it is for people to perform their workload. As he continues, he starts to tear up,
and apologises. I let him know that his tears are fne, and ask him if we might explore further. He
agrees, and he starts to speak about how what he really cares about is the well-being of his team,
and how he feels frustrated with the organisation because he feels pressured to push people hard
when they are already too busy.As we explore, he talks about the kind of manager he wants to be –
someone whom people can talk openly to, especially when things are hard, and how he might
bring more of that into his current work situation. He talks about what that might do for his team.

Secondly, we can be curious about our own emotions.What do we notice in ourselves as

the coachee is speaking? What is happening to us as the client speaks? We as coaches can
look at our own emotional state, and notice and be curious about any changes that occur
during the coaching conversation.We might notice, for example, that we feel sad when a
client talks about not achieving her goals, or angry when a client tells us about how his
boss is treating him.While it is true that our attention needs to be on the client, we can
also be aware of what might be happening to us emotionally when we are present with
our coachee as a whole person. Our reactions might serve the coaching, by surfacing
things that are not explicit in the client’s words, or just open up an avenue for exploration
(or rejection) by the client. If my emotional state changes when a client is speaking, then I
can at least be curious (without being attached to being right) about what might be hap-
pening with the client that could be causing that change in me. Or we might notice that
we are closing down or resisting a particular emotion the client is exhibiting, or an aspect
148 Aboodi Shabi
of what the client is saying, which we might then take to supervision to refect on what
stops us from being open to that.
Whilst it may seem as if this is “all about the coach”, this curiosity about our own emo-
tions is a function of being present with a client.That closeness “evokes genuine emotional
responses in the therapist – he fnds parts of himself stirring in response to the particular
magnetism of the emotional mind across from him” (Lewis, Amini and Lannon, 2000, p.
178). It helps us to become more aware of our own instrumentality and to acknowledge
“the use of self as our prime asset in achieving the helping relationship. It is not an option
but the cornerstone of our work” (Cheung-Judge, 2001, p. 12).

Box 14.2
Conchita comes to coaching talking about quitting her job as a teacher. Initially she says that her
mind is made up, that she has stopped caring about education and that she would be “only too glad
to see the back of those kids”.As we spoke, she talked about “not caring” being her “go-to place”
when things got diffcult ever since she was young.The more she talked about her past, and about
how she had “learned not to care”, the sadder I was feeling, even though she remained impassive
and her tone wasn’t changing. Eventually, I told her that listening to her I wanted to sob my eyes
out. At that, she softened slightly, and began to talk about the pain she had been feeling that she
hadn’t wanted to admit. It was a strong and intense moment between us, and the coaching began
to shift. She acknowledged that underneath the not caring lay a profound sadness.We started to
explore how she might listen to her sadness and her care for her work, and how she might address
the challenges of the work.

We can also be curious about what emotions the client has learned. As we saw earlier in
this chapter, we are shaped by the narratives we have been immersed in, and these nar-
ratives shape our actions. James Flaherty calls this process the “structure of interpreta-
tion”, an interpretation that will persist across time, across events, across circumstances.
Our job as coaches will be to understand the coachee’s structure of interpretation,
then in partnership alter this structure so that the actions that follow bring about the
intended outcome. (Flaherty, 1999, p. 9) This builds on the notion of structural deter-
minism, developed by the Chilean neuro-physiologist, Humberto Maturana (Leyland,
1988, p. 360).“Structural determinism is the idea that things operate according to how
they are made. Just as mechanical objects operate according to their structure, so we
human beings act according to how we have been shaped” (Shabi and Whybrow, 2019,
p. 220).
Clients might have grown up learning that it isn’t OK to be angry, or to be told that
“boys don’t cry”, or to always look for the positive. There might have been family or
cultural pressures in favour of certain emotions and against others. Exploration of these
might help a client to understand more about why some emotions are diffcult for them
(and to consider what value there might be in feeling a previously less-expressed emotion).
Crucially for coaching, if we come to see that at least some of our emotionality is a func-
tion of learning, then we can “learn” new emotions.
We cannot teach a new emotion by instruction, but we can learn a new emotion by
immersion. Because limbic states can leap between minds, feelings are contagious, while
notions are not. If one person germinates an ingenious idea, it’s no surprise that those in
the vicinity fail to develop the same concept spontaneously. But the limbic activity of
 Using emotions in coaching 149
those around us draws our emotions into almost immediate congruence. (Lewis, Amini
and Lannon, 2000, p. 64)
We might enquire of a client about the emotions of the groups they live and work in,
and we can help them to think about the impact of those and whether they might choose
to engage with groups where different emotions might be more available.While there are
many determinants of happiness, whether an individual is happy also depends on whether
others in the individual’s social network are happy. Happy people tend to be located in the
centre of their local social networks and in large clusters of other happy people. (Fowler
and Christakis, 2008)

Box 14.3
Daphna comes to coaching wanting to explore how to better handle the pressures of her new
role. As we talk, she talks about how serious and important her work is, and as we continue to
explore, she acknowledges that she has always been rather serious.As a young girl, she had to take
care of her younger siblings while her parents were working, and there was little time for play or
joy in her early life.We spoke about how she had learned to prioritise work over pleasure, and that
she found it “very hard to just let go and be light”.We explored where she might go to experience
playfulness and she agreed to try out comedy improv. Although she found it very uncomfortable
at frst, she began to enjoy the improv sessions and reported that she was being more playful in her
social life and enjoying her friends’ lightness rather than withdrawing from it as previously; she was
starting to feel less pressure at work as she progressed in her new position.

Finally, an important part of the work we can do in this feld is to help clients legitimise
their emotions and learn from them, rather than focusing solely on solutions.
When we as coaches can listen, we create a space for our clients to acknowledge their
own emotions and to become more curious about them. This requires patience on the
part of the client, resisting the temptation to move quickly towards a solution. It is com-
mon for clients to report that they can speak about things in coaching that they can’t
speak about elsewhere. In a real sense, a large part of the value of coaching is the relation-
ship and the space we give our clients to refect more deeply on the issues they are facing
and their underlying causes and emotions. It’s a space that we miss in our everyday very
busy lives.“People don’t often have the chance to tell their stories in this unhurried way”
(Hardingham, 2003, p. 112).

Box 14.4
Anja turns up to a coaching session, wanting to “talk about relationships”.At frst the conversation
is abstract and impersonal, but, with gentle enquiry, she begins to open up and eventually admits
that her marriage is failing and that she is scared of acknowledging her sadness because she might
“not be able to stop crying”.What she wants is a “solution”. I ask her to consider that there might
not be an immediate solution, and ask her what support she might need as she navigates the dif-
fcult journey ahead. She acknowledges this, and identifes a few close friends who can be there for
her to support her in her sadness and “hold” her as she fgures out the path ahead. A few months
later, she refected on the role that our coaching had played, not so much in providing a solution
as allowing her to feel the emotions as her marriage unravelled and to be able to share those with
her friends and receive support from them at a very painful time.
150 Aboodi Shabi
Finally, a note of caution. Sometimes coaching isn’t enough. A client who has severe
attachment issues might, as we saw above, give up at the frst obstacle. Coaching might
help the client to understand that they have been shaped by this early learning, but therapy
might be what they need to help them work with this at the appropriate level. A coach
needs to know when to make this distinction.

Conclusion
There is much to be gained from working with emotions in coaching, for the client, but
also for the coach.The more comfortable we are with our own emotions, the more pre-
sent we can be with our clients. The on-going challenge for us as practitioners is to do
what we can to open our hearts.“But it requires an open heart to really feel how another
feels.An open heart gives us the empathic capacity to connect directly with another per-
son from within” (Scharmer, 2013).

References
Brescoll, B. and Uhlmann, E. (2007). ‘Can an angry woman get ahead? Status conferral, gender, and
expression of emotion in the workplace’. Psychological Science, 19(3), pp. 268–275.
Buber, M. (2002). Ten rungs: collected hasidic sayings. London: Routledge.
Burt, S. (2019). The art of listening in coaching and mentoring. London: Routledge.
Cheung-Judge, M.-Y. (2001).‘The self as an instrument’. OD Practitioners, 33(3), pp. 11–16.
Cox, E. and Bachkirova,T. (2007). ‘Coaching with emotion: How coaches deal with diffcult emotional
situations’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(2), pp. 178–189.
Dickens, C. (1861). Great expectations. London: Chapman and Hall.
Didion, J. (2012). The year of magical thinking. London: Fourth Estate.
Duffel, N. (2000). The making of them. London: Lone Arrow Press.
Ehrenreich, B. (2007). Dancing in the streets:A history of collective joy. London: Granta Publications.
Ehrenreich, B. (2009). ‘Overrated optimism:The peril of positive thinking’. Time Magazine, 10 October
2009. Retrieved on 23 March 2020 from http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,19
29155,00.html.
Flaherty, M. (1999). Coaching: Evoking excellence in others. London: Routledge.
Fowler, J., and Christakis, N. (2008).‘Dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: Longitudinal
analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study’. British Medical Journal, 337. Retrieved on 18
June 2020 from https://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a2338
Hall, L. (2013). Mindfulness in coaching. London: Kogan Page.
Hall, L. (2019). Coach your team. London: Penguin.
Hardingham, A. (2003). The coach’s coach. London: CIPD.
Hart,V., Blattner, J. and Leipsic, S. (2001).‘Coaching versus therapy – A perspective’. Consulting Psychology
Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), pp. 229–237.
ICF. (2019). ‘Core competencies’. Retrieved on 16 March 2020 from https://coachfederation.org/core
-competencies.
Jung, C.G., Baynes, H.G. and Baynes, C.F. (1928). Contributions to analytical psychology. London: Routledge.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Penguin.
Kilburg, R. (2004). ‘When shadows fall: Using psychodynamic approaches in executive coaching’.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 56, pp. 246–268.
Kofman, F. (2006). Conscious business: How to build value through values. Boulder: Sounds True.
Levine, R. (1997). A geography of time. New York: Basic Books.
Lewis,T.,Amini, F. and Lannon, R. (2000). A general theory of love. New York: Random House.
 Using emotions in coaching 151
Leyland, M. (1988). ‘An introduction to some of the ideas of Humberto Maturana’. Journal of Family
Therapy, 10, pp. 357–374.
McKenna, D.D. and Davis, S.L. (2009). ‘Hidden in plain sight: The active ingredients of executive
coaching’. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2, pp. 244–260.
Murdoch, E. (2011). International Coaching Federation, UK Conference, London.
O’Broin, A. and Palmer, S. (2007). ‘Reappraising the coach–client relationship:The unassuming change
agent in coaching’. In S. Palmer and A. Whybrow, eds., Handbook of coaching psychology: A guide for
practitioners. London, UK: Routledge, pp. 471-486.
Scharmer, O. (2013). ‘Uncovering the blind spot of leadership’. Blog Post. Retrieved on 23 March 2020
from www.dailygood.org/story/450/uncovering-the-blind-spot-of-leadership-c-otto-scharmer/.
Shabi, A. and Whybrow, A. (2019). ‘Ontological coaching’. In S. Palmer and A.Whybrow, eds., Handbook
of coaching psychology:A practitioners guide. London: Routledge, pp. 219–228.
Shpancer, N. (2011). ‘Child of the collective’. The Guardian, 19 February 2011. Retrieved on 23 March
2020 from www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/feb/19/kibbutz-child-noam-shpancer.
Smither, J.W. (2011).‘Can psychotherapy research serve as a guide for research about executive coaching?
An agenda for the next decade’. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, pp. 135–145. doi: 10.1007/
s10869-011-9216-7.
van der Kolk, B. (2015). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. New York:
Random House.
van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2017). An Introduction to Coaching Skills:A Practical Guide. London: Sage.
Whitmore, J. (2006).Association for Coaching Conference, London, May 2006.
Yalom, I. (2013). Love’s executioner. London: Penguin.
15 Balancing challenge and support in
coaching
Ian Day

Introduction
When reading a counselling textbook about the use of challenge in therapy, the words
used to describe challenge included “manipulation”, “confrontation”, “aggression”, “con-
trol” and “abusive”. All of these words are shocking and a long way from what I under-
stand by “challenge”. However, for many people these words are valid, and show how
loaded the word “challenge” can be. Words carry an emotional weight which is greater
than the mass of the letters which make up the word itself.This emotional weight is based
on the experience of the reader and the associations made between words and experi-
ence. In this chapter I wish to move beyond the emotionally loaded words, and explore
challenge, explain what challenge is and how challenge can be used to have a very posi-
tive impact on coaching outcomes.To do this, I will discuss the origins and principles of
coaching, and will introduce challenge as a positive coaching intervention, exploring the
support / challenge matrix as a model for fnding the right balance in a coaching relation-
ship. I will introduce the concept of the Zone of Uncomfortable Debate (ZOUD) and
use this to explore how coaches can challenge effectively in their work. I will also consider
the barriers to challenge in coaching and discuss how challenge can be used positively by
coaches to move beyond the limitations of the accepted norm of non-directive person-
centred coaching.

The value of challenge

Coaching is about helping the client develop awareness, and through awareness comes
change.The coach can assist the development of awareness by holding up a mirror.This
can provide a complete refection of self, and by looking in the mirror the client can
answer the question “is my perception reality?” Alternatively, if the coach tilts the mirror,
then the client will see an image from a different angle, a new refection and a new pos-
sible reality.
Coaching has the power to stretch and help people be as they want to be today and
as they want to be in the future. Coaching has the ability to enable clients to be more at
ease with themselves, be more accepting, more self-aware and to be more present. But
coaching also has the power to create greatness for the future, to move clients out of
their comfort zone to realise their latent potential, enabling sustained individual change.
The “ripple” effect of this individual change can be felt in organisations and societies as a
whole, in the short- and long-term. As Sir John Whitmore said, “coaching is bigger than
coaching”. But for this to happen, coaching must be more challenging and move away
 Balancing challenge and support 153
from the notion that non-directive person-centred coaching, which focuses on supporting
the individual, is the only way to coach.

The evolution of coaching

Consider the evolution of the coaching profession and the infuences on its early develop-
ment. Coaching is a very young profession. Unlike other professions, such as medicine,
engineering and accountancy, which have existed for hundreds of years, coaching is a
young and immature profession. For example, Sir John Whitmore, Graham Alexander
and Alan Fine pioneered coaching in the UK in the 1980s with the GROW model, the
EMCC (European Mentoring and Coaching Council) was formed in 1989; Coaches
Training Institute (CTI) was founded in 1992 by Laura Whitworth and Karen and Henry
Kimsey-House; and the International Coaching Federation was formed in 1995 by
Thomas Leonard.
However, even in this short span of time, the coaching profession has changed, devel-
oped and adapted.We have seen coaches specialise in approaches such as cognitive behav-
ioural, solutions focused and somatic coaching, and we have experienced the infuence of
neuroscience and the growth of team coaching and mindful coaching.We have seen the
development of coaching supervision as the means of supporting coaches in their practice.
Most of all, coaching is now accepted as the most powerful mainstream personal develop-
ment process.
This rapid progression has been aided by the associated profession of counselling.
Coaching shares a signifcant proportion of its DNA with counselling. For example, there
are signifcant similarities relating to the skills used by both a therapist and a coach. Both
a therapist and coach will focus on the individual and try to support and accept the indi-
vidual for who they are.The therapist’s/coach’s role is to build trust, to listen and ask the
right questions, tackle diffculties and work on behavioural change. This relates to the
subjective experience of the client, and the effectiveness of the intervention is correlated
to the quality of the relationship between therapist/coach and client.
However, there are also signifcant differences in terms of the topics of discussion. For
example, a therapist is likely to focus more on processing the past, helping a client manage
periods of mental illness, trauma, abuse, addiction or stress, etc.
Through the connection with counselling, coaching has gained the sound theoretical
underpinnings developed by Carl Rogers (1957 and 1967). Carl Rogers was one of the
most infuential thought leaders within the profession of counselling. In the 1940s he
developed the person-centred therapeutic approach, which suggested the therapist could
be of most help to clients by allowing them to fnd their own solutions to their problems.
This was a non-directive approach, with the therapist holding the belief that clients have
within themselves vast resources for development and the capacity to grow.The therapist’s
role is to create the conditions where growth is encouraged. Carl Rogers’ “core condi-
tions” of empathy (ability to sense the client’s world as if it were your own, through active
listening, summarising, refecting, paraphrasing, clarifying and acknowledging, etc.), con-
gruence (the therapist is open to own feelings, without front or façade) and unconditional
positive regard (non-judgmental acceptance that each person is worthy).
Since its origins, non-directive person-centred coaching has become the overriding
accepted approach. The competency frameworks of the professional coaching bodies
frmly place non-directive person-centred coaching at their centre. As a result, tradi-
tionally, coaching comes from a very supportive stance, helping an individual grow and
154 Ian Day
develop. Most coaching literature and coach training programmes focus on the supportive
skills which a coach needs to build trust and rapport:

• Understands and consistently applies coaching ethics and standards of coaching;

• Develops and maintains a mindset that is open, curious, fexible and client-centred;
• Partners with the client and relevant stakeholders to create clear agreements about the
coaching relationship, process, plans and goals. Establishes agreements for the overall
coaching engagement as well as those for each coaching session;
• Partners with the client to create a safe, supportive environment that allows the client
to share freely. Maintains a relationship of mutual respect and trust;
• Is fully conscious and present with the client, employing a style that is open, fexible,
grounded and confdent;
• Focuses on what the client is and is not saying to fully understand what is being com-
municated in the context of the client systems to support client self-expression;
• Facilitates client insight and learning by using tools and techniques such as powerful
questioning, silence, metaphor or analogy;
• Partners with the client to transform learning and insight into action. Promotes client
autonomy in the coaching process.
(Defnitions from the updated ICF Core Competency
Model October 2019)

Take a moment to refect on these behaviours and ask yourself if these skills dominate
your understanding of coaching, and consider the proportion of time you have spent
developing these skills while in coach training.
A great deal of the accepted coach rhetoric proposes that non-directive person-centred
coaching is sacrosanct and is “the” way to coach. Breaking away from what coaches have
read and have been taught seems like sacrilege. As a result, this traditional non-directive
person-centred stance goes unquestioned. However, the reluctance to do this introduces
the three risks of collusion, irrelevance and self-obsession (Blakey and Day 2012, Culley
and Bond 2011).

• Collusion arises when the coach is only asking questions in a very supportive fash-
ion, being non-directive and predominately taking a “clean” approach. Here, there is
a risk that the coach might collude with the client and align 100% with their world-
view, failing to challenge or provide feedback from an alternative perspective;
• Irrelevance occurs when the coach always holds to the client’s agenda, regardless of
the wider or alternative perspectives. In this situation it is possible that, by the end
of the second coaching session, the coach will help improve the client's golf swing
rather than address the ‘real” issue which the client may be avoiding.Whilst this is a
deliberately extreme example, in the midst of a coaching session, how many coaches
reading this book have ever asked themselves the following question “How does this
relate to my client’s stated goal, and what are they avoiding?”
• Self-obsession is the risk of fuelling the “me, me, me” attitude which can lead to
hedonism and detachment, focusing purely on the client’s agenda, which exacerbates
a myopia rather than developing a greater awareness of the wider context of the con-
nected system in which we all live and operate.

These three risks have signifcant implications for non-directive person-centred coaching.
But, as this is the accepted rhetoric, it cannot be questioned.Yet coaches should challenge
 Balancing challenge and support 155
Challenge

Performance

Support

Figure 15.1 Balance between Support and Challenge

themselves harder to question the limitations of traditional approaches.To be constructively

critical, to evaluate and to augment rather than destroy. This augmentation comes in the
form of challenge.Through support and challenge, coaching becomes much more powerful.

Support and challenge

Nevitt Sanford (1967), and later Laurent Daloz (1986) found that, within a student envi-
ronment, the optimum learning occurs when there is a balance between the levels of sup-
port and challenge. See Figure 15.1.
Support refers to acts which affrm the value of the client and reduce uncertainty and
anxiety. Confdence is built by focusing on qualities and achievements.Through empathy,
the client feels heard, understood and feels trust.The client is OK where they are and feels
capable of moving on when they are ready. Support involves active listening, demonstrat-
ing empathy, acceptance and the coach having a positive expectation of outcome, provid-
ing confdence, affrmation and a sense of safety.
As mentioned earlier, there is an emphasis on these supportive skills in coach training
and within the coach professional bodies. So, for the beneft of this chapter, I will focus on
the less familiar but equally important aspects of challenge, with the aim of readdressing
the balance.

What is challenge?
Challenge refers to interventions that compel the individual to face their current reality
and to meet the changing expectations of their stakeholders and the wider world around
them (Blakey and Day 2012).Within the 63 competency statements from the ICF, there
is one that stands out:

Challenges the client as a way to evoke awareness or insight.

(from the Updated ICF Core Competency Model
October 2019, from section 7. Evokes Awareness)

It is understandable that coaches don’t use challenge.What does it say about the value of
challenge when there is 1 out of the 63 ICF competency statements? Also, too often peo-
ple actively avoid challenging interventions, fearing that these will cause disruption and
create ill will.The limit of this approach is that the absence of challenge risks complacency
and indulgence.At worst, the outcome is apathy and disinterest (Culley and Bond 2011).
156 Ian Day
When the stakes are high, a lack of challenge allows people to play safe and play small
in an ever-demanding environment that is requiring us to “step up” and address big issues
that call for a new way of thinking and being.
I propose a conscious, intelligent use of both support and challenge, so the coach can
dynamically shift between the two, depending on the circumstances and environment. So,
at this point, let me clarify what challenge is not.
Challenge is:

• Not directive;
• Not adversarial;
• Not aggressive;
• Not offensive;
• Not uncontrolled;
• Not based on the coach’s personal agenda;
• Not rescuing the vulnerable;
• Not “fxing” the client;
• Not imposing a “right” way of doing things.

As coaching is about helping the client develop awareness, and so change (Culley and
Bond 2011), the coach can assist the development of awareness by holding up a mirror,
which may show a refection of reality which the client does not wish to see. Despite the
denial, the refection is reality to be faced.
What challenge is:

• Holding up the mirror for the client to view an alternative reality;

• Encouraging the client to evaluate their actions, motives, thoughts and assumptions;
• Encouraging the client to think for themselves, rather than act based on historical
experience or habits;
• Positively confronting the validity and implications of assumptions;
• Recognising that assumptions are personal and unique to every individual and not
factual reality;
• Encouraging the client to consider alternative perspectives;
• Providing direct feedback on the impact of what the client has said, and how it has
been said;
• Creating doubt and so stimulating thought and refection;
• Creating awareness of inconsistencies and contradictions between intention and
action, between differing assumptions, between feelings and actions; for example,
between stated aim and action, or between body language and words spoken;
• Creating awareness of words used by the client such as “should”,“ought” and “must”;
• Developing awareness of, and overcoming,“blind spots”;
• Exploring potentially self-defeating beliefs;
• Shifting the client beyond their self-perceived limitations;
• Creating change by stepping out of a comfort zone of habits, embedded through
many years of reinforcement;
• Positively confronting and moving beyond inertia;
 Balancing challenge and support 157
• Developing awareness and removing blockages to the client’s achievement of their
stated aim;
• Holding the client accountable for actions they have agreed to undertake;
• Naming avoidance of a topic or action and so developing awareness to address the
real issues;
• Replacing vagueness with clarity;
• Accepting personal responsibility rather than defecting and blaming others;
• Acknowledging and accepting behaviour that is inhibiting change;
• Exploring deeply to develop a greater level of self-awareness;
• Creating a sense of agency and self-empowerment;
• Exploring different self-images;
• Identifying patterns and “joining the dots” so that a picture, unseen until now, becomes
obvious to the client;
• Identifying potential unintended consequences;
• Playing back unacknowledged feelings, such as “I’m sensing you’re angry about what
happened to you”;
• Helping growth, development and sustainable change.
(Sanders, Frankland and Wilkins 2009; Culley and Bond
2011; Heron 2012; Hargie 2018)

The key to challenge is that it is a skill which can be developed by the coach. Like the sup-
portive skills such as rapport, empathy and active listening, the capability to challenge can
be learnt. Also, challenge is variable in level. The same coaching intervention (questions,
refection, silence, etc.) can be experienced differently by every person. Everyone’s expe-
rience of challenge is unique, so a coach needs to be skilled and fexible to calibrate the
optimal level of challenge appropriate for each client. Challenge may be in many different
forms, and may be the opposite to the client’s expectations or experience. For example,
a person familiar with a noisy and energetic environment may fnd it challenging to deal
with silence and refection. Real and deep listening may be challenging when the person
has experienced being ignored with superfcial engagement.As Laurent Daloz (1986) said
“for what is support for one person may be challenge to another”. As a result, challenge
is a diffcult concept.
Challenge is deliberate and conscious. Challenge is not accidental, nor is it an uncon-
trolled emotional reaction or impulse. Challenge is always in service of the client (and
sponsoring organisation, where appropriate).This is very different to a boss who is stressed
out, demanding that a team member achieves an impossible objective, or a frustrated par-
ent or teacher scolding a child. Challenge requires skill and practice.

Support and challenge

Now we understand what challenge is, let us explore further and expand on support and
challenge by using the 2×2 matrix in Figure 15.2 (Blakey and Day 2012).
If we consider the low-challenge/low-support quadrant, there is inertia and apathy.
If this is all the coach can offer, there will not be much interaction, no action, nothing.
This environment is too dull, and the client becomes bored, disinterested and the “why
bother?” question looms large, resulting in a lack of motivation to act. The low-support
/ high-challenge quadrant produces stress. This is a scary place in which we get fright-
ened, defensive and hostile. This can be confrontational, stressful and may seem like an
158 Ian Day

Figure 15.2 Challenge and Support Matrix

interrogation. However, this can also expose the client to new ways of thinking. Done skil-
fully, for short periods of time, this can help develop resilience and create dramatic shifts.
The high-support / low-challenge quadrant is the “cosy club”, this is far too comfortable
and, in this zone, we don’t reach our maximum potential. In this zone there is high empa-
thy, active listening and questioning, but also the risks which we discussed earlier includ-
ing collusion. Here there is acceptance, nurturing, but there is no moving on and possible
dependency on the coach.The high-support / high-challenge area is where growth and
development really takes place.This is the “loving boot” which can stimulate and “kick” or
“nudge” a person to pursue a new direction or goal and to achieve their stated aim.This
is where the client can really explore, through support and challenge awareness is raised,
which can provoke the client into new ways of being.This is the optimum balance of sup-
port and challenge (Egan 2017).
The point of this 2×2 matrix is to encourage coaches to think about where they might
be as the coaching sessions develop and deepen as the external circumstances change.Take
the metaphor of a train on a track, it can only go forwards and backwards and on a lim-
ited gradient. Now compare this with a 4×4 all-terrain vehicle, which has the power and
ability to go in any direction as the environment changes. If we switch back to coaching,
often we have a preferred coaching style or a default position. Link this with the coach
training focusing on a person-centred approach, which is viewed as sacrosanct, and the
coach develops skills without knowing that they will be a train on a track, only able to go
one way. As a coach, can you develop the skills to choose to operate effectively in any of
the quadrants of the support challenge matrix? With the exception of low-support/low-
challenge, growth can occur in any of these quadrants, as long as the coach has developed
the skills to work in these areas.
Consider a client who appears “stuck”. Coaching session four seems pretty much the
same as sessions two and three.There is no change, the conversation seems to repeat itself
and there is no progress.The client is stuck. Something is holding them in their current
state of being. If we believe that there is a reason for every behaviour, then it is the duty
of the coach to help the client to develop awareness of their “stuckness”. This is done
through challenge and holding up the mirror. For example:
 Balancing challenge and support 159
• “The objective you identifed in session one was … we’re now in session four, how
do you feel about that objective now?”
• “It seems that each session we’re discussing the same things, and nothing has changed,
how do you see this?”
• “What’s holding you back?”
• “Why are you sabotaging yourself?”
• “Whose time are we wasting?”

These are progressively more challenging questions, not to be delivered like a machine
gun. The coach should judge pace, so it is calm and refective, allowing silence to take
a role, but always serving the client to achieve their stated aim, even if this requires the
exploration of uncomfortable topics.

The zone of uncomfortable debate

Let us consider how conversations and interactions take place and look at a model devel-
oped by Cliff Bowman (1995) (see Figure 15.3). The centre of the diagram represents
the core of the issue which, once discussed, provides the key to making a breakthrough;
moving understanding to the next level, or moving an idea forward, unblocking a prob-
lem or resolving an argument. Around this are two concentric layers, frstly the “zone of
comfortable debate” and, secondly, the “zone of uncomfortable debate” (ZOUD).When
two people interact, the conversation begins in the zone of comfortable debate, and then,
depending on the situation, may or may not move into the ZOUD. How individuals
respond when in this uncomfortable zone will determine if the issue at hand is resolved
and the people involved in the conversation get to the heart of the matter, or whether
they avoid the tension and move back into the comfortable zone. The model proposes
that people in an interaction must work through the ZOUD, rather than avoid it, to make
progress.
When an interaction begins between two or more people there is typically a period
of small talk, rapport building and developing an understanding of common ground, etc.
This is where the conversation is easy and nice, feels relaxed and there's no tension.The
people are chatting about easy, obvious things – for example, catching up on news and
gossip, what has happened since they last met, common interests such as sport and family
and there is a simple exchange of information.These “watercooler” conversations are very
straightforward and are frmly in the zone of comfortable debate.
If this conversation is to be more than a social chat, there is usually a matter at the
heart of the discussion. The parties have come together for a purpose – to agree action,
to decide, to resolve a problem, etc.To achieve this, a socially comfortable conversation is
not suffcient and, to get to the heart of the issue, the conversation must move to a zone of
uncomfortable debate. In this zone there is a feeling of increased tension.The pressure starts
to build as the parties may disagree and may not see “eye to eye”.What often happens is
that the individuals feel the tension, fnd it uncomfortable and, fearing that the pressure
will permanently damage the relationship, move the conversation back out to the zone
of comfortable debate.The tension is diffused and the rapport is maintained, but the mat-
ter at hand has not been resolved. The core issue is still the same and no movement has
taken place.To resolve the issue, the conversation must stay in the ZOUD and the parties
work through it to uncover differences in understanding, assumptions and motives, etc. By
160 Ian Day

Zone of
Comfortable Debate

Zone of
Uncomfortable Debate

Heart of
the ma er
‘the elephant
in the room’

Figure 15.3 Zone of Uncomfortable Debate (ZOUD)

sustaining the ZOUD people can move to the heart of the issue, resolve it permanently
and then move on to a new topic.
The heart of the issue is like having an “elephant in the room”. Here is something
enormous that is taking up signifcant space. However, the “elephant” is not dealt with
directly as it is such a big and diffcult animal. Perhaps we don't want to make the elephant
angry in case it damages the whole house, or maybe we are too polite to comment on it.
What happens is that people fnd innovative and creative ways to move around the “ele-
phant”, to manage it and live with it. Until they face up to the fact that there is actually an
“elephant in the room” and try to remove it directly, the situation will remain unchanged.
Facing up to this fact and dealing with it is going to be uncomfortable – there are risks
involved, so this is like entering the ZOUD.
Coaches frequently work in diffcult areas of personal development and must be pre-
pared to go into the ZOUD and hold the tension until the “heart of the matter” is opened
up and resolved.
There are risks associated with this; through the challenge and tension of the ZOUD,
the coaching relationship could be irreparably damaged.The coach may feel that there is
a risk of rapport being lost and so releases the tension, moving the conversation back to
the benign zone of comfortable debate. So, there is an elaborate dance of dialogue that
takes place around the core issue.There is one step into the ZOUD and then a step back
into the zone of comfortable debate, and the dance continues without addressing the sig-
nifcant issues. A more constructive strategy is for the coach to stick with the tension and
accept it as positive and constructive.This uncomfortable feeling is inevitable and essential
to get to the heart of the matter, and so there needs to be the confdence to stay in the
ZOUD and confront challenging issues.
Another risk is that the individual may lose resourcefulness, they may feel tense and
stressed and lose the ability to draw on their natural cognitive abilities. In this state there
can be a great deal of unguarded openness, and things may be said that are unchecked
as the client expresses hidden issues which may be unknown to either party.This loss of
resourcefulness is the place for support, so that the challenge and tension created in the
 Balancing challenge and support 161
ZOUD is balanced by support, so that the client’s resourcefulness is restored.At this point,
the coach does not exit ZOUD but offers supportive statements or an observation, which
enables the client to “regroup”, take a breath and then move forward through the ZOUD.
This is to balance support and challenge.
During this process the coach may also feel a loss of resourcefulness, the coach may
be out of their comfort zone, with the natural inclination to reduce the challenge and
move back to the zone of comfortable debate. Again, an authentic statement such as
“I can feel real tension here!” helps connect the coach and the client, so the client
knows that the coach feels as they do, and this breaks the tension for a moment before
moving on.
Have you ever done something so diffcult that you felt like giving up? For example,
running a marathon for the frst time. Runners describe “hitting the wall”. In a physical
sense, this is the same as the ZOUD.With determination, visualisation of the fnish line,
and maybe a pause for breath, the runner regains the physical and mental resources to
continue the marathon. So, when a coachee or a coach “hits the wall”, take a breath and
then continue.
When I talk to coaches about challenge, some say that they are already doing it.
However, I am not talking about powerful questions to make the coachee stop and think,
or the use of silence, which may be uncomfortable, encouraging depth of thought.There
is nothing new here. Real challenge moves a client outside of their comfort zone, they
confront issues, take risks and work towards achieving their stated aim.
However, if a coach develops awareness of the value of having challenging behaviours
in their repertoire and has the skills to deploy these frequently, then they will be more like
the all-terrain vehicle. They will be able to serve both individuals, sponsoring organisa-
tions and society more effectively to create sustained renewal.This is about the ability and
choice of the coach.

Barriers to challenge
Challenge may be rarely seen, as some coaches may have diffculty with this as a concept.
As a coach you may believe that you are a nice person who is there to help serve your
client.When I started coaching, I certainly wanted to help people as coaching had helped
me.This addresses the self-image that the coach has of their role.With all the coach train-
ing and professional bodies emphasising the importance of rapport, being non-directive
and holding the client in unconditional positive regard, challenge seems a long way away
from this. But, it is how “help” is perceived by the coach and client and recognising the
three risks identifed earlier.
Barriers to challenge include:

• The coach is personally uncomfortable with challenge, based on previous experi-

ences or personal preference (to explore this further, consider the Thomas Kilmann
Inventory);
• The coach assumes that the client is not ready for challenge, thinks it’s too soon and
so delays until the time is right, which never comes;
• The coach feels that the client has some vulnerability and so cannot be challenged,
believing that the client is too fragile and could not handle it;
• The coach believes that challenge would permanently damage the rapport of the
coaching relationship.
162 Ian Day
These are all to do with the perceptions and assumptions of the coach, which may or may
not be true. For example, these assumptions may be based on the coach’s previous experi-
ence of working with another client. However, what if a coach held the following beliefs
to be true about my client:

• Clients are whole and resourceful;

• Clients are capable of choice;
• Clients have freedom to act and change;
• Clients are inherently good and creative;
• Clients seek to fulfl their full potential, and are capable of greatness.

If I believe these assumptions were true about my client, then I can provide challenge.
Clients are not broken or vulnerable, I do not need to rescue them or keep them safe and
small.To challenge is to trust that the client can achieve their greatness.

How to challenge
As long as a coach can embrace the philosophical value of challenge, they can develop the
skills through practice. For some, unpicking years of non-directive person-centred training
and rhetoric can be very diffcult.
The key to challenge is to diminish the impact of the coach’s own ego.There is noth-
ing to prove. Through adult-to-adult communication, which is calm, matter-of-fact and
non-critical, the coach can challenge. A coach can share their perspective, thoughts and
feelings as a question rather than a statement of fact, and then the client is able to answer
the question.
This is a matter of congruence for the coach. Congruence has been described as a
state of being, when the outward responses consistently match the inner feelings towards
a client.When congruent, there is a match of thoughts, feelings to the words spoken and
action taken. There is consistency. Carl Rogers wrote about congruence being the basis
of trust, that being perceived as trustworthy requires the therapist to be “dependably real”.
Through congruence,“It is only in this way that the relationship can have reality” (Rogers
1967).
This is the same for the coaching profession, but, congruence does not seem to be as
valued or discussed. In his seminal book On Becoming a Person (1967), Carl Rogers com-
mented that

The therapist “permits as little of his own personality to intrude as is humanly pos-
sible”.The “therapist stresses personal anonymity in his activities, i.e., he must studi-
ously avoid impressing the patient with his own (therapist’s) individual personality
characteristics”.To me this seems the most likely clue to the failure of this approach.

Carl Rogers wrote this in 1967, but why are coaches still trying to be invisible and deny
their own thoughts and feelings, fearing these would have a negative infuence on the
coaching space? Are coaches promoting incongruence and so denying one of Carl Rogers’
three core conditions, preventing challenge in the process?
 Balancing challenge and support 163
Conclusion
When I’m asked when a coach should challenge, I say “challenge sooner”. I want to
emphasise that the purpose of this chapter is to balance support and challenge. I’m not
saying that one is good and the other is bad, I’m saying that there needs to be a balance.
Support and challenge are necessary and suffcient to create sustained change for the cli-
ent. But, with only one, either one, the possibility of big signifcant change is limited.
Challenge creates a gap between the client’s perception and reality. The client seeks
balance and equilibrium and is motivated to act, questioning assumptions, querying their
worldview and considering alternative perspectives.
Non-directive person-centred coaching is the foundation on which a coaching rela-
tionship is built, but is not suffcient to create the change which the client is seeking. Non-
directive person-centred coaching should not be the only building material that is used.
Challenge is a skill that needs to be practised and implemented with great sensitivity and
there is a fne line between helpful challenge and destructive challenge. Too many of us
have experienced destructive challenge, and the word challenge has an added but negative
weight.With the current coaching rhetoric, there is an under development of the skills to
effectively challenge.
Coaching has learnt much from counselling, but maybe not enough. There is a rich-
ness of complexity and subtlety which provides greater understanding. Rather than simple
acceptance, coaches need to question and explore further.To challenge and support.

References
Blakey, J. and Day, I. (2012). Challenging coaching: Going beyond traditional coaching to face the FACTS. London:
Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Bowman, C. (1995). ‘Strategy workshops and top-team commitment to strategy change’. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 10(8), pp. 4–12.
Culley, S. and Bond,T. (2011). Integrative counselling skills in action. London: Sage.
Daloz, L. (1986). Effective teaching and mentoring: Realizing the transformational power of adult learning
experiences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Egan, G. (2017). The skilled helper:A client-centred approach, 5th ed. Belmont: Cengage Learning EMEA.
Hargie, O. (editor). (2018). The handbook of communication skills, 4th ed. London: Routledge.
Heron, J. (2012). Helping the client:A creative practical guide, 5th ed. London: Sage.
Rogers, C.R. (1957).‘The necessary and suffcient conditions of therapeutic personality change’. Journal
of Consulting Psychology, 21(2), pp. 95–103.
Rogers, C.R. (1967).On becoming a person:A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. London: Robinson Publications.
Sanders, P., Frankland, A. and Wilkins, P. (2009). Next steps in counselling practice: A students’ companion for
degrees, HE diplomas and vocational courses. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
Sanford, N. (1967). Where colleges fail:A study of student as person. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Whitmore, J. (2017). Coaching for performance: The principles and practice of coaching and leadership, 5th ed.
London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Section 4

Coaching approaches
16 The universal eclectic model of
executive coaching
Alison Hardingham

Introduction
“The world is so full of a number of things, it’s a wonder we aren’t all bats!” quipped
Ogden Nash. Faced with the number of tools and the diversity of technique available to
coaches, we could be forgiven for appearing slightly batty to our clients. We know that
they get beneft from choice and variety in working towards their goals (de Haan, 2012),
but they need that choice and variety served up by a coach who is a master of their craft
and can select and present a range of tools with confdence, wisdom and fnesse. They
need, in short, an eclectic approach. In this chapter we point the way to expanding and
deepening your eclecticism whatever your stage of development as a coach.

The Universal Eclectic Model

People have long been interested in how human beings learn and grow. Over the centu-
ries, a whole variety of theories have sprung up, each of which focuses on some aspects
of how human beings learn and grow.There is, for example, Socratic dialogue (Clark and
Egan, 2015), which emphasises the value of open questions in exposing assumptions and
provoking changes of view; there is David Kolb’s theory of experiential learning, which
places thoughtful experimentation at the heart of change (Kolb, 1984); and many, many
more.
The science of psychology embraced and furthered much of this thinking. It also,
importantly, subjected the theories to test, seeking to establish an evidence base for them.
An eclectic model recognises this rich diversity of theory and evidence. It orders it within
a specifc discipline and acknowledges what each contributing strand can offer. The
Universal Eclectic Model of executive coaching is within that tradition of eclecticism.
The eclectic model covers eight major psychology-based sources of coaching tools:
Person-centred, Gestalt, systems, psychodynamic, evolutionary, behavioural, cognitive-
behavioural and biological.
The model identifes which aspects of human learning and growth each major source
focuses on; in other words, what theory of change is being applied. Person-centred
approaches assume that change is natural, providing the “fundamental conditions” are in
place (warmth, genuineness and unconditional positive regard). Gestalt approaches assume
that increases in awareness are key to change. Systems approaches recognise the central-
ity of context in determining the course of change, and indeed in determining whether
or not change can occur: Unless the system changes, nothing changes. Psychodynamic
approaches focus on the deep forces which operate out of awareness in our uncon-
scious minds. They argue that change comes from revisiting the past and experiencing
168 Alison Hardingham
it differently. Evolutionary approaches prioritise the processes of natural selection and
human development, and place emphasis on the need for change to refect these; the
insights available from neuroscientifc research are examples here (Ellis and Solms, 2018).
Behavioural approaches emphasise the importance of rewards and punishments in chang-
ing behaviour. Cognitive-behavioural approaches include many tools for helping people
to think about things differently and pick the route to change they favour. Biological
approaches include all the somatic work that many coaches know and fnd extremely use-
ful, such as breathing exercises, relaxation and movement; these approaches draw attention
to the physical nature of being a human and seek to enable change through using the
body differently.
The eclectic model is intentionally inclusive.The list of approaches I have given above
is not a defnitive list; as the name implies, this model can be expanded to cover anything
that can be used and is useful, and where there is at least the possibility of providing evi-
dence of its effcacy. For example, within the Universal Eclectic Model lie tools and tech-
niques which derive from organisational development and management theory. Examples
are Peter Senge’s work with his colleagues at MIT on systems thinking and the learning
organisation (Senge et al., 1994) and also Cooperrider’s method of appreciative enquiry
(1995). Coaches also make frequent use of tools such as SWOT analysis (ten Have et al.,
2003), Kurt Lewin’s “force feld analysis” for planning effective change (Lewin and Gold,
1999) and, of course,William Bridges’ framework for managing transitions (Bridges, 2003).
Whilst we can in principle identify the roots of many of these tools in the eight catego-
ries I outlined, in practice, they have simply acquired their reputation through organisation
development and management applications in which they have proved very effective.
Many of the most useful tools for a coach come from a hybrid mix of different schools
of thought.
Sports psychology has given us the “inner game” approaches (Gallwey, 1975), for exam-
ple. Indeed, the founders of management coaching in its modern form, including Sir
John Whitmore (Whitmore, 2002), began as sports coaches.They learned many tools and
techniques coaching sports people that turned out to be effective in the management con-
text (Hardingham, 2004). Sports psychology takes whatever fndings in psychology prove
relevant and applies them in the sportsfeld.
Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) is another well-known hybrid mix which, like a
jay, has borrowed and stolen from a wide range of approaches. It is an interesting exam-
ple of a school of thought that claims to be “theory free”. It evolved through studying
effective therapists who consistently enabled change and enabled it fast, and took the
techniques that they used and built them into a repertoire of “excellence”. Of course, the
theoretical underpinnings are vast, if not generally acknowledged. In fact, Ian McDermott,
a UK NLP practitioner, proposed four elements that represented the essence of an NLP
approach in which we can clearly identify some of the contributing theories (McDermott,
2003). These elements are: The capacity to establish and maintain rapport (person-cen-
tred); an outcome orientation (behavioural); heightened sensory acuity (biological); and
great behavioural fexibility (cognitive-behavioural).
Carole Kauffman’s PERFECT coaching model represents yet another way of concep-
tualising the vast array of tools and techniques at the coach’s disposal (Kauffman, 2010).

What makes an activity eligible for inclusion?

The next question is this:Are there boundaries round what the Universal Eclectic Model
can and cannot incorporate? My view is that there are no absolute boundaries. Others
 The universal eclectic model 169
certainly share this view. Philippe Rosinski writes, for example, “Coaching is the art of
choosing an effective approach in a given situation, of creatively combining technical
tools, models, and perspectives to address specifc challenges, and of devising innovative
processes to serve coachee needs” (Rosinski, 2003, p. 5). James Flaherty writes that “coach-
ing is a principle-shaped ontological stance … any activity [is] coaching when the onto-
logical stance is [appropriate]”(Flaherty, 1999, p. 13). In fact, coaches are inventing new
things to do with their clients every day, proposing new questions and new ways of being
that may help their client make progress towards their goals.
Put simply, it is the intent of the coach and the context of the coaching which deter-
mine the eligibility of an activity.The intent must always be to support another in “reach-
ing her goals” (Flaherty, 1999, p. 3) and in no way to manipulate or otherwise control.
The context that must be taken into account includes: The expertise and characteristics
of the coach, the culture of the client (and I am using “culture” in its broadest sense), the
coaching relationship as a whole, and the organisational and/or societal context in which
the coaching is taking place. If an activity is used with integrity, and with sensitivity to the
client’s context, the worst that can happen is that it will prove ineffective, and even then
there will be learning from that, sometimes more than from a “successful” application of
technique.
Megginson and Clutterbuck (2005, p. 9) present useful practical advice which refects
these principles. “[The] coach should use the technique openly and in consultation with
the client; and … the technique’s intended effects should be discussed and agreed before
embarking on it”.

How does the coach select the right tool for the job?
Whilst the coaching literature abounds with descriptions of tools and techniques from all
the sources we have identifed and more, there is little guidance on how to choose one
technique, or even one approach, over another in a given situation. The eclectic model
implies “mix and match”. But how to mix, and what to match?
The existing literature is rather silent on these points. Beyond general exhortations such
as to “be aware of the underlying assumptions about learning [in the different methods]”,
(Zeus and Skiffngton, 2002, p. 86) for example, and to “integrate cultural perspectives” in
choosing how to work with a client (Rosinski, 2003, p. xix), the literature leaves it largely
up to the coach to judge which approach to use in response to the specifc work required
for a specifc client.Those books which present an eclectic range of techniques (such as
Hardingham, 2004; Megginson and Clutterbuck, 2005; Bossons et al., 2012) tend to group
techniques from all the different approaches together, choosing to categorise them by type
of coaching work undertaken rather than by originating approach. So, for example, you
will fnd as recommended techniques for “developing self-awareness” a contribution from
the world of psychometric assessment, a technique from the psychodynamic approach,
one from management theory, one from a creative thinking self-help book and a use
of “parallel process” – a direct application of a method from psychodynamic thinking
(Hardingham, 2004).
So whilst there are many frameworks for matching tools and techniques with the
type of coaching activity to be undertaken, there do not appear to be frameworks for
deciding on an approach. Why might a coach, for example, decide to use a technique
which had its origins in cognitive psychology rather than a behaviourist one? Why
would she ask at a particular time “What does success mean to you?” rather than “Can
you describe how you will know when you have achieved your goal?”And the decision
170 Alison Hardingham
of which question to ask is not trivial: The frst question leads to an exploration of
belief systems which may change the whole orientation of coaching, the second to
a behavioural specifcation which can be used immediately to focus on and measure
progress.
I think there are two primary reasons for the paucity of advice on this point. Firstly,
choice of approach must be a matter for the coach’s judgement. To catalogue in a pre-
scriptive way all the dimensions to which the coach must attend as he makes that judge-
ment would be impossible. Many relevant dimensions are in any case totally situation
specifc. For example, perhaps my client has had a “bad experience” with a hypnotherapist.
However apt an Ericksonian-style story (Rosen, 1982) might be to the issue that client is
wrestling with, a wise coach is unlikely to go down that path, for such stories and the way
they are told are frmly rooted in the practice and philosophy of hypnotherapy.To use such
a method would show insuffcient regard for my client’s sensitivities.
The second reason why we will not fnd a great deal of guidance on which approach to
use when is that the vast majority of coaching tools and techniques are themselves hybrids.
For example, a coach may take a complete history of a client at the start of a coaching rela-
tionship. Superfcially, this would seem to be heading down a psychodynamic path (Jacoby,
1984), as the client describes her family of origin, important childhood experiences and
so on. But the coach may simply listen respectfully – a client-centred approach (Rogers,
1951) – or use the information from that history to identify the distinctive competen-
cies the client brings to her current dilemma – a solution-focused approach (O’Connell,
1998), to name just a couple of alternative directions the coaching may take.
It seems to me that the important thing is for coaches to understand as much as they
can about as many of the tools and techniques they use as possible. If they match that level
of deep and broad understanding with a similar level of appreciation of their client and his
context, they will be well placed to mix and match to good effect.
And here is a fnal and, it seems to me, signifcant beneft of the eclectic model: It
encourages an exploration of all the different contributing felds, an exploration which,
through comparison and contrast, educates developing coaches in what specifc tools and
techniques are for, where they come from and what assumptions they rest on. I only fully
understand a hammer when I have also learned to use a mallet and a screw-driver.

What are the benefts of an eclectic approach?

I have already mentioned many benefts of the more creative, diverse and resourceful style
of coaching which follows the eclectic model. In theory at least, an eclectic approach
enables a technique to be selected which fts the client’s requirements exactly, rather than
requiring the client’s issue to be framed to ft a particular approach. (In practice, of course,
an eclectic approach in the hands of an unskilled coach may just mean that a different
“wrong” technique is selected for every occasion. At least if the only tool you have is a
hammer, it will work on nails when nails come along. If you have the complete toolkit but
no idea how to use it, you will have trouble even with nails!)
Another important beneft of the eclectic approach is that it does not assume a high
level of knowledge of different approaches and their consequences on the part of the cli-
ent. The client and coach can work together to discover which techniques (and hence
which approaches) work best in that particular coaching relationship. If the coach is skilled
and fexible enough, the coaching may come to follow a single approach predominantly
 The universal eclectic model 171
– but that approach will have been chosen as a result of mutual exploration and experi-
mentation by coach and client, not because the client “just happened” to choose a coach
who was an expert in a particular approach.
Finally, the Universal Eclectic Model avoids imposing a particular philosophy of how
human beings develop and change as a by-product of coaching. Each of the several
approaches drawn on is likely to be based on a different philosophy, so the client is exposed
to many philosophies as part of the eclectic coaching process and in all likelihood not
over-infuenced by one. As the “medium is the message”, if a single approach is followed,
the risk is that the most potent infuence of coaching on the client is a covert one. If my
coach is, for example, skilled only in “Inner Game” methods (Gallwey, 1975), I may come
to believe as a by-product of being exposed exclusively to those methods that I can only
change aspects of myself that I am aware of.Yet systems approaches tell us that change can
also result from responding unconsciously to change in others, psychodynamic thinking
tells us that change can result from re-experiencing the past and strict behaviourism tells
us that awareness is an unnecessary construct!

What are the risks of an eclectic approach?

There is a risk that the eclectic model becomes in practice a collection of disparate tech-
niques, none of which are understood by the coach nor experienced by the client in any
depth.After all, most of us would agree that a person may have several “episodes” of coach-
ing in his life.There is an opportunity to experience different approaches in full in distinct
episodes, rather than have many approaches sampled in a single episode. Many approaches,
such as solution-focused work, cognitive approaches and psychodynamic approaches ben-
eft from one or more sessions entirely devoted to their use.Too much eclecticism could
rob the client of some very useful experiences.
There is also a risk that the focus of coaching begins to be on “fnding something that
will work” rather than on supporting the client in a process of change and development
which has its own pace and rhythm. Techniques must remain secondary to relationship,
as so many authors and researchers in the feld of coaching and other related felds have
emphasised. Perhaps the renowned family therapist Salvador Minuchin put it most suc-
cinctly in his classic text “Family Therapy Techniques”: “The goal is to transcend tech-
nique … Only a person who has mastered technique and then contrived to forget it
can become an expert therapist”(Minuchin and Fishman, 1981, p. 1). Paradoxically, an
adherence to one specifc approach can enable the coach to be freer from attending to
technique in the moment of coaching than does a commitment to eclecticism.The eclec-
tic coach may have to divert too much of her attention away from the client and towards
making choices about interventions, rather than be able to relax into a well-trodden path
which by its very nature limits the feld of choice.
Finally, there is a risk that techniques will be used without the client being clear where
they come from and what their effects are likely to be.Whereas commitment to a single
method usually begins with an explanation of the principles and disciplines behind that
method, if a single technique from a general method is used, its origins may never be fully
understood by the client. So she may be less in charge of the application of that technique,
more in the position of having the technique “done to her” than of participating equally
in exploring what it has to offer. This runs counter to the very essence of coaching: To
enable another to act more, and with more creativity and self-direction.
172 Alison Hardingham
How can we get the best from the Universal Eclectic Model?
My experience as a coach, and as a trainer and supervisor of coaches, suggests to me that to
apply the eclectic model effectively requires quite a long period of professional develop-
ment. It is important for coaches to be exposed to, and have the opportunity to practise,
a number of different approaches in some depth. Many very skilled coaches who I know
and have worked with began with a strong grounding in one particular approach that was
often learned in a different context from coaching. They subsequently became curious
about other approaches, and developed their understanding and skills in those, without
of course losing comfort with their “frst love”. I can think of other skilful coaches who
have always operated with a degree of eclecticism and have continued to develop their
repertoire throughout their coaching practice. But they have studied and understood each
approach from which they draw techniques in its own right: They do not just collect
“techniques”; they explore methods and philosophies behind techniques.
This constant attention to one’s own development means that the coach is moving in
and out of “conscious” and “unconscious competence” all the time. If we believe with
Flaherty (1999, pp. 11–12) that the coach needs to be learning herself to be effective for
her client, then this is another advantage of following the eclectic model.
Developing coaches need to be aware of which approaches are most consistent with
their own values, beliefs and style.That is one of the reasons why it is important to iden-
tify where a tool comes from, for only then can one tell whether the model of change
on which it depends is a model of change which one can personally hang one’s hat on.
So another essential part of an eclectic coach’s development is development in knowing
himself. Minuchin (1981, p. 10) put it well in describing the developmental path for a
family therapist: “Eventually a disconnected cluster of skills becomes an integrated style
that fts with his person”.
Finally, it seems to me that it is essential that the eclectic model is not itself applied
in a purist way. The effectiveness of the coaching process should not be judged by how
many different approaches the coach uses.There is some indication in the literature that
clients fnd diversity of technique helpful (de Haan, 2012). But sometimes it will meet
the needs of a specifc client better to conduct a whole programme of coaching following
one approach alone.
Of course, it should be an approach selected by the coach for that client, rather than
the only one the coach knew.

From theory to practice: A short case study

Andy is an executive in an international bank. He began a programme of executive coach-
ing as part of the standard development package for the “top 120” high potentials:Those
individuals considered to have the potential to make it to the Executive Committee in fve
years or less. I was appointed his coach, and this case study draws on notes I took during
and after each coaching session with him. Andy gave his permission for this material to
be used.
What Andy wanted from his coach was “challenge and support to articulate and realise
his career and leadership aspirations”. He wanted to explore the difference between being
a manager and being a leader, and felt he “could do better”. More specifcally, he wanted
to articulate his distinctive characteristics as a leader and plan to use these more effectively
in his current and future roles in the bank. His ultimate goal was to have a Managing
Director or equivalent role in a corporate environment.
 The universal eclectic model 173
As his coach, I used elements of the solution-focused approach (O’Connell, 1998),
both at the start of his coaching and whenever new goals and aspects of goals emerged, to
enable Andy to focus on what precisely he wanted to change and to measure his progress
towards his goal.Also, when Andy developed a tendency to ask me for advice, I chose the
solution-focused approach to adjust the balance of responsibility-taking. Several times that
approach put Andy “back in the driving seat”.
In the frst session with Andy, I took a complete biography from him, including infor-
mation about his family relationships and his entire growing-up, education and career
so far. This is a typical starting point for me, and it generally forms part of the explicit
coaching contract up-front with a prospective client. So it was built into Andy’s expecta-
tions and it was one of the reasons he chose to work with me as his coach. I identifed
with him, as I had said I would, some interesting themes and patterns from his formative
years which seemed relevant to his situation today (Lee, 2003). For example, he found
some aspects of himself as a child which he decided could represent the foundation of
real areas of distinctive strength for him as a leader. He is the eldest of four children. He is
close to all his siblings, and “made space” for them as they came along, one after another.
Academically he is the most successful, but he is frmly grounded as a result of his family
upbringing in the view that everyone is equal, that people have different talents, and that
elitism and self-importance are inappropriate and unhelpful. I led him in an exploration
of how he balances a drive to achieve with an equally strong drive to build and be part of
his family, initially, and later, teams and groups.Again the parallels with his family position
and dynamic were striking to him as he recounted his history, and the sense of his lead-
ership style continued to emerge. I moved between a “client-centred” approach, simply
listening and responding as he refected on the personal and professional journey which
had brought him to this point, and some interventions from a cognitive basis to expand
his view of his own possibilities. For example, he had seen his “lack of extremes”, his
“balanced” approach to life, as a sign of moderated ambition and maybe lower leadership
potential. Someone had sold him the idea of “leadership spikes” – extremes of character
which make a leader known and unique – and he thought he didn’t have any; I asked him
questions which led to his questioning that view. Maybe he did have leadership “distinc-
tions”, even if he didn’t have “extreme” behaviours, he began to think.
This “cognitive reframing” became a theme for several sessions. One of the reasons I
used it was that Andy said from the start he liked to be challenged. And indeed, when he
was challenged, it was noticeable that his energy levels and attentiveness increased.
I suggested using a psychometric questionnaire in the third session to help Andy fur-
ther in his quest to differentiate himself, but he had taken such questionnaires before and
did not want to do another at this time.
Whilst on this journey with his coach, a new problem emerged for Andy. He began to
feel blocked and bored in his current role. Now the focus for coaching was to fnd a new
role in the bank. He wanted to do some practical and business-focused work to get out
of a situation which was threatening his motivation and his relationship with the bank.
I sped up the pace of our work, and used some systems-thinking tools with him to help
him develop his plan of action (mapping the roles and the relationships connected with
different opportunities [Hardingham, 2004], understanding how diffcult it would be for
him to develop further personally while his scope for leading was so limited by his place
in the system). I also used a Gestalt technique (Hardingham, 2004) to help him prepare for
a diffcult conversation with his current boss in which he needed to elicit that boss’s sup-
port to move on.That technique was in itself challenging for Andy as he had never done
174 Alison Hardingham
anything like it before, and it increased his sense of urgency about making changes.The
meta-messages in the use of that technique at that time were “Do something different”,
and “There is no time like the present”.
Once he had found a new role, his opportunities to develop as a leader increased greatly.
He now had proft and loss accountability for a unit of 60 staff. I used a couple of busi-
ness-based tools – force-feld analysis (Lewin, 1999), and the “Trust Equation” (Maister,
Green and Galford, 2002, pp. 69–83) – as well as some visioning exercises (Megginson and
Clutterbuck, 2005) to enable him to clarify what he needed to do to realise the potential
of his business unit and his potential as a business leader. Again, there was a strong theme
in the coaching of breaking new ground and moving on, in recognition of the business
imperatives and the new level of role.Andy used coaching sessions to learn how to coach
his own direct reports, and so the behavioural technique of “modelling” (his coach mod-
elled with him the kinds of conversations he needed to be having with others) now came
explicitly to the fore.The coaching relationship continued for a year, with sessions every
month.

Conclusion
I hope that this case study elucidates some of the competencies required to implement
effectively the Universal Eclectic Model. But as I refected on this case and the write up, I
thought with some dissatisfaction about what it said, and what it did not say.
The reason why this piece of coaching was successful is not to be found in the inter-
weaving of tools and techniques according to the Universal Eclectic model. The rea-
son is to be found, I believe, in the nature of the relationship between coach and client
(Passmore, 2006). It is to be found in the degree and style of engagement, the quality of
mutual respect, the points of striking similarity and profound difference of view. It is to be
found in the everyday coaching conversation with all its jokes, arguments and dead-ends.
So the fnal point which needs to be made about the Universal Eclectic Model, or
indeed any other model of coaching, is this: It is good to have an extensive and well-
understood toolkit drawn from different approaches. But maybe what is most important
about having such a toolkit is not the range of tools in itself, but the fact that having such
a range takes away our anxiety that we might not be able to “think of something to do”.
The release from anxiety enables the coach to be authentic and fully present, and that is
the essence of coaching.

References
Bossons, P., Kourdi, J. and Sartain, D. (2012). Coaching essentials: practical proven techniques for world-class
executive coaching. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Bridges, W. (2003). Managing transitions: making the most of change. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Clark, G.I. and Egan, S.J. (December 2015). ‘The Socratic method in cognitive behavioural therapy: A
narrative review’. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39(6), pp. 863–879. doi: 10.1007/s10608-015-9707-3.
Cooperrider, D. (1995).‘Introduction to appreciative enquiry’ In Organization development, 5th ed. Ed D
L Anderson New York: Prentice Hall.
De Haan, E., Duckworth, A., Birch, D. and Jones, C. (2012).‘Executive coaching outcome research:The
contribution of common factors such as relationship, personality match, and self-effcacy’. Consulting
Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 65(1), pp. 40–57. doi: 10.1037/a0031635.
Ellis, G. and Solm, S.M. (2018). Beyond evolutionary psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Flaherty, J. (1999). Coaching: Evoking excellence in others. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
 The universal eclectic model 175
Gallwey, W.T. (1975). The inner game of tennis. London: Pan Macmillan.
Hardingham, A. (2004). The coach’s coach: Personal development for personal developers. London: Chartered
Institute of Personnel and Development.
Jacoby, M. (1984). The analytic encounter:Transference and human relationship.Toronto: Inner City Books.
Kauffman, C. (2010).‘The last word: How to move from good to great coaching by drawing on the full
range of what you know’. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 3(2), pp.
87–98.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning as the science of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall.
Lee, G. (2003). Leadership coaching: From personal insight to organizational performance. London: Chartered
Institute of Personnel and Development.
Lewin, K. and Gold, M. (1999). The complete social scientist: A Kurt Lewin reader. New York: American
Psychological Association.
Maister, D., Green, C. and Galford, R. (2002). The trusted advisor. London: Simon & Schuster.
McDermott, I. and Jago,W. (2003). Your inner coach. London: Piatkus.
Megginson, D. and Clutterbuck, D. (2005). Techniques for coaching and mentoring. Oxford: Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Minuchin, S. and Fishman, H.C. (1981). Family therapy techniques. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
O’Connell, B. (1998). Solution-focused therapy. London: SAGE Publications.
Passmore, J. (2006). Excellence in coaching:The industry guide. London: Kogan Page.
Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy. London: Constable and Company.
Rosen, S. (1982). My voice will go with you:The teaching tales of Milton H. Erickson. New York: Norton.
Rosinski, P. (2003). Coaching across cultures: New tools for leveraging national, corporate and professional differences.
London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Senge, P.M., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R.B. and Smith, B.J. (1994). The ffth discipline feldbook:
Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
ten Have, S., ten Have,W., Stevens, F. and van der Elst, M. (2003). Key management models:The management
tools and practices that will improve your business. London: Pearson Education.
Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for performance: Growing people, performance and purpose. London: Nicholas
Brealey Publishing.
Zeus, P., and Skiffngton, S. (2002). The coaching at work toolkit: A complete guide to techniques and practices.
Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
17 Behavioural coaching
The GROW model
Sarah Leach

Introduction
The GROW model is the most widely used coaching model in the world. On one hand it
is incredibly simple, but on the other it allows coach and client to work at depth on topics
with clarity and purpose.This chapter looks to explore the GROW model as a structure
that supports and enables the process of change through behavioural coaching. In other
words, the process in which a client is taught, trained and guided towards learning a new
behaviour. In behavioural coaching, the role of the coach is to facilitate the development
of new behaviours which help the client achieve their goal.With this in mind, the GROW
model provides a clear and simple structure for any coach to use as the foundation of their
coaching conversation, when trying to enable a behavioural shift that encourages the cli-
ent to see new possibilities and new ways to overcome a challenge or barrier to change.
This chapter explains what the GROW model is, how it is used in practice, offers tools and
techniques for use within the GROW framework, explores when the framework works
best and offers examples of commonly used GROW questions.

The GROW model explained

The GROW model was developed in the 1980s by John Whitmore, Graham Alexander
and Alan Fine as a result of observing and refecting on coaching conversations with sen-
ior executives, and noticing an underlying pattern in the structure of these conversations
(Alexander and Renshaw, 2005).Alexander (2016) noticed that it wasn’t always possible to
predict how the conversation would develop, but that a clear structure occurred in most.
To capture this structure in a simple and memorable format that other coaches could use
and repeat, the GROW model was developed.
GROW is made up of four simple steps and stands for Goal, Reality, Options and
Wrap-Up, (sometimes called Will or Willingness) (see Figure 17.1). In practice, there are
actually fve steps, as the model starts frst with identifying a topic (known as T-GROW).
Once a topic is defned by the client, the session starts with a goal being set and a meas-
urable outcome agreed for the coaching conversation.This is followed by understanding
and exploring the reality of the current situation, where the client may begin to uncover
some potential issues and barriers to change. The next step is options, where possible
solutions to the problem are explored and preferred solutions identifed.At this point, the
conversation enters the fnal wrap-up stage where the coach tests the client’s will to enable
the change. Here, options are discussed, implications reviewed, actions determined and a
willingness to commit is tested. Finally, the coach checks in with the client to see if the
goal of the coaching session has been achieved.
 Behavioural coaching 177

Goal setting for session

NEW
behaviour Step1:
GOAL

Agree specific action Step4:

Step2: Exploration of
and determine WRAP- TOPIC REALITY current situation
willingness to commit UP

Step 3:
OPTIONS

Identify possible solutions

and preferred choice

Figure 17.1 The GROW model

The great thing about the GROW model is that it easily allows the coach to use other
tools and techniques at each stage of the process, a few examples of which we will explore
later in the chapter. Scoular (2011) describes GROW as an accordion that expands in and
out as much as you want depending on the time available and the nature of the topic being
discussed. As with any other tool or technique, it is important not to become obsessed
with the rigour of its application and to allow the coaching to remain fuid, natural and
authentic within this framework (Alexander, 2016), responding in the moment to the
presenting issue as appropriate (see Figure 17.1).

Behavioural coaching theory and research

The origins of the behavioural perspective lie in the work of Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner,
Edward Thorndike and John B.Watson, who identifed through their research with ani-
mals that learning occurred through association (classical conditioning), through interven-
tions (rewards or punishments) designed by the “instructor” (operant conditioning) and
through social processes (social learning). While both classical and operant conditioning
still unconsciously underpin much of our approach to human resources management in
modern workplaces, the ideas of Albert Bandura and his social learning theory have been
widely accepted as infuencing human learning and have infuenced the development of
behavioural-based coaching approaches (Eldridge and Demkowski, 2013).
The popularity of the behavioural approach is closely related to the desires of manag-
ers and organisational coaching purchasers who wish to see tangible (behaviour change)
outcomes from the coaching process.
178 Sarah Leach
In noting the behavioural infuence, it is also important to acknowledge the role of the
human potential movement in the development of the GROW model, specifcally the
work of Tim Galewey in his book the “Inner Game of Tennis” (1986).
While there has been substantial research into the development of behavioural psy-
chology, this research has not been extended to assess the impact of behavioural coaching
per se. The small number of studies which have taken place focus on measurement of
goal attainment (Eldridge and Demkowski, 2013). One example is Anthony Grant’s com-
parative study (2001). Grant sought to compare the effects of cognitive, behavioural and
cognitive-behavioural coaching on academic performance, study skills, self-regulation,
mental health, private self-consciousness and self-concept.The study had 3 cohorts of 20
students which each received coaching using one of the 3 approaches and also included
a control group. Trainees in the cognitive-only cohort reported enhanced study skills
and increases in their deep achieving approaches to learning, reduced anxiety and lower
levels of depression. However, academic performance declined relative to the control
group. In the behavioural-only group, students showed reduced study-related anxiety and
improved academic performance.The fnal group which received cognitive behavioural
coaching also demonstrated improved academic performance and reduced anxiety cou-
pled with enhanced study skills, self-regulation and self-concept. Grant concluded that
the combined cognitive and behavioural coaching program was the most effective means
of enhancing both performance and well-being. Beyond this research, few studies have
compared different approaches or explored the effectiveness of specifc models such as
GROW.

GROW in practice
The model starts with a topic, something identifed by the client that they want to dis-
cuss. It is important to remember that the responsibility for the topic and the coaching
goal remains frmly with the client (Bossons et al., 2012).Topics suggested by the client
can often be quite vague as the client struggles to pin down exactly what they want to
discuss. Hardingham (2004) points out that clients turn up to coaching conversations in
the middle of busy lives and, consequently, it can take time for them to settle, park the
background noise and day-to-day distractions in order to focus on the issue. It is impor-
tant to spend time unravelling the component parts so that a specifc topic becomes clear.
Gaining this insight and focus often plays a large part in resolving the topic (Alexander,
2016). Once the client identifes a clear topic, the rest of the model follows as described
below.

Step 1: Goal
Step 1 is to agree on the goals for the coaching session itself, i.e. determining a specifc
outcome from the conversation. At this stage the use of SMART goals, or other simi-
lar approaches (see Figure 17.2), can be helpful to establish measurable outcomes. It is
perfectly normal for the goals of the sessions to change several times before the client
commits to a fnal clear vision (Bossons et al., 2012). If multiple goals present themselves,
which is often the case, a simple question such as asking the client, “Which of these do
you want to work on today?”, can help to bring focus to the session.
It can sometimes feel that a disproportionate amount of time is spent in the goal-setting
stage; however, the greater the control and clarity the client has over setting the coaching
 Behavioural coaching 179

S Specific P Positively stated C Challenging

M Measurable U Understood L Legal

A Agreed R Relevant E Environmentally sound

R Realistic
E Ethical A Realistic

T Timed R Timed

Figure 17.2 Goal-setting methods

goals, the more likely they are to achieve success (Bossons et al., 2012). It is also true that
the greater the level of external infuence and/or reliance on others outside of the coach-
ing process is, the less likely the client will remain fully committed to the stated goals. It
is important at this stage to differentiate between the ultimate objective of the client, the
milestone goals that might take them towards the ultimate objective, and the objective
for the coaching session itself.Therefore, spend enough time on setting the goal to allow
for potential confusion and lack of clarity around the desired future state to be explored.
Without a clearly defned goal, the conversation can meander, achieve little and become
almost purposeless. Figure 17.2

Step 2: Reality
Whitmore (2017) argues that the most important reason to examine reality is to enable
objectivity. Objectivity is infuenced by the opinions of others, in addition to judgments,
assumptions, hopes and fears, to name but a few! In being objective, you are able to raise
awareness of things as they really are. In becoming more self-aware, you are more able
to recognise those internal factors that also infuence our perspective. Ultimately, the
purpose of this stage is to bring the client as close to objectivity as possible in order to
be able to see things the way they really are, and therefore take the appropriate action
to address.
Clients can become stuck here! Clients often fnd it easy to describe the current con-
text from their point of view and may fnd themselves caught up in their own stories.
However, it is here that the coach can notice, refect and observe things that might not
necessarily be obvious for the client who is living this reality. For many clients so deeply
entrenched in their own story, important things from the very practical to the very emo-
tional can be buried in the subconscious mind or hidden from view somehow because
of their particular perspective. The coach can notice habitual patterns of behaviour that
might blinker the client (Scoular, 2011). In other words, deepen the client’s awareness.
Whitmore (2017) suggests we only have a measure of choice and control over what we are
aware of and it is those things we are unaware of that control us.The role of the coach at
this point is to bring everything, seen and unseen, into sharp focus for the client.To raise
180 Sarah Leach
self-awareness, bringing new insights and clarity to an issue or need. Scoular (2011, p. 67)
helpfully uses a military metaphor, referring to this stage as “reconnaissance”, as in “time
spent in reconnaissance is never wasted”. It is in this stage that Alexander (Alexander,
2016) talks about the coach’s intention being one of clarifying meaning, stripping away
assumptions and judgments, using precise language and bringing real world examples as
critical to this part of the model.

Step 3: Options
Having understood the reality of their current situation, in Step 3 the coach supports
and encourages the client to identify some possible options to move forward. In many
instances, the client may surprise themselves at how relatively easy it is to see a way
through their current issues and identify possible solutions. As we see in lots of coaching
conversations, having given the client the time and space to vocalise their issues and have
someone listen intently to their internal dialogue, the solutions become “obvious”. In
complete shock and, sometimes, complete annoyance, I often hear clients say,“Why didn’t
I think of that before?”
Some clients may still fnd themselves a little bit stuck at this stage and so the coach may
start by asking some open-ended questions.The coach’s role is to hold the mirror up to
the client and refect back what they hear, in the client’s words not their own, to encour-
age deeper thought and insight. By using the client’s heightened sense of self-awareness,
facilitating the learning associated with that and introducing new tools and techniques
as required, the coach can challenge the appropriateness or otherwise of the solutions
being presented. It is feasible that the client may ask for the coach’s input at this stage to
help generate some more ideas. Collaborative brainstorming techniques may generate
a more comprehensive set of viable solutions. After all, two heads are better than one!
However, the coach must ensure to offer his or her ideas with no attachment or intention
of directing the client to one solution or another.The coach’s suggestions may have little
relevance for the client. In addition, if the conversation places more focus and energy on
the thoughts of the coach, it may reduce the client’s ability to access their own learning
and wisdom (Starr, 2016).
Whilst the coach has supported the client in broadening the options, they also have a
role to play in supporting the client in narrowing the options down again by evaluating
the pros and cons of each. Again, the client must determine the criteria by which the
options are evaluated (Scoular, 2011).With a comprehensive list of evaluated options, the
client can now move on to Step 4 and determine the best way forward.

Step 4:Wrap-up or way forward

This stage is all about action and forward momentum, determining both what the cli-
ent will do and how motivated they are to do it. Depending on the depth and rigour
of the frst three stages, actions may become obvious (Alexander, 2016, Passmore, 2019).
However, clients often jump to immediate and obvious preferences with little under-
standing of why and how that may happen. It is important for the coach to ask direct and
specifc questions here, which enable a degree of granularity about what exactly the cli-
ent will do and by when.The coach can bring a degree of toughness to the conversation
without causing any bad feelings, but only in an attempt to activate the will of the client
 Behavioural coaching 181
(Whitmore, 2017).The client’s level of confdence and certainty in making those choices
must be tested and evaluated before making any fnal decisions.
Having made a decision, action planning can start in earnest by breaking the solution
down into specifc action steps.Alexander suggests the coach must support the client in evalu-
ating the implications of each action, its practicality and any other obstacles that may arise as a
result (Alexander, 2016).At this stage, it is useful to think about using simple, closed questions,
such as what,when, who,how and where, to prompt a greater level of focus and commitment.
It is often easy for the coach to inadvertently let the client off the hook at this point by being
less challenging of the plan itself. It is also good practice for the coach to ask the client if there
are additional resources or sources of support required to enable these actions.Asking for help
doesn’t always come naturally and may be something that clients overlook.
A fnal action plan is generated, with steps clearly articulated, deadlines and timelines
defned, identifcation of who or what else might be involved and how and when the
actions will be reviewed. In closing, asking the client “how will you feel when this is
done?” and “on a scale of one to ten, how likely are you to take this action?” are powerful
questions that help to assess the level of intent and willingness to change. Remember this
isn’t a rating of the certainty of the outcome happening, but the client’s intention to carry
out the action he or she has agreed. Experience would suggest that those who score less
than an eight rarely see the action through to completion (Whitmore, 2017). If this is the
case, the client may choose to go back to the original goal or re-assess the reality of the
situation to see if they missed something. Alternatively, they may look to break down the
size of the task or adjust the timeline for delivery, for example, so that they feel more able
to complete the action and score eight or above. For those highly motivated clients, they
may even look for ways in which they can move their score to a ten!

An alternative perspective
Another way to look at the GROW model is to compare it to completing a gap analysis
(see Figure 17.3). Step 1 is to facilitate the client in articulating where they want to be; in
other words, setting the goal (Point A). Step 2 looks to assess where they fnd themselves

A Where do you want to be?

Action, accountability

reflection & learning

Consider:
Transformation

– Knowledge, skills, strengths & experience

C – Character traits & behaviours
– Core values
– Drivers & motivations

B Where are you now?

Figure 17.3 Gap analysis

182 Sarah Leach
currently in relation to that goal, i.e. the reality (Point B). Step 3 allows the client to explore
the options for transitioning from A to B, the reality of “today” to the desired “future state”.
It is in examining this opportunity for transformation (Point C) where we can encourage
our clients to be as creative as possible, to explore the opportunities from multiple perspec-
tives and to stretch their strengths to fnd new and different approaches. It is often during this
process of exploration and option generation, that some of the more personal and emotional
barriers to change, as well as the practical barriers to change appear, building on from those
you may have already identifed in examining the reality of the current situation.A height-
ened self-awareness is key here in terms of acknowledging whether the barriers to change
are coming from a value-based perspective, core drivers and motivations or previous experi-
ences, for example. It is important to have spent some time understanding these dynamics,
the client’s strengths, skills and knowledge, as well as character traits and behavioural patterns,
in order to understand the appropriateness and suitability of the possible options.
In theory, we are all capable of changing.The key is helping the client identify the actions
they are committed to, no matter how small or large. As suggested previously, part of com-
mitting to the change might be in understanding the options for a phased step-by-step
approach to the change, as depicted in Figure 17.3. This might, over time, create a more
signifcant change or enable the client to reach their ultimate goal. As General Creighton
Abrams is reported to have said,“When eating an elephant, take one bite at a time”!
It is important to note that there may be an extended and reiterative period of action,
accountability, refection and learning, in order to experiment with the different options
before making a fnal choice.The “piloting” of a new idea may also encourage and moti-
vate the client to commit to taking the required action, enabling a new type of behaviour.
Therefore, whilst the GROW model appears linear, it is very much cyclical in nature.
Consequently, over the course of one conversation, and over the course of a number of
sessions, it is normal to fnd the coaching dialogue traversing backwards and forwards over
each step in the process, with the coach expertly guiding the client through each necessary
step, until there is clarity and the client is able to move forward.

Tools and techniques

The simplicity of the GROW model allows the coach to blend and integrate other tools
and techniques into the process to encourage deeper insights and learning for the client.
As we’ve discussed, getting clarity on the topic and therefore the coaching goal can be the
frst challenge for many clients.You may hear, for example, clients saying they don’t feel
fulflled anymore and something’s got to change, or they think they want a new job but
don’t know what they want to do or they need a better balance between work and home.
These are vague and potentially enormous topics, so the frst step is to get clarity on the
topic and identify a specifc goal that can be addressed in the session.
Tools such as the life wheel (see Figure 17.4), which encourages the client to see their
life as a whole and identify the parts that may be more or less fulflling, could be used
to help the client focus in on the particular part of their life that is really causing them
concern.Alternatively, an exercise where the client is asked to visualise their ideal day and
share it in the present tense, from the moment they wake to the moment they go to bed
at night (Rogers, 2012).This can help the client to spot the key issues they want to address
and therefore focus on a more defned topic and coaching goal. These techniques are
proactively used as part of the frst stages of the Co-Active Coaching model, too (Kimsey-
House et al., 2011), as a way to bring clarity to the coaching goals and deepen levels of
self-awareness, both of which are common to the GROW model.
 Behavioural coaching 183
In exploring the reality of a situation in Step 2 and perhaps again in Step 4, when
weighing up the possible solutions and deciding on a plan of action, it can be useful for
the client to understand what is within their control. This may infuence their decisions
and/or the milestones within the plan. The CIA (control, infuence, accept) model (see
Figure 17.5) is a useful tool for this.The model encourages the client to look for the issues
or elements of the situation that are within their control, to identify the elements that they
can’t control but might be able to infuence in some way and, fnally, accept the things
that they can neither control nor infuence. In understanding these different positions, the
coach can help the client to put things into perspective and develop a greater sense of
what they can achieve. Ultimately, this enables the client to focus their efforts on the things
that might have the most impact in relation to their goal.

Physical Career
Environment

Fun &
Money
Recreation

Personal
Growth Health

Significant Friends
Other & Family

Figure 17.4 The Wheel of Life

Accept

Infuence

Control

Figure 17.5 CIA Model

184 Sarah Leach
When does GROW work best?
GROW’s simplicity means that it can underpin the majority of coaching conversa-
tions, from professional in-depth coaching to facilitating the relationship between line
manager and employee in the workplace. As coaching becomes an essential skill and
approach to the role of line management everywhere, so the GROW technique can
easily be applied by most at one level or another. Unlike other approaches it does not
require a background in psychotherapy to use it and its approach complements the
organisational view of the world (Alexander, 2016), such as outlined in Figure 17.3,
comparing GROW to an organisational gap-analysis approach. It can be used for
personal development conversations to improve performance at the individual, team
and organisational level, to empower employees to take responsibility for their actions
and help to improve leadership and management effectiveness. Its origins in coaching
sporting professionals show how useful it is in enhancing performance and demon-
strate its applicability to most situations. For instance, Whitmore (2017) talks about
using the GROW approach in one-to-one conversations between peers, between a
manager and an employee, between a teacher and their student and a coach and a
performer.

Ten useful questions for GROW coaches

There is no pre-defned list of perfect questions to ask clients when working with the
GROW model. Rather than list ten questions, I have listed ten questions at each of the
four stages of GROW in Table 17.1.
Like with all powerful questions, it is important to note that each question posed
by the coach must be contextually appropriate and, by noticing how the question
lands with the client, an effective coach should have the confdence to draw from a
range of possible questions in the moment in order to invoke insight and learning for
the client.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the GROW model presents a very effective basis for any coaching conver-
sation. Used by novices and master coaches alike, as well as leaders and managers across
different organisational settings, the GROW model can be used to enable behavioural
change. Whilst it is very easy to use and effective in its simplest form, it can also be
extended and adapted to allow for deeper learning and insight depending on the client’s
presenting topic.The coach can use this approach successfully with a simple set of pow-
erful questions and an ability to hear and see what is being both spoken and unspoken.
For more depth, the model allows room for the coach to integrate additional tools and
techniques at each stage as required, using the GROW model as an overall structure for
the coaching conversation.There is plenty of room to play your own “accordion” in this
approach!
 Behavioural coaching 185

Table 17.1 Effective questions to use at each stage of the GROW model

Stage Effective Questions

Topic 1. What would you like to talk about today?

2. Is there anything particular you want to work on today?
G – goal 1. What do you want to do?
2. What change are you looking to make?
3. What will be different as a result of this change?
4. Why is this change important now?
5. What might success look like for you?
6. How much control do you have over this goal?
7. How much of a stretch does it feel?
8. How much time will you give yourself to achieve this goal?
9. How will you know you are still heading in the right direction?
10. How will you know when you have achieved it?
R – Reality 1. What else is happening right now that has an impact on this goal?
2. Who else might be involved, directly or indirectly?
3. What are the consequences of your intended goal?
4. What have you done about this so far?
5. What is currently missing?
6. What is stopping you from making any more progress?
7. What might others say about the current situation?
8. What strengths/knowledge/skill/experience do you have that you might not be using
right now?
9. What is happening as a result of keeping things the way they are?
10. What is not happening as a result of keeping things the way they are?
O – Options 1. What might you choose to do next?
2. What else?
3. If you had already made the change, what might you have done to make it happen?
4. How do you feel about it?
5. What might you like to do differently?
6. Would you like another suggestion?
7. If your child/parent/sibling/best friend/manager were here, what might they offer up
as a suggestion?
8. What if anything was possible (no constraints)?
9. What are the pros and cons of each?
10. What are the pros and cons of not doing each?
W – Will 1. Which option(s) will you choose?
2. What steps do you need to take now?
3. What do you need to have in place to enable “X” to happen?
4. To what extent does this course of action meet your original objectives?
5. How motivated do you feel to do this?
6. On a scale of 1 to 10, how likely are you to take this action?
7. What kind of resistance are you feeling right now in contemplating this change?
8. When are you going to do this?
9. How will you feel when it’s done?
10. What is your criteria and measurement for success?
186 Sarah Leach
References
Alexander, G. (2016). ‘Behavioural coaching’. In J. Passmore, ed., Excellence in coaching:The industry guide,
3rd ed. London: Kogan Page, pp.99–111.2.
Alexander, G. and Renshaw, B. (2005) Super Coaching:The missing ingredient for high performance, London:
Random House Business Books.
Bossons, P, Kourdi, J. and Sartain, D. (2012). Coaching essentials: Practical proves techniques for world-class
executive coaching, 2nd ed. London: Bloomsbury.
Eldridge, F. and Demkowski, S. (2013). ‘Behavioural coaching’. In J. Passmore, D. Peterson and T. Freire,
eds., The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of coaching and mentoring. Chichester: Wiley, pp.
298–318.
Galewey, W.T. (1986). The inner game of tennis. London: Pan.
Grant,A.M. (2001). Coaching for enhanced performance: comparing cognitive and behavioural coaching approaches.
Paper presented to the 3rd international spearman seminar, Sydney.
Hardingham, A. (2004). The coach’s coach: Personal development for personal developers. London: Chartered
Institute of Personnel and Development.
Kimsey-House, H., Kimsey-House, K., Sandahl, P. and Whitworth, L. (2011). Co-Active Coaching: Changing
Business,Transforming Lives. Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Passmore, J. (2019). ‘Behavioural coaching’. In S. Palmer and A.Whybrow, eds., The handbook of coaching
psychology. London: Brunner-Routledge, pp. 99–107.
Rogers, J. (2012) Coaching Skills:A handbook, 3rd ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Scoular, A. (2011). Business coaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Starr, J. (2016). The coaching manual:The defnitive guide to the process, principles and skills of personal coaching,
4th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Whitmore, J. (2017). Coaching for performance: The principles and practice of coaching and leadership, 5th ed.
London: Nicholas Brealey Publications.
18 Person-centred coaching
Richard Bryant-Jefferies

Introduction
The person-centred approach to coaching is grounded in the theoretical ideas of Carl
Rogers. Through his own therapeutic work he formulated an approach to therapy that
placed primacy upon the relationship between therapist and client as the key factor in
achieving positive outcomes for the client.The approach is not based on a therapeutic the-
ory that focuses on diagnosis and treatment. At the heart of the person-centred approach
(PCA) lies a belief that the person has within their nature an actualising tendency which
can be encouraged through the experience of a particular quality of relationship to direct
the person towards more effective behaviours and fulflling lifestyle choices. It is the nature
of the relationship within the collaborative coaching alliance that is key for positive and
constructive outcomes.

Person-centred coaching explained

Whereas therapy is often regarded as helping a person in the present to come to terms
with how their past experiences have affected them, coaching is more concerned with
looking forward.Yet in my experience as a person-centred counsellor working with peo-
ple with addiction problems, I have noted how there is often movement from looking
back to looking forward, and then back again. Counselling clients often oscillate between
the two within the therapeutic journey, addressing the effects of past experience and
bringing this to bear on their formulation of goals for the future.Throughout this process,
the approach of the person-centred helper does not change.The focus remains on main-
taining a facilitative relational environment within which a person can develop a way of
being that refects, or is expressive of, an increasingly authentic sense of self.
Rogers proposed that the presence of certain conditions within a therapeutic relation-
ship would enable a person to develop what he referred to as “fuller functionality”. Over
the years, and based on clinical experience, he refned his ideas leading to the notion of
“the necessary and suffcient conditions for constructive personality change”. These he
described as:

1. Two persons are in psychological contact;

2. The frst, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable
or anxious;
3. The second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is congruent or integrated in the
relationship;
188 Richard Bryant-Jefferies
4. The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard for the client;
5. The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of
reference and endeavours to communicate this experience to the client;
6. The communication to the client of the therapist’s empathic understanding and uncon-
ditional positive regard is to a minimal degree achieved.
(Rogers, 1957, p. 96)

These conditions lie at the core of person-centred coaching. Let us briefy elaborate on
their meaning in the context of a coaching relationship.

1. Psychological contact. This means that the feld of awareness of the client is affected
by the presence of the coach. This does not require them to physically be in a room
together, but is about the coach’s level of engagement, being wholly and totally focused
on the client in the present moment;
2. Incongruence.The client is troubled by something. Something is not right. An aspect
of their life does not match their desires or wishes.They may be experiencing a discon-
nection, a lack of a sense of fulflment or feel stuck in a pattern or situation that they
are experiencing an urge to grow out of or develop beyond.The person they experi-
ence themselves as being is not refected in the person they present to the world, or the
person they want to be;
3. Congruence. This is a disciplined way of being in which the coach is “openly being
the feelings and attitudes that are fowing within at the moment” (Rogers, 1980, p.
115). Realness, transparency, genuineness and authenticity have also been used to help
appreciate the nature of this condition. However, it should be stated this does not mean
endless self-disclosure. Congruent expression is most helpful where it is informed by
the existence of an empathic understanding of the client’s inner world, and is offered in
a climate of genuine warmth and acceptance towards them;
4. Unconditional positive regard. This is not simply agreeing with everything the cli-
ent says or plans to do, it is rather a warm acceptance of the fact that they are being
how they need to be.You cannot make yourself have this attitude as a coach. It has to
be genuinely present.To quote Rogers again, and placing his words in the context of
coaching, when the coach “is experiencing a positive, acceptant attitude towards what-
ever the client is at that moment, therapeutic movement or change is more likely to
occur” (Rogers, 1980, p. 116);
5. Empathy. For Rogers, this meant “entering the private perceptual world of the other …
being sensitive, moment by moment, to the changing felt meanings which fow in this
other person … It means sensing meanings of which he or she is scarcely aware, but not
trying to uncover totally unconscious feelings” (Rogers, 1980, p. 142).This is so much
more than letting the client know what you have heard them say. It is more “the actual
process of listening to a client, of attending to what is being offered and communicated
and received at the time that the [client] is speaking, at the time that the [client] is experiencing
what is present for them” (Bryant-Jefferies, 2005a, p. 9);
6. Perception. Rogers tells us that “the fnal condition … is that the client perceives, to a
minimal degree, the acceptance and empathy which the therapist experiences for him.
Unless some communication of these attitudes has been achieved, then such attitudes
do not exist in the relationship as far as the client is concerned, and the therapeutic
process could not, by our hypothesis, be initiated” (Rogers, 1957).
 Person-centred coaching 189
The relationship or bond between the coach and the client allows the client to explore
who they are and what they want to achieve based on their own self-experience and
self-evaluation.The quality of the experienced coaching relationship characterised by the
above encourages and enables the client to

deeply listen to their inner wisdom – what Rogers referred to as the Organismic
Valuing Process.Thus, they become able to analyse their situations more objectively,
understand their own needs better, become more trusting of themselves, and become
able to fnd their self-direction.
(Joseph and Bryant-Jefferies, 2019, p. 136)

One factor that needs emphasis is the impact of diversity and difference on the coaching
relationship.This must always be taken account of when the coach is refecting on his or
her ability to offer the relational conditions outlined above.This is not just a consideration
in terms of how the coach relates to the client; the diversity issues that may affect the cli-
ent’s perception of and relationship towards the coach must equally be considered.This is
very likely to be a focus early on in supervision.
Later in this chapter we will consider how these conditions are applied within a coach-
ing relationship.

Person-centred coaching theory and research

The person-centred approach is an established psychological tradition that is underpinned
by over 60 years of research and theoretical development (see Barrett-Lennard, 1998).
Its application to coaching is a natural progression because, as noted earlier, it contains
a theoretical stance that regards human beings having within them a tendency towards
growth, complexity and fuller functionality. More recently the developing feld of positive
psychology (e.g. Joseph, 2015) has added a further area within which PCA theory and
practice fnds a home.
In terms of coaching, research has shown that, for clients, what is particularly important
is the relationship with the coach. McKenna and Davis (2009) identify this relationship or
alliance as one of the four main active ingredients in effective executive coaching. Haan et
al. (2009) found in a study focusing on the experience of executive coaching that clients
valued the relationship with, and the qualities of, the coach. Less distinction was made
with regard to the specifc interventions of that same coach. The fndings of the study
supported “the idea that common factors are at work in executive coaching, so that help-
fulness is much less predicted by technique or approach than by factors common to all
coaching, such as the relationship, empathic understanding, positive expectations etc.”The
comment was also made that the study found “some support for Carl Rogers” (1957) idea
that what they appreciate most in their coach is general support, encouragement, listening
and understanding” (de Haan et al., 2009).
De Haan and Gannon (2016), in the context of understanding the bond that develops
in the coaching relationship, highlight “the intellectual and empirical debt owed to the
psychotherapeutic literature where the bond is one of the key constructs in the working
alliance”.
In a review of fndings from a range of studies, Cooper (2004) indicates that “there is
growing support for a relationship-orientated approach to therapeutic practice” (Cooper,
p. 452).Although this refers to therapeutic practice, it has relevance for the PCA coaching
190 Richard Bryant-Jefferies
practitioner because the same principles and processes govern the interactions that occur.
Included within the evidence that he cites is a vast review of research on the therapeutic
relationship commissioned in 1999 by the American Psychological Association Division
of Psychotherapy Task Force, which, citing Norcross (2002), was the largest ever review of
research on the therapeutic relationship, with its distillation of evidence coming to over
400 pages. Cooper writes: “Its main conclusion was that ‘The therapy relationship …
makes substantial and consistent contributions to psychotherapy outcome independent
of the specifc type of treatment’” (Steering Committee, 2002, pp. 441). (The “therapy
relationship” is defned here as “the feelings and attitudes that therapist and client have
towards one another, and the manner in which these are expressed” [Norcross, 2002, p. 7].)
Further conclusions cited by Cooper (2004) from this study include, “Practice and
treatment guidelines should explicitly address therapist behaviours and qualities that pro-
mote a facilitative therapy relationship” and “Efforts to promulgate practice guidelines or
evidence-based lists of effective psychotherapy without including the therapy relation-
ship are seriously incomplete and potentially misleading on both clinical and empirical
grounds” (Steering Committee, 2002, p. 441). In addition, the recommendation is made
that practitioners should “make the creation and cultivation of a therapy relationship … a
primary aim in the treatment of patients” (Steering Committee, 2002, p. 442).
Whether the helping relationship is strictly therapeutic, more coaching oriented, or
moving dynamically between the two, the relationship that PCA coaches have with their
clients and the attitude that they hold within that relationship are key factors in facilitating
movement towards fuller functioning and greater effectiveness in the areas that the client
wishes to develop.

Person-centred coaching practice

A crucial feature of movement towards constructive personality change within person-
centred theory is the notion of the actualising tendency (Rogers, 1986). He wrote:

the person-centred approach is built on a basic trust in the person … [It] depends on
the actualizing tendency present in every living organism – the tendency to grow, to
develop, to realize its full potential. This way of being trusts the constructive direc-
tional fow of the human being towards a more complex and complete development.
It is this directional fow that we aim to release.
(Rogers, 1986, p. 198)

Rogers’ theory of the development of the self includes reference to the development
of conditions of worth where we try to live to other people’s hopes and expectations.
Movement towards fuller functionality involves shifting towards a stronger internal locus
of evaluation and away from the external one that may have been dominant. The client
moves towards more authentic living and experiencing and is better able to perceive that
which is best and right for them. In this process, changes in behaviour occur. Rogers for-
mulated a set of propositional statements related to this:

Behaviour is caused, and the psychological cause of behaviour is a certain perception

or a way of perceiving;
The client is the only one who has the potentiality of knowing fully the dynamics
of his perceptions and his behaviour;
 Person-centred coaching 191
In order for behaviour to change, a change in perception must be experienced.
Intellectual knowledge cannot substitute for this;
The constructive forces which bring about altered perception, reorganization of
self, and relearning, reside primarily in the client, and probably cannot come from
outside;
Therapy is basically the experiencing of the inadequacies in old ways of perceiv-
ing, the experiencing of new and more accurate and adequate perceptions, and the
recognition of signifcant relationship between perceptions;
In a very meaningful and accurate sense, therapy is diagnosis, and this diagnosis is
a process which goes on in the experience of the client, rather than in the intellect
of the clinician.
(Rogers, 1951, pp. 221–223)

Later in his life Rogers also devised a seven-stage process of change model, which he sum-
marised as follows:

“This process involves a loosening of feelings”;

“This process involves a change in the manner of experiencing”;
“The process involves a shift from incongruence to congruence”;
“The process involves a change in the manner in which, and the extent to which
the individual is able and willing to communicate himself in a receptive climate”;
“The process involves a loosening of the cognitive maps of experience”;
“There is a change in the individual’s relationship to his problem”;
“There is a change in the individual’s manner of relating”.
(Rogers, 1967, pp. 156–158)

The above has been usefully further summarised by Tudor and Worral (2004) as “a move-
ment from fxity to fuidity, from closed to open, from tight to loose, and from afraid to
accepting” (2004, p. 47). Psychological and behaviour change inter-relate. A re-balanc-
ing and integrating process occurs within the person which is then evidenced through
changed behaviours (Bryant-Jefferies, 2005b). Satisfaction that is then experienced from
change, from developing new skills and talents, feeds back into the motivation to maintain
and build on what has been achieved.
The following dialogue1 provides an example of person-centred coaching dialogue to
illustrate the practice of applying the necessary and suffcient conditions for constructive
personality change detailed earlier.

It was Diane’s second session of coaching. She still wasn’t sure what she wanted to do
in the session, only that she had become increasingly unhappy about her weight and
wanted to make changes. But it always came back down to “how?”. She had tried
diets in the past but they never lasted long. Something never felt quite right when she
was on them. But she couldn’t really put her fnger on exactly what it was.
Diane’s coach, Rose, sat opposite her. She had really listened to her in that opening
session. It had felt good to feel that someone was there with her. It wasn’t something
she felt used to. It had allowed her to feel able to talk. Diane hoped the session would
be the same today.
Rose had felt a natural warmth towards Diane. She had herself had issues with
weight and had worked on them in the past, but she had been very mindful in that
192 Richard Bryant-Jefferies
frst session not to allow her own experience to get in the way of attending to what
Diane was saying. She knew how easy it was to get trapped into thinking that being
congruent was about self-disclosure. It wasn’t. She had been able to put her momen-
tary reminder of her own experience to one side. Had she not been able to then she
would have taken that to supervision. (1)
“So”, Rose began, “how would you like to use our session today?”. She did not
want to direct Diane towards any particular focus. This was crucial in her person-
centred practice to try not to be directive. (2)
Diane took a deep breath. “It’s really diffcult. I really liked our conversation last
week. It felt good, but I feel I need to move on, make changes. It felt like last week I
kind of set the scene, as it were. And I was amazed how much I had to say. And since
then, well, it’s been a strange week”.
“A strange week?” Rose did not attempt a lengthy refection of what Diane had
just said. That didn’t feel appropriate. It felt much more important to communicate
that she had heard her fnal comment. (3)
“It’s hard to describe”. Diane paused, wondering how to capture in words how
her week had been.“It’s like I’m more aware of my eating but in a different way.And
when I am sitting around at home, there’s something different”.
“Something different?”.Again Rose kept her response short and focused on where
Diane’s words had taken her.
Diane nodded slowly, refectively. She didn’t say anything for a moment and Rose
allowed the silence to be. It was, she felt, a working silence. She respected it and
wanted to allow Diane the space she needed to connect with and communicate what
she was experiencing. (4)
“It’s like I am watching myself, like I am sort of … I don’t know, it’s really hard to
describe”.
This time Rose responded, leaving the focus on Diane’s frst comment whilst
embracing all that she had said. “Hard to describe but it is like you are watching
yourself?”.
Diane nodded. “Yes, like I want to understand what I am doing”. As soon as she
said it Diane wasn’t sure if that was what she meant.“No, not understand but kind of
get a hold of myself, get a grip, you know?”.
“Something about feeling you want to get a grip on yourself ”.
“And make changes, different choices. I’m uncomfortable with what I am seeing,
who I am. It’s really hard to describe. I don’t feel the same”. (5)
“Something has changed, you don’t feel the same”. Rose was not thinking about
what Diane was saying. That wasn’t her role as a PCA coach. She was listening and
holding her full attention on what she was experiencing emerging out of her empa-
thy for what Diane was saying and how she was being. In the moment this was her
only reality, a moment-to-moment connecting.
Diane was speaking more quickly now. “It’s like I want to change, I’ve wanted to
for a while, but it feels different now. It’s like I want to make changes. I watch myself
like I’m watching TV, I can’t stop myself reaching for the chocolates but I am some-
how not the person who is doing the reaching”.Another pause.“Does this make any
sense to you?”.
 Person-centred coaching 193
Commentary
(1) The importance of congruence is highlighted here. One of the areas that a person-
centred coach is most likely to explore consistently in supervision is whether they are
able to maintain congruence, and if not, what is happening within the coach to make
it diffcult to maintain integration in the relationship.
(2) Non-directivity is a core feature of person-centred practice.The client is seen as the
expert on their situation, the person who knows best what they need to focus on in
the moment.
(3) So often empathy is thought of as refecting back what a person has said. It is so much
more than that.As the client speaks she is on a journey, and it has taken her to a point
which the coach is then responding to. It allows the client, if they wish, to then jour-
ney on without being taken back over something that had been said before, even if it
was only two sentences ago.
(4) The coach has to be able to stay with silence.The client is in effect communicating
silence, and silence is an empathic and respectful response. But that does not mean
activity, the coach will be still fully attending to the client and not allowing her
thoughts to drift off. If they do, this may be a supervision issue.
(5) This is powerful insight that is emerging within the client’s experience. She is more
deeply connecting with, or perhaps we should say becoming, the person who wants
change.

This is a small section of dialogue representing an early stage in the coaching experience.
There is movement, a shift from fxity towards an expanded sense of self that encompasses
greater psychological and emotional ownership of the need for change. From this behav-
iour change can occur, and because the behaviour change is rooted in this underlying
psychological change, I would argue it is much more likely to be sustained.

Tools and techniques

The person-centred coach doesn’t tend to think in terms of tools and techniques. The
focus is more on respecting the individual as the expert on their own situation and allow-
ing them to fnd their own way through whatever they are bringing to the coaching rela-
tionship. Goals are not set by the person-centred coach and no attempt is made to direct
the client towards a particular outcome. A relational space is created within which the
client is freed up to experience and think about themselves and their situation differently.
The importance of this time to think, or perhaps we should say re-think, has also been
highlighted in the context of executive coaching by Kline (1999).
It comes down to the way of being of the coach. Can they provide a non-directive,
empathic, warmly accepting and genuine relational attitude towards the client as they
explore what it is they are striving to achieve, change or develop in their lives? Can they
stay beside them, and be experienced as a person who genuinely wants to understand
what the client is experiencing and considering?
The following is another example of PCA coaching practice.

Mick was attending his third session of coaching. He had a gambling habit, particu-
larly on-line, and he knew it was out of control. His wife had got on at him to stop, so
194 Richard Bryant-Jefferies
had his parents. He knew they were right but he felt pushed and wanted to push back.
He usually pushed back by gambling a bit more, sometimes a lot more.
Mick had got to a point of knowing things couldn’t go on as they were. He’d
arrived at the frst session expecting someone to tell him what to do. That was not
what he got from his coach, Sanjeev. It had been strange for Mick at frst, and a bit
frustrating. He wasn’t sure that Sanjeev really understood him. How could he? He
clearly had a totally different background.Yet he had found that, as the session had
gone on, and in the one that followed, he had felt much more at ease with his coach.
He was much more open to an increasing sense that his gambling lay much deeper.
He had noticed that he was more aware of the choices he was making between the
sessions, and, even though his gambling hadn’t stopped, he felt that something was
different.
“I have thought about just stopping all my access to on-line gambling. Get rid of
my computer, go back to an old phone, and maybe that will work … Maybe”. Mick
paused.As he spoke the words he knew he wasn’t convinced by what he was saying.
Sanjeev could hear the hesitancy in Mick’s voice. Rather than empathising with
the words, he empathised with the tone of what Mick was saying. “You don’t sound
too sure about that?”. His response had a slight questioning tone, offering the oppor-
tunity for Mick to explore more without it coming across like a question that had to
be answered. (1)
“I suppose it might help, but … I don’t know. It will still be me, won’t it?”.
“Still be you?”. Again a slight questioning tone in Sanjeev’s response, this time
refecting the self-questioning tone of Mick’s words. (2)
“I need to make changes,I know that. But it’s me that needs to make those changes”.
“‘Me that needs to make those changes’”. Sanjeev had dropped the questioning
tone.This was a straight response to a very affrming statement from Mick. (3)
Mick looked at Sanjeev. He felt slightly strange. He looked away.A kind of tingling
numbness and his heart had started thumping.Yes, he thought, me, I have to do it, I
have to … His thoughts trailed off as a fresh insight burst upon him. He heard himself
speaking the idea that had suddenly consumed him. “It’s not about doing. It’s more
than doing”. He looked up at Sanjeev again.“I have to be the change”. (4)
Sanjeev felt the goosebumps as he listened to Mick, his tone of voice, what he had
said, and watched the expression on his face. It was a big moment. He had learned
from experience that in those moments you did not think about what to say, you
allowed your response to come from the connection you were making with the client.
He spoke slowly, slower than Mick had spoken.“I have to be the change”. (5)
Mick heard Sanjeev responding and it felt both close and distant at the same time
in some weird way. “And I have to be it for me”. (6) He felt a deep silence within
himself. He took a deep breath.

Commentary
(1) Empathy not for the words, but for the way they had been said.The response emerges
out of Sanjeev’s sense of connection with Mick.
(2) Sanjeev avoids his response sounding like an answer. It is not for him to affrm the
truth about something that his client is considering. The slight questioning tone
invites further exploration with pushing the client.There is a lightness in the tone of
his response.
 Person-centred coaching 195
(3) From self-questioning Mick has moved towards something more self-affrming.
Sanjeev refects this in the tone of his response. The questioning tone, the lightness,
has gone. It’s a big moment.The effective PCA coach catches and responds to it.
(4) Mick has moved further in his self-affrming stance. He is on a journey, making con-
nections within himself, seeing his position and his role in fnding a solution to his
problem more clearly.
(5) Sanjeev has entered into the moment with Mick.There is a deep connection. Sanjeev
is experienced enough to know that these moments are full of creativity and insight,
and that they have to be entered into carefully, gently. Often, what is emerging, whilst
it can be affrming, can also be tenuous, as new perspectives or a new sense of self
breaks into awareness for the frst time.The coaching relationship is fostering a ten-
dency for Mick to actualise fresh insight and understanding and sense of himself.
(6) A shift takes place in Mick’s locus of evaluation. He knows what he needs to do has
to be for him, not because of what others are saying, or how others are judging him.

The client hasn’t even formulated much of a behaviour change, but he has now moved
towards a place in himself where he can more realistically consider his options.These will
emerge from his own understanding of his situation and what seems realistic to him.They
will not be driven by the coach, whose role will continue to be providing the relational
environment in which the client can explore and formulate the behaviour changes that he
experiences as being right for him.

Ten useful person-centred coaching questions

The person-centred coach is less likely to be asking questions of the client. The PCA
coach is much more likely to be asking questions of themselves, either after a session or
within some form of supervision. As a result, the questions in this section are more for
personal refection by the coach.The focus for the questioning will be on areas where the
coaching relationship and the responses and reactions of the coach need processing and
understanding with a view to increasing the coach’s effectiveness.

1. Do I have a sense of psychological connection with my client and how would I

describe this?
2. Am I experiencing unconditional positive regard for my client, and, if not, what is it
that is making this diffcult?
3. Can I truly listen and attend to my client, or are there times when I lose this focus?
4. What am I experiencing within myself as I seek to connect with and hear what my
client is communicating?
5. Am I feeling drawn into talking about myself and my experiences when I am with
my client?
6. Do I feel any particular anxieties when I am working with my client or when I am
refecting on that work?
7. Are there any issues of diversity and difference that might be affecting my effective-
ness in relating to my client with acceptance and non-judgementally?
8. What were the key moments within the coaching session(s)?
9. What thoughts and feelings am I left with after a coaching session with my client?
10. What do I need to explore more deeply in supervision so that I can be more effective
and present in the next coaching session?
196 Richard Bryant-Jefferies
Conclusion
In this chapter I have sought to present a favour of person-centred coaching practice,
briefy describing key theoretical components and how they can be applied in the coach-
ing relationship. The PCA perspective provides for working with a client who needs to
not only look forward, but in the process of exploring and making changes needs to
touch into the past and aspects of their sense of self that might otherwise get overlooked.
I would argue that sustainable behaviour change has to be underpinned by constructive
personality change.

Note
1 The use of fctitious dialogue to demonstrate the application of the person-centred approach has
been extensively developed by the author in the Living Therapy series of titles now published by
Routledge.

References
Barrett-Lennard, G.T. (1998). Carl Rogers’ helping system: Journey and substance. London: Sage.
Bryant-Jefferies, R. (2005a). Counselling for obesity: Person-centred dialogues. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing,
now published by Routledge.
Bryant-Jefferies, R. (2005b). Counselling for problem gambling: Person-centred dialogues. Oxford: Radcliffe
Publishing, now published by Routledge.
Cooper, M. (2004). ‘Towards a relationally-orientated approach to therapy: Empirical support and
analysis’. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 32, pp. 4. Brunner-Routledge.
de Haan, E. Culpin,V. and Curd, J. (2011).‘Executive coaching in practice:What determines helpfulness
for clients of coaching?’ Personnel Review, 40(1), pp. 24–44. Emerald Group Publishing.
de Haan, E. and Gannon, J. (2016).‘The coaching relationship’. In T. Bachkirova, G. Spence and D. Drake,
eds., The Sage handbook of coaching. London: Sage, pp. 195-221.
Joseph, S. (2015). Positive therapy: Building bridges between positive psychology and person-centred psychotherapy.
London: Routledge.
Joseph, S. and Bryant-Jefferies, R. (2019). ‘Person-centred coaching psychology’. In S. Palmer and A.
Whybrow, eds., Handbook of coaching psychology: A guide for practitioners, 2nd ed. London: Routledge,
pp. 131–143.
Kline, N. (1999). Time to think: Listening to ignite the human mind. London: Cassell.
McKenna, D.D. and Davis, S.L. (2009). ‘Hidden in plain sight: The active ingredients of executive
coaching’. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2(3), pp. 244-260.
Norcross, J.C. (2002). ‘Empirically supported therapy relationships’. In J.C. Norcross, ed., Psychotherapy
relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, pp. 3-16.
Rogers, C.R. (1951). Client centred therapy. London: Constable.
Rogers, C.R. (1957).‘The necessary and suffcient conditions of therapeutic personality change’. Journal
of Consulting Psychology, 21, pp. 95–103.
Rogers, C.R. (1967). On becoming a person. London: Constable. (Originally published in 1961).
Rogers, C.R. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton-Miffin Company.
Rogers, C.R. (1986).‘A client-centered/person-centered approach to therapy’. In I. Kutash and A.Wolfe,
eds., Psychotherapists’ casebook. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass, pp. 197–208.
Steering Committee. (2002). ‘Empirically supported therapy relationships: Conclusions and
recommendations on the Division 29 task force’. In J.C. Norcross, ed., Psychotherapy relationships that
work:Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 441–443.
Tudor, K. and Worral, M. (2004). Freedom to practice: Person-centred approaches to supervision. Ross on Wye:
PCCS Books.
19 Solution-focused coaching
Jonathan Passmore

Introduction
Solution-focused coaching is grounded in the work of the Brief Family Therapy Centre
in Milwaukee, US, and specifcally the work of Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg. As
a result of their therapy work with families they recognised that the therapeutic process
had typically been constructed as “moving away from the problem”. In contrast, de Shazer
argued that it could be more helpful if the focus was shifted to “moving towards a solu-
tion”. de Shazer also noticed that most clients seemed to make the most progress in their
early sessions, and that the returns then gradually diminished.This led to the second shift
towards a brief intervention.
In this chapter we will look at solution-focused coaching, its background, the growing
research agenda, how it is applied in practice and some useful tools and techniques which
coaches can use to bring the approach to life in their practise.

Solution-focused coaching explained

The solution-focused approach encourages clients to think about what is possible by
considering solutions rather than focusing their attention and energy on the problem. In
this sense, solution-focused coaching may be defned as an outcome-orientated approach
that works with the art of the possible, rather than the imagination of the desirable. It is
goal-directed, client-centred and works from an approach of “let’s get this done”. For all
of these reasons this approach, which emerged in therapy, is highly compatible with ideas
within coaching: Goal-driven, future-focused and collaborative.
This forward focus within the solution-focused approach contrasts with many other
therapeutic approaches.The traditional approach; for example, in psychodynamic or cog-
nitive behavioural approaches, is to look back at the past:To focus on understanding the
problem and to explore its cause through methods such as Psychodynamic analysis or
Cognitive Behavioural’s ABCDE. However, de Shazer (1988) argued that this problem-
oriented thinking was more likely to lead to blame and result in resistance. In contrast,
focusing energy towards a solution is much better suited for creating a collaborative envi-
ronment where past problems are overcome by the will to reach a shared goal.
O’Connell and others have described a number of features which make the solution-
focused approach different (O’Connell, 1998; Greene and Grant, 2003; Iverson et al.,
2012):
198 Jonathan Passmore
Plain language
A solution-focused approach aims to avoid pathologising clients and their problems. It
aims to avoid a language of dysfunction, replacing it with everyday language to create a
collaborative relationship of equals between the client and coach.

Solution not problem

A focus on encouraging clients to construct solutions, as opposed to spending time
describing and analysing past problems.

Client as expert
The client is recognised as the expert with regard to the issue they face and the solution
which fts their context, rather than the therapist (coach) analysing and guiding towards
a solution.

Growth mindset
Each session is seen as a learning experience for both the therapist (coach) and the cli-
ent. Each holds a growth mindset in the session, seeking opportunities to learn and grow
through the conversation.

Client’s resources
The therapist (coach) helps the client identify and use their own resources, as opposed to
the therapist (coach) offering advice or resources.

Action-expectation
There is an expectation by the therapist (coach) that the client will achieve positive change
through their own actions.

Goals
Each conversation is structured around a clearly defned goal, which is realistic given the
resources and time available to the client.

Short term
Small changes can be achieved quickly, in days or weeks and, overall, any plan does not
require months or years to develop.

Personal
Each individual is different and thus each conversation, goal and plan are unique to that
client and that situation.
 Solution-focused coaching 199

Table 19.1 Comparing a solution-focused and problem-focused approach

Problem-focused Solution-focused

• How can I help? • How will you know that the problem has been solved?
• Could you tell me about the • What would you like to change?
problem? • Have we clarifed the central issue on which you want to
• Is the problem a symptom of concentrate?
something deeper? • Can we discover exceptions to the problem?
• How are we to understand the • What will the future look like without the problem?
problem in the light of the past? • How can we use the skills and qualities of the client?
• What defence mechanisms are • Have we achieved enough to end?
operating?
• How many sessions will be needed?

Future focus
Conversations are focused on the future, not the past or present.

Being and doing

The process is designed to change the way the client thinks, as well as acts. See Table 19.1.

Solution-focused coaching theory and research

While research into comparing different coaching practices has been limited, compared to
the research in counselling, solution-focused therapy and solution-focused coaching are
comparatively well researched.
One coaching study directly compared the relative effectiveness of solution-
focused coaching with problem-focused coaching approaches (Grant and O’Connor,
2010). This found that both coaching approaches were effective at enhancing goal
attainment. However, those in the solution-focused group had signifcantly greater
increases in goal attainment compared with the problem-focused group. Secondly,
the problem-focused group did not change the way they felt, whereas the solution-
focused approach signifcantly increased positive effect, decreased negative effect,
increased self-effcacy and generated more action steps to help the group members
achieve their goals.
In a follow up 2012 study involving 74 participants, Anthony Grant compared the
impact of problem-focused and solution-focused questions. He concluded that solution-
focused coaching questions appeared to be more effective than problem-focused questions
in this controlled study.Although he noted that in real-life coaching conversations coaches
would be rarely able to solely use solution-focused questions, but instead using more
solution-focused questions, on balance, appeared to be advantageous to clients.
In 2017, Grant argued that combining solution-focused and cognitive-behavioural
coaching into what be labelled as SFCB coaching could enhance performance, reduce
stress and help build resilience. Thus, SFCB may be the ultimate coaching approach for
enhancing both performance and well-being, while also serving as a preventative mecha-
nism that can reduce the probability of stress-related fatigue and burnout.
200 Jonathan Passmore
Finally, Grant and O’Connor (2018) added to their research around solution-focused
questions, drawing on the work of positive effect (Fredrickson, 2004). The researchers
randomly allocated 512 participants to compare: (1), Problem-focused coaching ques-
tions (2), Solution-focused coaching questions (3), Positive affect (4), Solution-focused
plus positive affect.The broad fndings of their research were that PF questions performed
the worst on all measures, and that PA induction and SF coaching questions were equally
effective at enhancing positive affect, increasing self-effcacy, enhancing goal approach and
developing action steps.The best outcome, however, was to combine solution-focused and
positive affect.
Other writers, too (Jordan and Kauffeld, 2020), have compared solution-focused and
problem-focused approaches. Their work using 23 coach–client dyads found that solu-
tion-focused questions were more likely to elicit solution statements and self-effcient
statements from clients. Similar fndings have also been found in therapy (Neipp et al.,
2016).

Solution-focused coaching in practice

The research suggests that solution-focused coaching is an evidenced-based approach and,
as such, it’s an approach most coaches should have available within their tool kit. What
does solution coaching look like? What do solution coaches do? How do they structure
their sessions, and what tools and techniques do they use to help clients move towards
their goals?
It may be helpful to start by thinking about the structure of a typical solution-focused
session. Of course, no two sessions are identical and, in any coaching approach, I would
argue that the coach needs to be led by the client’s agenda. However, for the purposes of
this chapter I have set out a typical pathway that a solution-focused coach might use in an
“average session’, if such a thing exists (see Table 19.2).
Like behavioural coaching, solution-focused coaching has a framework which can be
used to guide the coach through the conversation: OSKAR (Jackson and McKergow,
2002). Like GROW, the letters provide a handrail for the coach in their solution-focused
conversation, helping them stay on track.The model incorporates a number of the inter-
ventions in the structure described in Table 19.2, including goal setting, scaling, the mira-
cle question and seeing the client as the expert.

Phases of the OSCAR model

Outcome:
• What is the objective of this coaching?
• What do you want to achieve today?
• What does success look like?

Scaling:
• On a scale of 0–10, with 0 representing the worst it has ever been and 10 the preferred
future, where would you put the situation today?
• You are at N now; what did you do to get this far?
• How would you know you had got to N+1?
 Solution-focused coaching 201

Table 19.2 Structure of a solution-focused session

Stage Possible question/coach response

1. Issue What do you want to focus on today?

2. Goal What would you like to achieve as the outcome of this situation?
What will you do differently in your real-life situation after having reached your
goal? … And what else?
3. Session goal What would need to happen here in our meeting today so that you can say later
that it was worth having this conversation? … And what else?
4. Miracle question Okay, now, just using total fantasy here … tonight, while you sleep in bed, there
was a miracle, the miracle is that the things that brought you here are solved
… just like that … (but, since you are asleep, you do not know that the miracle
has happened). How would you know that the miracle had happened, and
that things are really solved? … And what else will tell you that the miracle
happened and there is now a perfect solution?
5. Consequences How will you react to this miracle? … What else will you be doing differently?
6. Change in Which people in your surroundings will frst notice the differences in your actions?
perspective … What will they notice? … And how else has your perspective changed?
7. Exceptions What examples in the recent past come to mind that have already had at least little
pieces of this miracle (“perfect solution” ) showing up? … And what else?
8. Resources What did you do that contributed to the situation you described? … And what
else was helpful?
9. Scaling Given what you have said, where do you stand on a scale from 1–10, where 10 is
the morning after the miracle, and 1 is the opposite?
10. Next step Suppose you are one step further on the scale.What would you have noticed that
has resulted in moving one point up? … And what else will you notice?
11. Change of How will others notice that you have reached the next point? … And what else
perspective will they notice?
12. Confdence Using a new scale (again 1–10), how confdent are you that you will reach this
next step? … What is giving you hope that you will get one point higher on the
scale? … And what else?
13. Small signs After our conversation today, what will be the frst small signs that you have already
started taking the next step? … And what else?
14. Progress check On a scale of 1–10, how useful has this conversation been for you so far?
15. Maintaining What are the points that you are taking away? … What could we do now to make
progress things even more useful to you?
16.Accountability Who could support you in putting things to action? … How will you get them
and support involved to act as your supporter? … When will you do this?

Know-how and resources:

• What helps you perform at ‘N’ on the scale, rather than 0?
• When does the outcome happen for you?
• What did you do to make that happen? How did you do that?

Affrm and action:

• What is already going well?
• What is the next small step?
• You are at ‘N’ now; what would it take to get you to ‘N+1’?
• What else could you do to move to ‘N+1’?
202 Jonathan Passmore
Review:
• What is better?
• What did you do that made the change happen?
• What effects have the changes had?
• What do you think will change?

Tools and techniques

Solution-focused coaching is rich in tools and techniques which the coach can draw upon
to help their client. In this section, we will explore half a dozen techniques including: The
coaching agreement, structuring the session, oscillation, the miracle question, moving on
from being stuck and seeking exceptions.

The coaching agreement

The frst coaching session would probably start with a brief explanation of what coach-
ing is, and what it is not. The coach will explain their role and clarify the collaborative
relationship and that the client knows what is best in their life. This initial part of the
coaching relationship is vital in setting expectations, and prevents the client looking to
the coach for their advice. It also provides permission for the coach to challenge and be
provocative.
The coach might say something like, “During our coaching, I will probably some-
times ask you questions that will be quite diffcult or challenging. Is that OK with you?”
Many professional coaches will have a printed client agreement. They may also share
their code of ethics or make reference to it and outline how best to complain. Most of
these aspects are common practice in most coaching relationships, although in solution-
focused coaching the coach is likely to make both the ‘collaborative relationship’ and the
‘client as expert’ more explicit.The coach might then ask the client what they would like
to get out of the coaching relationship and agree a goal of what the client wants to get
from the individual session. Some clients can clearly describe what they want to achieve.
Others turn straight to describing the problem. At this point, the coach will actively
intervene to shift the conversation away from a retelling of events and the problem to
focus on the desired future. This needs to be done in a way that does not alienate the
client, so some degree of patience may be needed, and the coach’s intervention may start
with a refection of what they have heard and some empathy about the feelings experi-
enced before the solutions fip. The coach will continue to repeat this process through
the sessions, redirecting energy from problem to solution if they are staying true to the
solution approach.

Structuring the coaching session

A structured coaching session is one where there are clearly differentiated sections within
a single coaching session. Each segment or part has a specifc function.These may include
contracting, goal setting, exploring the issue, developing alternative options and fnalising
a step-by-step plan. Such a detailed approach allows the conversation to be highly focused,
with each part having a clear reason for its inclusion within the conversation. Experienced
 Solution-focused coaching 203
coaches are able to track the coaching process and know at any time which section they
are in and what the next step for their client is in the journey towards an outcome.
Solution-focused approaches use the OSKAR model as the route map to structure the
conversation. Outcome, Scale, Know-how, Action and Review, which we have described
in more detail above.

Oscillation
A typical process is for the client to start by talking about their problem. In the client’s eyes,
it’s the problem which has brought them to coaching. In a solution-focused coaching ses-
sion, the coach then seeks to fip the conversation towards a focus on solutions. However,
it’s not uncommon for the client to drift back to discussing the problem. This requires
the coach to once again refect back, empathise and fip the conversation to a solution
mode.This can be repeated multiple times in the frst session.This back and forth oscil-
lation can become frustrating for the less experienced coach. It’s important for the coach
to recognise this returning to talking about the problem is normal, and that, in the clients
eyes, it’s why they are there:“It’s usually the stone in our shoe which makes us take off our
boots, not the dream of walking without pain”. However, the coach needs to stay with
the client, and allow some acknowledgement of the problem, to prevent the relationship
being undermine, while not allowing the problem focus to dominate. It is this ability to
sit with the uncertainty and ambiguity that differentiates the effective solution coach from
the novice.

The miracle question

Of all the tools within the solution-focused approach, the miracle question best encapsu-
lates the approach.The technique can be used when the client has signalled a shift from
thinking about the issues, to thinking about what they can do about them.This happens
when the client’s oscillations back to the problem start to reduce and the client begins to
engage in thinking about solutions.
If the coach asks the miracle question too early, before the client has moved away from
focusing exclusively on the problem, the client may feel as if they have not been heard.
This damages the relationship, and may result in slower progress later.
The coach also needs to take care when using the question. For example, in bereave-
ment or health coaching, asking the question to a grieving person, such as someone with
a relative who has been affected by cancer or someone dismissed from their job, may well
elicit responses like:

“Well, my husband would still be alive, wouldn’t he?”; “The cancer would never
would have happened”; “I would still have a job”. This simply builds resentment
rather than enables the client to move forward.

Finally, the aim is for the client to feel their answer to the miracle question, to emotion-
ally experience it and not just to think about it.This helps to make the imagined future
more real, and not just a theoretical construct. So, rather than getting someone to answer
straight away, get them to step in the imagined future for a few moments and really “see
and feel” the result of the miracle.Ask them to imagine the answer rather than tell you in
204 Jonathan Passmore

Table 19.3 Miracle question variations

Okay, now, just using total fantasy here … tonight, while you sleep in bed, there was a miracle, the
miracle is that the things that brought you here are solved … just like that … (but, since you are
asleep, you do not know that the miracle has happened). How would you know that the miracle had
happened, and the things are really solved?
Suppose I could give you a prescription of a very special potion that would give you an almost
supernatural power to do exactly the things you need to do in order to overcome your problem.
What kind of almost supernatural power would you need to overcome your problem? And once you
had that power, how would you handle the situation?
Picture in your mind two videos. One video shows the problem as it is; the other video shows how you
wish things were. Describe to me the difference between the two.
Suppose I had some superhuman powers, and simply by snapping my fngers like this (snaps fngers), I
could make your problem disappear (or I could give you the skill or ability you need). If this was
possible, what would be the frst opportunity for you to test if the snap works?
Suppose I meet you by chance in town next summer at a cafe.You’d be there sitting and having a
coffee. I would notice that you look really happy and relaxed. I would come over to you and I
would ask you how you are doing.You would say that you are doing really well; that you are happy
with your life and how things were going. I would naturally become curious, and so I would ask you
to give me some details about what happened over the past year.What would you tell me?

words.There are several variations of the question I have found to work well.These can
be seen in Table 19.3.
It’s important to recognise that the miracle question is not a single question, but the
start of a chain of questions which help the client to frst of all imagine a different out-
come is possible. From there the coach can start to help the client make this imagined
future more concrete.The coach may go on to ask questions such as:

• What will you notice around you that let you know that the miracle had happened?
• What will you see?
• What will you hear?
• What will you feel inside yourself?
• How would you be different?
• Now choose the smallest, least signifcant thing that you would be doing if your prob-
lem had gone, that you don't already do;
• I am going to invite you to act “as-if ” your problem was gone for the rest of today
and to experiment with this one small change;
• Now the next day, choose something else, some other small insignifcant thing, to do
as well.Add a new behaviour each day, acting as if a miracle had happened.

Using the miracle question is a wonderful way to bypass the usual worries about how
things could change, the details of which can be tackled later. Instead, the miracle question
switches to a motivational focus on what the client really wants to see change.

When stuck
Occasionally the coach reaches a dead-end with a client. They are unsure where to go
next.There are have several questions which can help to restart the conversation, helping
the coach reverse out of the dead-end road:
 Solution-focused coaching 205
“Tell me more about this?” – The client feels as if what they have said is of interest and
the question encourages the client to talk more about the topic.The word of caution is to
avoid using this question when the client has been talking about a problem.
“What would be the most useful question I could ask you right now?” – This question
can be really helpful in building the non-expert collaborative spirit of the relationship.
It assumes that the client knows best, including what questions are best used to further
explore their situation.
The aim with these questions is to get the client speaking, and if possible to get them
speaking about solutions or their desired outcomes.

Seeking exceptions
The fnal technique we explore is seeking exceptions. In this approach the coach askes
the client when the situation or problem does not occur. For example in ‘public seaking’,
when do you not have a problem speaking in public.The client for example might identify
that they don’t have a problem when speaking to friends and family, for example at a pub,
or at family gatherings at Christmas.The coach can then explore what they can draw from
these successful public communications to apply to the problem situation.

When does solution-focused coaching work best?

Solution-focused coaching can, in some ways, be seen as a coaching approach for all
seasons. It is highly consistent with the principles of coaching as a collaborative relation-
ship, where the client is the expert in their life.This requests a specifc coaching mindset,
where the coach can step away from offering solutions or needing to act as the expert. It
also requires the coach to manage the process, helping develop a mindset within the cli-
ent which is more directed towards the solution than focusing on a problem.As we noted
earlier, there may be some times of highly emotionally charged presenting issues, where
a person-centred approach may be better suited, or where the issue is one of trauma or a
mental health condition where other interventions may be preferable.
Unlike with the behavioural approach, the solution-focused coach needs to work at
multiple levels with their client. The coach uses the full range of basic communication
skills of questioning, refection, paraphrasing and summarising to help raise the client’s
awareness of the facts of the issue and, in doing so, help them imagine and then plan pos-
sible solutions.
By working with the client’s thoughts and emotions, the coach is able to amplify the
client’s motivation.This aspect of the coaching conversation is rarely discussed in the solu-
tion-focused literature, but has been explored within motivational interviewing, which
has many similarities with solution-focused coaching, including a need to consider the
client’s changing language or talk and the desire to develop intrinsic motivation.
Finally, for the approach to be effective the coach needs a sophisticated set of process
skills, effectively structuring the individual coaching sessions, helping the client to design
action plans and take positive frst steps towards their new imagined solution.

Ten useful questions for the solution-focused coach

In this section I will offer ten themes and a handful of questions that could be asked under
this theme. See Table 19.4.
206 Jonathan Passmore

Table 19.4 Ten solution-focused questions

Theme Useful questions

1. Set goals If coaching were to prove really worthwhile for you, what would be
happening that is not happening at present?
2. Problem Tell me exactly what happens frst?
deconstruction
3. Seek competence What is happening at the moment that makes you hopeful you can change the
situation?
4. Refocusing Let’s just stop you there, rather than focus on the problem, what could you do
to start making the situation better?
5. Seek exceptions When don’t you have this problem?
6. Scaling On a scale of 1–10, where are you now?
7. Positive Action What would need to change to move from where you are now to a higher
number
8. Miracle question Suppose … tonight, while you sleep in bed, there was a miracle, the miracle
is that the things that brought you here are solved … just like that … (but,
since you are asleep, you do not know that the miracle has happened). How
would you know that the miracle had happened, and the things are really
solved? … And what else will tell you that the miracle had happened and
there is now a perfect solution?
9. Circular questions What does he/she do? How do you react?
10. Accountability Who could support you in putting things into action?

Conclusion
In this chapter we have explored the solution-focused approach.We have suggested that
the solution-focused approach is highly compatible with coaching, as a forward-focused,
goal-orientated collaborative process, which sees clients as the experts in their own lives.
Given the research evidence, the solution-focused coach is well placed to enable their
clients to make effcient progress towards improvements in their lives and do so in the
knowledge that the steps they are taking refect their own values and priorities.

References
de Shazer, S. (1988). Clues: Investigating Solutions in Brief Therapy. New York:W.W. Norton & Co.
Fredrickson, B.L. (2004).‘The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions’. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), pp. 1367–1377.
Grant, A.M. (2012). ‘Making positive change: A randomized study comparing solution-focused vs.
problem-focused coaching questions’. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 31(2), pp. 21–35. doi: 10.1521/
jsyt.2012.31.2.21.
Grant, A.M. (2017). ‘Solution-focused cognitive-behavioral coaching for sustainable high performance
and circumventing stress, fatigue, and burnout’. Consulting Psychology Journal Practice and Research, 69(2),
pp. 98–111.
Grant, A.M. and O’Connor, S.A. (2010). ‘The differential effects of solution-focused and problem-
focused coaching questions: A pilot study with implications for practice’. Industrial and Commercial
Training, 42(2), pp. 102–111.
Grant, A.M. and O’Connor, S.A. (2018). ‘Broadening and building solution-focused coaching: Feeling
good is not enough’. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 11(2), pp. 165–
185. doi: 10.1080/17521882.2018.1489868.
 Solution-focused coaching 207
Greene, J. and Grant,A.M. (2003). Solution focused coaching. Harlow: Pearson.
Iveson, C., George, E. and Ratner, H. (2012). Brief coaching:A solution focused approach. Hove: Routledge.
Jackson, P.Z. and McKergow, M. (2002). The solution focus: Making coaching and change simply. London:
Nicholas Brealey.
Jordan, S. and Kauffeld, S. (2020).‘A mixed methods study of effects and antecedents of solution-focused
questions in coaching’. International Journal of Evidenced based Coaching and Mentoring, 18(1), pp. 57–72.
doi: 10.24384/w8ne-fx80.
Neipp, M.C., Beyebach, M., Nuñez, R.M. and Martínez-González, M.C. (2016).‘The effect of solution-
focused versus problem-focused questions: A replication’. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42(3),
pp. 525–535. doi: 10.1111/jmft.12140.
O’Connell, B. (1998). Solution focused therapy. London: Sage.
20 Cognitive-behavioural coaching
Rob Willson

Introduction
If cognitive-behavioural coaching (CBC) is a branch of the cognitive-behavioural tradi-
tion, it benefts from being a branch of a very large, well-established tree, deeply rooted
in empirical research. CBC is a focused, problem-solving, goal-directed approach. It aims
to help clients to live and work more productively and achieve greater psychological and
emotional well-being though change in thinking, mental activity and behaviour.
The CBC coaching relationship is collaborative and “empirical” – fnding out how
things work; especially how the client’s mind and relationships work. The style is warm,
understanding and pragmatic.Alongside their goals for coaching, the CBC coach is inter-
ested in getting to know the client as an individual, their strengths and what they want
to be, in addition to fnding out about the areas of their lives that are important to them.
The fgures most strongly associated with the development of the cognitive-behav-
ioural approach are Albert Ellis (1962) and Aaron Beck (1976). However, the approach
(including Ellis and Beck) has been strongly infuenced by behaviour therapy (e.g.Wolpe,
1958; Lang, 1963) and has philosophical roots in ancient Greek Stoicism. Since its ini-
tial development, the cognitive-behavioural approach has been extensively evaluated and
developed (Beck and Haigh, 2014).

The cognitive-behavioural approach explained

Beck's version of CBT, cognitive therapy (CT), has been characterised as being “scientifc”
in its approach, compared to Ellis’ rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) being more
“philosophical” (Padesky and Beck, 2003). While these distinctions are overly simplistic,
there is some truth in them: CT emphasises treating thoughts as hypotheses to be “tested
out”; REBT has greater emphasis on people practising helpful attitudes of fexible prefer-
ences, high frustration tolerance and self-acceptance. In practice, the signifcant majority
of practitioners are less concerned with a particular theory and more with the effcacy
of CB strategies.To many, Beck’s oft-given defnition of CBT will appeal:“Anything that
helps move the person from problem to goal!”.
CBC is rightly associated with identifying, challenging and generating alternative
thoughts, attitudes and beliefs. However, the term “cognition” encompasses a much wider
range of mental events and activities. In recent years, many clinicians and researchers have
included working with attention (e.g. Wells, 2011), worry (e.g. Papageorgiou and Wells,
2000), rumination (e.g. Watkins, 2018) and imagery (e.g. Holmes, Arntz and Smucker,
2007).
 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 209
At the heart of CBC is building a working hypothesis of the maintenance of a client’s
diffculty, often referred to as a “formulation”. A formulation can be very simple, such
as sharing a theoretically underpinned hunch that “your avoidance of public speaking
might be maintaining your fear of it, does that sound plausible?”Alternatively, a cognitive-
behavioural formulation could be complex, including childhood experiences, core beliefs,
assumptions, automatic thoughts and a range of avoidance and compensatory strategies.A
good rule of thumb is to keep a formulation as simple as possible while keeping enough
information to help the client feel understood, and for the formulation to be a good
working theory of how the problem is maintained.
Two famous versions of cognitive-behavioural formulation are the “ABC” model (Ellis,
1962) and the “hot cross bun” model (Greenberger and Padesky, 1995). I shall look at both
briefy.The main difference is the way that information is organised, and there is a greater
emphasis placed upon thoughts and beliefs in the ABC model. It's my experience that
the ABC model provides a strong framework to help keep meaning at the heart of CBC,
whereas the hot cross bun model is more fexible and can be more accessible to people
new to CBC.

The “ABC” model

ABC (with added D and E!) is potentially an entire coaching process, outlined below:

A. – Activating event.This is what the client feels their unhelpful emotion about.The
“event” might be past, present or future. It might be “external”, such as another person’s
action, or “internal”, such as a bodily sensation;
B. – Beliefs.These are the unhelpful thoughts and beliefs that went through the client’s
mind at the time of feeling their unhelpful emotion about “A”;
C. – Consequences. In CBC, these are emotional and behavioural results of “Beliefs”
about “A”. Given that CBC principally aims to help people change emotion and
behaviour,“C” is often the best place to start;
D. – Disputing.The coach helps the client to step back and consider how helpful, logi-
cal and realistic their beliefs and thoughts at “B” are.To help keep things rooted in the
pragmatic, the coach helps the client consider whether their thoughts and beliefs are
conducive to achieving their goal.As the coach helps the client dispute their unhelpful
thoughts, they help them to consider more helpful alternatives;
E. – Effect.The coach helps the client consider the emotional and behavioural effect of
their new thinking derived from “D”. Refer back to “C” and assess whether the new
perspective changes (or would change, if the situation arose again) their emotions or
behaviour.This may lead to a behavioural experiment or plan on how the client might
act “as if ” they believed their more helpful alternative, and thus strengthen their belief.

The hot cross bun model

The hot cross bun model illustrates how our cognitive processes (including, but not lim-
ited to, our thoughts and beliefs), emotional feelings (e.g. stress, anxiety, anger, low mood),
behaviours (such as avoidance or over-working) and physiology (e.g. increased heart rate)
all interact. Behaviours can include mental acts such as the excessive reviewing of a perfor-
mance situation in one’s mind. In CBC, all of these areas are potential targets for change.
210 Rob Willson

Environment
Cognition

Physiology Emotion

Behaviour

Figure 20.1 Click here to enter text.

Because each dimension will affect the others, it can give several potential points of inter-
vention. See Figure 20.1.
As the model above shows, our thinking is driven by our emotions and vice-versa.This
can be a vicious cycle of negative feelings maintaining negative thoughts, and negative
thoughts maintaining negative feelings. Compounding the problem is the way that our
behaviour (e.g. avoidance or safety-seeking behaviours) can prevent our thoughts from
being disconfrmed. For example, someone who fears falling apart while engaged in pub-
lic speaking might avoid giving presentations and never have their catastrophic thought
that they will make a fool of themselves disproved. Furthermore, changes in behaviour
may impact mood (e.g. rushing around from one meeting to the next boosts stress) or our
physiology (e.g. eating junk food for lunch lowers mood and reduces energy).

Cognitive-behavioural coaching theory and research

Where it comes to research, CBC has a distinct advantage over other approaches; CBT
is the most extensively researched model of psychotherapy by a considerable margin
(Bennett-Levy et al., 2004). CBT dominates evidence-based practice in the psychological
treatment of mental health problems because of the large amount of high-quality research
supporting its effcacy.This gives a strong evidence-base from which CBC can draw.
Partly because it’s a younger profession, by comparison the number of studies con-
ducted on CBC seems small, but there is a growing body of research supporting the eff-
cacy of CBC. Space here allows only for a few examples; for a more extensive review of
the research and a discussion on CBC, see Palmer and Williams (2013).
There is evidence that CBC helps reduce stress: Gardiner, Kearns and Tiggemann
(2013) found that CBC reduced GP stress levels and lowered their desire to escape from
rural general practice; in a recent study, Ogba et al. (2019) evaluated the effectiveness of a
12-week 90-minute group CBC (SPACE) programme in a sample of 65 Nigerian school
administrators.They found a signifcant decrease in their perceived stress and stress symp-
toms compared to wait-list controls.
 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 211
There is also evidence that CBC helps improve well-being: In a randomised controlled
trial, Grant, Curtayne and Burton (2009) found that executive coaching enhances goal
attainment, resilience and workplace well-being; Green, Oades and Grant (2006) found
that cognitive-behavioural, solution-focused life coaching enhanced goal striving, well-
being and hope.
Additionally, there is a small body of evidence that CBC improves management skills.
For example, in a pre-post test study of a CBC program for 23 mid-level managers, Ratiu
David and Baban (2016) found an increase in coaching skills, assertive communication
skills and motivation of subordinates.
What appears to still be needed in CBC is some large-scale, multi-centred, randomised
controlled trials.The ultimate hope would be that these could then be subjected to sys-
tematic review or meta-analysis and substantially strengthen the empirical support.
Specifc CBT treatment protocols for numerous mental and physical health condi-
tions have been developed and tested (see Clark and Fairburn, 1997 for reviews of some
of these). To an extent, this has widened the gap between CBT and CBC. The specifc
protocol for OCD or panic disorder, for example, does not have an obvious place in
coaching. However, in more recent years the feld has been moving towards identifying
“transdiagnostic processes” in CBT; the psychological mechanisms that are important in
the maintenance of a wide range of clinical problems. Such processes include:

• Cognitive biases, such as black-or-white thinking and personalising;

• Intolerance of uncertainty;
• Ruminating – literally meaning repeatedly “chewing things over” in our minds. Often
meaning we “dwell” on past events or on the way we feel emotionally;
• Worrying – also a form of repetitive over-thinking but future-focused and often
seems like an to attempt plan and prepare for possible diffculties;
• Mental reviewing of social interaction;
• Attentional bias towards threat (vigilance);
• Self-focused attention;
• Avoidance and safety-seeking behaviours.
(Frank and Davidson, 2014)

Importantly, transdiagnostic research supports the assertion that coaches should be at least
as interested in the style of their clients’ thinking as the content of their thoughts.Arguably,
these processes occur across a wide range of clinical problems and can give coaches conf-
dence that they are likely to be relevant in CBC. Evaluating the beneft of helping clients
modify factors such as mental-reviewing, ruminating and where they focus their attention
has the potential to be a fruitful area of future research.

Cognitive-behavioural coaching in practice

The ultimate aim of CBC is for the client to become their own cognitive-behavioural
coach.This is not limited to learning a few “coping strategies” but instead involves help-
ing the client develop a good understanding of how their mind works and how to work
it more effectively.
CBC approaches coaching in a particular “spirit” known as “collaborative empiricism”.
This means that the coach and client team up together with a scientifc approach to the
world. The atmosphere the coach aims to create is one of enquiry as to how the world
212 Rob Willson
works. It’s important to note that this is at least as much testing out whether a particular
strategy is helpful as divining truth or facts. For example, in performance anxiety, it’s not
possible to know for sure the thoughts in someone else’s mind, but a client can discover
the effect of self-focused versus externally-focused attention.
Below is a list of some of the more common areas to which CBC is applied.

• Low mood and related low motivation;

• Stress and fatigue;
• Anxiety;
• Perfectionism;
• Lack of confdence;
• Interpersonal disputes/confict;
• Risk-taking and decisiveness.;
• Procrastination;
• Stress management;
• Performance anxiety;
• Anger and aggression (including passive-aggression);
• Excessive worry about work and other life responsibilities;
• Building resilience;
• Problem-solving;
• Building persistence;
• Effective communication and assertion;
• Time management.

The following are some key steps to include in a CBC session.

1. Defning problems and goals

To help keep coaching focused and heading in the right direction, clients are
helped to defne their problems and goals at the outset.
To help frame the problem in a manner that makes it more accessible to CBC, the
client should defne the problem in terms of:
• Feelings/emotions;
• A situation or theme that triggered your emotion;
• The way you tend to act in the situation when you feel your problem emotion.
The coach can help the client defne their goals. One model to do this is SPORT,
a variation on SMART goals:
• Specifc about where, when and/or with whom you want to feel or behave
differently;
• Positive: Encouraging yourself to develop more, rather than less, of something.
For example, you may want to gain more confdence (rather than become less
anxious) or to hone a skill (rather than make fewer mistakes);
• Ideally containing an observable description of a behavioural change that you can
defne. Despite the importance placed on changes in thought, attitude or meaning
in CBC, these are best seen as a mechanism of change, not a goal in themselves;
• Realistic and achievable;
• Time-limited.
 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 213
2. Choose a problem to work on
If a client lists more than one problem, the coach can ask them to choose which
problem they would like to work on frst.
3. Work with a specifc example of the problem
Invite the client to describe a recent representative example of the problem.This
provides an opportunity to collaborate on starting to deconstruct and identify key
elements.
4. Develop a formulation
As the client describes the problem, help them to fll out the emotion, cogni-
tion, behaviour and physical sections of the cognitive-behavioural model. Some
of the key questions described below will help to do this. Invite the client to step
back and look at the diagram. Ask “What do you make of this?” since helping to
elicit their impression of the formulation may lead to productive discussion of
their understanding of the problem and opportunities for change. Probe further
on their view on how these different sections infuence each other. Ask “What do
you think is the effect of … (one aspect on another)?”; e.g.“What do you think is
the effect of feeling anxious on how strongly you believe people are judging you
negatively?”
When clients step back and look at the problem formulation for the frst time, it’s
striking how many individuals will say something like: “I hadn’t realised there was
so much going on, it makes sense now why it hasn’t been easy to just stop feeling
this way”.
5. Identify targets for change and their alternatives
Next, agree upon a target for change from the formulation. This might be a
thought (such as an unhelpful self-criticism), physical action (such as avoiding a dif-
fcult conversation with a colleague), mental act (such as mentally reviewing a meet-
ing or comparing oneself or one’s circumstances to others), an attention bias (such as
becoming self-focused in a meeting) or a physical issue (such as a poor sleep pattern).
It’s not unusual for clients to quickly spot an unhelpful thought or behaviour and to
spontaneously generate some ideas for change. If this happens, don’t overwork the
problem and move on to the next step. Ask “Where do you think we should start to
help move from your problem to your goal?” (it’s usually a good idea to re-state both
of these).
If the client is less sure where to start, work through the cognition and behaviour
sections in more detail to help them consider how helpful certain thoughts or behav-
iours are and whether there might be more helpful ways of thinking or behaving.The
tools, techniques and questions sections below offer further insights.
6. Agree out-of-session practice (homework)
Completion of homework assignments can make a very signifcant difference to
outcome (Burns and Spangler, 2000). It can be helpful to characterise the sessions as a
being rather like seeing a physiotherapist or tennis coach – with practice outside the
session being key to success. It might be reading some relevant material, flling out a
thought record, or a behavioural experiment or other behaviour change.
Naturally, the assignment needs to fow logically from the work the coach has done
so far, and it’s important for the coach to check with the client about what is being
agreed to and whether the client sees sense in the task.
214 Rob Willson
Tools and techniques
The cognitive-behavioural tradition is well known for its plethora of tools and techniques.
Here I’ve introduced some of the more core, practical tried-and-tested strategies.

Psychoeducation
Psychoeducation has always been a key part of the cognitive-behavioural approach. In the
frst instance, the coach “socialises” the client into the CBC model, and very often this
is most elegantly done by using the model as a structure to help understand the client’s
problem better.The coach can also use a story or metaphor to illustrate a key point.There
are also numerous cognitive-behavioural self-help texts that a CBC coach can recommend
to their client to help them understand a problem, or the principles of managing it better.

Socratic questioning
Socratic questioning is used to facilitate “guided discovery” and help the client uncover
their unhelpful thoughts and beliefs. It is also used to help them refect, consider their
thought, generate alternatives and build strength of belief in them.The aim is to stimulate
and support the client to work things out for themselves rather than tell them. However,
it’s important that we ask questions that the client can answer, and not leave them feeling
interrogated or at a loss as to what it is that we are looking for.There are very defnitely
times when a short didactic explanation is more helpful. Below are some examples of
Socratic questions:

To help a client elicit their thoughts, images and behaviour:

What’s going through (or went through) your mind?

Did you see anything in your mind’s eye?
What did X mean to you?
What did you do when X happened?

When helping the client re-consider an unhelpful thought:

What’s the effect of thinking this way?

What’s the evidence for …?
Could there be any alternatives (e.g. ways of interpreting an experience)?
What are the costs and benefts of this (thought or assumption)? How does that compare
to the alternative?
How might someone else view the situation?

When considering evidence that may help disconfrm an unhelpful thought:

How does this ft with …?

How do you put ____ (thought) together with ____ (evidence)?
Now you have stepped back and looked at the situation, what do you make of your origi-
nal conclusion?
 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 215

Table 20.1 Functional analysis

Behaviour Intended Consequence Unintended Consequence Alternative to try out

Avoidance of making a I avoid the risk of I never build my Volunteer for several
presentation. making a fool of confdence or test my presentations over the
myself. fears. next few months.
Avoid giving critical I don’t risk upsetting my Problems are not dealt Be direct while trying to
feedback at appraisal. colleague and creating with and frustrations remain warm.
bad feeling. can build
“Taking control” at I make sure we focus on I end up feeling too Deliberately sit back
meetings. what’s important. responsible. No voice and use questions to
for others. prompt if needed.
Trying to do things Avoiding being At lot of extra stress Focus more on being
perfectly. criticised. and fnding myself practical and
distanced from my expedient. Use time to
colleagues. connect.
Criticising a colleague’s To show how competent I probably look insecure Take pleasure in my own
professionalism. I am. and do not show my work. Highlight the
best side. strengths in others.

To move on to implementing change:

How could we fnd out more?

What do you think would happen if (you changed X behaviour)?
How could we put this (thought, theory, assumption) to the test?
How might you practise thinking or acting to help build on this?

Functional Analysis
Functional analysis has its roots in behaviour therapy but is part of contemporary CBC,
focusing more on modifying the style of psychological response more than content.This
is a highly fexible technique that can be used to help see beyond the intention of their
strategy, through to the unintended consequence. I’ve provided simple illustrations of
behaviours at work here, but it can also be used for mental acts like self-criticism, mental-
reviewing of a performance, ruminating and self-focused attention. See Table 20.1.

Identifying “thinking errors”

Also referred to in the literature as “cognitive distortions”; various ways in which human
beings are prone to bias in processing information.Thinking errors are explained in detail
in numerous texts on CBT and CBC (e.g. Branch and Willson, 2019) and, for reasons of
space, I will not go into great detail here.
Common thinking errors include:

• All-or-nothing thinking;
• Personalising;
• Catastrophising;
216 Rob Willson
• Mind-reading;
• Making rigid demands (musts and shoulds);
• Labelling (oneself or others) e.g. as useless, worthless or a failure;
• Mental fltering and disqualifying the positive (focusing upon the negative and dis-
counting the positive);
• Overgeneralising.

Giving clients a list of common thinking errors can help them step back, reconsider their
interpretation or attitude or perhaps be more able to detach from their unhelpful thoughts.

Behavioural experiments
Actions speak louder than words, and few things have more impact on our thinking than
a change in behaviour. Behavioural experiments are a core technique in CBC and can be
used in several ways, such as:

• To test the validity of a thought or belief, to test the validity of an alternative thought
or belief or to compare and contrast the two;
• To gain information on what happens following a change in behaviour;
• To discover the effect (increasing or decreasing) mental or behavioural activities have
on emotional or physical response.A particularly important experiment is to help cli-
ents discover that their anxiety will subside of its own accord if they tolerate it rather
than seek to avoid or control it.

The coach can take the client through the following steps to devise a behavioural
experiment:

1. Identify a target for experiment

Identify a problematic thought, belief, behaviour or mental activity that the coach
and client think might be important to change or learn more about.
2. Formulate a prediction or theory to be tested
Help the client formulate a specifc theory or prediction that they can put to the
test. Elicit what they think will happen if they try out a new way of behaving in real
life.You can ask for a rating of the degree to which they believe a prediction will
come true on a percentage between 0 and 100.
3. Brainstorm some ideas on an experiment
Help the client to think of ways of putting a new belief or behaviour to the test in
a real-life situation.Try to devise more than one way to experiment.
4. Agree an experiment
The coach and client agree together on the experiment the client is going to
try out.The coach should explore potential obstacles that might arise and how they
might be overcome.
5. Ask the client to carry out the experiment and to record exactly what they
did, and what happened as a result
This will provide important information to discuss, usually at the next session. It’s
important to learn from the client what exactly they did as it’s not unusual for people
to modify (or avoid) the experiment in some way.Whatever happens, it’s all good data
and there’s something to be learned.
 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 217
6. Consider the results of the experiment
Invite the client to see whether their prediction came true. If it didn’t, check out
what they have learned from the results of the experiment.The coach could also share
their perspective, with the agreement of the client, as to their own predictions. In
light of the results of the experiment, the coach could invite the client to re-rate their
conviction in the original prediction(s).

Attention training and switching the focus of attention

If an attention bias is identifed as part of the formulation, or the person has a tendency
to worry or ruminate, an attention intervention can be helpful.Working with attention is
a natural ft for coaching as it has signifcant implications on how effectively we run our
minds.Attentional focus is an important topic in sports psychology, and attention is hugely
important in the way we think, feel, focus our minds and process information.
Self-focused attention (such as upon how we feel we look or sound) can be especially
important in performance or social situations. It can overload our minds and make it
harder to think or recall information.The resulting self-consciousness can also mean that
we are far more likely to infer that others are thinking critically.When we ruminate, worry,
or mentally review (over-think), our attention has moved from the present, external world.
It can be helpful ask clients how helpful and productive these strategies are, including per-
haps carrying out a functional analysis (above) or a cost-beneft analysis, so they are more
inclined to work on changing them.
Clients can learn to “switch” their attention into the environment away from them-
selves (or out of their heads when over-thinking), or away from a particular threat, within
a situation such as a meeting or presentation.To help with this and improve control over
attention, we might teach specifc attention training techniques such as deliberate daily
ten-minute walks practising paying attention to the outside world. Clients who are famil-
iar with mindfulness practice will often understand that the focus of their awareness (or
attention) is something that can be deliberately and helpfully infuenced.

When does cognitive-behavioural coaching work best?

Cognitive-behavioural coaching (CBC) is a problem-solving approach to coaching.
Because of its roots in psychological therapy, CBC is often helpful when the client has a
psychological problem.This might be an emotional response that is distressing or one that
interferes in performance. Often the impact of an emotional problem can be through the
strategies the person uses to avoid having an emotional response activated. For example,
an individual might procrastinate on a task to try and avoid the uncomfortable feelings of
anxiety that it triggers. So, in the area of common psychological problems such as stress,
low mood, anger, low self-esteem, performance anxiety and the many behavioural prob-
lems associated with these issues, CBC is a logical and evidence-supported choice.
CBC is also a good ft when the client prefers a practical and problem-solving approach
to diffculties. It also works well when the client is psychologically minded and is willing
to experience a degree of discomfort to achieve growth. My experience is that people
tend to hold fairly rigid ideas about the nature of personal development (including, baf-
fingly, some CBT therapist colleagues who seem to seek far less well-proven interven-
tions for their own diffculties). So if a person believes that a “deep” psychodynamic or
exclusively mindful path is the only route to psychological health, they may (of course)
218 Rob Willson
be less receptive to CBC. Individuals who hold their environment (such as a diffcult boss
or subordinate) wholly to blame for their distress can also at times be less receptive to the
highly “internally” focused nature of CBC.As is shown in the CB model, CBC does give
space to incorporate environmental contributions. In such situations, it can be important
to offer extra time for the client to feel understood and have their feelings validated.The
coach can emphasise optimising the person’s coping through establishing the most helpful
cognitive-behavioural response.

Ten useful questions for cognitive-behavioural coaches

1. What’s the problem you’d like to work on?
CBC is a pragmatic, problem-solving approach. Like any problem-solving tech-
nique, it’s only as effective as the defnition of the problem.
2. How would you like to be different?
This is a question designed to elicit a goal, and the CBC coach will guide their cli-
ent help them focus upon goals that within their infuence. It can be helpful to anchor
goals in a change of behaviour as this is more observable and measurable than thoughts
and emotions.
3. What went through your mind?
Notice here that the question is not “what thoughts went through your mind”.This
is because we are also interested in images, which can carry a considerable amount of
meaning.This is because these also infuence the way the individual processes an expe-
rience and hence their emotional and behavioural reaction.
4. What (specifcally) did you do?
Understanding how a person behaved is critical for both the coach and the client to
make sense of a given problem.A contemporary CBC coach will pay as much attention
to their client’s mental activity as to their overt physical behaviour.
5. Where did you focus your attention?
As noted above, there is a growing understanding of the role of attention in psycho-
logical problems.The client becoming more aware of the focus of their attention, and
gaining more control over it, brings out an often-neglected opportunity for improved
emotional health.
6. What’s the effect?
As we’ve seen above, the cognitive-behavioural coach may draw attention to the
function of an individual’s mental or behavioural strategy.They will help the client see
beyond their intended consequence of a given behaviour through to any unintended
result.This can be especially important in helping the client to choose to change since
they are more able to see the sense in doing so.
7. What’s the evidence?
A key question for helping people to step back and evaluate the evidence for and
against their thoughts and beliefs. It is also helpful for the client to consider the evi-
dence that might support a more helpful thought, belief or theory. Part of the aim in
CBC is to help clients weaken their strength of belief (SOB) in an unhelpful thought
and strengthen it on their more helpful alternative.
8. What’s an alternative?
Understanding that a particular thought or belief is irrational or a behaviour is
unhelpful is, of course, only the start. For coaching to help the client grow and develop
and to have something new and more helpful to practise in the real-world, generating
alternatives is essential.
 Cognitive-behavioural coaching 219
9. How could we fnd out more?
A cornerstone of the cognitive-behavioural method is agreeing on a homework
assignment for the client to carry on outside of the session.This might be a behavioural
experiment to test out a prediction or to see how a change in approach works out.
10. What do you think is it going to be like, if you try it out?
It can be tempting for both coach and client to get a bit carried away and agree a
change or homework that sounds good in session, but may be more diffcult to carry
out in the real world.The coach can help the client think through the agreed exercise,
a check that it is realistic and that they are better prepared for any discomfort they are
likely to experience.

Conclusion
CBC is a highly practical, active, here-and-now focused approach. It has considerable
potential to help people achieve greater emotional health, improved well-being and to
overcome mental and behavioural blocks to improved performance. CBC benefts greatly
from its origin and ongoing relationship to CBT both in terms of research fndings and
the development of techniques.
25% of the population (in any context) will be suffering from a mental health problem.
Furthermore, some individuals will seek coaching for an emotional problem rather than
counselling or therapy due to the stigma, shame or preconception. Problems like low
mood and excessive worry are going to be common in any workplace and CBC offers
the skills to help manage these challenges. In what are increasingly uncertain times, an
approach that promotes tolerance of doubt and guards against excessive worry would
seem to have a particular value.

References
Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
Beck, A.T. and Haigh, E.A. (2014). ‘Advances in cognitive theory and therapy: The generic cognitive
model’. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, pp. 1–24.
Bennett-Levy, J.E., Butler, G.E., Fennell, M.E., Hackman,A.E., Mueller, M.E. and Westbrook, D.E. (2004).
Oxford guide to behavioural experiments in cognitive therapy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Branch, R. and Willson, R. (2019). Cognitive behavioural therapy for dummies. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Burns, D.D. and Spangler, D.L. (2000).‘Does psychotherapy homework lead to improvements in depression
in cognitive–behavioral therapy or does improvement lead to increased homework compliance?’
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(1), pp. 46–56.
Clark, D.M., and Fairburn, C.G., eds. (1997). Science and practice of cognitive behaviour therapy. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. Secaucus: Citadel.
Frank, R.I. and Davidson, J. (2014). The transdiagnostic road map to case formulation and treatment planning:
Practical guidance for clinical decision making. Oakland: New Harbinger Publications.
Gardiner, M., Kearns, H. and Tiggemann, M. (2013). ‘Effectiveness of cognitive behavioural coaching
in improving the well-being and retention of rural general practitioners’. Australian Journal of Rural
Health, 21(3), pp. 183–189.
Grant,A.M., Curtayne, L. and Burton, G. (2009).‘Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, resilience
and workplace well-being: A randomised controlled study’. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(5), pp.
396–407.
Green, L.S., Oades, L.G. and Grant, A.M. (2006). ‘Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching:
Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope’. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3), pp. 142–149.
220 Rob Willson
Greenberger, D. and Padesky, C.A. (1995). Mind over mood: Change how you feel by changing the way you
think. New York: Guilford Publications.
Holmes, E.A., Arntz, A. and Smucker, M.R. (2007).‘Imagery rescripting in cognitive behaviour therapy:
Images, treatment techniques and outcomes’. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry,
38(4), pp. 297–305.
Lang, P.J. and Lazovik, A.D. (1963).‘Experimental desensitization of phobia’. The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 66(6), pp. 519.
Ogba, F.N., Onyishi, C.N., Ede, M.O., Ugwuanyi, C., Nwokeoma, B.N.,Victor-Aigbodion,V., … Ossai,
O.V. (2019). ‘Effectiveness of SPACE model of cognitive behavioral coaching in management of
occupational stress in a sample of school administrators in South-East Nigeria’. Journal of Rational-
Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 1–24.
Padesky, C.A. and Beck, A.T. (2003). ‘Science and philosophy: Comparison of cognitive therapy and
rational emotive behavior therapy’. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 17(3), pp. 211–224.
Palmer, S., and Williams, H. (2013).‘Cognitive behavioural coaching’. In J. Passmore, D.B. Peterson and T.
Freire, eds., The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of coaching and mentoring. Chichester: Wiley-
Blackwell, pp. 327–330.
Papageorgiou, C. and Wells,A. (2000).‘Treatment of recurrent major depression with attention training’.
Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 7(4), pp. 407–413.
Ratiu, L., David, O.A. and Baban, A. (2016).‘Developing managerial skills through coaching: Effcacy of
a cognitive-behavioral coaching program’. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy,
34(4), pp. 244–266.
Watkins, E.R. (2018). Rumination-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression. New York: Guilford
Publications.
Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
21 Gestalt coaching
Ann James

Introduction
“If you cn raed and udnrtsand this setnence, you are expreincnig Gestalt at wrok”. In
short, Gestalt focuses on how humans look for patterns, how they see the whole, when
presented with fragments. For coaches, Gestalt offers a set of principles which can be
applied in their work that, while different to many other coaching approaches, can help
clients to develop new insights about themselves and their situations. In this chapter we
will review the Gestalt approach, consider the evidence and how it can be applied, before
reviewing tools, techniques and questions which coaches can use in their practice.

Gestalt coaching explained

Gestalt emerged from feld of psychology in the early 20th century through the work
of Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887–1967) and Kurt Koffka
(1886–1941).
Their approach was developed further from the 1920s by Fritz Perls for application
in the therapeutic domain. Perls, along with his wife, Laura Perls, went on to challenge
the more established behavioural and psychoanalytical approaches to therapy, which Perls
regarded as adopting a narrower view of human development.
Over three decades, Perls continued to advocate for the intrinsic value of Gestalt
principles in therapy. Today, these continue to resonate in the context of coaching. See
Table 21.1.
Working as a coach with Gestalt demands recognition and acceptance of the fact that
we are all, at all times, living each moment in the context of changing circumstances. Our
capacity to thrive and remain safe depends on our ability to adjust and adapt in the face of
this ever-changing present and ever-present change.
Much of the time it is helpful to us – even necessary for our safety – that our brain has
the capacity to simply get on and make meaning of the multiple sources of data, informa-
tion and experience available to us. It’s what allows us to make sense of the world.
Bringing that to coaching, it follows that the “meaning” we make of a perceived whole
is limited to, and by, the scope of our awareness.We cannot be aware of everything, all of
the time.
The Gestalt coach works in the here and now, encouraging the client to pay attention
to a broad feld of data and information by engaging holistically with the senses, noticing
what emerges, then experimenting with new ideas and adopting different perspectives to
generate insight, choice and possibilities.
222 Ann James

Table 21.1 Gestalt principles

• Each of us has the capacity to grow in the face of constant change; we can adapt and learn, provided
we foster awareness and remain attuned to our needs;
• We are equipped to make the best decisions we can for ourselves; we are informed by our unique
experience of our reality, its perceived opportunities and constraints;
• Awareness is everything; our capacity to adapt and grow is determined by the extent to which we
are attuned to our circumstances or “reality”;
• “Unfnished business” or unresolved events create obstacles to growth; engaging with these afresh in
the moment can mobilise motivation, hope and energy;
• Being present with “what is” frees us up from the illusion of what we think “should be”; it allows us
to engage with what is real, now, through all our senses;
• This embodied felt experience gives access to an array of information and inherent wisdom.

Gestalt coaching theory and research

Drawing upon the principles of Existential philosophy, Gestalt requires us to adopt an
open, holistic way of being, a receptiveness to what is rather than an inclination to ana-
lyse. It calls upon us to connect with and pay close attention to our senses, physiological
responses and spontaneous thoughts and emotions. We notice the presence of any pre-
conceptions or distractions not to eliminate them, but rather to be curious about their
purpose in calling for our attention.
We have said that Gestalt works with the concept of “the whole”; that is, the meaning we
attach to overall form that is taken to be represented by its constituent parts, in its context.
For example, when we see fower, bush, grass, wheelbarrow, bench, outdoors, they
collectively become “garden”.When we see those things framed on a wall, they become
“picture”. If we were to see them piled in a bathtub, we may be confused.
Similarly, the person is always impacted by their relationship to what is referred to as the
“feld” or context in which they are present. Nothing and no one can exist in isolation; all
is interconnected and in a state of constant fux.

Field Theory
Field Theory in Gestalt comes from the work of Kurt Lewin. He asserted that we all have
a tendency to interpret and act upon our interpretation of the feld depending on what’s
important to us in the moment.We experience this, for example, when our current cir-
cumstances lead us to notice things we otherwise might not: Pet-friendly holiday venues
(or a shortage thereof) when we have just acquired a dog; the high cost of the things we
want when we are short of cash; feeling anxious about certain conversations when we
have had one that went badly.
The terms “fgure” and “ground” are used to describe this juxtaposition of what we are
focused on (the fgure) and the context in which it exists (the ground).Visualise a solid
black circle painted onto a white page … or is it a large area of white painted onto a black
page, leaving a circular space uncovered? Depending on which you identify as the fgure,
and which as the ground, either could be true.And so it is with all experiences, sensations,
thought and feelings. What we feel, notice and think will be the product of the present
focus of our attention.
 Gestalt coaching 223
Gestalt recognises that nothing and no one exists in a vacuum;“reality” will always be
an entirely subjective and temporary reading of the present. Moreover, the person expe-
riencing their own reality is not apart from it; rather, they are a part of it and, as such, are
themselves impacting the context in which they exist. Through the lens of Gestalt, one
cannot by defnition view one’s world from the sidelines.
It is largely because of this that Gestalt is a highly effective vehicle for exploring inter-
personal dynamics.

Systems Theory
There is much in Gestalt that draws upon Systems Theory, acknowledging not only the
relationship of one part to another, but the dynamic interplay between the parts.
Peter Senge described it thus:

A system is a perceived whole whose elements ‘hang together’ because they continu-
ally affect each other over time and operate toward a common purpose.
(Senge et al., 1994)

That common purpose may be a desirable one or not – all we can know is that a purpose
will emerge from any system left to determine its own direction.
One of the strengths of Gestalt work – whether in therapy or coaching, with individu-
als or groups – is its capacity to harness awareness as an infuencer of direction.

Self and other

Perls suggested that the only way to understand the self is in the context of the feld, or
the wider context that is “other” than that self. Put another way, nothing can be described
and given meaning unless it is understood in the sense of everything it is not.
Given that the feld, or context, is ever-changing, the way in which one perceives one’s
“self ” is conditional upon that change.
The coach and client are themselves components in their individual and shared felds.
The “feld” is continuously on the move and so, therefore, is the environment in which
the coaching is taking place.The coaching relationship is an arena within which both the
coach and client(s) are mutually determining their shared reality.
It’s vital that the coach recognise this so that they can be aware of their own imprint on
the client’s experience; there will be an imprint, intended or not.

Paradox Theory of change and resistance

The Gestalt approach accepts the inherent contradiction that accompanies change.
Change is by defnition a means of becoming something other than what already is.The
desire for change is therefore at some level a dissatisfaction with or even rejection of what
already is.

Change occurs when one is fully in contact with what is, rather than trying to be
different.
(Bluckert, 2015 p. 7)
224 Ann James
The paradox, then, is that until we fully accept what is and who we are, we cannot create
the change we want. With raised awareness, the client will fnd their own new meaning
emerging from their mixed or even paradoxical experiences.

Gestalt coaching in practice

Coaches who align their work with Gestalt principles support their clients in connecting
holistically with themselves and their experiences in the moment.This happens at physi-
cal, emotional, cognitive and physiological levels, giving the client access to thoughts, feel-
ings, bodily sensations and responses that give them information about what’s going on.
One could think of it as an inquisitive “feld trip” into the client’s world with the coach
for company.
The coach is able to heighten the client’s awareness of their feld: the “fgure”, or the
topic that has brought them to the coaching; and the “ground”, which defnes the wider
context that gives that topic its defnition.
The coach can guide the client through exercises, activities and questions in a spirit of
creative experiment, being curious without judgment, acknowledging resistance and “try-
ing on for size” a variety of strategies in the safety of the coaching environment.

Working in the here and now, with awareness

Awareness is the cornerstone of Gestalt: Self-awareness in coach and client, awareness of
their individual and shared felds, awareness of the impact each of them individually and
in relationship are having on that feld, moment to moment.
The here and now is feeting.The past and future are important only in terms of their
imprint on this moment’s reality. If the client had an upsetting experience last year, it
matters only in terms of its residue in this moment. If they are anxious about a meeting
coming up next week, that event belongs here only in the form of the anxiety they feel
now in the anticipation. In such moments, the upset or anxiety become the “fgure”, given
meaning in context of the “ground” of the past or anticipated event.The events themselves
do not exist.
John Leary-Joyce (2014) identifes two types of awareness important for coaches.
Undirected awareness takes a wide-open view, suspending expectation and judgment so
that information can be received in a spirit of discovery.Whatever emerges, emerges and
is valid in its own right.
This can be challenging for the coach and client alike: Setting aside analysis, engaging
mindfully with the present moment and all that it is making available, slowing down and
waiting for whatever comes.The coach who engages with refective practice will be famil-
iar with these challenges; the client may fnd that they oppose all the practices they have
been trained to become good at: Solving the problem, planning ahead, getting a result.
Coaching is expected to produce results, of course, and these are in part determined by
the attention and actions of the coach.
Directed awareness has a more focused and deliberate quality, allowing the coach to
observe with focus, identify clues and cues, notice details that can usefully inform their
interventions and questions.
Both levels of awareness have their place in coaching, whatever approach the coach
favours.The type and intensity of awareness called for in Gestalt work can be a stretch for
the client; the coach can model such awareness in action.
 Gestalt coaching 225
Unique individual experience
Discourse around Gestalt often makes reference to Phenomenology, a branch of philoso-
phy that is concerned with the study of experience. Each one of us experiences our reality,
or “truth”, in a unique way because we feel, perceive and behave uniquely.
From a Gestalt perspective, the coach’s job is to help the client explore his reality, to
make meaning of his discoveries and to experiment with how those discoveries can use-
fully serve him.
Whatever the client brings to the coaching as a concern will be his current truth, the
“fgure” at the forefront of his experience right now. It claims his attention and energy
and is thrown into relief against the backdrop of everything else that has faded into the
“ground”, with all its events, beliefs, values, assumptions, habits, ways of seeing the world
and unfnished business.
If the client’s truth is that they are not smart enough to get the promotion, the coach’s
view is unimportant.The coach’s job is to start from that current reality, enabling the client
to do their own detective work with the evidence offered by the present moment.
It is in doing this that the shifts and insights come; the client turns the kaleidoscope of
their world view in front of their own eyes to reveal a different confguration with fresh
possibilities.

Relationship
The relationship between coach and client can be a rich source of information about the
client’s relationships elsewhere. By experiencing what plays out in the coaching relation-
ship, the coach is able to draw upon their own experience of the interaction and put
information into the feld to enhance the client’s awareness.
This is an example of the use of the self as an instrument, where Gestalt coaches share
their own observations and responses to and with the client, in the moment, aware of their
own place and impact in the interactive feld. The skill is to do this collaboratively and
with intention, in service of expanding the client’s awareness of the feld.

Creative experimentation
Much has been said already about the importance of experiment in Gestalt coaching.
With an available and accessible feld and a receptiveness to whatever data the feld offers,
both coach and client have the opportunity to try out a range of strategies and responses
in service of the client’s growth and desired outcomes.
Experimentation in Gestalt calls for action, for getting out of the head and the theo-
retical, into the body and the moment.This can be uncomfortable for the client, and the
value is in the discomfort. By introducing this stretch, the client can experiment safely
with what it might be like to have a go in a way that they would otherwise avoid. An
experiment might be embodied in a simple but powerful question such as “What would
it be like if you …?”
More challenging might be an “enactment” of a scenario where the client adopts
the position of a character, metaphorical or real, stepping into their shoes as part of the
experiment.
Gestalt work offers the opportunity to develop new ways of trying out, even rehearsing,
options without risk of adverse consequences and with the advantage of feedback.
226 Ann James
The paradoxical nature of change and resistance
“Coaching invites resistance – and that’s a good thing … It’s not resistance that creates a
problem, it’s our reaction to it that can get in the way” (Maurer, 2011, p. 91).
People generally come to coaching because there’s something they want to be different.
They know they want the change, they may even yearn for it, and yet it isn’t happening.
At some level, for some reason, there is resistance to the change.
In Gestalt work, both the desire – the “push” – and the holding back – the “pull” – are
very real, present and useful factors. Neither is friend or foe, good or bad, attractive or not
so. They simply are. The coach’s job is to facilitate the client’s awareness of and curiosity
about both of them; it is not their job to somehow overcome the resistance and advocate
the desire.

Tools and techniques

“It is in the nature of Gestalt to evolve, and so it continues to do so in a way that prohibits
the exposition of ‘the’ Gestalt way” (Allan and Whybrow, 2019, p. 181). Gestalt is a set of
principles that informs how a coach works.
The aim of Gestalt coaching is to embrace the subjective present in a way that invites
new experiences and perspectives to form a revised reality. Some other approaches to
coaching might deal with the presented issue (the client’s “fgure”) at an essentially trans-
actional, problem-solving level and the outcome may be satisfactory. Sometimes, however,
the “fgure” re-emerges in other contexts or different “ground”, suggesting an underlying
pattern in the client’s circumstances where some resolution can be helpful.
This is where Gestalt work can be at its best, leading to transformational and endur-
ing change in the client’s “ground”, addressing the unfnished business that settles the
system.
There are some coaching approaches that embody Gestalt principles more overtly than
others, and examples of these will be offered here.
Working with enactment, exaggeration, metaphor, dynamic expression and physical
space all lend themselves to the spirit of creative experimentation that underpins Gestalt
coaching.
Here are some examples of ways of working, illustrated with extracts from coaching
sessions described by coaches in supervision.

Working with enactment

Some of the best-known Gestalt approaches allow the client to adopt different physical
positions and perspectives by enacting challenging scenarios.
This is not the same as role playing; that would require speculation and pretence, nei-
ther of which honours the Gestalt commitment to harnessing what is real in the here and
now. Rather, it is an immersive, experimental and experiential approach that expands the
client's awareness of the scenario he wishes to explore. It encourages him to pay attention
to physical sensations, perceptions, feelings and behaviour, informed by his experience as
it unfolds.
Enactment is effective for dealing with confict, tricky relationships, diffcult conversa-
tions or ambiguity. Examples of coaching approaches are Perceptual Positions and Chair
Work, such as Empty Chair.
 Gestalt coaching 227

Box 21.1: Gestalt in action: Empty Chair

The session is set up, typically using two chairs: One that will be occupied by the client, and the
other to represent the second person in the conversation.
The coach begins by asking the client to talk about their topic, to describe the environment
and conditions in which the future conversation will take place. The client sets the scene by
arranging the chairs as they are likely to be set up for the actual conversation.
In POSITION 1 the client sits in her chair and is invited to say what she wants to say to the
Empty Chair, addressing the other person directly, honestly and in the present tense. Some ques-
tions might be:
“What do you want to say to him?”
“Now what do you really want to say to him?”
“How does it feel as you say that?”
“Where in your body do you experience that feeling?”
The client is then invited to stand, “shake off ” POSITION 1, and move to POSITION 2 –
the other chair.There, she is encouraged to adopt the demeanour, tone and posture of the other
person, as if present:
“How is he sitting?”
“What’s his expression?”
“How does he sound … what’s the pace and volume of his voice?”
“What does he have to say in response to what he has just heard?”
In this position, the client is not role playing, second-guessing or pretending to be the other per-
son, just experiencing what it might be like to be on the receiving end of herself, and responding
spontaneously with whatever emerges in the moment.
In POSITIONS 1 and 2, the coach stays close to the client, a little out of their direct line
of sight, which can make it easier for the client to stay fully present in her conversation with the
Empty Chair.
The coach then guides the client to POSITION 3 – a point in the room where she can
observe both chairs. From here, she is invited to refect:
“What do you notice about the exchange that just took place?”
“What is going on between these two people?”
“How is that evident?”
This will give the client some distance, and a different vantage point from which to explore the
scene.
POSITION 4 can be further away, or viewing the chairs from a different angle. From here
the client can refect on different, more useful way of approaching her challenge, which she offers
to herself:
“What insights can you share with her from here?”

“How might she handle her situation more effectively?”

“What is clear now that was unclear before?”
This allows the client to draw upon a raised level of awareness, opening up possibilities for new
and different ways forward.
The session ends with the client returning to POSITION 1 and having the opportunity to
re-visit the initial conversation in a different way.
The session ends with the client reviewing what she has learned and how she will apply that
learning to her challenge.
228 Ann James
Working with exaggeration
Coaches are well practised in noticing what is being communicated by their client beyond
what is actually being said. Sometimes what the voice articulates appears at odds with
what the face or body is expressing.
This is an example of the kind of “direct awareness” discussed earlier, a skill that equips
the coach to attend to the demeanour, breathing, gestures, movements and expressions of
the client in such a way that brings what is observed into full awareness for them both.
In Gestalt therapy, exaggeration exercises invite the client to acknowledge, repeat
and exaggerate an observed behaviour so that he might better understand the emotions
attached to that behaviour from a position of awareness.
At their most sophisticated, these exercises are likely to require skills beyond those of
the coach.That said, drawing upon active observation in order to draw attention is power-
ful, and can be usefully and safely transferred into the coaching context.

Box 21.2: Gestalt in action: If your foot had a voice …

We are 20 minutes into the coaching session, my third session with this client.When we started
working together, he had just been promoted and was experiencing what he described as “imposter
syndrome”. He was one of the youngest ever to reach Partner level in his frm and was “worried
sick” that he would not be up to the job. He had considered walking away to avoid being exposed.
What kept him there was his desire to demonstrate to his family that he was capable and
deserving of their pride in his success. He had dropped out of university “frst time round” and
had felt such shame that he had distanced himself from his family and, he believed, their disap-
pointment in him.
Today, he is smiling, speaking slowly and calmly, lounging slightly in his chair and telling me
how well everything is going, how “chilled” he is with life.Yet something doesn’t stack up. His
words tell a good story, but I notice that his laid back posture is at odds with his left foot, which is
crossed over his right and agitating energetically under the table.
He notices me noticing, and it stills.
“If your foot had a voice, what would it have to say?”, I ask.
“Everything I’m not saying”, he replies quietly after a pause.
“What happens if it joins in the conversation again?”
He rests the foot on his opposite knee, holds on to it.
For the next 15 minutes, the “foot voice” speaks:“I’m feeling twitchy”;“let’s get out of here”;“you
can’t run away again”;“you’re making a mess of this”;“she (the coach) thinks you can’t even
get this right”;“I want to walk away”;“I’m full of energy”.
“What’s it like for you to hear those things?” I ask, and so the session continues.

Working with space and metaphor

We have discussed the concept of the feld in Gestalt work – the wider context which
contains, determines and defnes how each of us experiences our current reality.The feld
is also a system, “a continuously changing mass of relationships, hierarchies, loyalties and
motivations” (Whittington, 2016, p. 9).
Working actively with physical space lends itself to Gestalt work: As with the Empty
Chair example, the client can move around, experiment with different perspectives and
experience with all their senses what it’s like to be in another person’s place.
 Gestalt coaching 229
Constellations is another coaching approach that works with movement and space.The
client is guided by the coach as they place objects – these could be blocks, markers, people
or just about anything that’s to hand – in a contained area such as a sheet of paper, a table
top or a room. The client moves the objects, prompted by questions from the coach to
generate insight and refection.The moves and changes are signifcant:The client is asked
to refect on them in the moment, attuning to their sensory, emotional and cognitive
responses, eliciting rich information from the feld.
The constellation becomes a metaphor for the client’s current reality.
Metaphor is a potent mechanism for acquiring insight and understanding through rep-
resentation. It gives us a way of capturing and expressing something when simple descrip-
tion is lacking. It can be found at a casual, conversational level – for example, in phrases
such as “It’s an uphill struggle”, “I’m over the moon”, “I’m banging my head against a
brick wall” or “The cat is out of the bag”. At its more complex, metaphorical narrative
can become a symbolic story for expressing something that is diffcult to convey literally.
Just as Gestalt principles are drawn upon in Constellations work, so the concept of rep-
resentation and the power of metaphor can be useful in Gestalt-based coaching.

Box 21.3: Gestalt in action: Walking the stage

Seven members of the sales team in a motor fnance company are spending a day with their
coach/facilitator to explore how they can better work with other parts of the business. Some
shared and individual challenges include:
“The product development team don’t talk to us enough”
“They expect us to bring in the business but they don’t give us what we need”
“I don’t feel supported and I’m stressed”
“We rarely celebrate our successes”
Using the metaphor of a play on stage, the facilitator invites each person in the room to rep-
resent one “key character in this drama”, human or otherwise. The cast includes “Product
Development Team”; “Us”; ”They”; “Expectation”; “Need”; “Support”; “Successes”.
Each character is, in turn, invited to take up a position on the stage (an area defned by the room)
that feels right for them and to experience what happens there. Each then speaks, prompted
by the coach’s enquiries:
“What is Expectation noticing?”
“How does Successes feel, and where in the body does she feel it?”
“What is Support’s take on this?”
“What does Need need?”
As information emerges from the feld, the characters adjust their positions, angles and relationship
to others, adapting moment-by-moment to their changing reality.

When does Gestalt work best?

As we have seen in the extracts offered here, Gestalt-based coaching can be used to great
effect with individuals, groups, teams and organisations. It is particularly useful when cli-
ents need to adapt to change, or when they want to feel better equipped to communicate
with others and improve relationships.
The core principles of raising awareness, removing blocks and working with subjective
realities in the here and now are well-suited to addressing internal personal confict, ten-
sions in groups, diffcult conversations, unhelpful patterns of behaviour.
230 Ann James
There is no standard approach or off-the-shelf model for working in this way; rather,
the coach draws upon the core principles to inform how they work in partnership with
the client.
The shape and direction of the session emerges from what the client discovers and what
is co-created in the moment between coach, client or clients and their evolving shared
feld.
Clients who are seeking a goal-defned outcome might be less inclined to engage with
this level of exploratory attention to the present moment; it may have limited appeal for
those who are driven by performance metrics, who might be more drawn to identifying
gaps in their skillset and action-based results.
The Gestalt stance is likely to appeal to the coach who likes to work systemically and
holistically, where they themselves inhabit the feld of the coaching experience that they
facilitate.The coach’s very presence and how they use it is the catalyst for change.
Both coach and client are called upon to engage with their own sensations, emotions
and thoughts, bringing their whole “selves” to a shared experience. For some, this will be
uncomfortable in a way that inhibits rather than enhances their chances of beneftting
from the coaching; other approaches might therefore be preferable.

Ten useful question for Gestalt coaches

1. What’s going on for you in this moment?
This can be asked repeatedly, gently bringing the client’s focus back to the now. It
encourages them to remain curious, acknowledging distractions, sensations and emo-
tions as they arise.
2. Where in your body are you experiencing that?
The body knows us well.When the client pays mindful attention to what their body
is putting into the feld, the body is given a voice:“My stomach is churning”;“I feel a
tightening in my throat”;“my face just relaxed”.
3. How do you know that’s what you’re feeling?
The client recognises and labels a feeling they are having now based on how they
have experienced it before. That history can serve the present, revealing relevant
connections, habits and patterns that, once brought into awareness, can be usefully
explored.
4. What would it be like to say out loud what you are not saying now?
The prospect of speaking the seemingly unspeakable presents a paradox that can be
a stubborn barrier to change. Such a question embraces the paradox, drawing attention
less to what is unsaid, more to the client’s resistance to saying it.
5. Would you like to try saying it?
The client is invited to harness their courage, take a deep breath and experiment.
Their reply might be “No”, “I don’t know how”, silence or a powerful emotion:The
value is in the insight that comes from the impact of the invitation.
6. If your anger/fear/resentment could speak, what would it want to say?
When emotion is allowed to speak, the client’s truth is spoken from a new place.
Giving an autonomous voice to a tricky emotion gives the client some distance from it,
releasing them to get it off their chest, clearing the “ground” of emotional rubble and
giving their “fgure” a revised defnition.
 Gestalt coaching 231
7. What do you need from them?
The client is never in this alone, yet in the moment they might experience the
challenge as an isolating burden. Such a question loosens the constraints of a world
view that says “it’s all down to me”,“I’m responsible”,“I have to …”, freeing them to
acknowledge their needs and others’ part in them:“I need them to listen … to share
the load … to trust me”.
8. How do things look from here?
A change of position supports a change in perspective. Guiding the client to a dif-
ferent viewpoint – physically in a space, in their imagination or on a sketch or table
top constellation – creates a new aperture through which to view the scene:“I hadn’t
seen it quite like that before”; “from here that just doesn’t make sense”; “ahh, now I
see”.
9. Where would be a good place to view this from?
This hands the map to the client, leaving him to choose a vantage point. It can be
useful to explore what they notice as they make meaning of “a good place” and how
that paradoxically defnes a “not good place”. Once there, the coach might introduce
the previous question.
10. Now sitting in this chair opposite your own, sitting as your manager, what would they
say to you?
This draws on the principles of the Empty Chair approach.We cannot fully expe-
rience ourselves in the way that others do; we are too busy being us. By adopting the
place of the other person in the conversation, the client can connect with what it’s
like to be on the receiving end of herself, equipping her to have that conversation “for
real” with greater insight and empathy.

Conclusion
Gestalt coaching has emerged from a robust feld of philosophical pursuit, psychological
theory and experimental practice.The apparent simplicity of its guiding principles – being
in the moment, working with the here and now, opening up awareness – veils the potency
of their effects.The Gestalt “toolkit” is the coach: It’s something that the coach embodies
in their way of being, knowing that their very presence shapes the client’s reality.

References
Allan, J. and Whybrow, A. (2019). ‘Gestalt coaching’. In S. Palmer and A. Whybrow, eds. Handbook of
coaching psychology:A guide for practitioners, 2nd edition.Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 180–194.
Beisser,A.R. (1970).‘The paradoxical theory of change’. In J. Fagan and I.L. Shepherd, eds. Gestalt therapy
now. New York: Harper & Row, pp. 77–80.
Bluckert, P. (2015). Gestalt coaching: Right here, right now. London: Open University Press.
Leary Joyce, J. (2014). The fertile void: Gestalt coaching at work. St. Albans: AOEC Press.
Maurer, R. (2011).‘The gestalt approach to resistance in coaching’. The International Journal of Coaching in
Organisations, Issue 32, 8(4), pp. 91–99.
Senge, P.M., Kleiner,A, Roberts, C. et al. (1994). The ffth discipline feldbook: Strategies and tools for building
a learning organization. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Whittington, J. (2016) Systemic coaching and constellations, 2nd edition. London: Kogan Page.
22 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching
Karen Izod

Introduction
Coaching from a psychodynamic perspective draws on the bodies of knowledge concern-
ing themselves with the social, emotional, technical and political aspects of our environ-
ments. This is a broader view now than might have been offered in relation to Freud’s
originating theories of mind, with their emphasis on the unconscious, in the context of
19th/20th century sensibilities (Freud, 1915). Today, the idea of an unconscious, with
its capacities to surprise us, keep us in repeating patterns of behaviour, and take us into
situations that we would prefer to have more control over, remains central to a psychody-
namic approach. It is augmented by knowledge from social psychology and neurosciences
(Bowlby, 1969, Fonagy et al., 2004), whether that be in the ‘talking cures’ of psychotherapy
or in the applied practices of coaching, consulting and education.
Systems-psychodynamics is a feld of knowledge that brings understanding from the
dynamics of social systems within their changing environments (Lewin, 1947), and the
behaviour of individuals in groups (Bion, 1961, Izod, 2008) to central tenets of psychody-
namic thinking.This is an applied perspective, involving an exploration of how the inner
world of thoughts, fantasies and beliefs plays out in the outer world of roles, tasks and
interactions.
For a coach and the client, working from this position gives the opportunity to explore
the needs and concerns of an individual through identifying the patterns of behaviour we
establish over our lifetimes, together with our responses to the dynamics of the workplace.
It offers rich opportunity to gain new perspectives about ourselves, how we organise our-
selves in relation to others and how we might effect change.
In this chapter I will outline some key elements of coaching from this perspective, with
examples from my practice and ideas on scenarios that can particularly beneft from a
(systems) psychodynamic approach.

The psychodynamic approach explained

Like any approach to coaching, a psychodynamic approach will hold the coaching task at
its core, addressing the usual contractual arrangements:Who is the coaching for, what and
whose agenda can be worked with, who needs to know and so on.The primary concern
is the coaching participant’s capacities to do their work.
A coach working from this perspective will not necessarily have been trained in the
application of psychodynamic theories in a clinical setting. Rather, a psychodynamic
coach will be interested in the emotional impact that work has on the individual in the
 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching 233
present, and the individual’s resources, both personal and organisational, to manage and
sustain their efforts (Sandler, 2011; Beck, 2012; Zagier and Brunning, 2018).
Central to this approach is a curiosity and willingness to explore the thoughts and
feelings that emerge between the coach and client, in the context of a coaching relation-
ship, and to jointly attempt to bring some meaning to them.This is a demanding position
to take, and the coach will need to invest time in understanding their own emotional
repertoire and how it is triggered so as to bring their “self as instrument” to the process
(Cheung Judge, 2001, pp. 11–16). Reading widely in the psychodynamic literature and
group and organisational processes, as well as the arts, sciences and popular culture are all
part of the capacity to bring one’s knowledge, imagination and empathy to the role.

Emotional life:The past in the present

Emotional and mental life is complex. From our earliest infancy we are laying down
repertoires of emotional and behavioural responses in interactions with our care-givers,
built from minute everyday encounters and their sensory experiences.The nature of these
interactions, and the extent to which our emotions can be acknowledged, rather than be
ignored or shut down, become part of our procedural memory (Crittenden, 2005), an
unconscious “default” position of feelings and behaviours that are triggered when faced
with a particular threat or loss of security.

Box 22.1: Case study

Farhad, new in role as a project lead, struggled with the time and resources he had available to him,
and became increasingly overwhelmed by what felt an impossible work-load. He was reluctant
to negotiate for more resources, and easily assumed that he had to prove himself by doing the
impossible.
Exploring patterns of response such as these reveals those type of experiences that we embrace
and can cope with well enough, and those which we have had to defend against in a variety of
ways so as to avoid potentially distressing emotions and protect our sense of self.
This approach attempts to fnd meaning in behaviours through opening up the possibility for
insight and increasing the range of responses that might be possible. Asking for more, in Farhad’s
case, might well surface earlier feelings of greed or inadequacy, and identifying this enables the
setting of a coaching agenda that might explore and rehearse what it feels like in the present to
make this kind of request.
A systems-psychodynamic approach offers a means to understand how people behave in social
systems, where those systems themselves are constantly evolving in relation to social, economic,
technological, environmental and political forces. This approach is concerned with how uncon-
scious processes manifest within and between systems. It places an emphasis on how people take
up their roles, undertake tasks, manage themselves at boundaries and handle authority relations
(Green and Molenkamp, 2005).
Systems generate their own ways of organising and defending against the anxiety associated
with the tasks that they are there to do, or the diffculty of staying connected to those tasks
(Menzies Lyth, 1988). Noticing what the strategic debates are within an organisation, who is
included and excluded in decision-making activities, will surface power dynamics and help to
locate processes that are supportive of, or resistant to, learning and change.
Thinking about Farhad from this perspective would include a consideration of how it is that
his team is potentially under-resourced, and what this team might represent for the organisation as
a whole.Are those tasks valued or denigrated; it is, for instance, not unusual for one team to always
234 Karen Izod

be seen as failing, with the unconscious effect of enabling another team to succeed. Gathering
information about how the wider system functions and how the power relations operate between
them will give valuable material as to how the unconscious might play out at a systems level.

Psychodynamic coaching theory and research

Most research in psychodynamic coaching will tend to come from a range of psycho-
social research methodologies, with an emphasis on qualitative rather than quantitative
research (Cummins and Williams, 2018; Clarke and Hoggett, 2009).
This kind of research tends to rely on individual and comparative case studies (Berg,
1990), which give thick descriptions of interactions between coach and client, and may
address practice issues: Aspects of taking up the role of coach, the challenges faced and
the development of understanding and skills to meet those challenges. The research task
echoes the coaching task in that respect.
There are several excellent compilations of practitioner case studies,including:Coaching
young adults and senior women professionals in transition (Brunning, 2006), the develop-
ment of refective practitioners and a focus on generating individual and organisational
change (Kets de Vries et al., 2010) and internet-delivered interventions (Dent, 2019).
Qualitative research studies invariably are studying particular cohorts, for whom coach-
ing attempts to raise awareness, and may include aspects of evaluation of initiatives: As
part of an organisational development initiative to help leaders become self-aware in their
leadership roles, coaching enabled an attunement to organisational dynamics and grew
the leaders’ capacities to develop refective space, in effect making them become coaches
within their own organisations (Bell and Huffngton, 2008); the value and beneft of a
team model in coaching executives within an organisation led to an improved understand-
ing of the strategic pressures facing their clients, and a better alignment of developmental
goals for individual executive clients (Nardone et al., 2009); and coaching as a means of
improving diversity awareness of a group of executives in state departments illustrated
how, from a systems-psychodynamic perspective, it proved a trustworthy intervention in
exploring conscious and unconscious diversity dynamics operating within these organisa-
tions (Motsoaledi and Cilliers, 2012).

Psychodynamic coaching in practice

The felds of knowledge that can be described as psychodynamic do not stand still and are
ever-developing in widely branching pathways of theory and practice. I describe my own
coaching as “relational”; it concerns itself with the processes that occur in interaction with
others, about which there can be greater or lesser awareness.
With an emphasis on the relationship, the dynamic arising within and between the
coaching pair becomes the media through which thoughts, feelings and ideas are expressed
and where new behaviours can be practised.
Our coaching clients are often looking for a place to express their concerns without
being subject to unhelpful assumptions and judgement, and the capacity for both client
and coach to build a safe and suffciently secure and containing base for the work (Bowlby,
1988) is central.
 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching 235
Containment
The concept of containment refers to the usually unconscious process of communication
between infant and care-giver, which can acknowledge and respond to the earliest emo-
tional states in the infant. Holding an infant in mind as a thinking, feeling and separate
being is the basis for development as a refective individual (Fonagy et al., 2005). It sup-
ports the tolerance for and management of anxiety, and frees the capacity to be curious
and explore the world.
Developmental work, such as coaching, depends upon establishing such a containing
relationship. Logistically, it can be established through the coaching contract; its agreement
on purpose, time-frames, venues, confdentiality together with mechanisms providing for
some sense of orientation, exploring who are we and what we are here for (Grueneisen
and Izod, 2014).
Containment in the relationship relies on a careful paying of attention:To what is said,
how it is said, what is not said that we might expect to hear and an attuning of our own
emotional register to the client’s mood. Recognising the client in this way in itself can
provide a developmental opportunity, capable of bringing about change in the way the
client relates to others and expects others to relate to them.

The importance of role

Containment provides the developmental context for coaching, but is in itself not enough.
Enabling new understanding can usually provide the impetus for change, but pushing
those thoughts into action, feeling suffciently empowered to bring about change and
sustaining it within the workplace requires an interaction with the individual and their
environment, and this is often achieved through an exploration of organisational role.
Role can be thought of as the interface between what the individual brings to their
work and their identities, their personality, their patterns of behaviour and what the organ-
isation requires of them. It is a construction in the mind between:

What I imagine I am here to do (and how to do it);

What organisational players (and external stakeholders);
imagine that I am here to do (and how to do it).

Role consultation as a coaching intervention attempts to help an individual (and the

organisation) align well with each other, bringing a close attention to the way that bound-
aries and tasks are negotiated, allocated or imposed.These are often not explicit but exist in
the “organisation-in-the-mind” (Armstrong, 2005), and in the way that they are expressed
through the culture, artefacts and processes of the organisation.
Identifying assumptions about the working space that is available, or made available for
an individual role, can shed light on where and how change might be possible.

Box 22.2: Case study

Miranda was newly appointed to a senior HR role, accountable to the Head of Service, her line
manager.This was an international appointment and she had relocated with great optimism to the
UK. It wasn’t long before she found herself thwarted at every turn by her line manager. She had
236 Karen Izod

been accustomed to much higher levels of authority and decision-making, as well as the ability to
take initiative and act without consultation in her previous position.At the same time, she felt that
her manager was treading on her toes and undermining her in each of her projects.The diffculty
on referral, was viewed as interpersonal, with a tendency between the two managers to each view
the other as hostile and bullyish.
Very often, the space that is made available to an individual to take up a role, or roles, can be
over-prescribed or limited, and the intention of coaching in this situation will be to open up that
space to greater possibilities – to make elbow-room (Izod, 2014). Conversely, roles can be poorly
defned, too vague or overlap too closely with others, as is the case with Miranda, and the coach
will work to defne and clarify quite what the role’s purpose is, locating her within the wider
context of stakeholder expectations and what might unconsciously be held in the dynamics of that
team.This work will usually involve others so as to bring greater systemic awareness to the role,
and to renegotiate the allocation of tasks and responsibilities where needed. In Miranda’s case, the
nature of competition that emerged between her and her line manager had specifc meaning in
the context of the industry and its stakeholders, and had become located in these high-achieving,
high-autonomy individuals.

Tools and techniques

Using ourselves as sources of data
Working from a psychodynamic perspective will involve us in developing a capacity to
use ourselves as an instrument (Cheung Judge, 2001). Our thoughts, feelings and behav-
iours, when we are with a client, and when we are refecting on them, give us access to
what might be going on for the client through transference phenomena. This uncon-
scious carrying of experience from “there and then”, to “here and now”, is indicative
of the client’s world as it interacts with my own. Here I need to be open to my own
ideas, images and fantasies that the work evokes in me, alongside an awareness of how I
identify with various aspects of the client’s experience in my own separate and subjec-
tive inner world.
Experiences that we might encounter in the coaching session can range from boredom
and tiredness, a feeling of being overwhelmed and fooded with detail, an irritability or
frustration with the individual.This is data that can very often tell us about what the client
is going through. It can be tempting to offer these experiences as feedback to the client,
“I feel very angry/frustrated/tired”; however, we as the coach have to manage ourselves at
the boundary of our own inner worlds and the coaching role, to hold onto the experience
and try to gain a sense of its meaning.

The formulating of a hypothesis

Developing a hypothesis from the experience of the coaching session is a key skill for the
psychodynamically oriented coach. It offers the possibility for furthering understanding
and is crafted from the emotional experience and content of what is being talked about.
Differing from an interpretation, it is provisional, temporary, a “what might be” rather than
a “what is”, and is helpful only in so far as it has resonance for the client. Here is such an
example crafted from the content material in a session, which brings in my own emotional
resonances.
 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching 237
“I’m noticing that you seem frustrated in this conversation, and I wonder if it might be
that you somehow expect to constantly make progress with your project, and not have to
face these set-backs”.
Formulated in this way, the client might well have an insight into their wish for change
to be constant, and allow for the revision of expectations. But, equally, the client might say
“No – I don’t think that’s it”. But it is nonetheless a stake in the ground, and can usually
be revisited or come to have another meaning over time.

Presentation and re-presentation

The organisation-in-the-mind (Armstrong, 2005) is a much-used concept in coaching
and role consultation. It refers to the set of images, beliefs and behaviours that make up the
culture of an organisation, which unconsciously infuence how we relate to the workplace
and our own place within it.
Asking an individual to draw a picture of themselves in their organisation is one way of
eliciting thoughts that may not yet have been formulated, and sometimes creates surprises
and, in these circumstances, the coach is as much interested in what is absent as in what
is present.

I hadn’t realised I was so far from the centre of things, how much out on a limb I am,
there are no other people in my drawing.
I can see now how cluttered my workplace is, there is literally no space to think or to
spread out with ideas.

In team coaching, asking people to work in pairs or in the whole group to associate to the
drawings and bring their own imagination to each other’s work gives data as to how and
where there are degrees of divergence and coherence, in addition to how such diverse and
coherent thinking can be used constructively.Asking the client to draw again, further into
the coaching contract, may well illustrate where there have been shifts in perception or act
as reminders to one’s earlier emotional state.
The psycho-social feld of enquiry has developed a range of these kinds of interven-
tions with the intention of revealing under-the-surface experiences. See Long (2013) for
examples of working with photo-matrices, visual matrices and social dreaming as forms
of enquiry.

Narrative techniques
A conversational approach will involve our clients in telling a story, and we might invite
questions such as:

How did you come to apply for this job?

How do you think your team came to rebel in this way?
How is it that you are facing such criticism over this decision?

A story is a narrative that involves self and other, the teller and the listener and, in the co-
construction of a coaching session, both the client and the coach interact in relation to
the storyline, its characters and its turning points or dilemmas. A story compels – what is
238 Karen Izod
going to happen now, who will chose to do what, who is holding the knowledge and who
is ignorant of what is going on (Boje, 2001; Brown et al., 2009).
Whittle (2014) describes three main storylines that she uses in her consultancy: The
heroic, the tragic and the comedic, and invites her clients to consider how they typically
tell their stories. Do you invariable put a spin on your experiences so as to end up the hero,
might you often be the one who is left out in the cold, struggling to overcome adversity?
We each have our own preferred roles and storylines that we fll with meaning, increase
or decrease in complexity and include or exclude others.
Working with narrative structures provides opportunities to interrupt the story and
how it is being constructed in a number of ways.Take these questions for the client:

“Who I am in the story? If I am never the central character but a side-lined player, how
might I shift that? How can I present myself differently so as to prevent myself from
being excluded?”.
“How am I dealing with the challenges thrown up at me? If I am always the one to stand
up for the group and confront management, how might I let others do that?”
“How does the plot typically develop around me: Do I offer a single narrative thread, from
one perspective alone, or can I bring in a greater complexity?”. Perhaps there are too
many voices and some need to be kept out for the moment.
Systemic questioning to ask, “How might your boss tell this story?” or “How might the
customer tell this story?” will often allow for a playful re-presenting of a storyline.
Working at one step removed from the client’s own experience very often provides an
imaginative, or transitional, space (Winnicott, 1953;Whittle, 2014) to attempt change.

Box 22.3: Case study

George, a lawyer, described himself as a ship’s navigator, always in the map room, watching their
course. He wanted to access something more adventurous in himself, a pirate perhaps. In the tell-
ing of his own story, he was able to see the tension in his role, recognising that he was needed to
keep the company on track, yet feeling the need to take more risks and knowing that this was
needed at times.

When does a psychodynamic approach work best?

People coming for coaching from this perspective are helped by already being curious
about themselves and the nature of their work.They will be interested in ideas, thoughts
and feelings, happy to work with metaphors and willing to explore the detail of their
interaction with themselves and others. Generally clients will wish to invest in a process
through which new thoughts can emerge, leading to new possibilities; it is not a place
for fnding ready-made solutions. Psychodynamic coaching requires a capacity to not
rush, though this does not mean to imply that coaching is necessarily a lengthy business
and individuals can reach points of greater certainty often within one or two two-hour
sessions.
Here are some scenarios from my own practice where psychodynamic coaching has
worked well:
 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching 239
Individuals who are concerned about themselves in their role
They may be in complex roles, in situations of uncertainty and ambiguity and having to
create ways of working as they go along. Often these individuals are somewhat isolated
within the organisation and may be carrying high levels of anxiety in relation to the
enterprise.
Typically this is a stressed client (or someone who others perceive as being stressed),
unsure about their direction and sometimes of their own competence to do the job.These
are situations where examining the nature of the task that is being undertaken, and the
feelings that it evokes, individually and with stakeholders, will be valuable at placing a
boundary around what can be achieved. It is easy for us to become stressed when we are
unable to bring our competence to bear, and understanding what might be getting in the
way of that, either individually or within the system as a whole, will be valuable.

Individuals who wish to access or generate greater authority

Very often this will be the case for people who are new in their role, working in tempo-
rary systems, or perhaps working across organisational or national boundaries, where the
authority lines are ambiguous. Organisational cues about how to behave, who to relate to
and the power differentials between different systems may be hard to read and can easily
undermine authority. Coaching here can help a client to identify where they are diffdent
about accessing their own authority, and use those insights to engage in the complexities
of power-based relations.

Individuals who fnd themselves in confict with others

Sometimes referred to as the “remedial” client, and referred by their managers, patterns
of encountering confict in one’s self and others lend themselves well to a systems-psy-
chodynamic approach.The coach will be interested in the way in which an individual is
mobilised, in specifc situations, to behave in particular ways. Group and organisational
dynamics can easily locate unwanted feelings, particularly those of anger, antagonism and
resistance, in a receptive individual for whom those emotions are familiar and liable to
be acted out.This is not to fnd excuse, but rather more to look at the mobilising factors
that an individual might be drawn to.Taking a role biography (Long, 2006) can be helpful
here, highlighting how others who have taken the role before have managed with similar
circumstances and dynamics.

Ten useful questions for psychodynamic coaches

1. “How is it that these issues are coming up for you/for your team now?”
A “here and now” question that focuses on the immediacy of the situation. It invites
the telling of a story, with its capacity to consider what is changing in the client’s work-
ing environment, or in their ability to tolerate or manage these issues;
2. “What do you think might be contributing factors?”
Locates the client in a broader system of people and agendas that may be impacting,
knowingly and unknowingly, and start to focus an agenda for exploration and potential
change;
240 Karen Izod
3. “What does your role require you to do?”
The basis for understanding what preoccupations the client carries with them
about the work they are contracted to do and their competence to do it. Are there
aspects of the tasks that provoke anxiety or are unpalatable?;
4. “Have you been in this situation before?”
Gives an idea of whether the client needs to shift something in their individual
narrative or whether the concerns are more organisationally based. It is always help-
ful to know whether the scenarios being described are being carried forward from
the past. Exploring the experiences of previous role holders will start to identify the
dynamics that the role carries, and how and where they might be challenged;
5. “What resources do you have that can help you work on these issues?”
Starts to elicit the networks of support available to the client, the extent to which
they might be isolated or excluded in the organisation, as well as beginning the pro-
cess of identifying one’s own resources and resourcefulness;
6. “What might be getting in the way of …”
A question both about internal worlds of thoughts, assumptions and fears of change,
together with external world realities. Is the opportunity right for this change, now?
Bringing about change in one’s self, or working practices is a complex process of
learning and regression and never a linear process;
7. “Do you recognise the way you are behaving here? Now?”
We bring many different aspects of ourselves to work and, at an unconscious level,
we can be mobilised by others to behave in ways that serve a purpose for the role or
the organisation but don’t yet feel right to us. Noticing these dynamics is a frst step
to working on one’s presence and identity;
8. “What do you think you are known for in your team/organisation?”
Raises the nature of representation and how we become aligned with identity
groups (i.e. managers/workers/academics) or specifc areas of knowledge and skill.
It opens up the opportunity to think about where we may fnd ourselves being shut
down, or unhelpfully demanded upon in specifc debates;
9. “How authorised do you feel to do your work?”
Very often there can be a tension between the formal authority that is given with
a role and the amount of authority that we feel we can take (Krantz and Maltz, 1997).
This question can open up scenarios of where authority is compromised, and where
strategies are needed to access one’s own authority or to negotiate it with others;
10. “Am I paying attention to myself?”
This is a question for the coach: How much am I listening to the content, how
much am I paying attention to the process? Am I in touch with my own thoughts and
feelings and, if it is diffcult to access them, what might be going on in this encounter?
Try to formulate a hypothesis.

Conclusions
This chapter has given an outline of what it entails for both coach and client to work
together from a psychodynamic perspective. Coaching is primarily developmental; it gives
opportunities to explore patterns of behaviour that have established themselves since
infancy, and may be keeping the client in fxed positions, unable to make the most of their
abilities.
 Systems-Psychodynamic coaching 241
Systems-psychodynamics, additionally, looks at the dynamics of organisational life
within its societal context so that change can be considered as emergent, supported and
limited by unconscious processes, particularly as they emerge at interfaces between indi-
viduals and systems, and between systems.
Coaching from this perspective will generate insights, and enable the client to shed an
unhelpful repertoire of behaviour. Sustaining change, though, will require the coach to
draw on broader theoretical perspectives, in particular those coming from organisation
theory, change and from group dynamics.

References
Armstrong, D. (2005). Organisation in the mind: Psychoanalysis, group relations, and organizational consultancy.
London: Karnac Books.
Beck, U.C. (2012). Psychodynamic Coaching: Focus and depth. Oxon: Routledge.
Bell, J., and Huffngton, C. (2008). ‘Coaching for leadership development: A systems psychodynamic
approach’. In K.Turnbull James, and J. Collins, eds., Leadership learning: Knowledge into action. London:
Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 93–11.
Berg, D. (1990).‘A case in print’. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 26(1), pp. 65–68.
Bion, W. (1961). Experiences in groups and other papers. London: Tavistock.
Boje, D. (2001). Narrative methods for organizational and communication research. Sage: London.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss.Volume 1:Attachment. London: Hogarth.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base, clinical applications of attachment theory. London: Routledge.
Brown,A., Gabriel,Y. and Gherardi, S. (2009).‘Storytelling and change:An unfolding story’. Organization,
16(3), pp. 323–333.
Brunning, H., ed. (2006). Executive coaching: Systems-psychodynamic perspective. London: Karnac Books.
Cheung-Judge, M. (2001).‘The self as an instrument, a cornerstone for the future of OD’. OD Practitioner,
33(3), pp. 11–16.
Clarke, S. and Hoggett, P. (2009). Researching beneath the surface. London: Karnac Books.
Crittenden, P.M. (2005). ‘Internal representational models of attachment relationships’. Infant Mental
Health Journal, 11(3), pp. 259–277.
Cummins,A.M. and Williams, N. (2018).‘Further researching beneath the surface: Psycho-social research
methods in practice – volume 2’. Oxon: Routledge.
Dent, N. (2019). ‘A refexive Account’ Group consultation via Video Conference in Theory and practice of online
therapy: internet-delivered interventions for individuals, groups, families, and organizations, Eds. Weinberg,
Haim, & Rolnick,Arnon, New York: Routledge, pp 244–257
Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E. L. and Target, M. (2004). Affect regulation, mentalization, and the development
of the self. London: Karnac.
Freud, S. (1915).‘The Unconscious.The standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund
freud, volume XIV (1914–1916)’. On the history of the psycho-analytic movement, papers on metapsychology
and other works, pp. 116–150.
Green, Z.G., and Molenkamp, T.J. (2005). ‘The BART system of group and organizational analysis:
Boundary, authority, role and task’. (online). Retrieved on 10 April 20 from www.it.uu.se/edu/cou
rse/homepage/projektDV/ht09/BART_Green_Molenkamp.pdf.
Izod,K.(2008).‘How does a turn towards relational thinking infuence consulting practice in organizations
and groups?’ In: S. Clarke, H. Hahn and P. Hoggett, eds., Object relations and social relations: the implications
of the relational turn in psychoanalysis. London: Karnac, pp. 163–184.
Izod K. (2014). ‘Role space’. In K. Izod and S.R. Whittle, eds., Resourceful consulting. London: Karnac
Books, pp. 53–61.
Kets-de-Vries, M. F., Guillen, L., Korotov, K. and Florent-Treacy, E. (2010). The coaching kaleidoscope;
insights from the inside. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
242 Karen Izod
Krantz, J. and Maltz, M. (1997).‘A framework for consulting to organizational role’. Consulting Psychology
Journal: Practice and Research, 49(2), pp. 137–158.
Lewin, K (1947). ‘Frontiers in group dynamics: Concept, method and reality in social sciences; social
equilibria and social change’. Human Relations, 1, pp. 5–41.
Long S. (2006). ‘Role biography’. In J. Newton, S. Long and B. Sievers, eds., Coaching in depth. The
organisational role analysis approach. London: Karnac Books, pp. 127–144.
Menzies Lyth, I.E.P. (1988). Containing anxiety in institutions. Selected essays,Vol. 1. London: Free Association
Books.
Motsoaledi, L., and Cilliers, F. (2012). ‘Executive coaching in diversity from the systems psychodynamic
perspective’. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 38(2), pp 52–62.
Nardone, M.J., Johnson, N.D. and Vitulano L.A (2008). ‘Executive coaching as an organizational
intervention: Benefts and challenges of a team of coaches working with multiple executives in a
client system’. In S.R.Whittle and K. Izod, eds., Mind-ful consulting. London: Karnac Books.
Sandler, C. (2011). Executive coaching:A psychodynamic approach. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Whittle, S.R. (2014).‘Potential Space. pp. 1–10, and Future Developments, pp. 119–128’. In K. Izod and
S.R.Whittle, eds., Resource-ful consulting. London: Karnac Books.
Winnicott, D. W. (1953). ‘Transitional objects and transitional phenomena’. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 34, pp. 89–97.
Zagier Roberts,V. and Brunning H. (2018).‘Psychodynamic and systems-psychodynamic coaching’. In S.
Palmer and A.Whybrow, eds., Handbook of coaching psychology. Oxon: Routledge.

Further Resources
ISPSO; International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations www.ispso.org, and its
member’s publications written from a systems-psychodynamic or psychoanalytic perspective.
Opus:An organization for promoting understanding of society. www.opus.org.uk.
23 Neuroscience coaching
Patricia Riddell

Introduction
Sometimes we are surprised by our own behaviour.We fnd ourselves acting in ways that
appear illogical, irrational or even way beyond our own expectations. Better understand-
ing of what drives our behaviour is therefore likely to be able to put us at more choice in
how we behave. Since the brain and the nervous system are responsible for every thought,
emotion and behaviour that we produce, understanding the ways in which these work is
likely to give us insight into how our behaviour emerges and therefore provide us with
greater choice in what we choose to do.This is the basis of neuroscience coaching. In this
chapter, I will outline what differentiates a neuroscience coaching approach from other,
more traditional methods. I will then describe some of the techniques that are more
unique to neuroscience coaching.

The neuroscience coaching approach explained

In essence, coaching is a process that is used to help individuals to create and fulfl goals.
We might, therefore, be able to improve this process by viewing it through the lens of
neuroscience both to determine how coaching works and, potentially, to add to the effec-
tiveness of the process. For instance, the GROW model of coaching (Whitmore, 2009) has
proved useful for helping clients to set goals, but it has not always been the most effective
strategy to ensure that these goals are met (Aarts, et al., 2007). Deconstructing the GROW
model from a neuroscience perspective can help us to improve the goal-setting process. In
addition, research in health behaviour change has uncovered ways to improve the likeli-
hood of behaviour change (Michie, et al., 2011; Schwarzer, 2008). By considering these
models through a neuroscience lens, we can make important additions to the GROW
model in order to increase its effectiveness.
Beyond the coaching process, however, neuroscience coaching is also able to introduce
individuals to some of the more surprising ways that our brains can work against us. For
instance, one of the most important ways that neuroscience has contributed is by provid-
ing solid evidence that we are able to change our behaviour at any age. Research in both
epigenetics and neuroplasticity has demonstrated clearly that we have tended to under-
estimate this ability (Kempermann and Gage, 1999;Van Praag, et al., 2000). Not only are
we able to change aspects of our brain throughout the lifespan, but this is fundamental to
the way that our brains work. Knowing that the processes that create change in the brain
are lifelong can change beliefs, and therefore dispels excuses – we can teach old dogs new
tricks.
244 Patricia Riddell
Neuroscience coaching can also draw on research into how we regulate our emotions
(Begley and Davidson, 2013; Feldman Barratt, 2017). One of the common challenges
brought to coaching is how to deal with diffcult people to whom we have negative emo-
tional responses. Being able to control or change our own emotional response can be a
stepping stone to creating behaviours that improve the situation. By understanding both
how our emotional response is generated and how it is controlled, we can provide tools
and techniques to help change unwanted emotional reactions.
Making substantial changes in our lives can sometimes seem daunting.We can become
attached to ways of being that are diffcult to give up. Neuroscience research has con-
sidered what happens in the brain when we are required to make change (Cohen, et
al., 2007). By understanding this, we can provide insight into what needs to happen for
change to become easier, and be better prepared to direct clients through the change pro-
cess.This involves understanding both the benefts of the current situation and the benefts
of change so that clients can create potential solutions that combine both.
Neuroscience research has also given us some surprising insights into our inner critic
and why we can sometimes lack self-compassion (Young, et al., 2010). By understanding
both the mechanisms for empathising with others and how these relate to our ability to
empathise with ourselves, we can help clients to address their inner critic in ways that
increase self-empathy.There has been signifcant neuroscience research into this relation-
ship, which has provided important insights into how we can become kinder and more
compassionate with ourselves (Englander, et al., 2009).
These are only a small selection of the tools that neuroscience coaching can offer
(Bossons, et al., 2015). As more coaches become familiar with neuroscience research and
the insights that this can bring to the sometimes unintuitive ways in which the brain
works, the number and range of neuroscience coaching tools will expand.This is a disci-
pline that is certainly in its infancy, and has a long road to travel before it becomes fully
integrated into the range of coaching methodologies.

Neuroscience coaching theory and research

When we consider the evidence base for a particular branch of coaching, it is important
to differentiate between evidence-based and evidence-supported practices (Stober, et al.,
2006).The best research into the practice of coaching is evidence-based.This uses research
methods including the gold standard double-blind, randomised control trial to determine
whether a particular tool or technique is more effective than, for instance, paying more
attention to an individual.
Unfortunately, very little research of this nature is available for coaching in general and
neuroscience coaching in particular.Techniques used in neuroscience coaching are there-
fore mostly evidence-supported, or based on our understanding of how the brain works.
In this approach, research that provides credible evidence for how our brains work is used
to create techniques that help us to work better with our brains.This is particularly useful
for areas in which the brain works in surprising ways, where we have to develop coach-
ing techniques that work with, not against, the way that our brains work. While some
people fnd ways to do this simply through experience, providing clients with a better
understanding of how their brain works can help them, consciously, to create solutions
that work better for them.
With respect to evidence-based neuroscience coaching, Panchal and Riddell (2020)
have investigated the beneft of extending the GROW model with models of behaviour
 Neuroscience coaching 245
change from health psychology and neuroscience.Their GROWS model was designed to
help clients consider not just whether they were motivated to act, but also to consciously
consider what actions they might take, the potential obstacles they might face and what
they would do in order to get back on track if they failed. Research has demonstrated
that imagining actions make it more likely that these will be taken in the future (Neroni,
et al., 2014).
Additional questions in the GROWS model were framed in relation to self-effcacy –
beliefs about the ability to cope. Research has related self-effcacy with parts of the basal
ganglia (putamen and globus pallidus), which are associated both with movement and
reward (Nakagawa et al., 2017).This suggests that we are rewarded by imagining the suc-
cessful completion of an action.
In the GROWS model, self-effcacy is divided into three stages.The frst, action or task
self-effcacy, is the ability to anticipate and imagine the outcomes of successful change.
Individuals low in action self-effcacy are more likely to imagine failure, obstacles to success
or to have doubt in their own abilities. High action self-effcacy predicts intention to act.
Maintenance or coping self-effcacy is a belief that obstacles that stand in the way of
maintaining change will be overcome. This requires that a long-term goal (e.g. having a
healthy old age by drinking in moderation, eating healthily and staying active) is main-
tained even when competing goals with higher short-term rewards are present (alcohol,
high-calorie foods and sedentary activities). High self-effcacy has been found to be pre-
dicted by the size of the lateral prefrontal cortex, which is important in working memory
and ability to execute planned actions (Duckworth and Gross, 2014). Thus, when our
brains have been wired by experience to imagine successfully completing future actions,
we have greater self-effcacy.
Recovery self-effcacy is the ability to recover after a lapse and not to assume that a par-
ticular behaviour change is impossible. High recovery self-effcacy requires the ability to
attribute the lapse to an external situation and to fnd ways to limit the damage and to get
back on track.This has been defned by Duckworth and Gross (2014) as grit.The volume
of the nucleus accumbens (part of the dopamine reward system) has been found to predict
grit (Nemmi, et al., 2016). This suggests that focussing on the end reward, regardless of
delay or obstacles, can maintain motivation when pursuing long-term goals.
In their small-scale study, Panchal and Riddell (2020) compared the GROW and the
GROWS models with 4 coaching clients. Results demonstrated that clients found beneft
in the additional GROWS questions as these led to the proactive development of strate-
gies to overcome potential obstacles and to recover from setbacks.This led to more suc-
cessful initiation and completion of goals (Panchal and Riddell, 2020).

Neuroscience coaching practice

A neuroscience coaching session is similar in structure to other coaching sessions. The
purpose is to provide a space and structure for the client to address a challenge of their
choosing within a given time-frame. The structure of the GROW model is suitable for
neuroscience coaching since the different stages are underpinned by neuroscience.

Goals
The session starts by defning an overall goal, and a goal achievable within the session.When
we plan goals, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is active (MacDonald, et al., 2000).
246 Patricia Riddell
More specifcally, different parts of the dlPFC are active when we are pursuing goals that we
believe will bring reward (approach goals: Left dlPFC) versus goals which we believe will
prevent punishment (avoid goals: Right dlPFC) (Spielberger, et al., 2011).
There are two ways in which this information is used in neuroscience coaching:When
we focus our coaching clients away from problems and onto solutions, we are effec-
tively increasing activation in the left dlPFC and decreasing activity in the right dlPFC.
Additionally, not every client will beneft from creating approach goals. Asking questions
like:“What would happen if you fail to take action?”,“What is the worst possible outcome
for you?” or “What do you most not want to happen?” will be effective questions for cli-
ents who form avoid goals.

Reality
The reality phase of the GROW model encourages clients to use all the available evidence.
A client that has more of an approach focus when creating goals (left dlPFC) will be more
optimistic and willing to take risks. It is likely that this client will predominantly look for
reasons to believe their plan will work.
In comparison, a client that is more avoid focussed when creating goals (right dlPFC) is
more aware of reasons that their actions will not be successful.Avoid focus naturally occurs
in people who are more pessimistic and averse to risks.
It is important to help the client assess the full reality of their plan in a non-judgemental
manner. If your client has an approach focus, check that they have thought about potential
obstacles and how these might be overcome. If your client is avoid focussed, encourage
them to attend to positive evidence of success when assessing risk.

Options
We use divergent thinking to generate novel solutions for problems that do not have a
right or wrong answer.There are three processes involved in divergent thinking.We need
to:

1. Make associations across different domains of knowledge or concepts, which result in

the generation of possibilities.This is known as “conceptual expansion”;
2. Conceive of an object in a manner different from its customary or habitual use (func-
tional fxedness); therefore, we need to inhibit habitual responses;
3. Explore possibilities and interpret these to determine if they are appropriate. Only
those that meet the requirements are selected for consideration. Testing out possible
ideas requires creative imagery.

Since there are a number of different processes involved in divergent thinking, it is unsur-
prising that this involves a complex network of brain areas. There are three major net-
works in the brain that are active during divergent thinking (Beaty, et al., 2015).These are:

The Salience Network (anterior cingulate cortex, insula): This identifes important aspects
of the environment and directs attention to these.This network also is important in
switching between the other two networks.
The Cognitive Control Network (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, medial temporal gyrus):This
network controls our thinking processes, including access to long-term memory,
 Neuroscience coaching 247
working memory, inhibition and self-regulation. It helps us plan actions to complete
our goals.
The Default Mode Network (posterior cingulate cortex, inferior parietal lobe, temporo-
parietal junction):This network controls our ability to think imaginatively, partly by
turning attention inwards rather than outwards.This helps in the production of crea-
tive solutions.

To encourage creativity in others it is necessary to help them to eliminate typical learned

responses in order to encourage new thinking. One way that coaches can do this is to
insist that clients list a large number of options. The frst options are likely to be typical
while later options will be more creative.

Will
The next stage is to create an action plan that the client is motivated to follow.To move
from an abstract goal to action, we have to be able to imagine the action, which requires
both the hippocampus (address book for memory) and the ventromedial prefrontal cor-
tex, where our personal goals are represented (Medea, et al., 2016). When individuals
are given time to consider their goals, they think about what this would mean for them,
especially when their mind is allowed to wander.Thus, the process of day dreaming allows
time to consider how the plan might turn out. Thus, in coaching, the effect of giving a
client space to imagine a future plan can help increase the likelihood that the plan will be
implemented.
It is clear from this short description of the neuroscience behind the GROW model
that this creates a useful structure to develop the intention to change. But experienced
coaches know that it is not always suffcient to ensure action.The Health Action Process
Approach (HAPA) model of behavioural change considers both motivational (intention)
and volitional (action) components of change (Schwarzer, 2008).
The volitional phase requires action. Intention is more likely to be converted into
action if the behaviour change is imagined. This activates the medial prefrontal which
primes new behaviours to occur faster and more automatically (Rosenberg-Katz et al.,
2012). See Figure 23.1.
One thing that is not explicit in the GROW model is the reference to our beliefs
about our ability to act – or self-effcacy. In the HAPA model, self-effcacy has three
components. Action self-effcacy is the ability to visualise and anticipate the outcomes of
successful change. High action self-effcacy predicts intention to act. Individuals who are
low in self-effcacy are more likely to imagine failure, obstacles to success or to have doubt
in their own abilities.
Maintenance or coping self-effcacy is the belief that obstacles will be overcome.This
requires that the long-term goal is maintained even when competing goals with higher
short-term rewards are present. High self-effcacy has been associated with conscientious-
ness (Duckworth and Gross, 2014) or the ability to constrain impulses.
Recovery self-effcacy is the ability to recover after a lapse. High recovery self-effcacy
or grit (Duckworth and Gross, 2014) requires the ability to attribute the lapse to an exter-
nal situation and to fnd ways to limit the damage and get back on track. Grit has been
found to be associated with the volume of the dopamine reward system (Nemmi, et al.,
2016).Thus, seeking reward regardless of delay or obstacles can help us to keep motivated
when pursuing long-term goals.
248 Patricia Riddell

INTENTION ACTION

Goals Action
Initiative
ACTION Self-Efficacy
PLANNING
Reality
COPING Maintenance
Maintenance
PLANNING Self-Efficacy

Options
Recovery
Recovery Self-Efficacy
Will

Motivational Phase Volitional Phase

Figure 23.1 Model of behavioural change incorporating both the GROW model and aspects of the
Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model of behavioural change (adapted from
Schwarzer, 2008).

Self-effcacy
What is self-effcacy, and how does it improve the chances of behaviour change? Michie,
et al. (2011) suggest that, in order to reduce the friction that obstructs behaviour change,
we should examine three factors:

1. Capability or individual psychological and physical capacity to engage in the behaviour,

including necessary knowledge and skills;
2. Opportunity to perform the behaviour, including all the factors that lie outside the
individual that prompt the behaviour and make it possible, including the physical prop-
erties of the environment and the social culture;
3. Motivation to change, including all the brain processes that energise and direct behav-
iour, including habitual or automatic processes, emotional responding and refective or
analytic decision-making.

These factors will be different for any behaviour that we choose to change, and so coach-
ing a client to change behaviour should start by specifcally defning the behaviours that
are to change – both those that are to be reduced or eliminated and those to be increased
or developed. Only then is it possible to determine whether the client has suffcient self-
effcacy to make these changes and how this can be supported despite potential obstacles.

When does neuroscience coaching work best?

Typically providing clients with new knowledge is not considered part of the role of
a coach. In some situations, however, it can be appropriate for coaches to bring expert
knowledge to a coaching situation when the knowledge of the coach is greater than that
 Neuroscience coaching 249
of the client and the knowledge base is relevant to the client’s goals (Stober and Grant,
2006).This might therefore include knowledge about how the brain works (see, for exam-
ple, the special issue of The Coaching Psychologist: Enhancing the dialogue between the
felds of neuroscience and coaching, volume 11, June 2015).
If neuroscience has something to offer in a particular coaching context, it is important
to consider how much neuroscience should be shared.There is a cost to consider here, since
coaching is designed to be a process that the coach holds so that the client can explore
their own thoughts, beliefs and goals. In order to share neuroscience knowledge, it is nec-
essary to break the coaching process by introducing an element of mentoring or consult-
ing.This can require a break in rapport and so should be used circumspectly. Not all clients
want to know how their brains work; they are happy to be guided by the coaching process.
In this case, asking questions that direct their thinking in new ways can be suffcient. For
others, however, the neuroscience can add scientifc credibility to processes or techniques
that might otherwise seem unsubstantiated. For these clients, adding a bite-sized chunk of
neuroscience can often work wonders.
Asking permission to share a neuroscience fact and providing a rationale for doing this
is a necessary step to ensure that rapport can be, frst, broken (“I would like to share a fact
about your brain that you might fnd useful. Would that be helpful to you?”) and then
recovered (“What might you do with this new information?”).

Tools and techniques

There are many ways in which neuroscience can be used in coaching. In this section, fve
examples are provided (see Bossons, et al., 2015 for further examples).

Neuroplasticity and growth mindset

Change is not only possible – it is inevitable. The human brain has evolved to adapt to
changes in our world. Neuroplasticity refers to the structures in the brain (neuro-) that
can change (-plasticity) to adapt to changes in our environment. The brain changes by
creating new neurones (the active, information-processing cells in our brains) to store new
information in the parts of the brain that process memory. For example, the hippocampus
(an area of the brain vital to memory) is larger in London taxi drivers who have learned
“The Knowledge” – a map of the streets of London and what times of day, for instance,
these are busy (Maguire, et al., 1997). New connections between neurones (synapses)
can also be created in any area of the brain that is required to process new information.
Indeed, we create and lose as many as 10% of the synapses in our brains on a daily basis
whether we do anything different or not (Purves, et al., 1987; Umeda and Okabe, 2001).
By constantly renewing synapses, the structures in the brain are able to adapt immediately
to any changes in the environment. Indeed, if we do the same today as we did yesterday,
the energy required to make these changes goes to waste. Coaches can help their clients
to understand the potential of the brain to learn (at any age).
Since our brains are adapted for change, this cannot be the reason that we sometimes
fnd learning or change diffcult. Rather, this can be the result of our beliefs. If we believe
that our intelligence, personality or skills are aspects of our self that we are born with and
therefore cannot be changed – then this can become a self-fulflling prophesy or fxed
mindset (Dweck, 2006).There is no point in trying new ways if things cannot be changed.
We will be more willing to change if we understand that our brains are designed for
change and, therefore, with perseverance and the right strategy – or a growth mindset, we
250 Patricia Riddell

Ventro-Medial
Prefrontal Cortex
(Emo onal Regula on)

Amygdala Ventral Striatum

(Ac ve: Threat (Ac ve: Reward
Inac ve: Safety) Inac ve: Boredom)

Figure 23.2 The triadic brain. This model demonstrates the parts of the brain that interact when we
consider what we consider as threats and rewards, and how we regulate our emotional
response in the workplace (adapted from Ernst et al., 2006).

can become better at new skills or learn new concepts. Providing clients with informa-
tion that changes their beliefs about their ability to learn and change can help to increase
willingness to try new strategies.

Calibrating emotions
Our emotions evolved on the savannah when we might have needed to respond to life-
threatening challenges (sabre-tooth tigers, lack of food or water, etc.). See Figure 23.2, the
triadic brain (Ernst, et al., 2006).
Our current day-to-day existence is a lot less threatening, and yet we have the same
emotional range at our disposal. It is therefore possible that we might express our strongest
emotional responses for events that are far from life-threatening.This raises the question –
how do we calibrate our emotional range? Do we over-react in some situations? Or have
we learnt, through our culture, to suppress emotions in some situations? And, if so, can
this be changed?
Emotions can be changed, and the frst step is to believe that this is possible. One of the
major functions of the brain is to identify situations we should avoid (threat: Amygdala)
and those we should approach (reward:Ventral striatum).The combined activity in these
two areas of the brain determine both our behaviour and our emotional response – more
reward than threat causes approach behaviour and is associated with (mostly) positive
emotional responses, while more threat than reward will cause avoidance and is associated
with negative emotions.
The unconscious, habitual responses of the amygdala and ventral striatum and the
emotions that these create, however, can be overcome. Consciously activating the ven-
tro-medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) reduces the activity in the amygdala and ventral
striatum. Thus, by showing clients how to increase this activity, coaches can help to re-
calibrate their emotional response.Techniques for doing this include naming the emotion
(Lieberman, et al., 2007), noticing whether an emotion is appropriately calibrated and
reframing the event by interpreting it differently (McCrae, et al., 2009).

Empathy for others

Our brains have adapted to be able to understand our own and others’ emotional
reactions to events. The ability to empathise develops over the lifespan and consists of
 Neuroscience coaching 251

Understanding
own emotions Evolutionary
History

Feeling what
others feel

Understanding
what others feel

Figure 23.3 The evolutionary development of empathy showing the different mechanisms available for
empathy (adapted from Dececty and Svetlova, 2012).

several interacting components.The frst stage of acquiring empathy is to be able defne

and understand our own emotional signals – both those that signal approach (positive
emotions, e.g. joy, happiness, fulflment, compassion; negative emotions, e.g. anger) and
those that signal avoidance (negative emotions, e.g. disgust, fear, sadness, guilt, embar-
rassment).This ability develops at, or soon after, birth (Decety and Svetlova, 2012). See
Figure 23.3.
The next system to develop is the nurturance system, which allows us to feel how oth-
ers feel.This evolved for parenting behaviours that support the extended development of
the infant brain. Parents respond appropriately to their children’s emotions through emo-
tional contagion when the vocal, facial and gestural cues of the child generate a similar
state in the parent.The hormone, oxytocin, has been found to both promote care-giving
and decrease fear and anxiety in the cared-for person (decrease in activity in the amyg-
dala). However, in a situation where others consistently express negative emotions, feeling
how others feel can lead to increased levels of stress, resulting in poor health, burn-out and
social withdrawal.
Understanding what others feel depends on the development of self-awareness. This
increases the capacity for empathy through adherence to social norms based on feedback
from others. Self-awareness activates the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and requires
differentiation of self from other (right temporo-parietal junction: rTPJ).This allows us to
notice others’ thoughts, intentions and emotions, thus increasing our ability to hypothesise
about their potential actions. Compassion for others, which requires self-awareness, can
induce positive feelings in response to the negative emotional response of others (Engen
and Singer, 2015). Responding to negative emotions with compassion drives good health.
Coaches can therefore help their clients to respond better in emotionally draining situ-
ations by eliciting conscious compassion for others rather than unconscious emotional
contagion.

Empathy for self

Another rather strange aspect of our empathic processing is our ability to empathise with
ourselves.We are often more critical of our own behaviour than the behaviour of others.
There is more than one reason why this might be true.
252 Patricia Riddell
The frst is level of detail:When we do something embarrassing, we judge ourselves
not only on that event, but on previous similar events and therefore believe that people
will be more critical of our behaviour than they really are. In fact, we are more correct
about another’s judgement of us when we refect on how we might view this in ten
years’ time. This strips away some of the detail, making our interpretation more simi-
lar to that of someone who knows less about our past behaviour (Powers, and LaBar,
2019).
The second reason that this might be true is that the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) is
highly activated in empathising behaviour. However, the TPJ is not active when we think
about our own behaviour – therefore, we do not seem to have the ability to empathise
with ourselves (Young, et al., 2010). Since empathy developed in order to help social
cohesion it is an important aspect of interacting in groups, but not when thinking about
your own behaviour.
Coaches can assist their clients in being more empathetic with themselves by pointing
out that this requires some effort and then by encouraging them to, for instance, consider
what they might say to a good friend in their situation.

Explore and exploit

Some people are impatient when they perceive that there are better ways to do something,
and want to try out new ideas. Other people are more likely to be concerned about what
they might lose if things change.They like the status quo. Individuals, therefore, can hold
very different beliefs about change. Some people can’t live with it and some can’t live
without it.
When a particular situation is going well, we exploit it. We refne it to our needs, we
choose how to manage it, we can select elements from the role that we enjoy, we can imple-
ment and execute our ideas and we complete projects (Cohen, et al., 2007).
By comparison, when a situation is working less well we explore.We might feel the need
to search for alternatives, to vary our routine, to pursue novelty and take risks. We might play
more, be more fexible and innovate.We are more likely to explore when we feel that our
talents are under-utilised or under-rewarded or when we become bored and want more
novelty (Cohen, et al., 2007).
Only exploiting or only exploring is limiting.While, in the short term, exploiting pro-
vides certainty and security, only exploiting can fail to create better opportunities through
lack of fexibility and willingness to take risk. Only exploring can be exciting but can
also lead to undeveloped ideas, inability to develop competence in any area and failure to
complete projects.
Recently, neuroscientists have identifed a part of the brain in the cingulate cortex (part
of the brain used to calculate risk) that is active when we move from exploiting to explor-
ing (or back again).When one part of this area is active, we exploit and when another part
is active, we explore (Cohen, et al., 2007).
Understanding how and when individuals switch from exploit to explore enables
coaches to help their clients to exploit or explore more. If a client wants to exploit more,
then help them to create an environment that contains a suffcient level of challenge and
choice which prevents boredom and rewards them for using their talents to the full. Or, if
they want to explore more, then notice ways in which the current situation lacks novelty
and under-uses abilities in order to feel that it is worth the risk of changing. Identifying
increased reward or purpose will also encourage more exploring.
 Neuroscience coaching 253
Ten useful questions for neuroscience coaches
The neuroscience techniques described here suggest some questions that might be useful
to use with coaching clients. For instance, a coach might ask a client with a fxed mindset:

1. “What do you have to believe about yourself to choose the easy course of action and
what would you have to believe to choose a harder course of action?”
This might help the client to uncover the limiting beliefs that are preventing them
from accepting a higher level of challenge.
Another question that is useful for a client with a fxed mindset, or who reacts badly
to feedback, is:
2. “What would you do differently if your only goal was to learn something from this
situation?”
In this case, the coach can help the client to treat feedback as an opportunity to learn
and improve rather than as implied criticism.
Clients that have an unwanted emotional response can be helped to consider
whether the response is appropriate by asking them to:
3. “Consider your emotional response to this situation: On a scale of 0 (no emotional
response) to 10 (the strongest emotional response to the most serious situation) where
would you place this response? What level would be an appropriate response for this
situation?”
This can help a client to put their emotions in perspective and might allow them to
choose a more appropriate response to the situation.
If you have a coaching client that is considering a substantive change, which requires
them to explore new opportunities, you might ask them:
4. “What are you currently exploiting that you would not want to lose?”
Sometimes, what holds us back from new opportunities is fear of loss. Consciously
identifying what it is that is important to retain can help your client to consider ways
of creating change without losing this.
Similarly, a client that is a more natural exploiter might be less aware of the benefts
that change might bring. In this case, you might choose to ask them:
5. “What would be the benefts of exploring something new? What change is easily
accessible and what is beyond the horizon?”
This can help them to imagine new futures, both by exploring the easier next steps
and those that might take more planning.
A client that is overly focussed on a negative experience and is having trouble put-
ting this in perspective might be helped by asking:
6. “What would this look like from fve or ten years in the future?”
This might help them to reduce the detail in their memory of the event and take a
more realistic perspective on how they might be judged by others in the present and
themselves in the future.
Similarly, a client that appears to be judging themselves overly critically and there-
fore failing to show empathy or compassion for themselves might be asked:
7. “What would a good friend advise you in this situation? And what would you tell a
good friend who had your challenge?”
By saying aloud what they would advise a friend for whom they have empathy and
compassion, it is possible that they will be more aware of the difference in compas-
sion they display to others in comparison to themselves.This might help them to learn
greater self-empathy.
254 Patricia Riddell
For a client that has created a negative interpretation of a potentially ambiguous
event, a coach might choose to ask them:
8. “What other story would account for the facts of the situation? And what other
story?”
Creating multiple interpretations of the same event can be helpful in demonstrating
that we construct our perceptions from sparse data and often over-interpret what we
know. Sharing a number of different perspectives helps to make this explicit and can
therefore reduce the impact of the initial, negative interpretation of events.
At the end of a GROW session, it can be useful to give the client an opportunity
to consider both potential obstacles and how they might overcome these. A good
question for this is:
9. “What might prevent you from reaching your goal and what steps could you put in
place to circumvent this?”
Explicitly surfacing obstacles during a coaching session can help clients either to
address these appropriately if they arise, or to prevent them from interfering with the
plan at all.
Similarly, at the end of a GROW session, it can be useful to put in place a Plan B
so that clients continue to act even if their frst plan is not successful.A good question
for this is:
10. What will you do if you fnd that you do not follow your plan? What steps can you take to
re-assess the situation and refocus on your goal?
By having a Plan B, and even a Plan Z (worst-case scenario), clients can be more
proactive in continuing towards their goals in the event of unexpected interruptions.

Conclusion
An understanding of neuroscience has the potential to increase the effectiveness of coach-
ing through a greater understanding of how our brains operate. Already, a number of dif-
ferent techniques have been developed to take advantage of this understanding, and this
will no doubt be expanded by the avalanche of research that is emerging from neurosci-
ence laboratories worldwide. It is an exciting time to be a neuroscience coach.

References
Aarts, H. Custers, R. and Holland, R.W. (2007).‘The nonconscious cessation of goal pursuit:When goals
and negative affect are coactivated’. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, pp. 165–178.
Beaty, R., Benedek, M., Kaufman, S. and Silvia, P. (2015). ‘Default and executive network coupling
supports creative idea production’. Scientifc Reports, 5, p. 10964.
Begley, S. and Davidson, R.J. (2013). The emotional life of your brain. London: Hodder Press.
Bossons, P., Riddell, P. and Sartain, D. (2015). The neuroscience of leadership coaching. London: Bloomsbury
Press.
Cohen, J.D., McClure, S.M. and Yu, A.J. (2007). ‘Should I stay or should I go? How the human brain
manages the trade-off between exploitation and exploration’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, B, 362, pp. 933–942.
Decety, J. and Svetlova, M. (2011). ‘Putting together phylogenetic and ontogenetic perspectives on
empathy’. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, pp. 1–24.
Duckworth, A. and Gross, J. (2014) Self-control and grit: related but separable determinants of success.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, pp. 319–325.
Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset:The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.
 Neuroscience coaching 255
Engen, H.G. and Singer, T. (2015). ‘Compassion-based emotion regulation up-regulates experienced
positive affect and associated neural networks’. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. doi:10.1093/
scan/nsv008.
Englander, Z., Haidt, J. and Morris, J. (2012).‘Neural basis of moral elevation demonstrated through inter-
subject synchronization of cortical activity during free-viewing’. PLoS One, 7, pp. e39384.
Ernst, M., Pine, D. and Hardin, M. (2006).‘Triadic model of the neurobiology of motivated behaviour in
adolescence’. Psychological Medicine, 36, pp. 299–312.
Feldman Barratt, L. (2017). How emotions are made:The secret life of the brain. New York: Houghton Miffin
Harcourt.
Kempermann, G. and Gage, F. (1999). ‘Experience-dependent regulation of adult hippocampal
neurogenesis: Effects of long-term stimulation and stimulus withdrawal’. Hippocampus, 9, pp. 321–332.
Lieberman, M., Eisenberger, N., Crockett, M., Tom, S., Pfeifer, J. and Way, B. (2007). ‘Putting feelings
into words: Affect labelling disrupts amygdala activity to affective stimuli’. Psychological Science, 18, pp.
421–428.
MacDonald, A., Cohen, J., Stenger,V.A. and Carter, C. (2000). ‘Dissociating the role of the dorsolateral
prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive control’. Science, 288, pp. 1835–1838.
Maguire, E., Frackkowiak, R. and Frith, C. (1997). ‘Recalling routes around London: Activation of the
right hipocampus in taxi drivers’. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, pp. 103–110.
McCrae, K., Hughes, B., Chopra, S., Gabrieli, J., Gross, J. and Ochsner, K. (2009) ‘The neural bases of
distraction and reappraisal’. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, pp. 248–262.
Medea, B., Karapanagiotidis,T., Konishi, M., Ottaviani, C., Marguiles, D. et al. (2016).‘How do we decide
what to do? Resting-state connectivity patterns and components of self-generated thought linked to
the development of more concrete personal goals’. Experimental Brain Research, 236, pp. 2469–2481.
Michie, S., van Stralen, M. and West, R. (2011). ‘The behaviour change wheel: A new method for
characterising and designing behaviour change interventions’. Implementation Science, 6, p. 42.
Nemmi, F., Nymberg, C., Helander, E. and Klingberg, T. (2016) Grit is associated with structure
of the Nucleus Accumbens and gains in cognitive training. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28,
pp. 1688–1699.
Neroni, M., Gamboz, N. and Brandimonte, M. (2014).‘Does episodic future thinking improve prospective
remembering?’ Consciousness and Cognition, 23, pp. 53–62.
Panchal and Riddell (2020). ‘The GROWS model: Extending the GROW coaching model to support
behavioural change’. The Coaching Psychologist, In Press.
Powers, J. and LaBar, K. (2019). ‘Regulating emotion through distancing: A taxonomy, neurocognitive
model and supporting meta-analysis’. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 96, pp. 155–173.
Purves, D.,Voyvodic, J., Magrassi, L. and Yawo, H. (1987).‘Nerve terminal remodelling visualized in living
mice by repeated examination of the same neuron’. Science, 20, pp. 1122–1126.
Schwarzer, R. (2008) Modeling health behavior change: how to predict and modify the adoption and
maintenance of health behaviors. Applied Psychology, 57, pp. 1–29.
Special issue of The Coaching Psychologist. (2015). Enhancing the dialogue between the felds of neuroscience
and coaching,Vol. 11, June. London:The British Psychological Society.
Spielberger, J., Miller, G., Engels, A., Herrington, J., Sutton, B., Banich, M. and Heller, W. (2011). ‘Trait
approach and avoid motivation: Lateralized neural activity associated with executive function’.
NeuroImage, 54, pp. 661–670.
Stober, D.R. and Grant, A.M. (2006). Evidence based coaching handbook: Putting best practices to work for your
clients. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Stober, D.R., Wildfower, L. and Drake, D. (2006). ‘Evidence-based practice: A potential approach for
effective coaching’. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 4, pp. 1–8.
Rosenberg-Katz, K., Jamshy, S., Singer, N., Podlipsky, I., Kervasser, S.,Andelman, F. et al. (2012) Enhanced
functional synchronization of medial and lateral PFC underlies internally-guided action planning.
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, Article 79.
Umeda, T. and Okabe, S. (2001). ‘Visualizing synapse formation and remodelling: Recent advances in
real-time imaging of CNS synapses’. Neuroscience Research, 40, pp. 291–300.
256 Patricia Riddell
Van Praag, H., Kempermann, G. and Gage, F. (2000).‘Neural consequences of environmental enrichment’.
Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 1, pp. 191–198.
Whitmore, J. (2009) Coaching for performance: Growing human potential and purpose, 4th edition. London:
Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Young, L., Dodell-Feder, D. and Saxe, R. (2010).‘What gets the attention of the temporo-parietal junction?
An fMRI investigation of attention and theory of mind’. Neuropsychologia, 48, pp. 2658–2664.
24 Narrative coaching
David Drake

Introduction
Narrative coaching was born out of a doctoral study on the liminal spaces between iden-
tity and story where growth happens (Drake, 2003). As the author explored what to do
with his research, he found himself at a workshop on group dreaming. Narrative coaching
emerged from a question that came to him that night: What if the stories we tell in the daytime
serve the same function as the dreams we have at night? What if, in both cases, the characters are
parts of ourselves, projected onto familiar forms as a means to work through our devel-
opmental issues in order to grow? This called for a very different approach to coaching in
which the process: (1) focuses on the “feld” in which it occurs less than the method; (2)
engages in praxis as a dialectical process that starts with people’s stories, creates a liberat-
ing dialogue and fosters a new level of consciousness and action (Freire, 1970); (3) invites
clients to stay in their stories as they unfold in the present moment rather than set goals for
later; and (4) helps clients explore and reformulate the connections between their stories
believed, stories told, stories lived and stories desired (McAdams, 1993;White and Epston,
1990). In this chapter I will explain the nature of narrative coaching, review the develop-
ing evidence, and offer ways coaches can apply this approach in their practice through
tools, techniques and useful questions.

Narrative coaching explained

Narrative coaching is a mindful, experiential and holistic approach to helping people to
shift their stories in order to generate new options and new results.The narrative coach-
ing model (see below) is a window through which coaches observe their clients and their
narration, not a series of linear steps.We are coming alongside our clients and the change
process they are in, and using the model to help them notice what their stories (and their
telling) are revealing about where they are now and what they need in order to move for-
ward.The stories people tell about their lives are of considerable importance in coaching
because there is an intimate connection between the ways in which people narrate their
identities and live their lives.
Stories provide powerful openings to explore these connections because they bring to
the surface how people construct and navigate their world and can be used to guide them
in making any shifts (Drake, 2018a; Schank, 1990). Narrative coaching draws extensively
on narrative structure, narrative practices and narrative psychology to offer an integra-
tive approach to coaching.These three sources refect the three parallel processes that are
 258 David Drake
woven into the model: (1) The four acts of a story; (2) the four phases of transitions and
(3) the four elements of adult development. As a result, a virtuous cycle forms as people
formulate a new story while they move through their change and transition, develop-
ing themselves in the process in terms of their identity and agency as someone who can
enact it.
The narrative coaching model and approach are designed as a rite of passage, in large
part to account for the larger narratives at play in and around clients’ lives and work.
Anthropologist Arthur van Gennep (1960) defned these rites as cultural practices for
guiding people through important and/or cyclical transitions in their personal or com-
munal lives using ritualised processes and resources. In a narrative coaching context, a rite
of passage is seen as a movement through four phases (see below):

1. A separation from the outer world to embark on a journey into the inner world to
undergo a transformation in one’s identity and narrative;
2. An individuation as one overcomes obstacles to transit the inner world in search of
what will bring restoration and maturation;
3. A reincorporation as one leaves the inner world to return to the outer world with what
has been gained through exploration and experimentation;
4. An integration of the transformation into a new identity and narrative in the outer
world, often with subsequent changes relating to the environment. See Figure 24.1.

The narrative coaching model has four phases:

1. SITUATE: Notice how the person is situated (in the moment, the session, the story).
Be a non-judgmental witness to them as the narrator, and build rapport and the crucible
for the conversation.The focus is on “what is”1 and what is being said.2 It is about being
here now – not setting goals, gathering lots of information or trying to get somewhere.
The threshold they must cross to get to the next phase is Separation (T1).

Integration

1 T4 4

SITUATE SUSTAIN
Reincorporation
Separation

T1 T3

SEARCH SHIFT
2 T2 3

Individuation

Figure 24.1 Narrative coaching model

 Narrative coaching 259
2. SEARCH: Help the person discover what they are truly searching for by exploring
key elements in their stories, experiencing new perspectives and getting to the crux of
the issue. Be an advocate for the whole story and its reason for being in the conversation.
The focus is on “what if” and what is not being said (yet).The threshold they must cross is
Individuation (T2).
3. SHIFT: Help the person identify what needs to shift in order to enact what was discov-
ered in Search. Be a guardian of the space and the characters in their story who have an
important role to play. Engage in serious play and invite the person to experiment with
new ways of being in service of their aspiration.The focus is on “what matters” and what
wants to be said.The threshold they must cross is Reincorporation (T3).
4. SUSTAIN: Support the person to create structures for success so they can sustain what
they have gained when they “go home”. Be a steward of the process of closure so the
person feels complete and is prepared.The focus is on “what works” and using what was
signifcant and effective for the person in the session to inform the scaffolding they will
take with them to be successful.The threshold they must cross is Integration (T4).

Narrative coaching theory and research

In narrative coaching, evidence is seen as a co-constructed and dynamic process that
informs the decisions made in coaching as it unfolds, emerges from what is generated in
the conversation, gleans meaning from the results and enriches the broader professional
base. It transcends the positivistic discourse on evidence in favour of a more integrative
approach to evidence that is more closely tied to and useful for practice. Narrative coach-
ing puts stock in personal refexivity, valid and relevant research, professional experience
and contextual awareness on behalf of clients and the environments in which they live
and work (Drake and Stelter, 2014). In part, this is based on the observation that masterful
narrative coaches are informed less by academic studies and more by their wisdom, their
experience, their mastery and their dedication to generative outcomes.
This stance refects the commitment in narrative coaching to: (1) The direct experience
of human phenomena; (2) the advocacy for alternate discourses, (3) the recognition of col-
lective and non-conscious forces affecting our narration; (4) the value of embodied wis-
dom and mastery; (5) the commitment to Integrative Development; and (6) the narrative
bill of rights for clients. It is not surprising, then, that most narrative research is descrip-
tive and qualitative in nature and aligns with the philosophy and pedagogy in narrative
coaching. Much of the research that has informed this work to date has been drawn from
narrative analysis and research efforts in the social sciences, as well as from fve domains:
Anthropology; identity and transformative learning; Jungian psychology; neuroscience and
spiritual development; and narrative studies.
Narrative coaching moves beyond the individualistic and psychological orientation
used in most approaches to coaching to incorporate systemic perspectives which refect
its commitment to a more integrative approach (Drake, 2018b). Stelter (2014) positions
narrative coaching as a “third-generation practice” in which

the coach’s ambition of remaining neutral is toned down, and the main focus is on
collaborative and co-creative dialogues.The coach and the client (or group of clients)
are dialogue partners and have a mutual relationship as refective fellow human beings
in a relationship that is characterized by varying degrees of symmetry over time.
(pp. 118–119)
260 David Drake
In recent years, narrative coaching has been further enriched through the incorporation of
non-dualist paradigms such as Buddhism to balance the Western frames that are dominant
in coaching.
The extensive academic foundation for narrative coaching was both chronicled and
extended through Drake’s doctoral work (Drake, 2003). It has been deepened in sub-
sequent years through his over 60 publications in coaching-related journals and books
as well as the defnitive guide to this work (Drake, 2018b). This includes numerous case
studies on the use of narrative coaching (Drake, 2018b), as well as the seminal paper
introducing the research on attachment theory into the coaching literature (Drake, 2009).
It provides a framework for working with clients’ preverbal and somatic patterns as they
arise in coaching sessions in support of greater attachment security as the foundation for
maturation.

Narrative coaching in practice

Narrative coaches provide both an interpersonal structure and a narrative structure for their
clients.The former is about creating a safe space for the client as a storyteller to bring the
whole story into the room and to do the developmental work that arises from doing so.
The latter is about offering a process for a client to deeply engage with the stories them-
selves and to do the instrumental work to bring their new story to life. Together, they
illustrate the centrality of the “feld” in narrative coaching as a generative time and space
for clients, and coaches are committed to radical presence and working in the moment
with what is present.To be able to work this way, there is a strong focus in narrative coach-
ing on the psycho-spiritual development of the practitioner to be able to deeply hold that
space and freely work in it.
Narrative coaching practitioners are guided by the following six principles:

• Trust that everything you need is right in front of you;

• Be fully present to what is without judgment;
• Speak only when you can improve on silence;
• Focus on generating experiences not explanations;
• Work directly with the narrative elements in the feld;
• Stand at the threshold when a new story is emerging.
(Drake, 2018b, p. 18)

These principles align with Gallwey’s (1981) view that, if you want to change something,
frst increase your awareness of the way it is.This opens up more space to discover, explore
and potentially reframe their habitual narrative patterns and open up new possibilities for
their development and outcomes. Often this level of presence leads to an evaporation of
initial goals that makes room for a deeper level of truth. Narrative coaches work in the
moment with the unfolding narration and what is rather than prematurely move to what
could be, as is common in many other approaches. In this sense, we see narrative coaches in
“maieutic” terms (Kenyon and Randall, 1997), as midwives who help people to birth new
stories and facilitate their transformation at key junctures.
Narrative coaches track how people organise their stories, e.g., which events are
included, which themes they organise around, which characters are portrayed as signif-
cant, which voices are privileged in the telling (Botella and Herrero, 2000) and which
 Narrative coaching 261
stories about reality contribute to their suffering. This is best done experientially rather
than just discursively, e.g., inviting them to become aware of their experience in telling
their story or experimenting with telling it in a new way. The aim is to get to the crux
of issues and the thresholds where clients’ “emplotment” strategies (how they make sense
and meaning of events) have broken down or are no longer working.These gaps in narra-
tion can be seen as “breaches” (Bruner, 1986) and the stories people tell us as attempts to
resolve the discrepancy between what they expected and what has transpired.These gaps
are an opportune time to help clients to formulate a different story and outcome because
it is in these liminal, in-between spaces, where growth most often occurs.
This is important because, if you want clients to adopt new behaviours or attain new
results, you must help them access new aspects of their identity and new narratives that
support them. At the same time, to sustain the new identity, people need to enact new
behaviours – and the stories that go with them (Markus and Nurius, 1986). Narrative
coaches also know that the stories told in coaching sessions, even if they have served as a
transformational vehicle in that setting, must survive the “retellings” if people are to sustain
the changes they have begun.As a result, there is a greater than usual attention paid to the
fourth phase (Sustain) in the narrative coaching model so that they can, with increasing
consistency, apply what they have experienced and learned (Drake, 2018a).
The following case story is about a coaching client whose presenting issue was her
frustration with and judgment about her boss.A key step in the process was getting her to
own and be accountable for the story as hers.

1. SITUATE: I am feeling very frustrated. I’m upset because the leader in charge of
this project regularly points out small mistakes in our team’s reports, but he doesn’t
acknowledge what we are doing well or how hard we are working.
2. SEARCH:When I hear myself talk about what it is like to put together these reports
every two weeks, I realise that I am not putting in as much effort as I used to and, on
top of that, I frankly don’t like working at this level of detail anymore.
3. SHIFT:When I look at my situation from the perspective of the reports, they feel like
a heavy burden. I was thinking I wanted coaching to help move on, but I see now that
this was just a reactive response.What I really want is to fgure out how to talk to my
boss about communicating with us in a very different way.
4. SUSTAIN: I am noticing a shift in myself from blaming and reacting to my leader to a
deeper appreciation for the real issue and how I want to move forward.This has helped
me realise that I actually enjoy most of my current job. I’m excited to stretch myself by
presenting this request to my boss and working on a solution with him.

Tools and Techniques

A narrative coaching session is like a lab in which clients work with the elements in their
stories in real time. Coaches are seen as alchemists, not architects. In coaching this way,
narrative coaches often literally and fguratively move between centred and de-centred
positions relative to their clients.This may include facing clients at the start to build suf-
fcient rapport and trust, then de-centring themselves by shifting their position to be
more at an angle to explore the narrative material with the client, and then re-centring
themselves when a stronger relational connection is needed (e.g., due to increased vulner-
ability) or a new experience seems called for in the moment.
262 David Drake
The focus here is on the story as it is being told in the here and now. Gallwey’s work
on the inner game (see Gallwey, 1981/2009) and Kramer’s (2007) work on relational
meditation are both helpful here. Narrative coaches continually bring people back into
their present experience in order to connect the proverbial “dots” and provide a more
solid basis for change. This is important in coaching because, as David J. Wallin (2007)
notes, “It is largely through activating bodily and sensory experience in the session and
linking such experience to images and words that can be refected upon that we facili-
tate the integration that is the basis of therapeutic change” (p. 294). In the process, trust
that clients will begin at the level at which they are ready and the critical themes will be
forthcoming regardless of which stories they share frst. Any story or set of stories can
be a portal into the larger issues at play for them and the path to reaching their resolu-
tion or aspiration.
A key role for coaches then is to invite people to see their stories from different per-
spectives, to notice how they are constructed (or even that they are constructed), to note
their limits and infuences and to discover other possibilities (Freedman and Combs,
1996). It is about helping people to notice the differences between the stories they are
telling and the stories they are living, as well as to identify narrative “data” from their
lives that would support an alternate view of who they are and/or how they want to be
in the world. Narrative coaching draws on Drake’s work in Integrative Development see
(Drake, 2019) and the iBEAM framework (identity, Behaviour, Environment,Aspiration
and Mindset) in particular, to help clients create structures for success as they move
back out into the world with what they have learned and gained from coaching.These
variables were drawn from the author’s analysis of the research on factors for improving
performance.
One of the core narrative coaching tools is the Narrative Pivot, and it is often formed
in the Shift phase. It is a simple binary choice between two storylines – defned using
clients’ own words (as short, parallel and memorable phrases) – they can make in the
moment. It is about asking themselves, “Is what I am about to do or say move me in
the direction of my new story I am moving toward or my old story which I am leaving
behind?”. They are activated when a client encounters a cue (e.g., just got home from
work) or a trigger (e.g., partner did not do the dishes again as promised). Pausing at
those points and having a Pivot handy makes it easier for clients to take the frst step in
a new direction. Pivots work well because they provide a simple focus that can be prac-
tised throughout the day and allow for more adaptive responses. Clients can use their
Pivots to help them better self-regulate and choose well rather than lapse into reactive
defaults. See Figure 24.2.

New
Story

Old
CUE P
Story

Figure 24.2 Narrative Pivot

 Narrative coaching 263
A frequently used narrative coaching tool is the Narrative Rewind Process. It is used to
help clients notice, own and shift the narrative patterns that impede their ability to achieve
the outcomes they are seeking:
1. Refect on a conversation or situation you found challenging.Answer each of the ques-
tions in order, recalling the situation. Notice where you end up and the impact of your
story on your outcome.
• What did you observe? Experience;
• What were you telling yourself at the time? Story;
• What does this say about how you see yourself? Identity;
• What did you do as a result? Behaviour;
• What happened in the end? Outcome.
2. Rewind the process, starting with the outcome you wanted instead. Notice where you
end up and how this new story would yield a better outcome.
• What would you like to have had happen in the end? Outcome;
• What could you have done differently as a result? Behaviour;
• What would need to shift in how you see yourself? Identity;
• What could you tell yourself next time this happens? Story;
• What would you observe if “this” were the case? Experience.

When does narrative coaching work best?

Narrative coaching has been applied in any number of individual and group settings. It
paradoxically feels slow to those who are in it or are observing it, but can often lead to
signifcant breakthroughs more quickly than more traditional methods.This is because we
are working directly and experientially at the crux of issues – and can laser in when the
moment is right for accelerated development. Even so, it works best when both parties are
willing to work in a deeply human and collaborative manner. Narrative coaching clients
often report great relief to be able to work in a more natural way that they can continue
with on their own after sessions. Coaches appreciate it because they get to bring their
whole self to their practice, travel lighter and with greater agility and feel confdent know-
ing that the research is embedded in the process.
Narrative coaching often works best with coaches and clients who have: (1) A comfort
with silence and self-refection; (2) a willingness to work openly at somatic, metaphorical
and non-conscious levels; (3) an astute awareness of and ability to articulate their emotional
and sensory experience; (4) the necessary ego strength to engage in “moments of meeting”
(Drake, 2009) where they are willing to be transformed; and (5) suffcient comfort and
capability to work within what Drake calls “structured emergence”. Obviously, this is more
challenging if any of these four conditions are not present in the coach and/or client.
Narrative coaching works well as a framework for embedding coaching skills in an
organisation because it uses natural human language and is built on the human process
of change, not an artifcial structure for a conversation. It has been integrated into dozens
of initiatives, functions and applications to enable clients to shift cultures, develop teams,
upgrade conversations and transform how work is done. The most successful uses of it
have led organisations to translate and embed coaching in (most) every aspect of how
work gets done.A narrative approach to coaching works exceptionally well across cultures
as it is less tied to Western epistemologies and more easily tuned to local dynamics. It is
quite useful in giving voice to non-dominant groups as part of a larger evolution in the
systems in which they work and live, e.g., in organisations embarking on culture change.
264 David Drake
Ten commonly used questions for the narrative coach
Questions narrative coaches ask themselves
1. What am I noticing?
This question is designed to help coaches to track their inner and outer experience
to ensure they are staying present to what is unfolding in the session more than their
own formulation.This keeps coaches aware and alert to what is actually happening.
2. What is being activated in me as I am coaching?
This question is designed to help coaches to notice what is being triggered in them
by clients and their stories so they can self-regulate and return to centre as needed. It
is essential in keeping coaches true to their professional and narrative ethics.
3. What do they need most right now?
This question is designed to help coaches to assess where clients are in their own
change process and what is the work to be done now in order to move forward. It is
often more productive for clients to address one issue at a time.
4. What does this story want us to pay attention to?
This question is designed to help coaches to discern the crux of clients’ issues
through what is being said and not said (yet) in their stories. It is often easier for clients
to start by working with their stories in the room before looking within themselves.
5. What story am I in? What role am I being “asked” to play? Want to play?
This question is designed to help coaches to observe the conversation while
remaining radically present in order to sense the larger patterns in play. It is about
noticing how you show up in clients’ stories and what needs to shift in your role to
facilitate change.

Questions narrative coaches commonly ask their clients

6. What are you noticing right now?
This question is designed to help clients become more aware of the “feld” in ses-
sions, what stories they are choosing to tell and the impact of those choices in the
session (and their life). It helps the coach and the client enhance what they can sense.
7. What comes up for you when you say that? What is important to you about that?
This question is designed to help clients become more aware of their internal state
as they are recalling, forming and telling their story. It deepens their understanding
of what their stories are trying to say and builds their capacity to do so on their own.
8. Where does that story live in you?
This question is designed to help clients to increase their sensory awareness of their
body and how/where their stories have informed their way of being in the world.
It is also about engaging their whole self in developing and embodying new stories.
9. What does the story need in order to feel complete?
This question is designed to help clients to see their stories as messengers which
seek to make visible something that is invisible (to themselves and/or others) so it
can be addressed. It is about becoming present to and discerning the longing that is
unfulflled.
10. What other perspectives could you take? What keeps you from considering them?
This question is designed to help clients to look at their situation in new ways so
they can see more of the whole picture and imagine new options. It is about releasing
their attachments to old stories so they can make space for new stories.
 Narrative coaching 265
Conclusion
One of the questions the author has been asked most often, particularly in the beginning,
is:“How is this different than therapy?”.When asked, his answer remains the same:“Done
well, narrative coaching is inherently therapeutic for people. Otherwise, why bother”.
Narrative coaching uses some of the same techniques as psychotherapy, such as cathartic
insight, emotional healing and issue resolution, to create a foundation for new actions.
However, there is more emphasis in narrative coaching on direct experience and taking
new actions towards the future than you would fnd in most therapeutic methodologies.
The bottom line is that coaches should work at the deepest level for which they are quali-
fed and invited, and at the appropriate level for a client’s readiness and the issue at hand.
This human-centred approach to coaching moves beyond modernist assumptions, lin-
ear development models, extroverted goal-orientation and lingering biases towards behav-
iourism to create a truly post-professional and integrative approach to developing people.
It shifts the emphasis from the coach and coaching methodologies to the coaching rela-
tionship and the stories that emerge there.As William Bridges notes, the main thing to do
is not to hurry up and fgure things out, but just to centre yourself and wait watchfully. It
is a methodology that was made for this time as a pandemic grips the globe and many are
raising important questions about the future of communities, economies and the eco-sys-
tems in which we live. Perhaps it is time for a collective rite of passage in imagining new
ways of living and working on the other side. For all the coaches and clients who are ready
for this work and these conversations, narrative coaching will be an invaluable resource.

Notes
1 Acknowledging the parallels between narrative coaching and design thinking.
2 From Drake’s Narrative Diamond model (2018b).

References
Botella, L. and Herrero, L. (2000). ‘A relational constructivist approach to narrative therapy’. European
Journal of Psychotherapy, Counselling & Health, 3(3), pp. 407–418.
Bruner, Jerome. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Drake, D.B. (2003). How stories change: A narrative analysis of liminal experiences and transitions in identity
(Dissertation). Santa Barbara: Fielding Graduate Institute.
Drake, D.B. (2009). ‘Using attachment theory in coaching leaders: The search for a coherent narrative’.
International Coaching Psychology Review, 4(1), pp. 49–58.
Drake, D.B. (2018a). ‘Narrative coaching’. In Elaine Cox,Tatiana Bachkirova and David A. Clutterbuck,
eds., The complete handbook of coaching. London, UK: Sage Publications, pp. 109–123.
Drake, D.B. (2018b). Narrative coaching:The defnitive guide to bringing new stories to life, 2nd ed. Petaluma:
CNC Press.
Drake, David B. (2019). Using integrative development to create a coaching culture in a professional
services frm. In Robert G. Hamlin,Andrea D. Ellinger, ans Jenni Jones (Eds.), Evidence-based initiatives
for organizational change and development (pp. 506–514). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Drake, D.B. and Stelter, R. (2014). Narrative coaching. In Jonathan Passmore, ed., Mastery in coaching: A
complete psychological toolkit for advanced coaching. London: Kogan Page, pp. 65–96.
Freedman, J. and Combs, G. (1996). Narrative therapy:The social construction of preferred realities. New York:
W.W. Norton.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.
Gallwey, T. (1981/2009). The inner game of golf. New York: Random House.
266 David Drake
Kenyon, G.M. and Randall,W.L. (1997). Restorying our lives: Personal growth through autobiographical refection.
Westport: Praeger.
Kramer, G. (2007). Insight dialogue:The interpersonal path to freedom. Boston: Shambhala.
Markus, H. and Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), pp. 954–969.
McAdams, D.P. (1993). The stories we live by: Personal myths and the making of the self. New York: The
Guilford Press.
Schank, R. (1990). Tell me a story:A new look at real and artifcial memory. New York: Scribner.
Stelter, R. (2014). A guide to third generation coaching: Narrative-collaborative theory and practice. New York:
Springer.
van Gennep,A. (1960). The rites of passage (Monika B.Vizedom and Gabrielle L. Caffee,Trans.). Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press.
Wallin, David J. (2007). Attachment in psychotherapy. New York:The Guilford Press.
White, M. and Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. New York:W.W. Norton.
25 Systemic team coaching
Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour

Introduction
How people work together, are each connected and are part of a wider system, has always
been an important aspect of the human experience. During our careers as leaders and
team coaches, we have both witnessed the importance of top-performing teams and their
positive impact on organisational success. It has been suggested that during the late 19th
and early 20th centuries work consisted of a collection of individual jobs. However, more
recently, to work with speed and fexibility in an uncertain and global market, organisa-
tions have had to embrace the power of teams (Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006).
In this chapter, we will describe how systemic team coaching is helping teams across the
globe become attuned to their deeper purpose and the work only they can do together.
We will explain what systemic team coaching is and introduce the “Creating the Team
Edge” framework and the research that underpins it. Importantly, we will discuss what it
takes to develop as a systemic team coach.Also, we will introduce some practical tools and
techniques that we have found useful in our work with teams.The chapter will conclude
with ten useful questions for team coaches.

Systemic team coaching explained

There is almost universal agreement that team coaching is a relatively new concept that
lacks the consistency of defnition, practice and empirical evidence (Jones et al., 2019;
O’Connor and Cavanagh, 2016; Clutterbuck, 2014).The ‘Ridler Report’ (2016) noted that,
while team coaching accounted for 9% of total coaching, some 76% of the organisations
surveyed expected to increase their use of team coaching over the next two years. This
growth in team coaching is being supported by an increasing number of practitioner-led
textbooks (see Widdowson and Barbour, 2021; Hawkins, 2017; Thornton, 2016), as well
as increased interest from both the professional coaching bodies and academic institutions.
Before considering a defnition of team coaching, it is important to understand what
we mean by “team”.The word is widely yet oftentimes loosely used. Indeed, many teams
are teams in name only. Katzenback and Smith suggest a team is:“a small number of peo-
ple with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance
goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable” (Katzenback
and Smith, 1993, p. 45).
Team coaching defnitions have highlighted the importance of a common goal, individ-
ual performance, group collaboration and performance (Thornton, 2016), as well as increas-
ing the collective capability (Clutterbuck, 2014; Jones et al., 2019) of a team. However, team
coaching is about much more than the team itself. It’s about how the team, consciously and
268 Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour

Table 25.1 Comparison of different forms of coaching

Intervention Defnition

Individual Coaching is partnering with clients in a thought-provoking and creative process, that
coaching inspires them to maximise their personal and professional potential (ICF, 2020).
Team coaching Team coaching helps teams work together, with others and within their wider
environment, to create lasting change by developing safe and trusting relationships,
better ways of working and new thinking, so that they maximise their collective
potential, purpose and performance goals (Widdowson and Barbour, 2019, p. 2).
Group coaching Hawkins has differentiated group coaching, as “the coaching of individuals within a
group context”, from team coaching, where “the primary client is the whole team”
(2017, p. 71).
Team building Team building tends to focus on improving interpersonal relationships, productivity
and alignment, with an organisation’s goals. It typically consists of short, often one-
day interventions (Kriek and Venter, 2009).
Team facilitation While a coach may at times use facilitation skills, facilitation can be considered a way
of helping a team manage their dialogue, compared to team coaching, which aims to
empower a team to take ownership for their own dialogue (Clutterbuck, 2007).

unconsciously, works with other teams in their organisation and other organisations. Also,
it’s about how the team engages with its wider environment. Hawkins (2017) has used the
term “ecosystemic team coaching” to describe a team operating dynamically with other
connected teams, external partners and wider stakeholder networks.
When developing our defnition of team coaching, we have consciously attempted to use
terminology that is understandable to as wide an audience as possible.Therefore, we defne
systemic team coaching as follows:Team coaching helps teams work together, with others
and within their wider environment, to create lasting change by developing safe and trusting
relationships, better ways of working and new thinking, so that they maximise their collec-
tive potential, purpose and performance goals. (Widdowson and Barbour, 2019, p. 2)
Despite our own and others’ efforts to defne team coaching, confusion still exists.To
help increase clarity, it is helpful to draw comparisons to some other major types of team
intervention, which we have summarised in Table 25.1.
Despite the limited evidenced-based literature on the impact and results from team
coaching, our experience and research has shown that team coaching can have a lasting
positive change, both on the performance of a team and the teams interfacing with the
team itself.This is supported by numerous studies, including Wageman et al. (2008), with
their research of 120 teams and, more recently, Peters and Carr (2013), with their study
of 2 Canadian leadership teams.The next step is for the development of a comprehensive
theory of team coaching and its effectiveness (Jones et al., 2019).

Team coaching theory and research

The “Creating the Team Edge” approach to team coaching was developed by Lucy
Widdowson at Performance Edge.The approach is the culmination of over 25 years expe-
rience leading and working with teams and research into the characteristics of high-
performing teams. This work has been further developed in collaboration with Paul J.
Barbour (Widdowson and Barbour, 2021).
 Systemic team coaching 269

ION AW
AT AR
RM
ES & BELI
U EF

EN
FO

AL

ESS
NS

S
TRA

PURPOSE
WA

ES S
YS

ID E N TIT Y DN
OF

W
TE

OR LA
KIN RE
G

Figure 25.1 “Creating the Team Edge” (Widdowson, 2017; © Performance Edge, 2015)

Our book emphasises the importance of the team coach frstly, building connection
with the team and creating a feeling of psychological safety and trust. Nevertheless, models
and tools of team effectiveness are also helpful in supporting and guiding the team coach
in both the design and delivery of a team coaching intervention.
The “Creating the Team Edge” framework (see Figure 25.1) consists of seven charac-
teristics that can be used by team coaches when coaching a team.The seven characteristics
are each described in Table 25.2.
A study conducted in a leading UK retailer (Widdowson, 2018), reported that all seven
characteristics were perceived to contribute to improvements in both individual and team
development, team effectiveness and team performance. Among other fndings, three
important themes included:

1. Alignment of purpose:The teams became aligned in their purpose, values and beliefs,
identity and collective team goals.
2. Psychological safety (part of the relatedness characteristic in the framework): The
teams developed an increased level of psychological safety, meaning they could be more
open and honest, could show vulnerability and give robust feedback.
3. Team learning (part of the transformation characteristic in the framework): The
teams shared knowledge and best practice with each other.

The study concluded that “the framework was viewed as providing a useful and simple
model to support practitioners, leaders and teams to become more effective”. It also high-
lighted the need to provide more tools and techniques to help guide team coaches when
designing and developing team coaching programmes (Widdowson, 2018).

Systemic team coaching in practice

We are often asked, “how can I develop as a team coach?”. While much focus has been
given to competencies for one-to-one coaching, unsurprisingly given its relative newness,
less focus has been given to the competencies of a team coach. Nevertheless, we would
270 Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour

Table 25.2 Creating the Team Edge:The seven characteristics and descriptions (Widdowson, 2017)

Characteristic Description

Purpose A statement of why the team exists, which captures the spirit of what it is the team
is trying to do by working together. It should also include what the team uniquely
contributes to both its own organisation, its stakeholders and the wider system.The
purpose statement only has weight when accompanied by collective performance
goals.
Identity The team works on developing their unique identity.The identity binds them
together and constantly reinforces the team’s positive mindset, energy and
motivation.The team identity will be recognised and admired by both those inside
and outside the team.
Values and beliefs Values and beliefs in teams provide a sense of what is right and wrong.The team
explores and agrees on the culture it desires and considers the values, standards and
behaviours that will underpin the team’s efforts. Belief in the team’s purpose, identity
and values are essential for the team to fully perform.
Awareness Teams increase their awareness and consciousness of each other’s strengths and
personal preferences and how to leverage them for the beneft of the team as a
whole.The team also develops an awareness of how it interacts with its wider
stakeholders and system.
Relatedness Teams develop their sense of unity and build mutual trust, support and
understanding.Teams invest time in open and honest conversations to work more
closely together and build strong relationships within the wider organisation.
Ways of working The team invests time in setting up the best systems and processes to enable them to
make confdent and effective decisions.The team works on improving the structure
of their meetings and how they engage with others in order to deliver concrete
outcomes.
Transformation Teams explore ways to challenge their performance and look for opportunities to
test their abilities.The team rigorously reviews their plans, applies innovative ways to
think differently and ensure they are always improving, learning and supporting each
other’s development.

agree with the view of Clutterbuck et al. (2019, p. 2), that team coaching is “gradually
assuming distinct professional characteristics”. A key part of this journey is the develop-
ment of team coaching competencies, a topic that has attracted the interest of the different
professional coaching bodies (e.g. ICF,AC, EMCC).Team coaching competencies help the
team coach consider what and how to develop.
Based on our experience and research we have proposed the “Being, Doing and
Knowing” model of team coaching competencies. At the core of the model, is the “Being”
element (see Figure 25.2). The model has been inspired by the importance of “Being”,
highlighted by Rogers (1995), Renshaw and Alexander (2005) and, more recently, Van
Nieuwerburgh (2017).We will discuss “Doing” and “Knowing” frst.

The “Doing” of a team coach

The “Doing” element of team coaching competencies builds upon the core competencies
of the professional coaching bodies (ICF, 2019; AC, 2012; EMCC, 2015), which we have
identifed under eight headings, as follows:
 Systemic team coaching 271

Doing

Being

Knowing

Figure 25.2 The “Being, Doing and Knowing” model of team coaching competency (Widdowson and
Barbour, 2021)

• Developing a trusting relationship (psychological safety)

• Ethical practice
• Coaching mindset and presence
• CPD (Continued Professional Development)
• Contracting
• Creating awareness and insight
• Effective communication
• Client growth and momentum

It is our view that, because coaching activities are at the heart of team coaching, a team
coach should be competent in coaching individuals. Therefore, the core competencies
as presented by the professional coaching bodies, offer a strong starting platform for a
developing team coach. However, team coaching is not one-to-one coaching. For each
of the eight headings, additional aspects need to be considered for team coaching. For
example, when “developing a trusting relationship”, the team coach needs to be able
to develop a safe relationship with the team collectively, while at the same time attend-
ing to individual relationships. Another example is, “effective communication”. When
working at a systemic level, the team coach needs to be able to listen and ask questions
that engage at the level of the team, its individuals, the organisation and the wider
environment.

The “Knowing” of a team coach

While there is some overlap with the “Doing” competencies of a team coach, we believe
there are several “Knowing” competencies that are essential for team coaches. These
include:

• Systemic practice
• Group dynamics
• Facilitation skills
• Physical and virtual learning design
• Team leadership and development
272 Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour
• Organisational development
• Team coaching literature and frameworks
• Organisational and team context
• Team diagnostics

Three key areas we would highlight include the importance of “systemic practice”, as
discussed earlier in the chapter, “group dynamics” and “physical and virtual learning
design”.
A team coach needs to be acutely aware of the “group dynamics” that are both visible
and invisible (see Thornton, 2016). While the competency of learning design has always
been an important area for team coaches, the ability to work both physically and virtu-
ally is also important.Working in the virtual environment requires the team coach to be
extremely attuned to how they will develop trust and how they read and manage group
dynamics.

The “Being” of a team coach

At the centre of our model and, in our view, the most important competency, is a team
coach’s “way of being”.To explain the “Being” competency of a team coach we have pro-
posed “The 4 C’s of Being” that include, connection, confdence, continuing and courage
(Widdowson and Barbour, 2021).
Connection. The team coach must be able to connect deeply with the team as a
whole and its individuals. Rogers (1995) in his book, A Way of Being, when discussing
the therapeutic relationship has highlighted the importance of being empathic, genuine
and non-judging.We believe each of these areas is essential for a team coach to connect
deeply.
Confdence. A team coach must have confdence in who they are.They are likely to
be presented with diffcult situations, that will require them to be secure and confdent in
their work as a team coach.
Continuing. The team coach needs to accept they will never be the fnished article
and that is ok. What is important is a commitment to self-refection and self-discovery.
Also, a team coach should be committed to supervision by an experienced team coach or
a supervisor with experience in group dynamics and systemic practice.
Courage.A team coach should consider themselves as an instrument, who is aware of
their feelings and has thoughts “in the moment” that, with courage, they explore with the
team. Also, a team coach needs to plan professionally, but be willing to “let go” and take
risks, calling upon all their experience and wisdom.

Tools and techniques

Another common question is: What does a team coaching intervention look like?
Whilst there is no exact science, from our experience, a team coaching programme will
usually involve a multi-dimensional and integrated approach. An example is shown in
Figure 25.3.
The team coaching programme is likely to include a series of module-style workshops
either face to face, using a virtual platform or a blend of both. During the workshops, often
the work of the team will just emerge. A point supported by Hastings and Pennington
 Systemic team coaching 273

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 Stage 7

Pre team Interviews and Co design team
coaching team coaching Workshop1 Workshop 2 Workshop 3 + Evalua on
diagnos c
Establish team 1-2-1 with each Co design and Example areas: Example areas: Example areas: Review (can
coaching need team member agree team building team Team repeat
and selected coaching rela onships, awareness, transforma on diagnos c)
Establish team stakeholders journey using team purpose, relatedness and and addi onal
coaching feedback from iden ty, values ways of workshops as Evalua on
readiness Team members interviews and and beliefs working per
and selected team diagnos c re-contrac ng Return on
Ini al stakeholders Investment
contrac ng complete team I Interven on format: mixture of face to face and virtual workshops, sharing of
with key diagnos c materials, 1-2-1 coaching, peer coaching, re-contrac ng mee ngs.
stakeholders
and team Issue pre 1-2-1 coaching: ideally for each team member and at a minimum the team leader
leader reading and and selected team members based on iden fied team development needs.
links to online Team observa on: as per agreement. Can take place at any agreed point during
resources the team coaching interven on.

Figure 25.3 An example of a “Creating the Team Edge” programme (Widdowson and Barbour, 2021)

(2019) who stated, “team coaches should be open to using whatever the emerging situ-
ation requires, in a real, live environment” (p. 183). In addition, the team coach may also
use tools and techniques to help the team explore, reflect and develop the characteristics
of high-performing teams.
Two examples of tools and techniques that teams we have worked with have found
very impactful are outlined below. The team coach must build psychological safety and
connection first. The tools should be used as a guide that, when used, feel natural and
emergent rather than a step-by-step process.

Technique 1:The team shield – developing team purpose and values

In a dynamic world where jobs for life are a thing of the past, individuals and teams want
to be clearer about why their job exists, what is important about what they do and how it
adds value to the organisation and the wider community.
Teams, therefore, also want to be clearer about why and how they work together as
a team – a key question to ask is what can the team deliver that team members on their
own cannot? This tool can help teams become clearer on their collective answer to these
questions. It can be used for teams of any size or composition and is probably best used at
the beginning of a team coaching programme.

This technique helps teams: Develop a compelling purpose; a strapline or team motto;
agree on the values that are important to them; and articulate and recognise what they are
good at and how they will work with stakeholders within their organisational system.

Exercise 1:Team shield

Here is what you do:
• Create a blank team shield on the wall using flipchart sheets or on a virtual whiteboard.
274 Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour
Example of a blank team shield

• Agree fve or six headings for the team to work on, e.g. purpose, vision, goals, values,
team charter, strengths, qualities, behaviours, how the team will work with stakehold-
ers, team strapline/motto.

Example of a team shield with selected headings for populating

Purpose Values

Team How we will

charter work with our
stakeholders ...

Team Goals
strength

O ur M o ˜ o

• Split the team into sub-teams depending on the number of headings.

• Each team works on their part of the team shield for around 30 minutes. If using a
virtual platform break out rooms can be used.
• During the agreed amount of time, team members from each team have the oppor-
tunity to collaborate with other sub-teams to gain further insights and check team
 Systemic team coaching 275
alignment across the different sections of the team shield. Sub-teams can send scouts
out to different sub-teams to share and build on each other’s ideas.
• At the end of the allotted time, all parts of the shield are displayed together.
• The entire team shares their outputs with the sub-teams, asking each other questions.
• The team then agrees on any amends, resulting in their fnal team shield content.
• Finally, the team discusses and agrees on next steps and how they will apply the team
shield.

Top tip:Teams can fnd it challenging to work on purpose, therefore they may want to
capture phrases and ideas frst, gain insight from other groups and then try to craft a pur-
pose statement.

Technique 2: Feedback goldfsh bowl – developing relatedness

Teams often shy away from having “real” open and honest conversations. However, teams
and team members need to have robust conversations to work more closely together, build
strong relationships and ultimately improve their individual and team performance.Teams
who lack trust can often avoid debating ideas and engaging in diffcult conversations.This,
in turn, leads to hidden discussions and team members not openly sharing their views
(Lencioni, 2002).This technique enables teams to address these issues.

This technique helps team members: Increase awareness of their strengths and areas
to work on; to give and receive feedback from one another; and improve individual and
team performance.

Exercise 2: Feedback goldfsh bowl

This exercise can be very impactful and enlightening for teams. It can also be very chal-
lenging if team members haven’t provided feedback for each other previously. It is there-
fore important to help the team build connection and rapport with each other beforehand
and also for the team coach to create a feeling of psychological safety and trust.

Here is what you do:

• Discuss with the team important aspects of giving and receiving feedback, for exam-
ple, feedback should be given with positive intention, feedback is received with the
mindset of “feedback is a gift”, feedback should be specifc and where possible explain
the impact of the behaviour.
• Brief the exercise – everyone in the team will consider each team member and answer
the following questions:
{{ In what ways does the team member contribute to this being a high-performing

team?
{{ In what ways does the team member hinder this being a high-performing team?

• Give everyone around 15 minutes to consider and capture their feedback for each
team member.
• All the team then comes together in a circle, either sitting or standing. If using a vir-
tual platform you can use a gallery setting on a video call.
• Each team member takes it in turn to receive feedback from every other team member.
276 Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour
• For each team member receiving feedback, another team member volunteers to cap-
ture the feedback for their colleague, to allow the person receiving the feedback to be
able to listen. It is important to rotate this responsibility.
• The team member receiving the feedback doesn’t enter into dialogue around the
feedback but just says “thank you”.
• The team member who has captured the feedback in writing gives the written notes
or sends them on to the team member who has just received the feedback.
• Once all feedback has been offered and received, it can be helpful to leave some time
for personal refection and team members to note down any actions.
• After the exercise, it is important to ask the team to consider how they will continue
to give and receive feedback, once back at work.

Top tip: In most cases, this proves to be an extremely powerful, insightful and, in many
instances, a transforming exercise for team members. It is important that the team coach
makes a judgement call on the readiness or otherwise of the team members to give each
other feedback using this technique. It is also vital that the team coach takes time at the
start of the exercise, to contract clearly with the team’s members, regarding how the tech-
nique works and the spirit in which the feedback should be given.

When does systemic team coaching work best?

It is our view that team coaching can be valuable for any team. Nevertheless, there are
some important areas to consider regarding readiness and appropriateness of team coach-
ing before embarking on a programme. Some of the key considerations include, establish-
ing if the team is a team or a group, team context, roles that are adopted and, fnally, the
type of intervention that is appropriate.
When exploring the opportunity for team coaching with a client, it is frst essential to
explore whether the team is actually a team or in fact a group.A team will have a common
purpose, goals and interdependencies compared with a group, who will have individual
goals. It is an important distinction to make in order to decide whether team coaching or
group coaching is the most appropriate intervention.
Understanding the team context is also key, questions around this area might include:
Is the team ready for team coaching?; how committed are they?; how committed is the
organisation?; what is the organisational context and does the team have the right compo-
sition before starting a programme?
Another important area is to contract around the role of the team leader, for example,
will they be part of the team or be the team coach. Research has suggested that team
coaching is more effective when the coach is from outside of the team (Mathieu et al.,
2008).
Lastly, the team coach needs to discuss and agree with the client, the content and
type of interventions.As discussed earlier, team coaching involves a series of interventions
rather than a one-off session, more common with team building.The intervention can be
a mix of ongoing contracting with all the stakeholders and the team leader, use of team
diagnostics, a series of workshops either in person, virtual or a mix of both, one-to-one
coaching, observing the team in their day-to-day work, followed by review and evaluation.
When team coaching virtually, the team coach must be creative in how they approach
their work. In particular, we have found it useful to use the gallery setting to work with the
team as a whole, break out rooms to split the team into sub-groups, virtual whiteboards
 Systemic team coaching 277
to increase interaction and chat boxes, as well as polls to capture responses. To help read
group dynamics and manage the team coaching environment, we would always advocate,
when possible, working with another team coach, both when team coaching in person
or virtually.
Systemic team coaching works best when applied to multiple teams within an organi-
sation or across organisations, in order to build collaboration and break down silos.This
has been referred to by McChrystal et al. (2015) as a “Team of Teams” approach.Taking
this approach, we believe that team coaching can have an even greater impact in help-
ing teams to collaborate more effectively, in working together to make lasting positive
change.

Ten useful questions for team coaches

Some of our favourite questions to ask when team coaching include:

1. What can only this team uniquely do together that it could not do apart?
This question gets to the heart of what the team does and does not do. It allows the
team to discuss what would happen if they are not successful and hence what real value
they add and for whom. It is also useful for helping a team explore their collective team
purpose, goals and strategies.
2. How does this team want to be known or described?
A key part of the “Creating the Team Edge” framework is team identity. If a team
does not proactively manage their identity, it will be left for others to create their
own perception.This question allows a team to discuss how it wants to be known by
its various stakeholders and agree on actions that will allow it to proactively develop
their identity.
3. What does this team need to value or believe to achieve its purpose?
By the team collectively discussing and agreeing their values and beliefs, they can then
defne behaviours to hold each other to account.
4. How aware is the team of how it is engaging with the key stakeholders in its
system (actual versus perceived), both internal and external?
This question is excellent for allowing a team to step back and interrogate the entire
system in which it operates. Once the team has identifed its stakeholders, the question
can act as a “call to action”, that encourages the team to explore how effectively it is
engaging with its multiple stakeholders. It is important that a team explores its relation-
ship with aspects of the system that are less obvious, such as the team’s history and what
future stakeholders may require of them.
5. What is the level of trust within this team?
The paradox of this question is that, for it to be answered honestly, it requires team
members to feel psychologically safe enough, to reveal what they are thinking. The
more a team can develop and build trust, the more likely the team will have open and
honest conversations and give each other useful feedback.
6. How effective is the team’s decision-making process?
Our experience has shown that many teams struggle with decision-making. Either one
or a few individuals dominate, or the team’s members are too obliging to each other.
In our experience, allowing team members to refect individually on the information
available, followed by each member sharing their perspective, before starting a team
discussion, usually results in a better decision.
278 Lucy Widdowson and Paul J. Barbour
7. What are the team doing to keep transforming themselves?
This question allows the team to explore their attitude and mindset towards being
agile, creativity and innovation, continual learning and developing team resilience.
8. How can this team develop its diversity?
A team must be encouraged to consider diversity it all its fullness, including areas such
as diversity of thought, neurodiversity, age, gender, background, etc.
9. What does the future require of this team?
We love asking this question. It allows the team to focus quickly on what matters
rather than the day-to-day issues that commonly attract the team’s attention.
10. What is the one question this team needs to ask itself that nobody is asking?
This question allows for the unexpected. It permits the team to explore areas that
potentially nobody is willing to talk about. For example, what happens if our new
product, despite our best efforts, does not work?

Conclusion
As a society, we will increasingly need to rely on collaboration, a team mentality and a
“Team of Teams” approach.Team coaching can play a vital role.
For team coaching to rise to the challenge, it needs to educate organisations about what
it is and how it can beneft them.The professional bodies and training providers will also
need to develop and accredit team coaches.Alongside this, there is a requirement for more
practitioner-led publications, evidence-based literature and studies to show the impact of
team coaching. Finally, in our view, while the “Doing” and “Knowing” of team coaching
is important, it is essential that a team coach continually grows their “way of being”.
Hopefully this chapter can help aspiring team coaches to consider their frst steps into
team coaching. We believe this meaningful type of work can make a positive difference
and look forward to more team coaches joining this journey.

References
AC. (2012). ‘AC coaching competency framework revised June 2012’. [online] Retrieved on 28
December 2019 from https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.associationforcoaching.com/resource/resmgr/
Accreditation/Accred_General/Coaching_Competency_Framewor.pdf.
Clutterbuck, D. (2007). Coaching the team at work. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing
Clutterbuck, D. (2014).‘Team coaching’. In E. Cox,T. Bachkirova and D. Clutterbuck, eds., The complete
handbook of coaching, 2nd edition, London: Sage, pp. 271–284.
Clutterbuck, D., Gannon, J., Hayes, S., Iordanou, I., Lowe, K. and MacKie, D. (2019).‘Introduction’. In D.
Clutterbuck, eds., The practitioner’s handbook of team coaching. London and New York, Routledge.
EMCC. (2015). ‘EMCC competence framework V2 September 2015’. [online]. Retrieved on 28
December 2019 from https://emcc1.app.box.com/s/4aj8x6tmbt75ndn13sg3dauk8n6wxfxq.
Hastings, R. and Pennington,W. (2019).‘Team coaching:A thematic analysis of methods used by external
coaches in a work domain’. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 17(2), pp.
174–188.
Hawkins, P. (2017). Leadership team coaching: Developing collective transformational leadership, 3rd edition.
London: Kogan Page.
ICF. (2019). ‘Updated ICF core competency model October 2019’. [online] Retrieved on 28 December
2019, from https://coachfederation.org/app/uploads/2019/11/ICFCompetencyModel_Oct2019.pdf.
ICF. (2020). ICF defnition of coaching. [online] Retrieved on 10 April 2020 from https://coachfederation
.org/about.
 Systemic team coaching 279
Jones, R.J., Napiersky, U. and Lyubovnikova, J. (2019). ‘Conceptualizing the distinctiveness of team
coaching’. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 34(2), pp. 62–78.
Katzenbach, J.R. and Smith, D.K. (1993). The wisdom of teams: Creating the high-performance organization.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press, McGraw-Hill Inc.
Kozlowski, S.W. and Ilgen, D.R. (2006). ‘Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams’.
Psychological science in the public interest, 7(3), pp. 77–124.
Kriek, H.S. and Venter, P. (2009). ‘The perceived success of teambuilding interventions in South African
organisations’. Southern African Business Review, 13(1), pp. 112–128.
Lencioni, P. (2002). Five dysfunctions of a team:A leadership Fable. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mathieu, J., Maynard, M.T., Rapp,T. and Gilson, L. (2008). ‘Team effectiveness 1997–2007: A review of
recent advancements and a glimpse into the future’. Journal of Management, 34(3), pp. 410–476.
McChrystal, G.S., Collins,T., Silverman, D. and Fussell, C. (2015). Team of teams: New rules of engagement
for a complex world. London, Penguin Random House.
O’Connor, S. and Cavanagh, M. (2016).‘Group and team coaching’. In T. Bachkirova, G. Spence and D.
Drake, eds., The SAGE handbook of coaching. Los Angeles: SAGE Reference, pp. 485–504
Peters, J. and Carr, C. (2013). High performance team coaching.Victoria: Friesen Press.
Renshaw, B. and Alexander, G. (2005). Supercoaching: The missing ingredient for high performance. London:
Random House Business
Ridler & Co. (2016). Ridler report. London: Ridler & Co.
Rogers, C.R. (1995). A way of being. Boston and New York, Houghton Miffin Harcourt.
Thornton, C. (2016). Group and team coaching:The secret life of groups. London: Routledge.
Van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2017). An introduction to coaching skills:A practical guide, 2nd edition. London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Wageman, R., Nunes, D.A., Burruss, J.A. and Hackman, J.R. (2008). Senior leadership teams.What it takes to
make them great. Boston: Harvard Business School Press
Widdowson, L.J. (2017). Creating the team edge, Henley Centre for Coaching members’ website. Henley: Henley
Business School.
Widdowson, L.J. (2018). Understanding team leaders’ and team coaches’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the
‘Creating the Team Edge’ framework, M.Sc. Unpublished Dissertation. Henley: Henley Business School.
Widdowson, L.J. and Barbour,P.J. (2019). Team coaching: Coaching in action guide. Henley: The Henley
Centre for Coaching, Henley Business School.
Widdowson, L.J. and Barbour, P.J. (2021) Building top performing teams: A practical guide to team coaching to
improve collaboration and drive organizational success. London: Kogan Page.
26 Career coaching
Julia Yates

Introduction
Identifying the ideal route to a successful and fulflling career has never been an easy task,
and careers are more complicated now than ever. The frst major challenge facing those
trying to pinpoint and pursue their career goals is that there are simply too many career
options to choose from. For example, the UK government now recognises 36,000 differ-
ent job titles (Offce of National Statistics, 2019), an impossible number to imagine, let
alone research.The second issue concerns the trajectory of career paths, which are more
fuid and less predictable than before, with job changes, redundancies, career breaks and
self-employment more frequent and less socially stigmatised than they have been in the
past. It is a challenging landscape to negotiate and it is no wonder so many people seek
out career coaching to help make sure they are capitalising on the opportunities available
and making the most of their skills and abilities.
Many coaching sessions, whether under the banner of life coaching, or executive and
workplace coaching, will touch on career choice and career development. Our careers
are infuenced by and impact on almost all aspects of life: Leisure, family, performance,
motivation, well-being and mental health, so career experiences and career decisions will
be germane to many kinds of coaching conversations. Unfortunately, for the most part,
the research into career choice and development lies outside the mainstream coaching
literature, meaning that it is not always tailored to the needs of coaches and sometimes can
be diffcult to access. Career coaches are of course not expected to have an encyclopaedic
knowledge of the current labour market, but for coaches who are regularly discussing
career issues with their clients, it may be useful to understand a little more about the way
that people make their career choices and the processes of career change.

Career coaching explained

Career coaching is generally focused on making choices or facilitating transitions from
one job to another. Clients who are looking for support with their choices might be
choosing which path to take, or could need help deciding whether or not to stay in their
current position or industry.Those looking for support facilitating transitions are generally
clearer about what they want to do, but need some help getting there – working out how
to look or apply for jobs, or how to excel at interviews. In practice, of course, the distinc-
tion between these two aspects of career development is not clear cut: People’s choice of
career path is infuenced by their strategies and chances of success, and the process of job
searching can lead people to question or review their plans.
 Career coaching 281
Historically, career support has been something that people called on only once. We
were expected to make our career choices early on, and anticipated seeing out our work-
ing days in the same feld, or even the same organisation that we started in after school
or university. Changes in the employment market, accompanied by a more sophisticated
awareness of decision-making and the search for fulflment, mean that career support is
now seen as something that people may need to draw on throughout their working lives
and beyond.
The frst career decision is generally taken whilst people are still in full-time education,
whether at school or university.Traditionally, the career support given at this stage has been
publicly funded, provided by the education institution and is generally described as careers
advice or career guidance.This kind of support, in theory at least, is almost synonymous
with career coaching, delivered through one-to-one interventions, which are structured
around a GROW-like model and underpinned by a non-directive, non-judgemental, per-
son-centred Rogerian philosophy (Ali and Graham, 1996). But the context in which this
advice or guidance occurs means that, in practice, it can look a little different from the
kind of career coaching we might recognise.These career sessions are usually one-off, very
time-limited (often just 15 minutes long) and, in practice, more directive than the prac-
titioners might want. The public funding for this kind of support has been dramatically
cut over the last decades, opening up an interesting gap in the market for career coaches.
More often, career coaches deal with mid-career changes, working either with clients
who are voluntarily changing career, or with people who have lost their jobs.This kind of
work can sometimes be straightforward support for clients looking for a new similar posi-
tion, but more often will involve helping people think about a new direction, as people
either choose, or fnd themselves compelled, to consider alternative career paths.
Some clients seek out career coaching to help them back into the workplace after a
career break. One client group who often seek the support of career coaches are parents
(usually mothers) who have taken time out to raise their children; career coaches also
commonly work with people whose illnesses have led to time out of work, or those who
are trying to get back into the workforce after a period of unemployment.
One growing area of career coaching work is retirement coaching. Cliff-edge retire-
ment that takes people from full-time work to full-time leisure on their 60th birthday
is becoming increasingly rare, and older workers are now more likely to cut down their
hours gradually, continue with the same job under another kind of contract, or might
retire and embark on a whole new lease of life, reinventing themselves and fnding a
new direction for their third age. This is the frst generation to anticipate so many years
of active life after retirement age, so these career paths are inevitably ill-defned, and this
group of clients can fnd it useful to get support with thinking creatively about options
and approaches to their next stage. Older workers can also need some support with secur-
ing a job or negotiating with employers; despite the changes in legislation, demographics
and the pensions crisis which are combing forces to keep people in work longer, social
attitudes are lagging behind and older workers have to contend with discriminatory atti-
tudes and practices which exacerbate the challenges of job hunting.

Career coaching theory and research

Career coaching draws on two distinct sets of literature. First there is career development
literature. This feld is wide-ranging, covering the career paths people take, job hunt-
ing and career success, and the experiences of groups of people of different ages, races
282 Julia Yates
and nationalities with a particular focus on social justice. Perhaps most relevant to career
coaching is the career development research which examines the process of career choice.
The prevailing messages about career choice within the academic literature have shifted
dramatically over the last ffty years.The 20th century advice was to follow a clear three-
stage plan: Find out about yourself, fnd out about jobs and make a rational decision about
which option is going to suit best (Holland, 1987; Parsons, 1909).This approach continues
to dominate in much career practice because it is so intuitive and so accessible, but our
understanding of career decision-making has moved on apace since these frst theories
were devised, and we now understand that this is just not how people make choices. More
recently, the academic research has explored using identity as a starting point for career
exploration (Ibarra and Barbulescu, 2010; Meijers and Lengelle, 2012), the importance of
fnding meaning through work (Simonet and Castille, 2020) and a more holistic approach
to choices, acknowledging that boundaries between work and life are blurred (Savickas
et al., 2009). The research community is also beginning to draw from decision-making
literature to understand that people do not always approach career decision-making with
a conscious and rational mind (Reddekopp, 2017).
The second relevant body of literature examines the effectiveness of interventions.
Career coaches looking to understand the empirical evidence base behind their work can
draw from the evidence underpinning coaching (for example, Jones,Woods and Guillaume,
2016 or Theeboom, Beerma and van Vianen, 2014) and career guidance (see Everitt et
al., 2018 a review), both of which attest to the positive impact that one-to-one support
can have. Evidence that explores career coaching specifcally is less bountiful, but the last
few years have offered some examples of studies that show the positive impact of career
coaching. Career coaching has been shown to lead to higher psychological capital (Archer
and Yates, 2017); more effective reconciling of work and life roles with values and needs
(Brown and Yates, 2018); reduced career ambivalence (Klonek Wunderlich, Spurk and
Kauffeld., 2016); enhanced career optimism, career security and career goals (Ebner, 2019);
and career optimism and career planning (Spurk, Kauffeld, Barthauer and Heinemann,
2015). Some studies have also looked at career coaching within organisations, fnding
that the career coaching itself improves staff retention (Dugas, 2018) and job satisfaction
(Fassiotto, Sandborg,Valantine and Raymond, 2018) and that even the very existence of a
policy that includes an offer of career coaching is linked to improved institutional satisfac-
tion (Ling, Ning, Change and Zhang, 2018).These papers provide an important starting
point, but a more concerted focus on research in this area is much needed.

Career coaching in practice

The boundaries between work life and home life, and career and family are increas-
ingly blurred, and the two parts of life inevitably infuence and impact on each other.
Conversations about career will touch on other facets of a client’s life, and career issues
will often crop up in discussions which centre on other topics.There are, however, some
specifc issues which will be particularly familiar to coaches specialising in careers work.

Initial career choice

In much of the developed world, young people usually face the need to make choices
about the career path to pursue, or the job to take, with very limited understanding of the
 Career coaching 283
workplace and often a fairly limited understanding of themselves.They can feel that they
are making their choices in the dark, and relying heavily on guesswork and luck. For many
of them, this can lead to some degree of anxiety which sometimes needs to be addressed
during coaching, in parallel with their specifc career dilemmas. One reassuring thing to
emphasise with the younger clients is that their frst job will not be their last.Thorough
research to minimise the risks is without doubt important, but it can be comforting for the
young people to conceptualise their frst job as an experiment – they should enter with
all good intentions, but feel comfortable to withdraw and change direction if they can see
that it is not making them happy.
Compounding the challenge of limited work experience for younger clients is that
of their limited experience of making decisions. It is not unusual to fnd that a client,
emerging from full-time education, does not feel that they have made any signifcant life
decisions for themselves, as schools, families and social norms have steered them quite
frmly in one particular direction.Working with a career coach who is expecting them to
set the agenda and identify their own solutions can be a new experience for some young
people and might be one that is uncomfortable and daunting. A useful strategy to help
with this is investing extra time in agreeing a contract before the coaching starts. Time
spent ensuring that the client really understands what coaching is, and why they will be
encouraged to take control, is often time well spent. And whilst these clients sometimes
need a bit of extra handholding throughout the process, don’t be tempted to rush things
or offer solutions too readily.These are capable clients, they just need to adjust to a new
kind of working relationship.

Career change
When working with career changers the focus of the conversations is more often on
thinking about the logistical challenges. After 10 or 20 years in the workplace, people
have often developed a degree of expertise and a reasonably salary, as well as having other
practical commitments such as a mortgage, children to support or ties to a particular loca-
tion. A new direction, mid-career, can sometimes be a sideways move to a role in which
an individual can capitalise on their experience and expertise, but often a new direction
will involve some costly re-training, or starting back at the bottom of the career ladder.
This may require considerable sacrifces for the client and perhaps their family, so clients
may need to work with their coach to fnd a way to reconcile their work and life goals
and priorities.
Alongside these logistical challenges, people who are facing redundancy or job loss
may also be coping with a feeling of rejection and struggling with a lack of control.
Psychological issues including denial, anger and depression can emerge and take hold fol-
lowing job loss (Blau, 2007) and career coaches need to anticipate, recognise and support
their clients throughout. People facing redundancy tend to fall broadly into two camps:
Those who were perfectly happy in their roles, and are looking for support in their quest
to fnd something else along the very same lines, and those who were actually not all that
happy in their existing jobs, but were perhaps not quite ready to make a change.This latter
group can fairly soon grow to see the redundancy as a positive – the spur that they needed
to make the change they wanted, and the evidence is generally very encouraging, suggest-
ing that most people who are made redundant end up feeling more satisfed in their career
paths than they were before (Water and Strauss, 2016).
284 Julia Yates
Return to work
The group who most often seek career coaching to help with a return to work are parents
(mostly but not exclusively mothers) who have taken a career break. Here again, logistics
are often the biggest challenge. Family dynamics tend to be quite entrenched by this point,
which often means that the stay-at-home parent expects to be the children’s primary carer,
even after their return to work.As such, they might be looking for a job that is part-time,
close to home or allows them to work fexibly. Career conversations with returning par-
ents often revolve around priorities and working out what kinds of compromises might
be acceptable to all parties. Alongside the practical constraints, there are often issues of
confdence to address.Time out of the workplace almost always leads to a signifcant loss
of confdence, and as we know that self-effcacy boosts one’s chances of both choosing
a career (Ballout, 2009) and securing a position (Saks, 2006), the psychological issues are
important to address and highly relevant to the conversations.

Retirement
This generation is the frst to have an opportunity for a substantial post-retirement career
and, as such, older clients do not have a raft of tried and tested career paths, examples
and role models to learn from. Career coaching with this client group can often involve
a lot of collaborative creative thinking, as clients design their own futures from scratch.
At retirement age, people fnd themselves in very different fnancial situations. Some are
fnancially secure, but want to fnd a way to reinvent themselves, pursue a long-held dream
or maintain a positive sense of identity despite their changed work situation. Others will
be struggling fnancially, and need some help working out how to combat discrimination
in the workplace.

Tools and techniques

Good career coaching makes use of a non-judgemental, non-directive approach, a struc-
tured conversation, as well as listening, questioning and challenging where appropriate.
These characteristics of coaching will be familiar to all practitioners but, over and above
those guiding principles, there are numerous techniques and tools which have been shown
to be particularly useful in career conversations.

Initial career choice

Strengths. I mentioned above that clients making initial career choices can be held back
by their limited experience of the world of work, and their limited understanding of
themselves within a work context.When faced with a list of skills needed in a job, or the
person specifcation of an interesting-sounding position, it may be very diffcult for these
clients to work out whether they have what is needed.Working with strengths can be an
accessible way for young people to start to understand themselves better and to begin to
link their own characteristics with specifc jobs.
Put simply, strengths are things that an individual is good at and enjoys. The use of
strengths at work is linked to a range of positive outcomes, including work engagement
and job satisfaction (Lavy and Littman-Ovadia, 2016), and this makes them a particularly
useful technique to use in career coaching. Strengths are not directly work-related, but
 Career coaching 285
allow clients to think about their personal characteristics in any context; the power of the
approach is thus not limited by the extent of the client’s time in the workplace, as they
can draw from their experiences within education, at home, or during sport and other
leisure activities.
Career genogram. A second technique that works well for young people is the career
genogram. We know that values and aspirations are heavily infuence by parents (Taylor,
Harris and Taylor, 2004) and young people can often fnd it hard to establish their own
identity, struggling to unpick the facets or versions of the self that they have chosen, or
feel are authentic and the aspects that are products of their family. A career genogram is
a powerful visual tool to help clients refect on the impact their family has had on their
personal development and worldview.With this technique, the client is invited to draw a
family tree, which includes their parents’, grandparents’ and siblings’ jobs, and then uses
this to help refect on the infuences that have come from their family – the jobs and sec-
tors they are familiar with, the values that are manifest and the family’s conceptualisation
of career success.This refection can help clients to think about how their desires and goals
have been shaped by their experiences, allowing them to examine them more objectively.

Career changers
Job-crafting. Capitalising on the fuid nature of contemporary career paths, one useful
approach to share with people who are fnding their current jobs unfulflling is job-
crafting (Berg, Dutton and Wrzesniewski, 2013). The idea behind this concept is that
jobs are malleable, and the job a person might actually end up doing can bear very little
resemblance to the job description originally given.To some degree, individuals can be in
control of shaping these changes, crafting or developing their roles to make them more
palatable, satisfying or better suited to their skills. Organisations and teams are dynamic,
and there will often be opportunities to shift things around a little bit – people can take
on new projects and expand their skills, or divest themselves of elements of work that they
fnd less stimulating. Good managers will always be keen to keep their staff motivated and
generally appreciate a proactive attitude, which means they can often respond positively
to suggestions for incremental changes. It can be liberating for career coaching clients
to explore tactics for making their position more agreeable, even if they feel compelled
to stay in their current position, and crafting a new set of daily duties can constitute the
frst stage of a longer-term exit strategy as they develop new skills and broaden their
experience.
The Kaleidoscope Model. The Kaleidoscope Model (Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005,
Mainiero and Gibson, 2018) was developed to illustrate the career paths of women.The
authors were frustrated that the career development literature from the 20th century had
predominately been developed by, and modelled and tested on, men. The assumption in
these early theories had been that there was one default way to have a good career – the
way that men did it. Mainiero and Sullivan decided to track the career paths of women,
and found some consistent patterns.They saw that women’s careers could often be divided
into three distinct phases; see Table 26.1.
Women often come to career coaching when they are juggling motherhood and career,
and this can coincide with the transition from early to mid-career, when they are consid-
ering shifting to a more family friendly position, or the transition from mid to late-career,
when they are looking for a route back into work. Sharing the Kaleidoscope Model with
these clients can stimulate insightful discussions about their values and conficts. It can also
286 Julia Yates

Table 26.1 Three phases of women’s careers

Early career: Women are looking to be challenged, focused on learning, development and
The need for growth. During this stage, women’s career development tends to mirror that of
challenge their male counterparts.

Mid-career: Women become less interested in traditional markers of success such as

The desire for promotion and salary and instead look for jobs that allow them to reconcile
balance multiple identities. Most often they are looking for jobs that allow them to be
the mothers they want to be, which might include a career break, part-time
hours, or a new less intense job.
It is at this stage that women’s career paths tend to diverge from men’s.

Late-career: Women in the last part of their career are generally looking for roles which are
The search for aligned to their values-system, which they feel are meaningful and in which
authenticity they can be themselves.

be validating for women to see that their own dilemmas are widely shared and their career
paths are well-trodden, and this can offer reassurance and boost their confdence.

Older workers
Possible selves. I noted earlier that older workers can sometimes need to be particularly
creative in the way that they carve out a role (or multiple roles) for themselves post-
retirement. One approach that can help to stimulate their creative thinking is possible
selves (Markus and Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical versions of ourselves in
the future.We can all have multiple possible selves as we imagine ourselves in all sorts of
different possible scenarios. Possible selves interventions have been shown to help clients
to identify career goals, as well as helping with motivation and resilience (Strauss, Griffn
and Parker, 2013).
In a possible selves career coaching conversation, the coach will invite the client frst to
identify a number of different possible futures.These hypothetical versions of their futures
can be realistic, hoped-for or even feared possible selves and the client can be encouraged
to come up with a wide range of possible versions of themselves.The coach then asks the
client to pick one of the possible futures to focus on and encourages the client to visualise
their future in elaborate detail.The focus during this part of the conversation will be on
the visual image, the narrative and the feelings, and the coach should help the client to
describe their picture of the future, tell the story of their future and experience the feelings
associated. Once the client has explored this possible self in depth, the coach and client
can have a conversation about what this process has highlighted about their goals for the
future, and discuss possible action steps.

When does career coaching work best?

Career coaching clients will often sign up to see a career coach when they have become
dissatisfed by their current work situation and are ready to consider new avenues.These
clients have chosen to look for a new path and have decided that it is the right time to
think about alternatives.Whilst there may be many challenges for the client to overcome,
 Career coaching 287
the coaching sessions are likely to be productive and the coaching relationship is likely to
be collaborative, because both parties are engaged with the process and trying to move
forward to the same goal. But not all career coaching sessions are like this. Many clients are
prompted to seek career coaching because they are facing redundancy, they are needing
to make changes simply because of their age (younger clients leaving university, or older
workers being pushed to retire) or they are forced to make a change for other personal
reasons – perhaps as a result of ill heath, fnancial or family situations.
When clients come to career coaching because external forces are compelling them to
make a change, it can be challenging to develop a collaborating and productive partner-
ship.The transtheoretical model of change offers a useful framework to help illustrate this.
This model sets out fve different stages of change, which people progress through when
making signifcant changes. The model was developed in a health context, examining
the steps people go through when stopping smoking or losing weight, but the model has
been shown to apply to change in a range of different contexts, including career change
(Barclay, Stoltz and Chang, 2010); see Table 26.2.
Career coaching is most effective when the client has moved beyond the precontem-
plation stage and is consciously aware that they want to make a change, are motivated to
work towards identifying a new direction and prepared to engage positively with the work
that is needed. Expecting or encouraging clients to engage with career planning before
they are ready is rarely effective, and can prove detrimental to the coaching relationship.
One of the most useful approaches to working with clients who appear to be in the pre-
contemplation stage is Motivational Interviewing (Miller and Rollnick, 2012), which can
help clients to see the benefts of making a change.

Ten useful questions for career coaches

A host of questions are available to careers coaches to help clients explore what is impor-
tant to them.These questions explore values, identify the resources and strengths the client

Table 26.2 Transtheoretical Model of Change

Precontemplation During this stage people are not aware that they are dissatisfed, and have no
conscious desire to make any changes.
Contemplation In this stage, people become aware that they are dissatisfed with their
current situation and start to think seriously about their options.They
may not be quite ready to make a commitment to a new path, but are
open to fnding out about possible avenues and refecting on both what
has led to their dissatisfaction and what future possibilities could lead to
greater fulflment.
Preparation During the preparation stage, the individual is preparing for action,
narrowing down their options to a realistic shortlist and clarifying their
career goals. Once the goal is identifed, the individual can begin to work
out what action is needed.
Action During this stage, the individual starts to implement plans, refecting and
reviewing them as necessary.
Maintenance The individual has made the change, and now needs to become accustomed
to their new environment and their new identity.
(adapted from Prochaska, DiClementi and Norcross, 1992)
288 Julia Yates
can draw upon and also generate ideas about what types of roles might make a good ft
based on their interests, values, resources and strengths. In this section I have clustered the
questions into three groups:Values exploration; resources review; and ideas generation.

Questions to explore values:

1. Who are your role models? What do you admire in them, in what ways are you like
them, and what advice would they give you now?
2. What does “career success” mean to you?
3. What was the best job you ever had? What was so good about it?
4. What is the best day at work you have ever had? What made it so good?
5. Think of someone you know whose job sounds interesting.Why do you like the sound
of it?

Questions to help identify personal resources:

6. Tell me about a time when you did something really well.What was it about you that
made this successful?
7. What are the characteristics that are really particular to you? What makes you, you?

Questions to generate job ideas:

8. If you knew you couldn’t fail, what would you do?
9. If all jobs paid the same, what would you do?
10.If you could wave a magic wand and choose any job you wanted, what would you
pick?

Conclusion
Career coaching is growing as a specialist strand of coaching and, as career paths become
more fuid, and technology accelerates the pace of change in the workplace, the role of
career coaches will continue to become more useful and more prevalent.This chapter has
offered an overview of some of the key challenges as well as the most useful techniques
within career coaching, and has identifed some of the specialism’s distinctive features.
Describing career coaching as a distinct branch of coaching is, however, arguably some-
what spurious. Career and family, work life and home life are intertwined, and work and
home identities are increasingly blurred. Career-related issues will creep into many discus-
sions which ostensibly focus on other aspects of life or work, and so an engagement with
the research and coaching tools that are most pertinent to career development could be
useful for a wide range of coaches.

References
Ali, L. and Graham, B. (1996). The counselling approach to careers guidance. London: Routledge.
Archer, S. and Yates, J. (2017).‘Understanding potential career changers’ experience of career confdence
following a positive psychology based coaching programme’. Coaching: An International Journal of
Theory, Research and Practice, 10(2), pp. 157–175.
 Career coaching 289
Ballout, H. (2009). ‘Career commitment and career success: Moderating role of self-effcacy’. Career
Development International, 14(7), pp. 655–670.
Barclay, S.R., Stoltz, K.B. and Chung, Y.B. (2011). ‘Voluntary midlife career change: Integrating the
transtheoretical model and the life-span, life-space approach’. The Career Development Quarterly, 59(5),
pp. 386–399.
Berg, J.M., Dutton, J.E. and Wrzesniewski,A. (2013).‘Job crafting and meaningful work’. In B.J. Dik, Z.S.
Byrne and M.F. Steger, eds., Purpose and meaning in the workplace. American Psychological Association,
pp. 81–104.
Blau, G. (2007). ‘Partially testing a process model for understanding victim responses to an anticipated
worksite closure’. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 71(3), 401–428.
Brown, C. and Yates, J. (2018). ‘Understanding the experience of midlife women taking part in a work-
life balance career coaching programme: An interpretative phenomenological analysis’. International
Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 16(1), 110–125.
Dugas, J. (2018). Career coaching: A study of veterans health administration (VHA) leaders. Dissertations. 210.
Irvine: Brandman University.
Ebner, K. (2019).‘Promoting career optimism and career security during career coaching: Development
and test of a model’. Coaching:An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice. online frst 1–19.
Everitt, J., Neary, S., Delagardo, M.A. and Clark, L. (2019) Personal guidance what works? London: The
Careers Enterprise Company.
Fassiotto, M., Simard, C., Sandborg, C., Valantine, H. and Raymond, J. (2018). ‘An integrated career
coaching and time-banking system promoting fexibility, wellness, and success: A pilot program at
stanford university school of medicine’. Academic Medicine (Ovid), 93(6), pp. 881–887.
Holland, J.L. (1987). ‘Current status of Holland's theory of careers: Another perspective’. The Career
Development Quarterly, 36(1), pp. 24–30. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.1987.tb00478.x.
Ibarra, H. and Barbulescu, R. (2010). ‘Identity as narrative: Prevalence, effectiveness, and consequences
of narrative identity work in macro work role transitions’. Academy of Management Review, 35(1), pp.
135–154. doi:10.5465/amr.35.1.zok135.
Jones, R.J., Woods, S.A. and Guillaume, Y.R. (2016). ‘The effectiveness of workplace coaching: A
meta-analysis of learning and performance outcomes from coaching’. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 89(2), pp. 249–277. doi:10.1111/joop.12119.
Jordan, S., Gessnitzer, S. and Kauffeld, S. (2016).‘Effects of a group coaching for the vocational orientation
of secondary school pupils’. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 9(2), pp.
143–157. doi:10.1080/17521882.2016.1210185.
Klonek, F.E., Wunderlich, E., Spurk, D. and Kauffeld, S. (2016). ‘Career counseling meets motivational
interviewing: A sequential analysis of dynamic counselor–client interactions’. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 94, pp. 28–38.
Lavy, S. and Littman-Ovadia, H. (2016). ‘My better self: Using strengths at work and work productivity,
organizational citizenship behavior and satisfaction’. Journal of Career Development, 44(2), pp. 95–106.
Ling, F.Y.Y., Ning, Y., Chang, Y.H. and Zhang, Z. (2018). ‘Human resource management practices to
improve project managers’ job satisfaction’. Engineering Construction & Architectural Management, 25(5),
pp. 654–669.
Mainiero, L.A. and Gibson, D.E. (2018).‘The Kaleidoscope Career Model revisited: How midcareer men
and women diverge on authenticity, balance, and challenge’. Journal of Career Development, 45(4), pp.
361–377.
Mainiero, L.A. and Sullivan, S.E. (2005).‘Kaleidoscope careers:An alternate explanation for the “opt-out
“revolution’. Academy of Management Perspectives, 19(1), pp. 106–123.
Markus, H. and Nurius, P. (1986).‘Possible selves’. American Psychologist, 41(9), pp. 954–969.
Meijers, F. and Lengelle, R. (2012).‘Narratives at work:The development of career identity’. British Journal
of Guidance & Counselling, 40(2), pp. 157–176.
Miller, W.R. and Rollnick, S. (2012). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change. New York: Guilford
press.
290 Julia Yates
Murtagh, N., Lopes, P.N. and Lyons, E. (2011). ‘Decision making in voluntary career change: An other-
than-rational perspective’. The Career Development Quarterly, 59(3), 249–263.
Offce of National Statistics. (2019) SOC codes. London: ONS.
Parsons, F. (1909). Choosing a vocation. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C. and Norcross, J.C. (1992).‘In search of how people change:Applications
to addictive behaviors’. American Psychologist, 47, pp. 1102–1114.
Redekopp, D.E. (2017). ‘Irrational career decision-making: Connecting behavioural economics and
career development’. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 45(4), pp. 441–450.
Saka, N., Gati, I. and Kelly, K.R. (2008). ‘Emotional and personality-related aspects of career-decision-
making diffculties’. Journal of Career Assessment, 16(4), pp. 403–424.
Saks, A.M. (2006). ‘Multiple predictors and criteria of job search success’. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
68(3), pp. 400–415.
Sampson, J.P., Jr., Peterson, G.W., Lenz, J.G., Reardon, R.C. and Saunders, D.E. (1998). ‘The design and
use of a measure of dysfunctional career thoughts among adults, college students, and high school
students:The career thoughts Inventory’. Journal of Career Assessment, 6(2), pp. 115–134.
Savickas, M.L., Nota, L., Rossier, J., Dauwalder, J.P., Duarte, M.E., Guichard, J. and Van Vianen, A.E.
(2009). ‘Life designing: A paradigm for career construction in the 21st century’. Journal of vocational
behavior, 75(3), pp. 239–250.
Simonet, D.V. and Castille, C.M. (2020). ‘The search for meaningful work: A network analysis of
personality and the job characteristics model’. Personality and Individual Differences, 152(1), pp. 1–9.
Spurk, D., Kauffeld, S., Barthauer, L. and Heinemann, N.S.R. (2015). ‘Fostering networking behavior,
career planning and optimism, and subjective career success:An intervention study’. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 87(1), pp. 134–144.
Strauss, K, Griffn, M.A. and Parker, S.K. (2013). ‘Future Work Selves: How salient hoped-for identities
motivate proactive career behaviours’. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(3), pp. 580–598.
Taylor, J. Harris, M.B. and Taylor, S. (2004, Winter). ‘Parents have their say ... about their college-age
children's career decisions’. NACE Journal, 64(2), pp. 15–20.
Theeboom, T., Beersma, B. and van Vianen, A.E. (2014). ‘Does coaching work? A meta-analysis on the
effects of coaching on individual level outcomes in an organizational context’. The Journal of Positive
Psychology, 9(1), pp. 1–18.
Van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2017). An introduction to coaching skills:A practical guide. London: Sage.
27 Outdoor eco-coaching
Alex Burn and Anna-Marie Watson

Introduction
Coaching has been a predominantly indoor activity since it emerged as a method for per-
sonal development and growth in the 1970s. More recently, eco-coaching has appeared
as a branch of coaching that takes these coaching conversations outdoors. Coaches who
offer this as part of their practice, and clients who have experienced it, report many wide-
ranging benefts to both mental and physical wellbeing.
In this chapter we note that there is currently very little empirical research into the
benefts of outdoor coaching, but the benefts of contact with nature and natural environ-
ments offer signifcant research. We will look at Attention Restoration Theory (ART),
and the parallels we can draw between the benefts of natural environments proposed in
ART and the benefts of eco-coaching reported by coaches and clients, and review the
tools and techniques used in eco-coaching. Finally, we will suggest ten questions that can
be utilised in outdoor coaching sessions and discuss the practicalities of taking coaching
conversations outdoors.

Eco-coaching explained
Eco-coaching is a relatively new approach to business coaching which takes coaching
conversations outside. Other forms of business coaching that have emerged since the
1970s have taken place indoors, often with the coach and client sat across from each other
with a table or desk between them.
However, eco-coaching has evolved from “walking and talking”, a form of psycho-
therapy that links the benefts of movement (walking) with therapeutic techniques
(talking). It highlights the critical link between the coaching conversation and ecol-
ogy – the connection between living things and their environment, and draws parallels
with a number of coaching techniques such as Systems Thinking (Whittington, 2016),
Gestalt (Leary-Joyce, 2014) and Mindfulness (Howell et al., 2011), which help the client
to view themselves as part of a much wider system and to refect on their challenges in
a non-judgemental way.
There are two primary perceived benefts to outdoor coaching, although the potential
benefts are many and wide-ranging. One is the beneft of being out in nature, connecting
with the “greenspace” of trees and plants, the “bluespace” of water and with the natural
world of animal life. Breathing fresh air deep into the lungs, hearing birdsong and feeling
the warm sun on the skin are aspects that are hard to replicate indoors.
292 Alex Burn and Anna-Marie Watson
The other primary beneft, from both a physical and mental perspective, is movement.
Walking alongside another person or amongst a group creates synchronicity and a shared
experience in a way sitting across from someone in a more traditional coaching session
might not achieve. Clients report that side-by-side walking feels less judgmental compared
to sitting opposite a coach, and more supportive, with a feeling that they are on both a
literal and metaphorical journey with their coach.
These two primary benefts can be combined, hence the link to walking and talking
therapy, but for those who are less mobile, the benefts can still be found in sitting out-
doors. It does not have to be a trek, or even a walk around a park.The simple act of being
outside whilst having a coaching conversation can have benefcial impacts on coaching
outcomes.
Multiple research studies have looked at how much time people in the developed
world now spend indoors and the statistics are eye-opening.This of course varies widely
between countries. In the UK the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS)
(Klepeis et al., 2001) found that 86.9% of our total time was spent indoors. A UK
YouGov report in 2014 found that people thought they spent about 66% of their time
indoors, suggesting a signifcant under-estimation.This can have far-ranging effects on
our mental and physical wellbeing, from vitamin D defciency to lower productivity,
lack of sleep to increased risk of asthma and obesity, as well as a reduction in physical
activity and mobility.

Eco-coaching theory and research

Evidence-based research on eco-coaching is in its infancy, with few empirical studies con-
ducted to date. However, practitioners have been taking coaching conversations outdoors
and experimenting with the effects.
One study by Palmer and O’Riordan (2019) does tentatively show a link specifcally
between the nature-based activity of walking and coaching, and is one of only a few pub-
lished studies that does.They conducted two studies and found that a short coaching con-
versation whilst walking along Regent’s Canal in London and Swansea seafront increased
self-reported wellbeing scores for the clients. They also found that the weather did not
impact on the positive self-reported scores.Whilst this research used very short, 15- and
20-minute conversations (respectively) and no control group, it does provide support to
the view that clients taking part in eco-coaching can beneft from the advantages that the
outdoors, nature and movement bring.
Research from other felds can help demonstrate why this is. Studies have shown
improved cognitive functioning after connecting with natural environments (Berman et
al., 2009; Kaplan and Berman, 2010; Bratman et al., 2015), improved mood and wellbe-
ing (Korpela and Hartig, 1996; Palmer, 2015; Howell et al., 2011) and quicker recovery
from stressful events (Ulrich et al., 1991). Berman et al. (2012) also found that a signifcant
increase in memory and mood was experienced by adults suffering from Major Depressive
Disorder (MDD) following interactions with nature.
As there is little direct evidence yet to explain the benefts of coaching outdoors, we
can consider its impact through the lens of other, more widely researched theories. One
example is ART (Kaplan and Talbot, 1983; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Kaplan, 1995).ART
proposes that being in contact with natural environments increases our ability to recover
from mental fatigue and stress. Directed attention is an invaluable executive function
 Outdoor eco-coaching 293
(Kaplan and Berman, 2010), which enables us to process information, make decisions,
solve problems and focus our attention (Kaplan, 1995). It can, however, become exhausted
over time, affecting cognitive capabilities such as attention, memory, mood and emotion.
Nature provides a restorative environment which can help us recover from this fatigue
(Berto, 2014). See Table 27.1.

Eco-coaching in Practice
In practice, ART can explain many of the self-reported benefts of eco-coaching. It
provides a framework to explain how natural environments can help with coaching
conversations. Often people come to coaching because they have a challenge they need
to fnd a creative solution for. They are frequently suffering from mental fatigue and
their directed attention capacity may be reduced as they are not giving themselves time
to restore and recover. This mental fatigue impacts mood, often increasing frustration,
sadness and lethargy. Providing a coaching environment that can restore mental fatigue,
improve directed attention and positively affect mood can improve coaching outcomes
signifcantly.
The ART concept of soft fascination is very applicable to taking coaching con-
versations outdoors. Nature provides unlimited soft fascinations, such as the sun’s rays
peeking through clouds, the patterns of bark on a tree, the swirl of water on a lake as
a leaf lands on it, the sound of birdsong or the rustle of leaves in a windy wood. The
human brain can attend to these things with relative ease, letting it recover from men-
tal and attentional fatigue. Advocates of outdoor coaching often describe it as ena-
bling them to see things more clearly and eliciting sudden “ah-ha” moments. These
moments of realisation often come after taking time to refect on a specifc coaching
question or topic whilst walking, and allowing their minds to drift and be attracted
to the soft fascinations of the nature around them. However, some may fnd that
nature provides hard fascination too, and this may become quite distracting. Those
who are very excited by seeing animals, for example, may focus more on them than on
the coaching session itself, while others may be distracted by approaching inclement

Table 27.1 ART’s Four Restorative Functions

a) Being away: from typical, everyday locations. It does not have to be a great distance; only
provide the feeling of “getting away”, or disconnecting from daily life.
b) Extent: providing a feeling of size.The outdoors elicits the feeling of a wider connection
to the expanse of nature.
c) Fascination: everything holds a hard or soft degree of fascination for us, with natural
environments providing large amounts of soft fascination. Soft fascination
enables us to restore our mental capacity and recover from stress and fatigue,
because it requires much less directed attention. Hard fascination requires
focus and directed attention, using up mental capacity and causing cognitive
fatigue.
d) Compatibility: there is a high level of compatibility between us and natural environments.The
concept of biophilia (Kellert and Wilson, 1993) describes this as a human
being’s genetic predisposition to the natural world; our innate yearning for
connection with nature.
294 Alex Burn and Anna-Marie Watson
weather or, for example, the sounds of particular bird noises that are more irritating
than restorative (Ratcliffe et al., 2013). The initial contracting stage and frst session
with a new client should help to identify if this is the case. Adapting the location to
provide less hard fascination may be helpful, or it may be that eco-coaching is not the
best approach for these clients.
Many clients get inspiration from the outdoor environment. Clients may experience
awe when they see a rainbow, or fnd a metaphor in the resilience of a little plant shoot
poking out from beneath snow. The weather can also provide compatibility, refecting
someone’s mood and providing perspective and context – for example, the realisation
that the weather cannot be controlled.There will be cold and storms, just as there will be
sunlight and warmth. Refecting on this can help a client to understand circles of control
and put things into perspective.

Planning and preparation

Eco-coaching necessitates preparation and planning where the following should be
considered:
Dynamic Environment: Stepping outdoors involves an element of risk, from physical
safety to more discrete psychological safety and emotional containment. The multi-sen-
sory environment might involve unforeseeable situations that trigger emotional responses,
disrupt rapport or raise negative thoughts. Be prepared to embrace an organic and fuid
mindset into your practice and to work with a supervisor who has experience within this
coaching niche.
Health and Safety: A risk assessment is a systematic method of analysing factors
which infuence eco-coaching, consider possible challenges and identify suitable control
measures.The criteria listed below is a starting point.The information should be recorded
in a generic or location-specifc document. See Table 27.2. Make sure the necessary frst
aid, public liability, professional insurance, outdoor qualifcations and land access are cov-
ered. Clarify any physical or psychological medical conditions relevant to walking out-
doors that might not usually arise. Consider your personal safety, especially meeting a new
client for the frst time; for example, inform a friend of the route and expected time of
return, and ensure the client knows in advance you will do this. Carry a suitable frst aid
kit for the location.
Client Comfort: Some clients are content to walk in wet weather, others may prefer
a more comfortable dry option. Co-create the entire outdoor element with your client
during contracting.
Location, Location, Location: Think about the venue (near nature versus wilder-
ness), environment (urban park, forest, mountains or beach, etc.) and route in relation to
terrain, distance, accessibility, session timings, ftness levels, confdentiality and medical
issues.
Experiment:Trial the concept in advance with willing clients, like any new coaching
approach. Select an accessible local park or open space to test, and then adjust and learn
from the experience.
 Outdoor eco-coaching 295

Table 27.2 Health and safety planning

Ser Criteria Think about:

1 Accessibility • Distance and time from your and your client’s workplaces;
• Parking availability;
• Impact of peak times on congestion, e.g. rush hour or holidays;
• Public transport links.
2 Route • Ease of navigation;
• Out and back, circular or meandering;
• Width of footpath to enable walking side by side;
• Distance with options to cut short/extend if necessary;
• Obstacles along the route, e.g. road crossings, stairs, stiles;
• Legal access rights for business activities;
• Environmental noise levels.
3 Terrain • Link to ftness levels, client comfort and mobility or medical
considerations;
• Nearby bodies of water, e.g. ponds, rivers, canals;
• Impact of inclement weather, e.g. rain on additional slip hazards.
4 Other users • Number of other users. Note: Possible challenge of isolated working,
particularly during initial chemistry session;
• Other users, e.g. walkers, cyclists, prams, drivers, forestry workers;
• Areas of congestion;
• Impact on confdentiality;
• Contact with non-human users, e.g. dogs, cows, wasps.
5 Local amenities • Address, distance and route to the nearest medical facility;
• Local cafes/hotels to break up session or for indoors coaching in line with
Plan B;
• Access to toilets.

Tools and techniques

A variety of tools and techniques can be drawn from your existing methodologies and inte-
grated into your eco-coaching practice.Themes such as resilience, change, growth, accept-
ance, letting go, balance and sustainability often emerge during eco-coaching sessions.

1. Ecological Self. Drawn from the school of deep ecology, self-actualisation transpires
when an individual transcends the “egoic” to “ecological” self. This idea focuses on ethi-
cal and moral responsibilities to ourselves, others and the environment (see Box 27.1).

Box 27.1: Case study

The majority of photographs from my childhood are taken outdoors; at school I’d stare out the window
waiting for the bell to ring so I was able to escape, and I joined the British Army partly to avoid working
in an offce.This thread continued during my coach training, where I’d consistently ask my peers to head
outdoors for practice sessions. I experience an innate sense of freedom, creativity and deeper connection
to a larger entity whilst outdoors; these remain strong drivers that have shaped my career choices, defned
my coaching niche and will continue to mould my future.
– Anna-Marie
296 Alex Burn and Anna-Marie Watson
Eco-coaching also raises the opportunity to connect our work with wider environmental
issues and can lead to discussions about a more sustainable future for our work, life and planet.

2. Systemic Approach. The ecosystem offers a framework to view the world based
on a client’s connection to the wider system; organisational, social or systems nested
within systems. Networks of relationships and perceptions of gestalts can be explored
to encourage self-refection and self-confrontation of personal responsibilities to the
wider system.
3. Evolution. Evolution theory explains how living things change over time. These
themes regularly emerge in coaching interactions, and the nature versus nurture debate
could be introduced as a metaphor to explore fxed versus growth mindset.
4. Metaphors.The natural environment is rich with metaphors (see Box 27.2). During a
coaching session, attention can be drawn through questions towards a specifc or col-
lective parts of the surrounding environment
a) Visual Metaphors. The natural environment offers rich visual metaphors where
distinctive parts of the environment can be identifed and then used to externalise
and explore ideas, e.g. path junctions, weather or seasonal cycles (see Box 27.2).

Box 27.2: Case study

Standing on the Ridgeway near West Kennet,Wiltshire, a dark bank of clouds rolled towards us.
The temperature plummeted and snow started to fall.We shivered, wrapped our jackets closer and
adopted a slightly brisker pace as we walked back towards our parked cars, our coaching session
nearly at its conclusion for the day. Suddenly the clouds ahead parted to reveal an oasis of clear blue
sky set against the ominous banks of gloomy grey. This moment of calm held within the storm
aligned deeper themes within our dialogue; change, transition and fear. The conversation then
shifted to open a window of new possibilities, with hope and possibility moving forwards. This
immersive visual experience offered a powerful metaphor to reference in the future.

b) Linguistic Metaphors. Specifc word choices can refer to parts of nature to express
our thoughts and feelings.These expressions can contain rich content to unpack in
coaching, e.g. “the black sheep in the family”, “the shining star in the business” or
“his eyes were ice as he stared”.
c) Auditory Metaphors. The natural soundscape is flled with different noises from
wildlife, water, wind and other sources.These can range from soothing and gentle to
ear-splitting shrieks and can invoke a variety of feelings, physical sensations and cogni-
tive associations. For example, different types of birdsong have been observed to affect
physiological and psychological processes.The melodically pleasing sounds of songbirds
in comparison to potentially harsh and grating gulls. In contrast, silence found in remote
locations can offer a respite to encourage deliberate contemplation and refection.
d) Physical Metaphors. Touch can be connected to past experiences and support
future aspirations; for example, the sensation of wind blowing across bare skin can
inspire feelings of freedom.These physical experiences offer inspiration in the future
long after the coaching session has ended. In addition, natural objects such as rocks
or shells can be chosen to symbolise a commitment or aspiration.
e) Embodied Metaphors.The awareness of our body encourages observations of the
self beyond the mind. Mindfulness practices (see below) can be used to acknowledge
these sensations. For example, static “earthing” practices are based on direct contact
 Outdoor eco-coaching 297
with the ground and provide the opportunity to observe subtle shifts in emotional
and energetic sensations. In addition, the pace of the walk itself can infuence emo-
tional and energetic states; consider the differences between a stroll in comparison
to a march. At a designated turning point, the physical change in direction can be
utilised to shift the dialogue into a different space.
5. Seasonal Cycles. Observations of the seasons can be linked to cyclical themes which
emerge during coaching, e.g. life, career, self-development or specifc projects.Timelines
(or other emergent shapes) can be created to identify interrelated elements, connec-
tions, opportunities and possibilities (see also Nature Play below).
6. Nature Play.This creative approach uses natural resources (stones, leaves, fowers, etc.)
to symbolise and externalise a situation, e.g. timelines, relationships (particularly around
“stuck-ness”).The experiential element encourages different perceptions and emotions
to emerge and shift.
7. Mindfulness.There are different approaches to becoming fully immersed in the pre-
sent moment when surrounded by nature, e.g. a body scan, loving kindness, observer,
etc. The “sit spot” Mindfulness practice can be introduced by identifying a quiet and
restorative location near home or work and making the commitment to visit regularly,
e.g. 20 minutes, 3 times a week over a 4-month period. The client can record observa-
tions in a journal related to changes in the environment and personal thoughts/feelings.
8. Nature Retreats or Pilgrimages. These are generally longer than an individual
coaching session and a variety of coaching approaches can be integrated. Nature retreats
usually focus on a holistic lifestyle approach, whereas pilgrimages are a prolonged jour-
ney with a possible moral or spiritual component, often to a specifc destination of
signifcance.
9. Deeper Questions.These provoke how clients think, feel or understand information
within a frame of reference, as opposed to simply eliciting more information. Deeper
questions challenge assumptions to generate alternatives and possibilities, and then cre-
ate change (see below for “ten deeper questions to use outdoors”).

Ten useful questions for outdoor-eco coaches

Questions offer our clients the opportunity to examine their current context, challenge
their assumptions and limiting beliefs, gain self-awareness and set future intentions. Eco-
coaching combines this with the natural environment and facilitates a multi-sensory
experience at a conscious or unconscious level. This presents the space to build deeper
connections, seek inspiration and create change.
The questions below are designed to deepen conversation and prompt internal refec-
tion by drawing on metaphors in the surrounding environment in relation to the human
body and mind. It’s important to remain client-led when offering deeper questions, main-
taining rapport, being empathetic and asking permission, especially if a level of challenge
is needed.

1. What does the path hold ahead?

This question directs attention towards a specifc part of the environment and inte-
grates the perception of time. The future is visually depicted as the route in front
where conversations around change, transformation and opportunity can emerge.
Characteristics of the path itself can be unpacked to represent specifc elements of the
context; for example, stony ground can illustrate a period of uncertainty.
298 Alex Burn and Anna-Marie Watson
2. How do you place yourself in the world?
This broader frame encourages a shift in awareness from the individual to a wider
ecological system. It opens a more inclusive and networked approach through height-
ened awareness of self and connections with others and the environment. Answers can
reveal a deeper insight into the client’s model of their world, relationships and pur-
pose.These responses can lead into further conversations at an intellectual, behavioural,
emotional and spiritual level.
3. Looking back over your shoulder, who are you? Or Looking ahead, how do
you see yourself?
This question draws attention to two distinct physical directions and connects the
past with the future.The concept of time and how it is perceived, valued and used by
the client is a rich resource.The majority of coaching dialogue is placed in the future
space. However, past beliefs, inner scripts and behavioural patterns shape the present
context.The recognition and acceptance of these connections between the past, present
and future offers scope to explore ideas around deeper identity and purpose.The ques-
tion enables the client to acknowledge parts of themselves obstructing future aspira-
tions.The client’s past can hold valuable information, though it might be challenging
for some individuals to access, acknowledge and share.
4. What does it feel like being within the boundary of the sea and land? Or
night and day (at dusk); day and night (at dawn); edge of city and park?
This question draws attention to the natural boundaries or liminal spaces between
space or time where change is visually present. Change lies at the centre of all coach-
ing engagements.There is inevitably a period of transition, which can be a positive or
negative experience for the client. Emotions can range from feelings of fear towards
uncertainty and the unknown to excitement and pleasure.
5. How can you move from here to there?
This question highlights two distinct points in the surrounding environment, the
frst centred on your physical location and the second upon a distant feature chosen to
indicate a gap, e.g. a building, tree, water or high ground. It encourages active engage-
ment to create change through specifc actions. It can be helpful to reinforce the ques-
tion through arm gestures and other body language. The question can be adapted by
replacing “here” with “there”.The presence of two “theres” shifts the physical associa-
tion and visual perspective with the environment for the client.This can open a differ-
ent dialogue around future intentions and actions.
6. What knowledge, skills and attitudes will you need for your journey?
The question builds on the metaphor of items needed to support a journey. The
client is invited to consider different knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to achieve
goals or encourage change.This exposes your client’s awareness of their present abilities
and identifes blind spots, limiting beliefs or gaps which need to be flled.
7. If you could invite anyone in the world to be next to you in this moment,
who would that be?
This question encourages the client to look beyond their personal resources. Possible
supporters may emerge from their existing network; alternatively, they might create an
ideal persona with specifc skills, knowledge and experience who could provide assis-
tance, or they could seek inspiration from a relevant role model (current or historic).
The subtext signals that the client has the power to ask for help and is not alone. It can
provide a route to explore deeper themes of trust, vulnerability, confict and commu-
nication. It’s important to be inclusive and work with all levels of mobility, though this
 Outdoor eco-coaching 299
question can be modifed to involve movement by asking,“if you could invite anyone
in the world to walk with you in this moment, who would it be?”.
8. Which route will you choose?
This question is useful after several options have been explored. It infers a number
of routes (or metaphorical options) are available, which encourages expansive think-
ing. By literally standing at a crossroads, the client is physically embedded in their con-
text and, from a visual metaphorical perspective, can access change. Junctions where
several different routes intersect offer the chance to explore opportunities, discuss the
pros and cons of different ideas and move into future actions.
9. Where next?
This question encourages client-led discussion, as well as a refection on the paths
(choices) that the client has to make in their life.
10. When will you arrive at your destination?
A destination marks an end point of the metaphorical journey, with the success-
ful completion of a desired outcome(s) and introduces a specifc timeframe. This
specifcity helps to identify milestone tasks, fosters commitment and encourages
accountability.

Conclusion
Eco-coaching can help our clients beneft from the wider outdoor environment, as well
as add additional dimensions to our coaching practice. The natural environment pro-
vides restorative opportunities for recovering from mental fatigue and re-energising our
directed attention. In doing so, our executive function is restored and our cognitive capa-
bilities are improved, allowing us to think more creatively, access deeper memories and
make effective decisions.

References
Berman, M.G., Jonides, J. and Kaplan, S. (2009). ‘The cognitive benefts of interacting with nature’.
Psychological Science, 19(12), pp. 1207–1212.
Berman, M.G., Kross, E., Krpan, K.M., Askern, M.K., Burson, A., Deldin, P.J., Kaplan, S., Sherdell, L.,
Gotlib, I.H. and Jonides, J. (2012).‘Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals
with depression’. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140, pp. 300–305.
Berto, R. (2014). ‘The role of nature in coping with psycho-physiological stress: A literature review on
restorativeness’. Behavioural Science, 4, pp. 394–409.
Bratman, G.N., Daily, G.C., Levy, B.J. and Gross, J.J. (2015).‘The benefts of nature experience: Improved
affect and cognition’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, pp. 41–50.
Howell,A.J., Dopko, R.L., Passmore, H-A. and Buro, K (2011).‘Nature connectedness:Associations with
well-being and mindfulness’. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(2), pp. 166–171.
Kaplan, S. (1995). ‘The restorative benefts of nature: Towards an integrative framework’. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 15, pp. 169–182.
Kaplan, S. and Berman, M.G. (2010).‘Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning
and self-regulation’. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(1), pp. 43–57.
Kaplan, R. and Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature:A psychological perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Kaplan, S. and Talbot, J.F. (1983). ‘Psychological benefts of a wilderness experience’. In I. Altman and
J.F.Wohlwill, eds., Human behaviour and environment. New York: Plenum Press, Vol 6, Behaviour and the
natural environment, pp. 163–203.
300 Alex Burn and Anna-Marie Watson
Kellert, S.R. and Wilson, E.O. (1993). The biophilia hypothesis.Washington, DC: Island Press.
Klepeis, N.E., Nelson, W.C., Ott, W.R., Robinson, J.P., Tsang, A.M., Switzer, P., Behar, J.V., Hern, S.S.
and Engelmann, W.H. (2001). ‘The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource
for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants’. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental
Epidemiology, 11, pp. 231–252.
Korpela, K. and Hartig, T. (1996). ‘Restorative qualities of favourite places’. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 16, pp. 221–233.
Leary-Joyce, J. (2014). The fertile void: Gestalt coaching at work. St Albans: AOEC Press.
Palmer, S. (2015). ‘Can ecopsychology research inform coaching and positive psychology practice?’
Coaching Psychology International, 8 (1), pp. 11–15.
Palmer, S. and O’Riordan, S. (2019).‘Ecopsychology informed coaching psychology practice: Beyond the
coaching room into the blue space’. The Danish Journal of Coaching Psychology, 8(1), pp. 21–30.
Ratcliffe, E., Gatersleben, B. and Sowden, P.T. (2013). ‘Bird sounds and their contributions to perceived
attention restoration and stress recovery’. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 36, pp. 221–228.
Ulrich, R.S., Simons, R.F., Losito, B.D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M.A. and Zelson, M. (1991). ‘Stress recovery
during exposure to natural and urban environments’. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, pp.
201–230.
White, M.P., Pahl, S., Ashbullby, K., Herbert, S. and Depledge, M.H. (2013).‘Feelings of restoration from
recent nature visits’. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 35, pp. 40–51.
Whittington, J. (2016). Systemic coaching & constellations:The principles, practices and application for individuals,
teams and groups, 2nd edition. London: Kogan Page.
YouGov. (2014). The effects of modern indoor living on health, wellbeing and productivity. Retrieved on 28
March 2020 from www.velux.nn/indoorgeneration.
28 Acceptance and Commitment
Coaching
Tim Anstiss

Introduction
Acceptance and Commitment-Based Coaching (known as AC Coaching) is a theory-
driven, research-informed coaching approach to help people live their best possible lives,
take committed action in line with their values and better manage the unwanted, uncom-
fortable and even painful thoughts and feelings which inevitable show up along the way.
It is a form of behavioral coaching which works with a variety of presenting client
issues (procrastination, relationship diffculties, anger and anxiety problems, sports and
work performance, etc.) and can also be used by coaches in their own lives to help them
become better coaches and grow and develop as human beings.
In this chapter I will provide an overview of the Acceptance and Commitment-based
approach and look at some of the supporting research, before looking at how the approach
is delivered in practice and some of the associated tools and techniques to help bring about
client change.

Acceptance and Commitment Coaching explained

Many clients fail to live their best possible lives as a result of not living in harmony with
what really matters to them – their values.The reasons for this may include: Not having
clarity about what their values are; not having the skills to behave in a values consistent
way when pulled and pushed in different directions by their thoughts, emotions, urges,
sensations and memories; and not being suffciently motivated.
AC-based coaching helps with all three reasons.The AC-based coach helps the client
to: i) Clarify and act or behave in line with their values, the things which matter to them;
ii) Develop and apply four different Mindfulness skills to the challenge of living their
best lives; and iii) Strengthen their motivation to take steps towards a more engaged, vital,
meaningful values-based life.
AC-based coaching uses a different psychological model from many other coaching
approaches. Like other approaches, AC-based coaching recognises that all human beings
struggle and suffer – sometimes a huge amount – but places an unusual emphasis on the
role of language, attempts to control one’s internal world and poorly applied problem-
solving in this struggle and suffering. It emphasises that many of the things people do
to cope with and manage their internal experiences – their thoughts, feelings, urges and
sensations – often end up making things worse. People commonly run into problems
302 Tim Anstiss
when they try to control their thoughts and feelings (the control agenda) and often make
better progress towards living their best lives when they step away from the struggle to
control this internal experience.The AC-based coach does not try to change the content
of a person’s mind or their feelings, but rather helps the client change their relationship
with their thoughts and feelings, so that they don’t get pushed or pulled around by them
so much.The coach helps the client take steps towards a more values-based, engaged and
fourishing life, whilst carrying their thoughts and feelings lightly. The aim is behaviour
change towards a better life, not inner peace or a quietened mind. If some clients experi-
ence more inner peace as a result of AC Coaching that is considered a nice side-effect, but
it is not the aim and should not be relied upon.

Core concepts
Core concepts in AC-based coaching include: Private experience; the control agenda;
experiential avoidance; and psychological fexibility.

Private experience
Private experience is what is happening inside a person which is not available for other
people to experience.This can include thoughts (which are commonly words and images),
feelings, sensations, urges, memories, etc.

The control agenda

The control agenda describes the common coping strategy of trying to control one’s pri-
vate, internal experiences

Experiential avoidance
Experiential avoidance includes the things people do to get rid of, stop, not have, block
out or suppress unwanted thoughts, feelings and sensations – even when doing so creates
harm in the long run. Experiential avoidance might include excessive drinking, over-
eating, procrastinating, spending too much time on social media or watching TV, having
sex, not having sex, staying in bed all day, not going out to a party, not speaking up at a
meeting, self-harm, excessive exercising or not taking exercise, etc. From the above list, you
can see that it’s not the behaviour itself which determines whether or not a behaviour is a
form of experiential avoidance – it’s the function of the behaviour in the client’s life. For
instance, the behaviour of having two large glasses of wine may serve different purposes
according to the context. Compare a teacher drinking two glasses of wine before work
with the same person drinking two glasses of wine at a wedding.The frst is more likely
to be experiential avoidance and, over time, make the person’s life worse. That is why
AB Coaching is informed by functional contextualism – the view that the function of a
behaviour performs is determined by the context in which it appears.

Psychological fexibility
Psychological fexibility is the dynamic state the AB coach helps their client develop (even
if they never use that term with the client). It has been defned as:
 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 303

Values

Observing self Committed Action

The perspective
In line with values
of the self which
notices, the self Psychological
‘as container’ flexibility
Contact with Defusion
present moment Stepping back from,
Making contact noticing, separating
with the here and from and unhooking
now, with sounds, Acceptance from thoughts
sights, smells, touch Noticing, allowing and
and other sensations. being willing to have
painful feelings, urges,
sensations

Figure 28.1 The six elements, processes or aspects of psychological flexibility

the ability to be fully present and open to our experiences to that we can take action
guided by our values.
(Stoddard et al., 2012)

And:

the ability to be present, open up, and do what matters.

(Harris, 2009)

Figure 28.1 illustrates the six elements, processes or aspects of psychological flexibility.

The six processes, aspects or elements of psychological flexibility

To help clients develop more psychological flexibility, have less experiential avoidance and
live their best lives, the AC-based coach helps their client with the following six things:
1) Clarify and live a life informed by their values, 2) Take committed actions in line with
these values, 3) Learn to defuse from some thoughts, get unhooked from them, see them
more as objects which come and go; 4) Be willing and able to accept and allow unwanted
or even painful feelings, sensations and urges; 5) Be able to repeatedly bring themselves
back to the present moment when their minds wander unhelpfully; and 6) Spend more
time viewing life from the perspective of the observing self rather than the narrative self,
or “self-as-content” perspective.

AC Coaching theory and research

There are over 300 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of ACT published (see
https://contextualscience.org/state_of_the_act_evidence
​ ​ ​​ ​​ ​​ ​​ ​​ ​​ ​ ​​ ​ ​​​ ​ ​​ ​ for a list of these studies).Whilst
most studies have examined the effectiveness of the approach on physical and mental
304 Tim Anstiss
health status (e.g. Anxiety, Pain, Depression, Stress, Substance Abuse,Weight loss, Cancer,
Smoking, Gambling, etc.), there have been many studies examining the impact of the
approach on issues more commonly addressed in coaching, including: Quality of Life;
Parenting; Couple/Marital Relations; Training; Sleep; Anger Management; Confdence;
Attention; and Skills Coaching.
In addition to individual studies, the approach has been the subject of several system-
atic reviews and meta-analyses, including in: Weight management (Lawlor et al., 2018);
Depression (Howell, et al., 2019a); Student well-being (Howell,A. et al., 2019b); Substance
use disorders (Li et al., 2019); Health behaviour change (Roche, et al., 2019); Anxiety
(Kelson, J. et al., 2019) (Swain et al., 2013); Health and well-being of carers (Kishita et al.,
2018); Burnout (Reeve et al., 2018); Pain (Schütze et al., 2018;Veehof et al., 2016); Eating
disorders (Linardon, et al., 2018); Stress (Rudaz, et al., 2017); Sports Performance (Noetel
et al., 2017); Mental health and well-being (Brown et al., 2016); Chronic disease and long-
term conditions (Graham et al., 2016).
Research also supports the ACT contention that trying to change the frequency or
content of particular thoughts may be less helpful than helping people cope better with
them (e.g. Wells, 1994), and that helping clients contact the present moment may help
to alter the function of a thought without changing its form or content (Borkovec and
Roemer, 1994, Teasdale et al., 2002). In addition, many studies have also demonstrated
an association between how much a person “fuses” with their thoughts, avoids certain
feelings and struggles to act in the presence of diffcult private events with psychological
disturbance, reduced quality of life, perceived physical health, well-being at work, job-
induced tension and depression symptoms (e.g. Bond and Bunce, 2000); performance,
negativity and job satisfaction (Bond and Bunce, 2003); and symptoms of depression and
anxiety (Strosahl et al., 1998;Tull et al., 2004; Forsyth et al., 2003)

AC Coaching in practice
There is no set or agreed way to get started with AC-based coaching with clients. The
coach could, for instance, start coaching using the GROW model and then talk dur-
ing the options phase about helping the client reduce their avoidance behaviours, live
a more values-based life or develop more psychological fexibility. Or they might just
invite the client to explore their values and what matters most to them in life early on
in the coaching conversation, then agree on actions that help them live a more engaged,
values-based life and then explore the skills they may need to help them take these
actions when their thoughts, feelings and urges get in the way. Alternatively, they might
start delivering coaching using a non-AC-based approach, and if the progress isn’t what
they or the client hoped for, ask the client if they would be interested in exploring an
alternative approach to making progress in life. And if they say yes, talk about and start
doing AC Coaching.
Regardless of how one gets started, here are some things the coach may wish to do,
and why.

Values-based living
Often clients are not really in touch with their values, what really matters to them in life.
And even if they once were, values can change over time, so it is often very worthwhile to
help your client clarify and refect on their values.
 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 305
This can be done formally – using perhaps a deck of value cards which the client sorts
into piles of different importance, or having them rate values from a list – or informally,
perhaps by asking them to look forward a few years and describe what would be happen-
ing if they were living their best lives:What would they be doing, planning and thinking
about? Who would they be spending time with? And why? Or just asking them some
open questions such as:What really matters to you, deep in your heart? What do you want
your life to be about? What sort of person do you wish to become? What do you want to
do with your time on this planet? What personal qualities do you wish to develop?
Things which may emerge might include: Family, success, learning, caring and compas-
sion, making a difference, wealth, power, creativity, sustainability, friendship, God, fairness,
etc.
Once a client has given some thought to and clarifed what matters to them, the coach
might then explore with them how these values currently show up in their lives, or may
have shown up in the last few months and how they might live more in harmony with
some of these values in the coming weeks, months or years. (One interesting point – your
client’s pain may help you discover where their values lie.)
It is important to note that values are different from goals. Goals are things that can
be achieved or failed at.Values are not like that.Values remain intact to guide and shape a
person’s life even if they fail to reach their goals. Indeed, without knowing what matters
in life, what is important in life, how can person-centred goals even be set? Values are more
like a direction on a map, a direction of travel and goals are more like places on the route
which a person may or may not visit.The kinds of things that people do with values is to
live in harmony with them, embrace them or move in the direction of them.The ques-
tion “Am I done yet?” can be asked of goals, but not of values (Hayes and Smith, 2005).

Committed action
Committed action involves purposeful and deliberate behaviour change in the service of
chosen values, with a willingness to experience thoughts, feelings and reactions that show
up in the process of moving forward. This is what AC Coaching considers will actually
deliver a better quality of life for the client – holding their diffcult thoughts and feelings
lightly whilst taking steps in a valued life direction.Taking these actions even when their
brain is telling them, for example:“you cant”;“you’re a fraud”;“you will fail”;“you’re use-
less”;“what’s the point?”;“do it next week”; or “she will laugh at you”. And taking these
actions even when they may be experiencing anxiety, anger, guilt, shame or sadness.

Defusion
Clients often experience problems and fail to live their best life when they listen to, or pay
too much attention to and believe, what their mind tells them.They get “hooked” by the
content of their mind and allow their behaviour and actions to be excessively infuenced
by their transient thoughts rather than their enduring values.
The AB coach helps the client look at their thoughts, rather than through them. This
helps provide the client with some “wiggle room” to take action guided by their values.
The unhelpful or unwelcome thoughts won’t disappear, of course, but the client’s behav-
iour will become less under their control and the client will be more free to move in their
chosen life direction. Some of the things the client may become more aware of as they
learn to defuse might be the fact that their mind is almost constantly judging, predicting,
306 Tim Anstiss
evaluating, planning, problem-solving, comparing, labelling, travelling to the future, trav-
elling to the past, providing a running commentary and criticising. That is what normal
minds do! It does not make the client faulty or damaged or different – it’s just the nature of
the mind, and they share this nature with millions of other people on the planet.AC-based
coaching holds that it’s only when the client “buys into” some of these thoughts and
beliefs that hold them back from taking helpful action, or which disconnect them from
what is actually happening around them, that all this internal content and mental chatter
becomes problematic.
Some of the exercises and activities the AC-based coach might share, do with and
encourage their clients to practise, include Mindfulness exercises to help them see their
thoughts as things which come and go; visualisation techniques – for instance, placing
thoughts on leaves in a stream and watching them foat away – or verbal techniques, which
help to change words to just sounds rather then symbols full or meaning, such as saying a
word like “failure” 30 times rapidly out loud, or singing, e.g.“There’s something the mat-
ter with me” to the tune of happy birthday (known as deliteralisation techniques).

Acceptance
Acceptance is the psychological skill or process of being willing to have unwanted, pain-
ful feelings and sensations, of making space for them, of “expanding around them” or of
allowing them to be – rather than trying to get rid of them. The AC-based coach helps
clients become curious about their feelings, urges and sensations, really paying attention
to them as if they were having them for the frst time, noticing them as they actually are
– and not as their mind tells them they are (or will be).
It’s important to note that the acceptance aspect of psychological fexibility is an active
choice and not just passive resignation. And it is not about “wanting” to have unwanted
thoughts and feelings, urges and sensations – it is just being willing to have them, to be
open to them, in the service of something more important – living their best lives. In the
words of Jon Kabat-Zinn:

You can’t stop the waves … but you can learn to surf.

Present-moment awareness
We all know that the mind can be a bit of a time machine – transporting us to and show-
ing us futures that may never happen, and forcing us to rewatch and even relive pleasant
and painful events from our past. None of this is problematic in and of itself, but this
tendency for the mind to travel forwards and backwards in time can be associated with
worry, rumination, anxiety, feelings of dread and hopelessness (when looking forward),
and feelings of guilt, shame, regret, anger, bitterness, hate, sadness and loss (when looking
backwards).
To help develop the skill of presence, the AC coach teaches and guides the client to
bring their attention and focus back to the present moment, time and time again. Noticing
when they get “lost” in thought, and then helping them get into contact with their imme-
diate sensory experience – e.g. breathing sensations, sounds, pressure on the skin, things
they can see, smells, etc. Here is perhaps the world’s greatest ever rugby player on how his
team, the New Zealand All Blacks, used present-moment awareness skills to help them
perform at their best:
 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 307
Breathe slowly and deliberately, nose or mouth, with a two second pause … then shift
your attention to something external – the ground or your feet, or the ball in your
hand, or even alternating big toes, or the grandstand. Get your eyes up, looking out …
use deep breaths to help get out of your own head, fnd an external focus, get yourself
back in the present, regain your situational awareness.
(McCaw, 2005)

The observing self

There are different perspectives we can hold about “the self ”, different “positions”, so
to speak, from which we can view the world. We all have, for instance, a “biographical
self ” (also known as the narrative self, thinking self, or self-as-content) – a self full of sto-
ries and memories, rules, beliefs and labels we place on ourselves (e.g. intelligent, funny,
stupid, ugly, caring, creative, worthless, sporty, a failure, etc.). But there is another part of
ourselves, a witness to all this content, a container, as it were, of all this content, a part of
us which notices all the change going on inside of us but which remains unchanged by
it. It is the subject for which all other things are object. It was present during all the good
and bad things that happened in our past, and it is a “self-part” or “perspective” which has
been emphasised in many different spiritual traditions throughout recorded history. In AC
Coaching we call this perspective or aspect the observing self, and we help our clients
access this perspective from time to time to help them make better progress in their jour-
neys towards their best possible lives.
A metaphor may help. Imagine a schoolteacher in the playground being jostled by
kids, immersed in all the noise and excitement, being pulled around perhaps, and not
being able to see all of what is happening.That may be how some clients feel or experi-
ence their lives.The AC-based coach helps their client become more like the teacher on
an upstairs balcony, looking down and watching what is happening in the playground
below but not caught up in things. Noticing what is happening but not being affected
by it.

Getting started using AC Coaching

The coach wishing to make progress with an AC Coaching approach might consider:
Learning about and doing several of the exercises and activities found in books about ACT
(Acceptance and Commitment Therapy) and ACT-related websites, so as to both develop
their own psychological fexibility and gain frst-hand experience of how these skills,
activities and exercises work; introducing some elements of the AC Coaching approach
without referring to them as such – e.g. values clarifcation, present-moment awareness;
practising talking about the different aspects of AC Coaching, including using several of
the metaphors (Stoddard, 2014) used to help the client better “get” what is being talked
about – e.g. hands as thoughts, passengers on the bus, the self as the chessboard rather than
the battle happening on top of it, etc.; practising elements of the AB Coaching approach
with colleagues and other coaching students and practitioners, refecting on how the
practice goes and becoming aware of the inner critic, unwanted thoughts, uncomfortable
emotions, etc. that arise as you, the coach, step out of your comfort zone into a different
coaching approach; and starting AC Coaching with a new client, but explaining to them,
perhaps, that you will be offering them a new style of coaching, which the evidence sug-
gests can be very effective.
308 Tim Anstiss
Tools and techniques
The AC coach will use a range of tools and techniques to help the client develop psy-
chological fexibility, experience reduced experiential avoidance and take steps towards
a more values-based life. Some have been mentioned or alluded to in the above section.
And, of course, many of the tools and techniques an AC-based coach will use will not
be specifc to AC-based coaching – including agreeing the agenda, Sardonic question-
ing, sharing information, collaborative planning, goal-setting, signposting to additional
resources, Mindfulness exercises, values clarifcation, etc.
Two quite specifc AC-based coaching tools and techniques are the choice point and
the ACT matrix.
Most clearly articulated by Russ Harris (2018), the choice point model is a simple, fex-
ible and comprehensive tool which helps coaches and clients rapidly get to grips with the
AC model.Typically drawn by hand, the model starts with a choice point and then has one
arrow pointing away from the choice point labelled “towards” and another arrow pointing
away from the choice point labelled “away”. See Figure 28.2.
Once this has been drawn, the coach might add the words “situations, thoughts and
feelings” to one side of the choice point, and “unhooked” and “hooked” onto or over the
two arrows. This simple (and in my opinion brilliant) model can be used for explaining
to the client how AC-based coaching can help, whilst introducing the client ideas around
moving towards their values and best lives, making “away moves” that take them away
from what matters (as a result of experiential avoidance), as well as the how the skill of
defusion and getting unhooked from thoughts and feelings can help the client make better
progress. In addition to an educational framework, the choice point model can be used
for taking a history, case formulation and analysis and work on one or more specifc issues
with which the client is struggling with – e.g. procrastination, poor diet, anger manage-
ment, problems delegating, dealing with debt, relationship diffculties, etc.
A second helpful model or technique for “doing”AC-based coaching, the ACT matrix
(Polk et al., 2016) is another visual framework. More complex than the choice point
model, the ACT matrix fulfls many of the same functions – client education, analysis of
a client’s problem or issue, case conceptualisation, clarifying who and what matters to the
client, how unwanted thoughts and feelings can lead to experiential avoidance and “away”
moves, thinking about which behaviours and actions would more the client towards what
matters, explaining that the things they have been doing to try to control and get rid of
unwanted thoughts and feeling may not have helped (at least in the long term) and that

Towards
unho
oked
Situations,
Choice
thoughts and
point
feelings
hook
ed

Away

Figure 28.2 The Choice Point model

 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 309
you, the coach, can share with them another way which involves changing their relation-
ship with their thoughts and feelings and carrying them lightly as they move towards what
matters. See Figure 28.3.
Similarly to the choice point model, the matrix may be best drawn by hand with the
client, and once the framework has been created and described, the client guided through
a series of steps including: (1) talking about who and what matters to them; (2) talking
about the thoughts and feeling which show up and get in the way of what matters; (3) the
behaviours they do when unwanted thoughts, feelings and urges show up; and (4) what
actions and behaviours would result in them moving towards what matters to them in life.
Additional things you can do with the ACT matrix include 1) illustrating worsening spi-
rals of unhelpful behaviours and unwanted thoughts and feelings (e.g. client feels bad, eats
or binges, feels self-disgust, eats more or self-harms, feels shame, etc.) as well 2) trigger and
increase feelings of hope as you indicate to the client that there is another approach which
they may not have tried before, a new way forward, a scientifc approach which seems
to work for many people struggling with different issues.The Matrix can also be used to
keep a record of the session, agree practice tasks and inform the agenda of future sessions.

When does AC Coaching work best?

Research shows that Acceptance and Commitment Therapy helps clients and patients
with a variety of issues in a wide range of settings.There is no reason to believe that the
coaching version – AC-based coaching – isn’t equally as effective and fexible as its ther-
apy-focused cousin, and just as able to help a wide range of different clients with a wide
range of different coaching agendas, issues and goals.

Outer observable
behaviours
Away Behaviours Towards Behaviours
(due to experiential avoidance) (toward what matters)

3 4
lity
ibi
ex
Away l fl Toward
ica
olog
Uncomfortable y ch
thoughts and feelings Ps Who or what is
important

2 1
Inner experiencing

Figure 28.3 The ACT Matrix

310 Tim Anstiss
But perhaps AC Coaching might work best with clients who are not sure about the
direction their lives should take, or who have been struggling with making progress with
their lives for several years or whose problem or issue is quite clearly related to experiential
avoidance – e.g. procrastination, lack of assertiveness, smoking, drinking, lack of exercise,
poor diet, social anxiety or failure to take steps outside their comfort zone.

Ten useful question for AC coaches

1. What is it you would like to work on with me?
Nice open question to get the conversation started and begin to focus on what mat-
ters to the client.
2. Looking forward and imagining your life has got better, what would be different? What would
people notice?
Two questions to get the client talking more about their desired future, from which
the coach might be able to infer the client’s values and what matters to the client. Note
also that the frst question may draw out desired changes in the client’s private experi-
ence (e.g. I’d like to feel more confdent), whilst the second focuses more on behaviour
changes which can be observed.
3. What have you tried so far?
Continues to let the client tell their story, helps the coach deepen their understand-
ing (remember, don’t just ask questions – use those refections and affrmations, too)
and may also begin to increase client readiness for a different approach to what they
have tried.
4. And how did that go/and how has that been going?
A challenging question, helping the client realise that perhaps what has been tried
so far (which may include different forms of counselling or coaching) has not delivered
the changes they would like to see in their lives, at least in a sustainable way.
5. Would you be willing to learn about and perhaps try a different approach?
Just as a personal trainer may educate their client about how the body works,
so too the AC-based coach educates the client about how the mind works and the
rationale for the AC-based approach – and how it can help them to live a more vital,
values-based life – with the client bringing their unwanted thoughts and feelings
along with them.
6. What do you make of what I’ve just said?
After an explanation of an aspect of the AC-based approach – perhaps defusion,
acceptance, avoidance or values, preferably with some metaphors to better help the cli-
ent “get” the concept – it’s important to check what they make of things, how much
they understand of what you’ve said.
7. Would you be interested in us getting started with the approach, giving it a go and seeing what
happens?
A closed question, but a respectful, person-centred one – emphasising personal
autonomy, agency, choice and collaboration – and seeking permission to continue.
8. What did you notice?
A nice question to use after a small piece of in-session experiential practice. Perhaps
you helped them bring their minds back to the present moment, or perhaps helped
them to make space for, allow and be curious about unwanted feelings, or helped them
defuse from one or more thoughts or helped them contact the observing self.
 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 311
9. How might getting better at (defusion, acceptance, contacting the present moment, taking the per-
spective of the observing self, using your values) help you make progress with [issue] or [living
your best life]?
It doesn’t matter how many reasons we have for our clients to develop their
psychological fexibility, what matters is how many reasons they have. So a ques-
tion like this might strengthen their motivation as they hear their own reasons. It
can also help the coach to check a client’s understanding of the underlying model
and assumptions – i.e. that the approach and processes can help reduce experiential
avoidance and help the client make better progress towards a values-based life
10. What do you think you might do between now and the next time I see you? What would be
helpful?
It is better to evoke or draw out from the client what they plan to do to make
progress, rather than you coming up with a plan yourself – at least in the frst instance.
Once they have said what they think might be helpful, you can always make one or
two gentle suggestions:
I’m wondering also if you might be prepared to spend a few minutes each day practising the
defusion technique we practised in the session today. Many of my clients notice if they practise
when it is easy, they have access to the skills when things are more diffcult.

Conclusion
AC-based coaching is a theory-driven, behavioural coaching approach, supported by an
impressive body of research and accompanied by lots of helpful and often free resources.
The aim of AB Coaching it to help clients live their best possible lives, develop psy-
chological fexibility and reduce unhelpful experiential avoidance.You can use AC-based
coaching as a complete and holistic system of coaching, or you can dip in and out of the
approach as you coach clients towards their best possible lives.
AC-based coaching makes extensive use of metaphors to help the client better grasp
what the approach is about, as well as experiential learning in the session – e.g. present-
moment awareness exercises, practising the skills of defusion or acceptance.The AC coach
may let the client know that they too struggle with experiential avoidance, getting hooked
by thoughts and unwanted feelings, sensations and urges and use the same techniques and
strategies they are sharing with and offering the client.
Two useful visual, multi-purpose tools or frameworks for delivering AC-based coach-
ing are the choice point model and the ACT matrix. Once the coach has practised these
with themselves, colleagues and clients they will fnd them useful approaches for helping
clients live their best possible lives.
Applying AC-based coaching principles, techniques and processes in our own lives may
not just help us to become better coaches, but may also help us become better human
beings.

References
Bond, F. and Bunce, D. (2000).‘Mediators of change in problem-focused and emotion-focused worksite
stress management interventions’. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), pp. 156–163.
Bond, F.W. and Bunce, D. (2003).‘The role of acceptance and job control in mental health, job satisfaction,
and work performance’. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, pp. 1057–1067.
312 Tim Anstiss
Borkovec,T.D. and Roemer, L. (1994).‘Generalized anxiety disorder’. In R.T.Ammerman and M. Hersen,
eds., Handbook of prescriptive treatments for adults. New York: Plenum, pp. 261–281.
Brown, M., Glendenning,A., Hoon,A.E. and John,A. (2016).‘Effectiveness of web-delivered acceptance
and commitment therapy in relation to mental health and well-being:A systematic review and meta-
analysis’. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 18(8), e221.
Forsyth, J.P., Parker, J.D. and Finlay, C.G. (2003). ‘Anxiety sensitivity, controllability, and experiential
avoidance and their relation to drug of choice and addiction severity in a residential sample of
substance abusing veterans’. Addictive Behaviors, 28, pp. 851–870.
Graham, C.D., Gouick, J., Krahé, C. and Gillanders, D. (2016). ‘A systematic review of the use of
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) in chronic disease and long-term conditions’. Clinical
Psychology Review, 46, pp. 46–58.
Harris, R. (2009). ACT made simple. An easy to read primer on acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland,
CA: New Harbinger.
Harris, R. (2018). ACT questions and answers: A practitioner’s guide to 50 common sticking points in acceptance
and commitment therapy. New Harbinger Press. Oakland, California.
Hayes, S. and Smith, S. (2005). Get out of your mind and into your life. The new acceptance and commitment
therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.
Hayes, S.C., Strosahl, K.D.,Wilson, K.G. et al. (2004). ‘Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary
test of a working model’. The Psychological Record, 54, pp. 553–578.
Howell,A.J. and Passmore, H. (2019a).‘Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) to reduce depression:
A systematic review and meta-analysis’. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260(1), pp. 728–737. London:
Heinemann.
Howell, A.J. and Passmore, H. (2019b). ‘Acceptance and commitment training (ACT) as a positive
psychological intervention:A systematic review and initial meta-analysis regarding ACT’s role in well-
being promotion among university students’. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20, pp. 1995–2010.
Kelson, J., Rollin, A., Ridout, B. and Campbell, A. (2019). ‘Internet-delivered Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy for anxiety treatment: Systematic review’. Journal of Medical Internet Research,
21(1), pp. e12530.
Kishita, N., Hammond, L., Dietrich, C. and Mioshi, E. (2018). ‘Which interventions work for dementia
family carers?: An updated systematic review of randomized controlled trials of carer interventions’.
International Psychogeriatrics, 30(11), pp. 1679–1696.
Lawlor, E.R., Islam, N., Bates, S. et al. (2018). ‘Third-wave cognitive behaviour therapies for weight
management:A systematic review and network meta-analysis’. Obesity Reviews, 8(7), e023425..
Li, I., Sato, H., Watanabe, N., Kondo, M., Masuda, A., Hayes, S.C. and Akechi, T. (2019). ‘Psychological
fexibility-based interventions versus frst-line psychosocial interventions for substance use disorders:
Systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials’. Journal of Contextual Behavioral
Science, 13, pp. 109–120.
Linardon, J., Gleeson, J., Yap, K., Murphy, K. and Brennan, L. (2018). ‘Meta-analysis of the effects of
third-wave behavioural interventions on disordered eating and body image concerns: Implications for
eating disorder prevention’. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 48(1), pp. 15–38.
McCaw, R. (2005). The real McCaw:The autobiography. London:Aurum Press.
Noetel, M., Ciarrochi, J.,Van Zanden, B. and Lonsdale, C. (2017).‘Mindfulness and acceptance approaches
to sporting performance enhancement:A systematic review’. International Review of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, pp. 1-37.
Oldfather,W.A. (1925). Epictetus: Discourses. Loeb Classical Library. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.
Reeve, A., Tickle, A. and Moghaddam, N. (2018). ‘Are acceptance and commitment therapy-based
interventions effective for reducing burnout in direct-care staff? A systematic review and meta-
analysis’. Mental Health Review Journal, 23 (3), pp. 131–155.
Roche, A.I., Kroska, E.B. and Denburg, N.L. (2019). ‘Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions
for health behavior change: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses’. Journal of Contextual Behavioral
Science, 13, pp. 74–93.
 Acceptance and Commitment Coaching 313
Rudaz, M.,Twohig, M.P., Ong, C.W. and Levin, M.E. (2017).‘Mindfulness and acceptance-based trainings
for fostering self-care and reducing stress in mental health professionals:A systematic review’. Journal of
Contextual Behavioral Science, 6, pp. 380–390.
Schütze, R. Rees, C., Smith, A., Alater, H., Campbell, J.M. and O'Sullivan, P. (2018). ‘How can we best
reduce pain catastrophizing in adults with chronic noncancer pain? A systematic review and meta-
analysis’. The Journal of Pain, 19, pp. 233–256.
Stoddard, J and Afari, N. (2014). The big book of ACT metaphors, a practitioners guide to experiential exercises and
metaphors in acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Strosahl, K.D., Hayes, S.C., Bergan, J. and Romano, P. (1998). ‘Does feld based training in behavior
therapy improve clinical effectiveness? Evidence from the acceptance and commitment therapy
training project’. Behavior Therapy, 29, pp. 35–64.
Swain, J., Hancock, K., Hainsworth, C. and Bowman, J. (2013).‘Acceptance and commitment therapy in
the treatment of anxiety: a systematic review’. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, pp. 965–978.
Teasdale, J.D., Moore, R.G., Hayhurst, H., Pope, M., Williams, S. and Segal, Z.V. (2002). ‘Metacognitive
awareness and prevention of relapse in depression: Empirical evidence’. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 70, pp. 275–287.
Tull, M.T., Gratz, K.L., Salters, K. and Roemer, L. (2004). ‘The role of experiential avoidance in
posttraumatic stress symptoms and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and somatization’. Journal of
Nervous & Mental Disease, 192, pp. 754–761.
Veehof, M.M., Trompetter, H.R., Bohlmeijer, E.T. and Schreurs, K.M.G. (2016). ‘Acceptance- and
mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain:A meta-analytic review’. Cognitive
Behaviour Therapy, 45, pp. 5–31.
Wells, A. (1994). ‘Attention and the control of worry’. In G.C.L. Davey and F. Tallis, eds., Worrying:
Perspectives on theory, assessment and treatment. Oxford, England:Wiley, 91–114.
29 Positive psychology approaches to
coaching
Christian van Nieuwerburgh and Robert Biswas-Diener

Introduction
“Positive psychology” (PP) refers to the scientifc study of “what makes individuals and
communities fourish, rather than languish” (Boniwell and Tunariu, 2019, p. 2). While it
may be a relatively young feld, it has attracted widespread global attention and is now
being applied in a wide range of contexts. PP is, in part, a response to a perceived tendency
in psychology to focus on defcits and mental disorders. Its purpose is to “develop sound
theories of optimal functioning and to fnd empirically supported ways to improve the
lives of ordinary and extraordinary people” (Kauffman, 2006, p. 219).This entails the study
of concepts such as wellbeing, strengths, happiness, creativity and hope. It is also an applied
science, with research informing practical interventions for use with individuals, groups,
organisations and societies.
In this chapter, we will be presenting ways in which coaches, managers and leaders
can integrate PP concepts and interventions into their practice. First, we will defne the
emerging discipline of “positive psychology coaching” (PPC). Then we will present rel-
evant theories and provide a snapshot of some of the most recent research on the use of
PPC, before sharing practical ideas that can be used during coaching and management
conversations. Finally, we will consider the most appropriate situations for using a PP
approach and discuss some questions that could be useful to coaches, managers and leaders.

Positive psychology coaching explained

Although modern coaching was being practised in the 1980s and 1990s, the academic feld
of “coaching psychology” (CP) was launched in the year 2000.This means that both CP
and PP are relatively young felds. Initially, each had its own specifc focus: CP focused on
psychological theories and techniques to support individuals to reach personal and work-
related goals; PP focused on researching the factors that allow individuals and groups to
thrive. In other words, coaching psychology was interested in individual fourishing while
positive psychology aimed to support fourishing and wellbeing more generally.
It soon became clear that there was a natural alignment between the two felds. Both
CP and PP have a shared focus on unlocking potential, building on existing resources,
enhancing subjective wellbeing and supporting people to perform at their best.According
to Boniwell and Tunariu (2019), “coaching and positive psychology are natural allies in
sharing an explicit concern with the enhancement of optimal functioning and well-being,
arguing for performance improvement, fnding what is right with the person and working
on enhancing it” (p. 244). It has also been recognised that
 Positive psychology approaches to coaching 315
there is a vast corpus of psychological theories, evidence-bases, and applied practices
– developed across psychology and other allied disciplines – that belong neither to
PP nor CP, but can be harnessed by both … Each has its own particular concerns,
practices and applications, but there is also a signifcant area of overlap.
(van Nieuwerburgh, Lomas and Burke, 2018, p. 99)

This has led to the development of a distinct coaching methodology called positive psy-
chology coaching (PPC) in the early 2000s. Subsequently, PPC has been defned as “a
scientifcally-rooted approach to helping clients increase well-being, enhance and apply
strengths, improve performance, and achieve valued goals” (Kauffman, Boniwell and
Silberman, 2009, p. 158) and has developed recognised processes and structures (Passmore
and Oades, 2014; Green and Palmer, 2019). For us, PPC is simply a managed conversa-
tional process that supports people to achieve meaningful goals in a way that enhances
their wellbeing. There are a number of theories that are relevant to coaches wishing to
adopt a positive psychology approach.We have listed these, along with specifc topics and
some of the key researchers, in Table 29.1.

Positive psychology coaching theory and research

Whilst there have been great strides taken in the academic study of each of the two felds
(CP and PP), there is currently little research about the integration itself.Although practi-
tioner-led initiatives generally outpace research, early studies are promising.
An early study explored the perceived value of positive psychology coaching on women
working in the fnancial services sector. Elston and Boniwell (2011) proposed that using
coaching to identify strengths and apply them in the workplace could lead to benefts
for the recipients and their organisations. In the same year, Spence and Oades argued
that integrating knowledge of self-determination theory (SDT) into coaching conversa-
tions would enhance “evidence-based” coaching practice (Spence and Oades, 2011). More
recently, Grant and O’Connor (2018) have shown that integrative approaches such as PPC
can be more effective than using PP or CP independently. In a qualitative study, Fouracres
and van Nieuwerburgh (2020) investigated the experience of clients who had received a
PPC intervention. Participants in this study reported that self-identifying strengths during

Table 29.1 Positive psychology theories and topics that are relevant for coaches

Area of focus Specifc topics Key researchers

Wellbeing theories Happiness, subjective wellbeing, Ed Diener, Carol Ryff, Sonja

psychological wellbeing Lyubomirsky
Strengths theories VIA character strengths, Clifton strengths Donald Clifton, Chris Peterson,Alex
fnder, strengths profle Linley
Emotion theories Positive emotions, mood as information, Barbara Fredrickson, Ed Diener, Lisa
broaden and build theory,“negative” Feldman-Barrett
emotions
Theories of future Hope, optimism, solution-focused, C.R. Snyder, Michael Scheier, Charles
focus appreciative inquiry Carver, Steve de Shazer, Insoo Kim
Berg, David Cooperrider
316 Christian van Nieuwerburgh and Robert Biswas-Diener
a coaching conversation was a positive, multifaceted experience that seemed instinctive. In
another qualitative study, Lucey and van Nieuwerburgh (2020) explored the experiences
of early career teachers facing challenging circumstances who receive PPC. In this study,
participants reported that PPC was a positive experience, one that validated their feelings
and helped them to make sense of their situations.

Positive psychology approach in practice

Perhaps the easiest way to understand the PP approach to working with clients and super-
visees is to recognise that it is a philosophy that guides professional attention, discussion,
and outcomes.We argue that there are three primary emphases that are native to the PP
mindset:

1. A focus on the positive. The PP mindset is one that – as its name implies – emphasises
the positive. It is well documented that people have a natural tendency to focus on
problems and to experience setbacks more strongly than they do progress (Rozin and
Royzman, 2011).The PP mindset attempts to counter this tendency by adding atten-
tion to strengths, resources and other positive aspects of life. More broadly, the PP
mindset focuses on wellbeing as opposed to illbeing.While acknowledging the reality
of hardships and struggles, those working with positive psychology seek to build peo-
ple’s capacities and help them fourish.
In this way, PP approaches bear more than a passing similarity to solutions-focused
approaches.Those working with a solutions focus often work by the adage, “it’s okay
to listen to problem talk, just don’t invite problem talk”. Solutions-focused coaching
uses a number of specifc tools to validate diffcult client experiences and then shift
the conversation toward positive, practical and future-focused planning. PP approaches
differ from those used in solutions-focused coaching, however, in that they might focus
more explicitly on client wellbeing and use a research-based vocabulary to identify and
discuss strengths, values and other positive topics.
Specifcally, those working with a PP approach would likely establish the foun-
dation of the working relationship by explicitly discussing this positive focus. They
would reassure clients and supervisees that struggles are inevitable but that they will
not be the exclusive focus of the working relationship. Instead, the practitioner creates
the expectation that there will be ample opportunity to explore positive aspects of life
and work.
2. An acknowledgment of the benefts of positive emotions.The benefts of positive emotion are
one of the most exciting fndings to emerge from positive psychology research.To date,
scientists have explored the consequences of experiencing frequent (but not intense)
positive feelings and found that they include social, healthy and work benefts (Kansky
and Diener, 2017).The relevance of this research to coaching and positive leadership is
twofold: First, it suggests an implicit agenda for the professional relationship – to cre-
ate goals and plans that will minimise (not eliminate) negative emotions and maximise
positive ones.We do not mean to suggest here that coaching with a positive psychol-
ogy orientation is license for the coach to usurp client agendas with an emphasis on
feeling good. Rather, we are suggesting that emotional experience will be a natural
part of almost any client agenda. Second, positive emotions can be harnessed during
coaching and management conversations themselves. For example, surprising a client
with an unusual question might disrupt their myopic focus on a complaint. Similarly,
 Positive psychology approaches to coaching 317
celebrating a client success might boost their joy and enthusiasm for tackling new
challenges.
At frst blush, boosting positive emotions in coaching and one-to-one man-
agement sessions may not seem unique to positive psychology. Indeed, popular
approaches to coaching such as the “Co-Active Model” explicitly encourage coaches
to accept, validate and explore emotions (Whitworth, Kinsey-House and Sandhal,
1998).While we agree that mood is an important channel of information, we argue
that it is negative emotions that provide more distinct units of information. The
exploration of negative feelings can yield important insights, but the PP approach
attempts to harness the in vivo experience of positive emotion. It should also be
noted that many coaches and managers are uneasy with doing so because A) they
believe that emotions are the domain of psychologists, B) are, themselves, uncom-
fortable with emotions, or C) do not know enough about emotions to strategically
induce or explore them.
3. An alignment with science as a way of knowing.A central concern of coaching and manage-
ment is improved knowledge (often self-knowledge).There are, of course, many ways
of knowing, including faith, intuition, personal experience and common wisdom.The
PP philosophy prioritises science as a unique and powerful method of knowing. The
empirical method is unique as a system of knowing in that it can establish causality,
generalise results with great accuracy and revise knowledge as new results emerge. PP
science, therefore, provides a large repository of theory, frameworks and specifc results
that might help guide PP practitioners in their work.
A caveat: Experienced coaches might express concern with the idea that coaches
know about the client or their circumstances even before a session. Indeed, most
approaches to coaching favour a “client as expert” perspective and we are no different.
We advocate an approach similar to the “local clinical scientist model” (Stricker and
Trierweiler, 1995).Although their model is specifc to the practice of psychotherapy, we
agree with their general argument that knowledge of general psychological processes
and phenomena can help professionals. Practitioners, including those aligning with PP,
can use this knowledge to form loose impressions about client issues that they then
explore, test and revise with information from the client.

Tools and techniques

As an applied science, PP has been able to inform coaching in many ways. Here, we discuss
assessments, activities and frameworks that can be used in PP approaches to coaching and
management.
Positive Assessment: Coaching has long relied on personality and similar types of assess-
ments to yield new insights and spark fruitful conversations with clients. Because PP is a
branch of science, researchers have spent decades creating psychometrically valid assess-
ments that can help us understand a wide range of positive phenomena. Many of these
assessments are relevant to coaching and are short, non-invasive and free to use. Formal
assessments also have the advantage of effciency:They ask dozens of questions in a short
span of time (Biswas-Diener, 2011).
We encourage those people using a PP approach to be strategic in their use of posi-
tive assessments. Rather than giving all assessments to every client, practitioners should
offer an assessment when it appears relevant to the client agenda and circumstances.
For instance, a client wrestling with emotional stress caused by a work–life imbalance
318 Christian van Nieuwerburgh and Robert Biswas-Diener
might be an appropriate candidate for an assessment that tracks emotional experi-
ence (e.g.The SPANE; Diener, et al., 2009) or the Purposeful Work Scale (Linley and
Biswas-Diener, 2009).
The results of positive assessments should be discussed in the coaching or management
session. Rather than positioning the coach as an expert who is interpreting the results for
the client, this conversation is an opportunity for the coach to ask questions about the
assessment. For example, a coach might ask “what was your initial reaction to the results of
this assessment?”,“how accurately do you feel the results of this assessment describe you?”
or “what will you do with the knowledge gained from this assessment?”. In each case, the
assessment is a springboard to personal insight and action.
Activities: Many coaching sessions are marked by structured and semi-structured activi-
ties.These include visioning exercises, card sorts, thought showers and similar activities to
augment self-knowledge, planning and goal-setting. As an applied science, PP has yielded
a number of such activities that may be successful in boosting client mood and creating a
positive frame of mind (Heekerens and Eid, 2020).
One example of such an activity is a short, free-writing exercise known as the “best
possible self ” exercise (Heekerens and Eid, 2020). Despite the name, this activity is not
about the perfect self but an opportunity for clients to imagine a near future in which
things have gone well and to describe this life and what has happened.This activity can be
modifed in many ways to make it more relevant to the client agenda. For example, you
might have the client focus on various spans of time such as imagining “the next year” or
“the next fve years”. Similarly, you might focus the client’s writing on her life in general
or encourage her to confne the writing to her work life.
Another example of a commonly used activity is the so-called “3 blessings” activity, in
which research participants have been asked to list aspects of their lives for which they are
appreciative (Heintzelman, et al., 2019). We do not recommend using this activity as an
off-the-shelf exercise but, rather, using it to guide a more naturalistic coaching conversa-
tion. For example, coaches might use questions to direct client attention to resources and
solutions by asking “what is going well in your life?”, “what are you appreciative of?” or
“how does taking time to appreciate the positives affect you?”.
Frameworks: Because PP research offers so many insights into such diverse, positive top-
ics, the results of these studies can be used as frames to guide and inform coaching con-
versations.These frameworks are too numerous to list here, but examples include distinct
curiosity profles (Kashdan, et al., 2018), optimal levels of happiness (Biswas-Diener and
Wiese, 2019) and an entire continuum of motivation (Sheldon, 2017).
Using the continuum of motivation as a single example, this framework can provide
a specifc vocabulary for identifying various types of motivation such as “identifed” and
“introjected”. Coaches can listen for hallmark features of these distinct motives to gain a
clearer and better-articulated understanding of the client. In addition, coaching questions
can be informed by this framework to produce questions such as “to what extent would
you do this if there were no external pressure to do so?” or “how much does this feel like
it is your goal?”.We argue that familiarity with frameworks for emotion, wellbeing, opti-
mism, motivation and strengths can help coaches develop and ask better questions.

When do positive psychology approaches work best?

It can be helpful to integrate PP tools and approaches into coaching and management
conversations to support the achievement of meaningful goals, the improvement of
 Positive psychology approaches to coaching 319
performance and the experience of wellbeing. Adopting a PP approach can be helpful in
a number of specifc situations:

(i) When it is necessary to increase engagement with the coaching process:

the coach can introduce a exercise to help the client identify their strengths which
can increase engagement.
(ii) When the client feels “stuck” and starts to doubt their ability to achieve the goal:
the coach can ask questions that increase hope (for example, those that direct
attention to personal infuence, past successes and relevant resources).
(iii) When greater alignment between values and actions is needed:
the coach can encourage the client to explore their deeper meaning and purpose.
(iv) When the goal does not seem to motivate the client:
the coach can listen and encourage the client to talk about goals which are aligned
with their values.
(v) When the pursuit of the goal is affecting the wellbeing of the client:
the coach can raise awareness of the apparent confict between goal and the cli-
ent’s wellbeing.

In general, a positive psychology approach is appropriate for most coaching conversations.

It is characterised by a heightened interest in the subjective wellbeing of the client and
reference to the factors that lead to unlocking human potential, thriving and fourishing.
Below we consider some possible questions that can be used to bring a positive psychol-
ogy approach to a coaching conversation.

Ten useful questions for positive psychology coaches

1. How can you use your strengths in this situation?
This question invites clients to consider how they can draw on their best selves,
think about past successes and use similar approaches to the challenges they face in the
present moment;
2. How do people react when you use this strength?
Like question one, this question is helpful when discussing effcacy. Simply ask-
ing this question will remind the client that they have existing strengths (and related
resources) that can be brought in to address challenges. Be careful not to subtly suggest
that using strengths will guarantee success.We recommend treating strengths use as an
experiment that the client can try to see how it works and then modify as appropriate.
Focusing on the reactions of others will support the client to calibrate her strengths to
match the context;
3. What motivates you?
4. How do you recover your motivation?
Questions 4 and 5 bring motivation into the conversation. Making changes requires
effort, so it is important for the client to be aware of their own level of motivation.
This can lead to discussion about whether they are driven by intrinsic or extrinsic
motivators.We recommend that you do not fall into the trap of believing (and then
communicating to the client) that intrinsic motivation is “good” and extrinsic moti-
vation is “bad”. Instead, validate the client’s current motivation and explore their
motivational preferences;
320 Christian van Nieuwerburgh and Robert Biswas-Diener
5. What do you most appreciate about the current situation?
6. Who supports you in this situation?
Questions 5 and 6 encourage clients to explore the positives within their cur-
rent situation, as opposed to defaulting to focusing on problems. Although problems,
obstacles and setbacks are urgent, it can also be helpful to appreciate the elements
that are working well (for example, drawing attention to the client’s existing support
networks).These factors can be lynchpins to feeling motivated and creating new, more
fexible plans to achieve goals;
7. What are you curious about?
8. What most surprises you?
If coaching is largely about engaging clients in self-directed learning, there is – per-
haps – no greater vehicle for doing so than curiosity. By asking about interest, surprise,
confusion and curiosity you can create the space for the client to guide the coaching
conversation in a personally satisfying way;
9. How are you feeling?
10. If this feeling had a voice, what would it be encouraging you to do?
Emotion is an important channel of information and is worth listening to.When
asking about feelings, we would recommend checking to ensure that the client’s
response is an emotion, rather than a thought. Coaches can ask a number of variations
of these questions, such as “how would you prefer to feel?” and “what might you need
to do to accomplish that?”.

Conclusion
The PP approach is exciting for many reasons. First, because of its emphasis on the positive,
many clients and supervisees prefer it.They generally enjoy being recognised for authentic
strengths and focusing on progress in addition to problems. Second, the empirical nature
of PP means that many of the tools used in this approach have been tested widely. That
said, practitioners using a PP approach must always work with clients to determine the
appropriateness of PP results to the local situation.Third, because it is grounded in science,
the knowledge base is dynamic.This can be particularly exciting for practitioners because
it gives them the opportunity (and responsibility) to evolve their own knowledge and skill.
Finally, there are thousands of researchers investigating hundreds of positive psychological
phenomena.This means that there is a huge sweep of insights and tools emerging from PP
that are relevant to many aspects of coaching and management.

References
Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). Practicing positive psychology coaching: Assessment, activities, and strategies for success.
New York: John Wiley.
Biswas-Diener, R. and Dean, B. (2007). Positive psychology coaching: Putting the science of happiness to work for
your clients. New York: John Wiley.
Biswas-Diener, R. (2011). Positive psychology as social change. New York: Springer.
Biswas-Diener, R., & Wiese, C. W. (2018). Optimal levels of happiness. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay
(Eds.), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers.
Boniwell, I. and Tunariu,A. (2019). Positive psychology:Theory, research and applications, 2nd editon. London:
Open University Press.
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S. and Biswas-Diener, R. (2009). ‘New
measures of well-being: Flourishing and positive and negative feelings’. Social Indicators Research, 39,
pp. 247–266.
 Positive psychology approaches to coaching 321
Elliot, A.J. and Friedman, R. (2007). ‘Approach-avoidance: A central characteristic of personal goals’.
In B.R. Little, K. Salmela-Aro and S.D. Phillips, eds., Personal project pursuit: Goals, actions, and human
fourishing. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 97–118.
Elston, F. and Boniwell, I. (2011).‘A grounded theory study of the value derived by women in fnancial
services through a coaching intervention to help them identify their strengths and practice using them
in the workplace’. International Coaching Psychology Review, 6(1), pp. 16–32.
Fouracres, A. and van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2020). ‘The lived experience of self-identifying character
strengths through coaching: An interpretative phenomenological analysis’. International Journal of
Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 18(1), pp. 43–56.
Grant, A.M. and O’Connor, S.A. (2018). ‘Broadening and building solution-focused coaching: Feeling
good is not enough’. Coaching:An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 11(2), pp. 165–185.
Green, S. and Palmer, S. (2019). Positive psychology coaching in practice. Abingdon: Routledge.
Heekerens, J. B., and Eid, M. (2020). ‘Inducing positive affect and positive future expectations using the
best-possible-self intervention: A systematic review and meta-analysis’. Journal of Positive Psychology.
Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2020.1716052.
Heintzelman, S.J., Kushlev, K., Lutes, L.D.,Wirtz, D., Kanippayoor, J.M., Leitner, D., Oishi, S. and Diener,
E. (2019).‘Enhance: Evidence for the effcacy of a comprehensive intervention program to promote
subjective well-being’. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 26(2), pp. 360-383. doi: 10.1037/
xap0000254.
Kansky, J. and Diener, E. (2017).‘Benefts of well-being: Health, social relationships, work, and resilience’.
Journal of Positive Psychology and Wellbeing, 1(2), pp. 129–169.
Kashdan, T., Sticksma, M., Disabato, D., McKnight, P., Bekier, J., Kaji, J. and Lazarus, R. (2018). ‘The
fve-dimensional curiosity scale: Capturing the bandwidth of curiosity and identifying four unique
subgroups of curious people’. Journal of Research in Personality, 73, pp. 130–149.
Kauffman, C. (2006).‘Positive psychology:The science at the heart of coaching’. In D.R. Stober and A.M.
Grant, eds., Evidence based coaching handbook: Putting best practices to work for your clients. Hoboken:Wiley,
pp. 219–253.
Kauffman, C., Boniwell, I. and Silberman, J. (2009). ‘The positive psychology approach to coaching’. In
E. Cox, T. Bachkirova and D. Clutterbuck, eds., The complete handbook of coaching, London: Sage, pp.
158–171.
Lucey, C. and van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2020). ‘More willing to carry on in the face of adversity: How
beginner teachers facing challenging circumstances experience positive psychology coaching’.
Coaching:An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 13(2), pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.10
80/17521882.2020.1753791.
Passmore, J. and Oades, L.G. (2014).‘Positive psychology coaching – A model for coaching practice’. The
Coaching Psychologist, 10(2), pp. 68–70.
Rozin, P. and Royzman, E. (2001).‘Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion’. Personality and
Social Psychology Review, 5, pp. 296–320.
Sheldon, K., Osin, E.N., Gordeeva, T.O., Suchkov, D.D. and Sychev, O. (2017). ‘Evaluating the
dimensionality of self-determination theory’s relative autonomy continuum’. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 43, pp. 1215–1238.
Spence, G.B. and Oades, L.G. (2011).‘Coaching with self-determination in mind: Using theory to advance
evidence-based coaching practice’. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 9(2),
pp. 37–55.
Stricker, G. and Treirweiler, S.J. (1995).‘The local clinical scientist model: A bridge between science and
practice’. American Psychologist, 50, pp. 995–1001.
Van Nieuwerburgh, C. Lomas T. and Burke, J. (2018). Integrating coaching and positive psychology:
Concepts and practice. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory Research and Practice, 11(2), pp. 99-101.
30 Developing an integrated approach
to coaching
Jonathan Passmore

Introduction
In this chapter we will be exploring the idea of integration. Integration involves drawing
together, in a formal way, the different coaching approaches you use in your practice to
form a single holistic model. I have argued elsewhere in this book that coaches should
seek to move beyond a single model or framework, to blend different approaches, fexing
their approach to meet the needs of the individual client and the specifc presenting issue,
as well as working with models and approaches which ft their personal values, beliefs and
strengths.The chapter starts by exploring what is meant by integration, before arguing the
case for integration.Thirdly, I will examine one example of an integrated model and how
this can be applied with clients. The chapter closes by noting that there is no one best
model for integration. Instead, each coach should, through practice, refection and training
seek to formulate their own approach, which synthesises their knowledge and is appropri-
ate for their clients and the cultural context in which they work.

What is integration in coaching?

Integration involves bringing together the different approaches and models we use, in a
considered and planned way, which allows the coach to be able to describe their frame-
work, including what assumptions it is based on and how they make choices about which
approach they use and when.
An integrated model is more than a collection of different approaches, it describes why
the coaches have brought them together in this way and how they use the model with cli-
ents and presenting issues.As an analogy, it’s the difference between musicians playing their
music by themselves in different rooms and an orchestra playing a symphony together,
with each instrument having a specifc function, coming in and out as the score demands.
Each individual instrument is lost, and what the listener hears is the music.

The benefts of integration

Research into the practices of experienced coaches has suggested that experienced coaches
often use a specifc label to describe what they did; for example “cognitive-behavioural
coaching” or “psychodynamic coaching”. But a detailed examination of their reported
behaviours suggested that experienced coaches use a wide range of behaviours which
are drawn from a diverse range of different approaches.Thus, experienced coaches might
maintain a distinct identity, while their actual practice suggests integration from diverse
perspectives (Passmore, 2006).
 Developing an integrated approach 323
Some writers in coaching (Kilburg, 2004) have argued that there is no difference
between different approaches and that, in the end we will fnd, like the Caucus Race
in Alice in Wonderland, where the competitors can run in any direction, that all will
have prizes. However, the evidence from therapy suggests this is not always the case (see
Cooper, 2008).When all presenting issues are combined, there is a similarity between dif-
ferent approaches, but when presenting issues are categorised; for example, into anxiety,
drug addiction or bereavement, some types of presenting problem may be better tackled
by specifc approaches.
Apart from adjusting to meet the challenges of a specifc type of presenting problem,
it may also be benefcial if the coach adapts to meet specifc client needs. Every client has
their own biases and personal preferences, and by adjusting our approach as the coach, we
can work in ways which meet our clients’ world view or personal preferences.
In the following section I will describe one way of drawing together different approaches.

Integrative coaching explained

In this section of the book we have offered a range of different approaches, from GROW
and psychodynamic coaching to person-centred and beyond. But how can a coach draw
on each of these and create an integrative approach, allowing them to fex and adapt to
individual clients and individual situations?
The integrative model described below is one way of doing this, consisting of six
streams that fow together.The frst two streams are concerned with relationship.The next
four streams focus on behaviours, emotions, cognitions and physiological sensations.The
seventh stream focuses on the system in which the client, and the coach, are working. An
overview of the model is provided in Figure 28.1.

Streams 1 and 2:The coaching partnership

Before any coaching to enhance performance or develop personal insights can begin, the
coach needs to build a working relationship with the client.The coach–client relationship
is the foundation stone of effective coaching.Without a frm foundation, progress cannot
be achieved, as the coach is less likely to be open, trusting or willing to take the cognitive
risks that enable coaching to be the effective intervention (see Chapter 2 of this book:The
business case for coaching).
It is this work in building the relationship that I have called Stream 1 (developing the
relationship).To create this relationship, the coach needs to actively engage with the cli-
ent, providing a space where the client feels heard and understood ( see Chapter 7 of this
book:The Coaching relationship. However, once established, this work on the relationship
cannot stop, although less effort may be needed.
What are the key ingredients to create an effective working relationship? This question
has in part already been answered by writers within the counselling tradition, such as Carl
Rogers (1961). Rogers suggested that a series of elements need to be in place for a suc-
cessful “therapeutic alliance” to be formed.These relationship elements are of importance
to any work with individuals in the consulting world. However, the creation of an intimate
and trusting relationship in coaching demands a stronger investment in the relationship by
the coach than in a relationship to deliver training or consulting.
During the early part of the coaching relationship, the client evaluates the coach: Do I
trust him or her? Do I like him or her? Do I value what he or she is offering me? If the
324 Jonathan Passmore
client reaches a conclusion that he or she does trust, like and value the coach, the real work
can start. However, if the client reaches the conclusion that they do not trust or value the
coach, it is unlikely any real progress will be made.
Carl Rogers’ provided an excellent starting point to help in the formation of a coach-
ing partnership through necessary and suffcient conditions.These may be summarised as:

• Positive self-regard;
• Unconditional positive;
• Empathy;
• Non-judgemental mind;
• Congruence;
• Non-possessive warmth.

Once a relationship has been formed, the role of the coach is to maintain this relationship.
The maintenance of the relationship is the second stream, and fows on directly from the
work of building the relationship. To maintain the relationship, an effective coach needs
to pay attention to three further aspects: His or her own emotions and behaviours, the
emotions and behaviours of the client and adapting his or her own behavioural responses
appropriately to remain professionally detached while offering personal intimacy. These
components make up the building blocks of emotional intelligence (Caruso and Salovey,
2004; Stein and Book, 2000).
In addition to emotional intelligence, the highly effective coach also needs to consider
and manage transference and counter-transference issues. These aspects are of particular
importance in the executive boardroom where power and role modelling are key features.
However, these aspects can be relevant to the close working relationship between any
coach and client.These two aspects, building and maintaining the relationship, form a ring
around the four remaining streams.Without this coaching partnership, the coach is unable
to begin to work in the three streams that will facilitate change and enable the develop-
ment of fresh insights.

Stream 3: Behavioural focus

Having formed a working relationship, and while continuing to manage and maintain this
relationship, the coach and their client can turn their attention to the coaching task.This
involves working in one of fve streams: Behavioural, conscious cognitions, unconscious
cognitions physiological sensations and systemic.
The frst of these involves behavioural coaching.Whatever the coach’s theoretical ori-
entation, a focus on external behaviour and how this is developed is a central feature of
almost all coaching relationships.The focus here is on developing enhanced behavioural
responses. The most popular example is the ubiquitous GROW model. The model ini-
tially developed by John Whitmore, Graham Alexander and Alan Fine (Whitmore, 2017;
Alexander and Renshaw, 2005) has been developed and adapted by many coaching writ-
ers (Skiffngton and Zeus, 2003).
GROW is a four-step coaching model (see Chapter 17 of this book: Behavioural
coaching), and has traditionally been viewed as a non-psychological problem-solving
model.The frst of the steps is the identifcation of a goal.The second is a review of the
current reality, the third a consideration of options and the fourth a conclusion and the
 Developing an integrated approach 325
agreement on a way forward.There is considerable debate about the nature of goals, and
this is covered in more detail elsewhere in this book.
The behavioural approach is of greatest value when the client brings a skills-based
problem, or where there is a direct relationship between cause and effect (Snowden and
Boone, 2007). Examples might involve:“How can I improve my skills in presenting to an
audience?” or “How should I prepare for a job interview next week?”
However, using a single approach limits the coach’s ability to facilitate change, where
the problem is chaotic or involves emotions and cognitions. In reality, most problems
involve a cognitive element, although the client may not recognise this or want to work in
that stream.The coach in these cases thus needs to draw on other approaches.

Stream 4: Conscious cognition

The effective coach, having established the relationship and explored behaviours, is able
to explore the cognitive patterns that sit behind the visible behaviours. In this stream,
the coach will typically draw upon cognitive behavioural techniques, initially developed
by Beck (1991) and Ellis (1998) but adapted by coaches (see Chapter 20 of this book:
Cognitive-behavioural coaching) to make them more suitable for the work of the coach
than the counsellor.
Cognitive-based coaching has become one of the most popular coaching approaches
(see Passmore, Brown and Csigas, 2017) and forms an integral part of this integrated model.
The coach might typically begin to explore thought patterns when they judged that
the client was displaying or holding irrational thoughts that might inhibit successful per-
formance, or they have already explored behaviourally based solutions. Such irrational
thoughts might be harsh judgements about themselves or judgements of their current
or future abilities.The key feature is that the judgement is irrational, that is, it is not sub-
stantiated by facts. One danger is that “irrational” is confused with “negative”. As a result,
the coach seeks to help the client challenge all negative views or perspectives.This is not
cognitive-behavioural coaching and is unlikely to be an effective intervention.
This stream shares many of the principles that are applied to the other four streams:
A dynamic, collaborative process between the coach and client, a focus on the future
and on moving towards solutions and a focus on an agreed goal. Each of these princi-
ples is important to maintaining the working relationship and using coaching in a way
that builds the client’s ability to become a self-sustaining learner, rather than increas-
ing his or her dependence on the coach. The central concept within this stream is
encouraging the client to identify the irrational beliefs and then helping to challenge
them. This two-stage process is supported through the diverse range of cognitive-
behavioural and rational emotive behavioural techniques used within counselling.
However, these need to be grounded within the appropriate context or focus of the
coaching relationship.

Stream 5: Unconscious cognition

Some are less aware of their thoughts and emotions and how these may be infuencing
their lives and those around them. The coach may need to work with these “uncon-
scious” cognitions. They may be deeply hidden and require work within the psychody-
namic tradition (see Chapter 22 of this book: Psychodynamic coaching), they may be
326 Jonathan Passmore
related to past traumas and the coach may need to draw upon approaches such as EMDR
(Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing), which can be a valuable intervention
(Foster and Lendl, 1996). Or they may be motivational in nature, where the coach’s role
is to help clients connect with their values and through these to generate the intrinsic
motivation to act, using a motivational interviewing approach (Miller and Rollnick, 2002;
Passmore, 2014).

Streams 6 and 7: Physiological sensations and systemic

The last two streams that the coach and client work within are with the body and the
wider system web of the client.This web is partly obvious, and is refected in role, team,
organisational and sector cultures. It is also less obvious and expressed by the national cul-
tural context and its expression in this moment in history.
While few clients give adequate consideration to their cultural context or how those
factors shape their behaviour and how others judge them, it is important to bring them
to light and consider which parts of the web can be controlled (few), which parts can be
infuenced (some) and which parts need to be accepted (most).
The body too can provide a fruitful element for exploration, helping in our exploration
of feelings, as well as supporting the client’s development their personal impact.

When does integrative coaching work best?

It can be argued that the integrative model has almost universal application within the
coaching environment, as it is a blend of different approaches which the coach is selecting.
The choice of each approach is based on their client, the presenting issues and what the
coach believes is going to be of most help at this stage of the coaching assignment.
However, I believe what is also important is that each coach, taking account of the
research evidence of effective interventions, develops their own coach model of integra-
tion.What may be most effective for an coach working in a careers or educational context,
may work less well in leadership or team coaching.What may work well in a Nordic or
Northern European sales organisation culture, may be less well suited to a Middle Eastern
public sector organisation culture.
Finally, integrative coaching may seem like a silver bullet. However, coaching is not
the solution for all individual or organisational issues. Some clients may need consulting
advice, others may beneft from therapy, while others still may simply need to attend a
training course.
The reality is that an integrated approach is simply a series of evidence-based approaches
that have been blended together. Arguably, most experienced coaches probably do this
already, and integrated coaching simply describes what they are doing.
This specifc integrative model has its areas of weakness, refecting its development
within the executive coaching arena.The frst of these weaknesses is that the model lacks a
spiritual element.The desire to deepen one’s spiritual self is a healthy and arguably central
aspect of life.Where this is an explicit goal of the client, the coach would be better advised
to work with models such as the transpersonal model (Einzig and Whitmore, 2016), the
Islamic Ershad model (van Nieuwerburgh and Allaho, 2017) or a Christian framework
(Collins, 2010). A second weakness of the model is that it assumes that coaching is goal
focused. Again, this is an outcome of its executive coaching focus. However, if the client
 Developing an integrated approach 327
is seeking a more general exploration of his or her experience of life and the future, a dif-
ferent framework may be better suited to achieve this objective.

Tools and techniques

The integrated approach blends together a range of different approaches and employs the
tools and techniques which are commonly used in each of these approaches. In behav-
ioural coaching this includes goal-setting and creative approaches to generating alternative
options. In cognitive issues, it uses tools such as visualisation, disputation and self-compas-
sion. In the unconscious stream it may use transference and counter transference, as well
as tools drawn from MI such as the decisional balance sheet and encouraging-change talk.
Finally, at the systemic level, it may encourage the client to consider alternative stakehold-
ers, as well as individuals who may be forgotten but can have a signifcant negative impact.

Ten useful questions for integrated coaches

In using the integrated model described in this chapter, readers can turn to questions from
each of the relevant chapters, but we have included 10 possible questions here.

1. What do you want to achieve?

This is a typical question for use within the behavioural GROW model.The aim of
the question is to help the client to explicitly state their goal. Frequently, less experi-
enced coaches take at face value the frst statement and move on. It is worth the coach
spending some time unpicking both the longer-term aim, as well as considering what
would be a successful outcome for the session.
2. What is happening?
This question aims to help the client refect on their current situation. How close or
far are they from their goal? What have they tried? What might be holding them back?
In exploring the reality, the less experienced coach can be tempted to accept at face
value what the client frst describes. It can be helpful for the coach to challenge and
probe, encouraging the client to think more deeply about the situation and develop
new insights about their current reality.
3. What options do you think there are?
Exploring options is a valuable process in all coaching. As coaches we believe the
client already has the answers to help them move closer to the outcome they want. But
to do this the coach can help in providing both permission and space for the client to
think in fresh and new ways. Sometimes the coach simply needs to get out of the way
while the client thinks. On other occasions, they need to inject the chemicals for a
creative reaction, to allow new insights to emerge.
4. Can you summarise what you are going to do and by when?
This question is concerned with action planning. The question encourages clients
to take responsibility for reviewing their process, summarising what has been discussed
and to formally state what they intend to do. In listening, the coach can also encourage
the client to consider what barriers they anticipate, as well as which allies and support-
ers they can call upon and who they would like to hold them to account. Having an
‘A-team’ of such supporters outside of the coach–client relationship can be an impor-
tant factor in helping clients to make progress (McKenna and Davis, 2009).
328 Jonathan Passmore
5. How would your boss, mentor or colleague see this situation?
This question encourages the client to begin to explore the issue or challenge that
he or she faces from a number of different perspectives. Often an issue looks to be an
insurmountable problem to us, but when considered from the perspective of another
person, either solutions can be found or a deeper understanding of the issue can be
gained.A parallel type of question is asking the client to consider the challenge as if he
or she were a famous person. For a management issue, the coach may ask the client to
consider how Sheryl Sandberg would deal with the problem, followed by a question
on how Ronald Reagan would deal with the challenge. For a relationship issue, the
coach might select two different characters offering different perspectives: Margaret
Thatcher and Nelson Mandela. Initially, the client may laugh, or provide a fippant
remark, but the coach needs to encourage the client to consider the issue fully from
this perspective for insight to be gained.
6. I would like you to close your eyes and describe to me what would happen
if the event went perfectly?
This visualisation technique gets clients to engage with a visualisation, explore
what they see and, with follow-up questions, what they feel, smell and think. Evidence
has shown in the sports psychology arena that visualisation not only builds self-con-
fdence but also creates physical changes in the brain structure that aid subsequent
muscle movement and thus enhances performance.
7. Can you describe for me a typical day?
The question encourages the client to describe (in detail) their day, and through
this process identify triggers that can lead to unhelpful behaviours, thoughts or feel-
ings.The links between such triggers and the behaviours are often outside of the cli-
ent’s immediate awareness and, in this sense, the question (drawn from motivational
interviewing) is part of working with unconscious cognitions.
8. Tell me more about how making the change will help you with your dream
to become X?
This question forms part of encouraging-change talk (drawn from motivational
interviewing). The belief being that, once the client has talked about their beliefs
and values, the coach can encourage both the motivation and a belief in making
the change by encouraging the client to talk more about the positive aspects of the
change in addition to the negative aspects of staying as they are. However, in doing
so, the coach needs to be respectful that the client will have good reasons for staying
as they are and sees risks in making the change. If the coach does not acknowledge
these, the client can feel as if they have not been heard, thus a balance needs to be
struck, but one which is in favour of change, if this is what the client has expressed
as their goal.
9. How would others, such as your partner or family, be affected?
This question, also from motivational interviewing, using the balance sheet tech-
nique.The coach may be exploring with clients the costs and benefts of their behav-
iour. Clients can underestimate the effect of their behaviour on others, and thus fail
to include this in the calculation. The coach can focus the client’s attention on this
through the question and often build up the costs side of the equation for the client.
10. What would the 13th Fairy have to say about your plan?
This question is drawn from systemic thinking.The 13th Fairy is a character in
“Sleeping Beauty” who is forgotten and, when they arrive at the celebration, they
 Developing an integrated approach 329
case a spell to send everyone to sleep as they are so angry at having been forgot-
ten in the haste of the invitations. Who is the stakeholder, character or agent that
the client has neglected, but whose opinion (or actions) could derail the plans? In
a multiple stakeholder, inter-connected world, connections are not always easy to
see, and thus careful thought about the 13th Fairy can ensure the wider system is
brought into the room and unintended consequences can be included in scenario
planning.

Conclusion
In this chapter I have explored the idea of integration, synthesising different approaches
to create a whole. I have argued that having a range of different models, approaches and
frameworks will mean the coach is better able to serve their client as they can change
and adapt. However, the model presented here is just one way of integrating different
approaches. I would encourage each coach to develop their own model or philosophy of
coaching, which is evidence-based, refects their values and beliefs and is also consistent
with the organisational and national cultural context in which they work.

References
Alexander, G. and Renshaw, B. (2005). Super coaching:The missing ingredient for high performance. London:
Random House Business Books.
Beck, A. (1991). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.
Caruso, D. and Salovey, P. (2004). The emotionally intelligent manager: How to develop and use the four key
emotional skills of leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Collins, G. (2010). Christian coaching. Colorado Springs: NavPress.
Cooper, M. (2008). Essential research fndings in counselling and psychotherapy. London: Sage.
Ellis, A. (1998). The practice of rational emotive behavioural therapy. London: Free Association Books.
Einzig, H. and Whitmore, J. (2016).‘Transpersonal coaching’. In J. Passmore, ed., Excellence in coaching, 3rd
edition. London: Kogan Page.
Foster, S. and Lendl, J. (1996).‘Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Four case studies of a new
tool for executive coaching and restoring employee performance after setbacks’. Consulting Psychology
Journal: Practice & Research, 48(3), pp. 155–161.
Kilburg, R.R. (2004). ‘Trudging toward Dodoville conceptual approaches in executive coaching’.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 56(4), pp. 203–213.
Locke, E. and Latham, G. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall.
McKenna, D. and Davis, S. (2009). ‘Hidden in plain sight:The active ingredients of executive coaching.’
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2, pp. 244–260.
Miller,W.R. and Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change, 2nd edition, New
York: Guilford Press.
Passmore, J. (2006).‘Coaching psychology: Applying an integrated approach in education’. The Journal of
Leadership in Public Services, 2(2), pp. 27–33.
Passmore, J. (2014). Motivational interviewing, pp. 283–311. In J. Passmore (ed) Mastery in coaching: A
complete psychological toolkit for advanced coaching. London: Kogan Page.
Passmore, J., Brown, H. and Csigas, Z. (2017). The state of play in European coaching and mentoring: Executive
report. Henley: EMCC and Henley Business School.
Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
Skiffngton, S. and Zeus, P. (2003). Behavioural coaching: How to build sustainable personal and organizational
strength. New York: McGraw-Hill.
330 Jonathan Passmore
Snowden, D. and Boone, M.E. (2007). ‘A leader’s framework for decision making’. Harvard Business
Review. Retrieved on 30 March 2020 from https://hbr.org/2007/11/a-leaders-framework-for-deci
sion-making.
Stein, S. and Book, H. (2000). The EQ edge: Emotional intelligence and your success. Toronto: MHS.
Whitmore, J. (2017). Coaching for performance:The principles and practice of coaching and leadership, 5th edition.
London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
van Nieuwerburgh, C. and Allaho, R. (2017). Coaching in Islamic culture:The principles and practice of Ershad.
London: Karnac.
Section 5

Coaching issues
31 Ethics in coaching
Ioanna Iordanou and Rachel Hawley

Introduction
Coaching is a developmental intervention based on conversations that foster curiosity and
courage, through mutual respect, to lead to new understandings and the opportunity to
fourish. Done well, it offers individuals a safe space to think, refect and take responsibil-
ity for the actions that will help them develop and achieve their intended goals. In this
developmental process, the coach’s role is pivotal. Indeed, it is the coach’s ability to listen
attentively, to ask good, refection-provoking questions and facilitate a structured discus-
sion, which enables the client to fully consider their options, to fnd curiosity, courage and
responsibility for their ensuing actions. An effective coach, however, is not only a skilled
practitioner but an ethical practitioner; someone who consciously places their values and
ethics to the forefront – rather than the background – of their professional practice, in
their effort to constantly develop and maintain a consciously active ethical mind-set for
the beneft of their practice, their clients and the coaching profession as a whole. In this
chapter we will explore the nature of ethics, the role of ethics in coaching and how
coaches can enhance their ethical practice.

The nature of ethics in coaching

During the course of their coaching practice, from novice to expert, every coach is required
to make decisions that hold ethical implications. Such decisions involve issues on what
is morally right or wrong, ranging from the mundane to the gravely serious. Accepting a
dinner invitation from a client with whom we have developed a cordial and trusting rela-
tionship, or breaking confdentiality when a client shows symptoms of self-harm, are just
two examples of such ethical considerations that can test one’s convictions of what actions
are morally justifable, or unjustifable. Ethics, therefore, is an integral aspect of coaching,
since it determines a coach’s decisions and actions, as dictated by their values and beliefs.
As Allard de Jong (2010) aptly put it, ethics is the practice that determines what is good
or bad, right or wrong. Accordingly, ethics dictate “actual rules, codes, and principles of
conduct” (Beckett, Maynard and Jordan, 2017, p. 16).
Historically, the concept and practice of ethics can be traced back to ancient Greek
philosophers such as Socrates (c. 470–399 BC), Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BC) and Aristotle
(384–322 BC). For Socrates, moderation was a key determinant of ethical behaviour, while
Plato prioritised the denial of bodily pleasure, advocating that happiness (eudemonia)
could be achieved by living a life of virtue (arete).Aristotle also advocated pursuing a life
334 Ioanna Iordanou and Rachel Hawley
of virtue but, contrary to Plato, who considered knowing what is good (i.e. wisdom) to
be suffcient to achieve happiness, he claimed that knowing what is good is inadequate
without practising good (Crisp, 2013). These early scholastic views on what is morally
right or wrong paved the way for the development of moral philosophy, with three pre-
vailing branches: Deontological ethics, stemming from the doctrines of Immanuel Kant
(1724–1804), who situated reason at the core of morality, placing emphasis on one’s sense
of duty and obligation; utilitarian ethics, premised in the writings of David Hume (1711–
1776), Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Milll (1806–1873), who emphasised
the maximisation of utility for the beneft of society; and virtue ethics, which dictate that
the “rightness” or “wrongness” of an action is determined by the virtues that enable an
individual to grow and develop (see, for instance, Hursthouse, 1999).We have summarised
in Table 31.1 some of the common ethical perspectives which have been developed over
the past 2,000 years.
An important aspect of moral philosophy is professional ethics. Professional ethics is
a rapidly developing discipline informed by several strands of social sciences and the law.
Ethical practice is manifest in a set of values that prioritise an ethical professional conduct,
constituting “an integral part of professional identity” (Bond, 2015, p. 47).The most elabo-
rately developed type of professional ethics are medical ethics, primarily due to the long
history and ethos of the discipline of medicine that necessitated the combination of ethical
and technical issues in the training and practice of physicians (Dunn, 2018). Medical ethics
have signifcantly infuenced the development of ethical standards in other relevant “help-
ing” professions, such as counselling and psychotherapy (Bond, 2015), creating a consensus
of morally acceptable behaviour that transcends professional activities and encompasses all
aspects of human interactions (Brennan and Wildfower, 2018).
From a practical perspective, in coaching, ethical principles determine the virtue of
helping clients, focusing on their needs and interests, honouring trust and confdentiality
and promoting individual autonomy (de Jong, 2006).Yet, unlike other relevant “helping”
professions, such as counselling and psychotherapy, social work, nursing and even medi-
cine, which are subjected to intense regulatory scrutiny, coaching continues to remain
largely unregulated.As a result, ethical standards of professional practice are primarily self-
imposed and no coach is obliged to comply with any specifc code of ethics, unless they
wish to do so.Accordingly, as Jonathan Passmore (2009, p. 8) aptly explained:

Table 31.1 Summary of the essence of coaching ethics

Ethical decisions involve what is morally right or wrong.

Values are a set of personal principles that guide our behaviour and, more often than not, they clash.
Ethics are moral principles that determine whether our actions are “good” or “bad”,“right” or
“wrong”.
In coaching, ethical standards of professional practice are self-imposed and no coach is obliged to
comply with any specifc code of ethics.
Several professional coaching associations have produced their own codes of ethics that have both
similarities and differences in their ethical priorities.
Codes of ethics do not ensure best practice in coaching, as they cannot guarantee a solution to every
ethical problem a coach is faced with in practice.
Constant exposure to ethical issues in practice and conscious refection on them will help you develop
your ethical maturity.
(adapted from Iordanou et al., 2017: 26)
 Ethics in coaching 335
Most coaches, in most cases, are ethical pluralists, who hold to a few solid principles,
but for most of what they do they consider the circumstances of the situation and
consider the motives and situations of the characters involved to help them reach a
decision about the course of action to follow.

To be sure of building an ethical coaching practice,“a few solid principles” are inadequate
to safeguard ethical standards, especially considering the widely unregulated landscape in
coaching. It is due to lack of regulation that codes of ethics have been deemed crucial for
the discipline of coaching (Iordanou et al., 2017; Brennan and Wildfower, 2018). Generally
speaking, codes of ethics provide a widely acknowledged set of guidelines against which
coaches and clients can measure a coach’s performance and evaluate their practice for
continuous development and improvement. Moreover, as coaching is still not universally
recognised as a legitimate, stand-alone profession, codes of ethics allow it to move away
from “pseudo-credentialising mills” (Grant and Cavanagh, 2004, p. 2) (Table 31.2).
It is important to note that while the various professional coaching bodies operate
independently from each other, their “codes of ethics” or “codes of conduct” bear sev-
eral similarities. A useful list of the primary ethical priorities and responsibilities of the
three major professional coaching associations (the International Coaching Federation
[ICF], the European Mentoring and Coaching Council [EMCC] and the Association for
Coaching [AC]) has been compiled by Ives and Cox (2014). Nevertheless, some caution
needs to be exercised when using professional associations’ codes of ethics to base our
ethical decisions on. This is because, while codes of ethics can provide some excellent
guidance on building an ethical coaching practice, they lack the fexibility to allow for the
complexity and ambiguity of real-world dilemmas.

Why do ethics matter in coaching?

In coaching, it is important to develop our understanding of how we make choices and
take decisions in our practice (Law et al., 2007, p. 196).We describe this as a moral compass

Table 31.2 Why are ethics important in coaching?

Ethical moments can enhance our personal and professional development – they alert us to what is
morally right or wrong.
Coaching takes place across diverse professional contexts. Coaching ethically draws on many felds of
knowledge, which are refected in different genres/models, which provide a rich pallet from which
coaches can draw according to the coaching context.
Our coaching practice is governed by understanding of our personal and professional values –
understanding our personal and professional values is a purposeful process that can be viewed as
a continuum, from refection to refexivity. Beyond this, external factors – institutional, social and
political – can interfere with our personal values and infuence our coaching decisions and actions.
A stance for enquiry can help pave the way towards the professionalisation of coaching.This requires us
to understand how we view and construct knowledge as there are different perspectives for doing so;
we call these research paradigms.
Ethical moments are always present.Thus, ethical coaching is not about fnding solutions, but rather
creating the conditions, through coaching conversations, that permeate the coaching relationship and
bring underlying ethical issues to the surface.
Ongoing refection on ethical issues that arise in the coaching practice helps build ethical maturity.
Refection, critical thinking, supervision and continuous professional development are some of the
ways that can fne-tune our ethical maturity.
336 Ioanna Iordanou and Rachel Hawley
to guide us (Iordanou et al., 2017). Our values, our technical knowledge and our coach-
ing experience can take the form of such a compass to guide our coaching practice.
However, such characteristics are rarely challenged and questioned (Bolton, 2014, p. 22).
We share the perspective held by David Clutterbuck that “unethical and illegal behaviour
in organisations rarely happens because people, as individuals or a group of people, set out
to do wrong. Rather it starts with small breeches and gradually grows in scope and scale”
(Clutterbuck, 2013).Therefore, to become truly ethical as a coach, it is frst necessary for
us to step outside of our selves; to be prepared to share our experiences with others and
to challenge our assumptions and beliefs (Iordanou et al., 2017).Against this backdrop, we
suggest that engaging in the development of an ethical coaching practice stimulates a kind
of critical self-dialogue, which is necessary to understand our personal and professional
values within our coaching context with greater awareness.
Words such as “good”,“bad”,“right” and “wrong”, which are often used when we dis-
cuss one’s coaching practice, frame our understanding of coaching ethics (Iordanou et al.,
2017).A variety of terms are used interchangeably, sometimes with little or no agreement,
often concerning values and ethics.We view ethical coaching practice as a “way of being”
(van Nieuwerburgh, 2014, p. 150), a term “which” was frst introduced by the infuential
humanist psychologist Carl Rogers, who was the founder of the person-centred approach.
His approach was premised on two fundamental beliefs: that people are their own best
excerpts; and that people have the ability to realise their full potential (Rogers, 1980).
Many coaches consider Rogers’ writing on person-centred approaches, the cornerstone
of the coaching practice (Thomson, 2009, pp. 139, 151–60). Despite the passing of time,
this still infuences the way coaches see and work with clients across professional coaching
contexts.
The investment of time to develop understanding of our personal and professional val-
ues can help to both identify and address ethical issues and moments of choices. Consistent
with Christian Van Nieuwerburgh (2014), our focus is on making the “right” decisions
during coaching conversations. As a coach, whether new or seasoned, it is inevitable that
you will be faced with “ethical moments of choice”. It is important to be able to recognise
these moments by developing the kind of critical consciousness that grows from under-
standing “self ” and our personal values. Just as Christian Van Nieuwerburg (2014) and
Allard de Jong (2010), we are drawn to the term “ethical choice” as an alternative term to
that of “ethical dilemma”.We use this because “dilemma” may bring a negative feeling to
critically important moments in the coaching conversation. In contrast, the term “ethical
moment” shifts this perspective. By virtue, framing ethical moments in this way, helps us
to focus on those moments in the conversation when the coach is faced with an ethical
issue or question and needs to make the best choices in order to respond appropriately
and ethically.
Understanding our values requires curiosity, courage and commitment. It is an ongo-
ing journey of discovery and learning. So often we think we know our story well, yet as
we explore our personal and professional values more closely, we tend to discover new
insights, gaining greater awareness of how our values infuence our coaching practice
(Iordanou et al., 2017). Indeed, the way in which coaching practice is premised on conver-
sation and discourse in order to construct meaning (Alred et al., 1998) is the cornerstone
for the insights and learning that is cultivated within the coaching practice.This approach
to learning is a stark contrast to the dominant linear learning that has been imposed
by the intellectual movements of the last 200 years (Garvey and Williamson, 2002). We
consider the learning that is generated in coaching to be the product of interaction with
 Ethics in coaching 337

Table 31.3 Common ethical perspectives

Ethical Perspective and What does it mean in practice

thinkers

Utilitarianism This involves comparing the good and bad consequences of each option
(Jeremy Bentham) and selecting the course of action that produces the greatest utility, or
usefulness, for society.
Deontology Ethical action arises from doing one’s duty and duties are defned by
(Immanuel Kant) rational thought, recognising that all humans are of equal worth.
Social Contract Theory This involves the creation of governments and bodies to establish rules in
(Thomas Hobbes) the wider public (social) interest.These are implemented through an
agreement with the public.
Virtue Theory This involves basing our decisions on a set of virtues or values, which guide
(Aristotle) decision-making.The highest virtue may be the pursuit of happiness.

others; thus non-linear. Against this backdrop, our learning about our values can be seen
as “socially constructed, so that we create rather than discover ourselves” (Alred et al.,
1998, p. 14). Understanding our values moves beyond our personal values, to consider our
professional values as a coach. Each have a part to play.As we have observed, values are the
bedrock of ethical decision-making.They shape everything we do, not only in the coach-
ing relationship but beyond, in our day-to-day lives. Indeed, they underpin human agency.
Similarly, in our coaching practice, every decision we make is infuenced – if not dictated
– by our values and beliefs. Critically, the question is are we consciously aware of them, or
not? When we enter a coaching session as the coach, we bring a particular attitude – our
attitudes are premised on our beliefs. In essence, our attitude is the “mental flter through
which we experience the world” (Keller, 2007, pp. 12), and it is bound to infuence the
coaching relationship and the ethical issues that emerge within it.Values and attitudes sit
hand-in-hand. See Table 31.3.
Ethical coaches need to have great insight into their own thinking processes in relation
to their values and beliefs as well as the context of the coaching interactions.We encour-
age the view that understanding personal and professional values is “a creative adventure,
right through the glass to the other side of the silvering” (Bolton 2014, p. 116).There is
no single theory that accounts for the entire journey of values and ethics in coaching.
Rather, this is a complex artistry (Iordanou et al., 2017). Practising coaching refectively
and refexively leads to new insights; of self, of others and of the coaching context. The
continuum for refective–refexive coaching harnesses the potential for ethical practice
(Iordanou et al., 2017).

Navigating ethical issues across professional contexts

Coaching ethically across diverse contexts is complex. So, what do we mean by “context”?
The term context refers primarily to the professional settings in which coaching takes
place, such as healthcare, education, sports and business. To explore ethical issues across
professional contexts more closely, it is important to extend this view to include what
Cox et al. (2014) call applied contexts or genres. Applied contexts or genres of coach-
ing, are particular styles of coaching that can be used in a variety of professional settings,
such as performance coaching, career coaching, life coaching, etc. Despite the historical
338 Ioanna Iordanou and Rachel Hawley
narrative in the coaching literature, the context in which the coach works informs their
perception(s) of the coaching practice; the values and beliefs they bring to coaching,
and the ethical issues that may arise in their coaching assignments.Therefore, in order to
understand values and ethics in coaching, it is frst essential that we seek to appreciate the
context in which coaching is undertaken (Iordanou et al., 2017).
In the following sections we will ask three important questions that carry ethical impli-
cations:Who are you when you coach? Where are you when you coach? And how do you
coach? (Iordanou et al., 2017) Our hope is to illuminate that, while coaches often navigate
from one specifc role or context to another, it is important to be aware of the nuances of
these variations. Being aware of such differences makes us more able to identify and deal
with the diversity in ethical issues that arise in our day-to-day practice.
Developing curiosity about types and varieties of coaching identity can enrich our
understanding of our own professional identity as a coach. Importantly, we become more
aware of the infuences on our identity, and thus of how our coaching identity is con-
structed and sustained. When we each enter our coaching practice, bringing our earlier
lived experiences is inevitable. Each lived experience has the power to impact on how
we understand, construct and sustain our coaching identity and consequently frames our
stance on ethics in our practice. We use our own experiences as an example here to
explain this further. As authors, we began the shared experience of writing from our
unique perspectives and diverse professional backgrounds; Rachel with a background in
UK healthcare and Ioanna as an academic. It is our shared commitment to coaching,
which fosters an ongoing connection. We recognise that our professional backgrounds
infuence our perspectives on our writing and our coaching practice in important ways
we cannot ignore (Iordanou et al., 2017).
Navigating ethical issues across professional contexts is dependent on addressing the
boundaries of where coaching starts and stops. So how might we consider the ethical
issues that arise in relation to working across professional contexts and, therefore, manag-
ing professional boundaries? If, for example, you are a practising coach with a background
in counselling or nursing, are these roles competing or complementary? Are there any eth-
ical issues that may arise from practising coaching with a distinct professional background?
The three key principles, which we introduced earlier in this chapter, are the foundation
for enabling a more ethical practice for coaching across professional contexts. Iordanou et
al. (2017) encourage that the following steps leads us to greater critical consciousness in a
number of ways; frstly,“who” we are in the relationship (understanding self, personal and
professional values) and secondly “where” we coach (understanding professional contexts
and the nuances of ethical issues) means we become more able to navigate ethical issues
across professional contexts with competence and confdence (Iordanou et al., 2017, pp.
209–215). As we become more able to align these three dimensions of ethical practice,
we see values and ethics in our coaching more clearly. Engaging in a critical self-dialogue
around the questions of who we are when we coach; where we are when we coach; and
how we coach, we hope, illuminates the implications for ethical practice. The questions
we pose around – “who”,“where” and “how” we coach enable important refections that
help to raise our awareness about ethical coaching. Once we are clear about the nuances,
we will become able to be more ethical.
The very nature of coaching across diverse professional contexts is complex.The com-
plexity of coaching contexts will always hold with it ethical implications. Navigating
ethical issues requires us to select the best combination of tools according to the coaching
 Ethics in coaching 339
context; theories, knowledge, models and our learning from experience. When we ask
these questions of ourselves – who we are in the relationship; where we coach; and how
we coach – we cultivate understanding and move on from the blurriness of ethical issues
that we frst described at the beginning of this chapter. Instead, we become more akin
to holding a kaleidoscope, where boundaries are clearly demarcated with distinct, vivid
colours (Iordanou et al., 2017). To be able to see clearly it is therefore important to under-
stand our personal and professional values. The questions of “who”, “where” and “how”
are central to our practice. Ethical issues will always be present in coaching practice.The
art of navigating ethical issues across professional contexts rests in developing and main-
taining an ethical coaching practice; you are not putting together a puzzle you already
know; you’re constructing a picture that takes a shape as you collect and examine the parts
(Bogdan and Biklen, 2006, p. 6).
These ideas have been developed further into ethical decision-making models, such as
the APPEAR framework (Passmore and Turner, 2018), which aims to provide a map to
guide coaches through the challenges and turbulence of ethical dilemmas by enhancing
sensitivity (Awareness), incorporating regular supervision, refection, contracting and use
of ethical codes in day-to-day practice (Practice), considering options when ethical issues
arise (Possibilities), engaging with the network of insurers, professional bodies, clients and
supervisors (Extending the feld), before moving to implement a decision (Acting on
Refections) and reviewing the outcomes (Refecting on learning). See Figure 31.1.

Developing and maintaining an ethical coaching practice

“A strong coach, in our view, is one ‘who knows what he or she doesn’t know’ and has a
strong enough ego to admit it”.This is the apt view expressed by Beverly Brookes (2001, p.
99), who went on to argue that an ethical coach is not only conscious of their knowledge
and expertise but, importantly, is also acutely aware of the limits of their knowledge, skills
and competence and, thus, the need to refer their clients to a different authority if they
deem their competence insuffcient to support their clients’ needs (Brooks, 2001).
Competence features prominently in the codes of ethics of all major professional
coaching bodies.The Global Code of Ethics, initially developed by the AC and EMCC,
states that:

Members will have the qualifcations, skills and experience appropriate to meet the
needs of the client and will operate within the limits of their competence. Members
should refer the client to a more experienced or suitably qualifed practising member
where appropriate.

Being refexive of one’s competence as a coach is an important step to developing and

maintaining an ethical coaching practice. This includes evaluating one’s knowledge and
expertise in order to identify any intellectual and practical gaps that call for further train-
ing and development. Accordingly, some of the key steps coaches can take to ensure they
develop and maintain an ethical coaching practice are education and training, continuing
professional development and regular supervision (Iordanou et al., 2017, pp. 70–77).
Coach education and training: Currently there are no specifc guidelines as to what con-
stitutes appropriate coach education and training and, accordingly, coaches enter the pro-
fession with a great diversity of educational and professional backgrounds. This ranges
340 Ioanna Iordanou and Rachel Hawley

Figure 31.1 APPEAR Model

 Ethics in coaching 341
from education and management to counselling and psychotherapy, to name just a few
(Bluckert, 2004; Bachkirova et al., 2018). Moreover, while professional or university-based
coaching programmes are proliferating, their evaluation is lagging behind (Devine, Meyers
and Houssemand, 2013). While it is important to celebrate the variety and diversity of
knowledge and expertise that coaches bring into the discipline of coaching, it is also
prudent to be aware of the signifcance of being refexive about our constantly increas-
ing training and development needs in order to practise consciously in a discipline that
has a gradually developing body of knowledge (Iordanou et al., 2017). Accordingly, and
as coaching as a discipline is in constant need of a shared body of applied knowledge
(Grant and Cavanagh, 2004), the starting point should be addressing the question of what
constitutes reliable and effective coach training and education that can enable an ethical
coaching practice (Bachkirova et al. 2017; Iordanou et al., 2017).
Continuing Professional Development (CPD): Following from the above, developing and
maintaining an ethical coaching practice entails engaging with a range of learning activi-
ties, on a regular basis, with the purpose of constantly updating one’s professional knowl-
edge base and, by extension, expertise. Within the discipline of coaching, such activities
include reading empirically and theoretically grounded research published in specialist
coaching journals; participating in or conducting relevant research; attending and par-
ticipating in workshops, conferences and other relevant scientifc meetings related to
coaching; pursuing further coaching qualifcations; attending peer-coaching and/or peer-
mentoring initiatives; and, of course, pursuing regular supervision (Iordanou et al., 2017).
Regular Supervision: As people actively engaged in what is termed a helping profes-
sion, aside from relevant knowledge and expertise, coaches need to be equipped with the
resilience to support their clients in their developmental needs and endeavours.While at
times this can be a straightforward process, at other times emotionally challenging ethical
dilemmas can lead to considerable amounts of stress and even burnout. Consequently, the
coaches have a moral responsibility to themselves, their clients and the coaching profession
as a whole to protect their wellbeing and, by extension, that of their clients and the wider
system in which they operate. Hence the signifcance of regular coaching supervision.
Within the sphere of coaching, supervision is defned as:

the process by which a coach with the help of a supervisor can attend to understand-
ing better both the client system and themselves as part of the client–coach system
and, by so doing, transform their work and develop their craft.
(Hawkins and Smith, 2006, p. 12)

According to relevant literature, the three most prominent functions of supervision are:
Developmental, that is, to develop and enhance coaching skills and capabilities; resourcing,
in order to safeguard the wellbeing of the coach and, by extension, the discipline of coach-
ing; and qualitative, with an emphasis on maintaining the quality of coaching, as well as
adhering to ethical standards (Hawkins and Smith, 2006). In other words, supervision pro-
vides a safe space for the coach to refect on their practice and relationship with their cli-
ents and everyone directly or indirectly involved with the coaching process. Importantly,
this understanding allows coaches to articulate and communicate these attributes more
effectively to clients, sponsors and any relevant stakeholders (Hawkins, 2014, Iordanou
et al., 2017).
While supervision is mandatory in neighbouring helping processions, such as counsel-
ling and psychotherapy (Bond, 2015), within the sphere of coaching it is still optional.
342 Ioanna Iordanou and Rachel Hawley
It is, to be sure, positive that the debate over the signifcance of compulsory supervi-
sion has been steadily picking up steam over the past decade (Hawkins and Smith 2006;
Bachkirova, Jackson and Clutterbuck, 2011; Passmore 2011; de Haan, 2012; Hawkins,
2018). Still, regular supervision is an indispensable aspect of developing and maintaining
an ethical coaching practice and, in consequence, this raises the question of why coach-
ing supervision has not been made compulsory as yet. In the fnal analysis, considering
the complexity of the coach’s work, involving working through individual, interpersonal
and organisational issues, the fundamentality of supervision lies in its instrumental role in
supporting the wellbeing of the coach which, in consequence, benefts and safeguards the
client (Pelham, 2016, p. 124).
Establishing a commitment to refective and refexive practices enables us to critically
assess our reaction to ethical moments, words and actions. It enables us to gain a richer
understanding of our personal and professional values.We begin with refection.When we
start to critically refect back on our reactions in the coaching relationship – rather than
simply consciously acknowledging such reaction – we reach a tipping point.This is where
the process of refexivity begins: Refecting on our own refection (Iordanou, et al., 2017,
p. 97).This is not a linear process; the act of refection and refexive practice ebbs and fows.

Conclusion
A good coach is an ethical coach.This does not imply that there are bad coaches lacking in
moral principles; it means that it takes constant and conscious effort to hold values and ethics
at the forefront of the coaching practice continuously.The best coaches operate with their
ethical antenna switched on and with an appreciation of the diffculties and challenges of
working in complex, multi-stakeholder environments, where there are few perfect answers.
Ultimately, ethical coaching entails fostering a professional coaching culture that pri-
oritises a shared understanding of ethical standards, regardless of prescribed recipes for best
practice. Developing and maintaining a common ethical mind-set that is geared towards
social and collective requirements is vital (Iordanou et al., 2017). In practice, this means
capitalising on the ethical strategies we already have in place: Clear contracting; conscious
refection and refexivity through critical enquiry; regular supervision; continuing pro-
fessional development; and, importantly, open and shared communication between col-
leagues and relevant shareholders, even inviting the input of clients. These are just some
of the strategies that enable us to develop and maintain a conscious (rather than idealis-
tic) ethical coaching practice – creating a positive professional culture that is driven by
integrity and commitment to embrace the complexities of contemporary life in an era of
ongoing change (Iordanou et al., 2017). Being an effective coach is a journey of discovery;
understanding our values and ethics holds the key to navigating this complex landscape.

References
Alred, G., Garvey, B. and Smith, R. (1998).‘Pas de deux – Learning in conversation’. Career Development
International, 3(7), pp. 308–13.
Bachkirova, T., Cox, E. and Clutterbuck, D. (2018). ‘Introduction’. In E. Cox, T. Bachkirova and D.
Clutterbuck, eds., The complete handbook of coaching, 3rd ed. London: SAGE Publishing, pp. xxix–xlviii.
Bachkirova, T., Jackson, P., Gannon, J., Iordanou, I., and Myers, A. (2017). ‘Re-conceptualising coach
education from the perspectives of pragmatism and constructivism’. Philosophy of Coaching: An
International Journal, 2(2), pp. 29-50.
 Ethics in coaching 343
Bachkirova,T., Jackson, P. and Clutterbuck, D. (2011). Coaching and mentoring supervision:Theory and practice.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Beckett, C., Maynard,A. and Jordan, P. (2017). Values and ethics in social work, 3rd ed. London: Sage.
Bluckert, P. (2004). ‘The state of play in corporate coaching: Current and future trends’. Industrial and
Commercial Training, 32(2), pp. 53–56.
Bogdan, R.C. and Biklen, S.K. (2006). Qualitative research for education:An introduction to theories and methods,
5th ed. New York: Pearson Education.
Bolton, G. (2014). Refective practice:Writing and professional development, 4th edn. London: SAGE Publishing.
Bond, T. (2015). Standards and ethics for counselling in action, 4th ed. London: Sage.
Brennan, D. and Wildfower, L. (2018).‘Ethics in coaching’. In E. Cox,T. Bachkirova, and D. Clutterbuck,
eds., The complete handbook of coaching, 3rd ed. London: Sage, pp. 500–517.
Brooks, B. (2001). ‘Ethics and standards in coaching’. In L. West and M. Milan, eds., The refecting glass:
Professional coaching for leadership development. Basingstoke: Palgrave, pp. 95–101.
Clutterbuck, D. (2013). ‘Step forward the ethical mentor’. Retrieved from www.davidclutterbuckpartn
ership.com/step-forward-the-ethical-mentor/ (accessed 25 March 2020).
Crisp, R., ed. (2013). The Oxford handbook of the history of ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Devine, M., Meyers, R. and Houssemand, C. (2013). ‘How can coaching make a positive impact within
educational settings?’ Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, pp. 1382–1389.
De Haan, E. (2102). Supervision in action: A relational approach to coaching and consulting supervision.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
De Jong,A. (2010).‘Coaching ethics: Integrity in the moment of choice’. In J. Passmore, ed., Excellence in
coaching. London:Association for Coaching, pp. 204–14.
Dunn, M. (2018). Medical ethics:A very short introduction, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Garvey, D. and Williamson, B. (2002). Beyond knowledge management: Dialogue, creativity and the corporate
curriculum. Harlow: Pearson.
‘Global code of ethics’. (2018). https://app.box.com/s/8s3tsveqieq6vr6n2itb0p9mpsxgcncd (accessed 8
March 2020).
Grant,A.M. and Cavanagh, M.J. (2004).‘Toward a profession of coaching: Sixty-fve years of progress and
challenges for the future’. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 2(1), pp. 1–16.
Hawkins, P. (2018). ‘Coaching supervision’. In E. Cox, T. Bachkirova, and D. Clutterbuck, eds., The
complete Handbook of coaching, 3rd ed. London: Sage, pp. 434–450.
Hawkins, P. and Smith, N. (2006). Coaching, mentoring and organizational consultancy: Supervision and
development. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Hursthouse, R. (1999). On virtue ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Iordanou, I., Hawley, R., and Iordanou, C. (2017). Values and ethics in coaching. London: Sage.
Ives, I. and Cox, E. (2014). Relationship coaching:The theory and practice of coaching with singles, couples, and
parents. London: Routledge.
Keller, J. (2007). Attitude is everything: Change your attitude and you change your life. Tampa, FL:Tampa
International Publishing and Resource Books Inc.
Law, H., Ireland, S. and Hussain, Z. (2007). The psychology of coaching, mentoring and learning. Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons.
Passmore, J. (2009).‘Coaching ethics: Making ethical decisions – novices and experts’. Coaching Psychologist
5(1), pp. 6–10.
Passmore, J., ed. (2011). Supervision in coaching: Supervision, ethics and continuous professional development.
London: Kogan Page.
Passmore, J., and Turner, E. (2018). ‘Refections on integrity – the APPEAR model’. Coaching at Work,
13(2), pp. 42–46.
Pelham, G. (2016). The coaching relationship in practice. London: Sage.
Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston, MA: Houghton Miffin.
Thomson, B. (2009). Don’t just do something, sit there: An introduction to non-directive coaching. Oxford:
Chandos.
Van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2014). An introduction to coaching skills:A practical guide. London: SAGE Publishing.
32 Contracting in coaching
Karen Foy

Introduction
As we each hear the word “contracting” we will each have our own unique response. My
own response has been varied throughout my coaching career, from being turned off by
the idea of detailed legal documents to an absolute commitment to building an alliance
of trust for transformational coaching work and lots of developmental stages in between.
In this chapter, I will explore practical approaches to contracting with individuals or
multi-stakeholders and help you turn a legalistic concept into a safe vessel for a voyage of
discovery with your clients.
My contract, or promise, to you is to share my experience and thinking around con-
tracting as a coach still on this journey and I ask you to open yourself enough to come
along for the ride rather than skipping to the more obviously exciting chapters.

From contract to designed alliance

Stephen Covey urges us to “begin with the end in mind” (1989) and that is exactly what
we are aiming to do in contracting with our coaching clients. David Dotlich and Peter
Cairo (1999) mirrors this principle in their Action Coaching Model with three steps to
reach agreement. Coaches should, they suggest: Determine what needs to happen and in
what context, establish trust and a set of mutual expectations and contract for results. In these
three simple steps is hidden the very heart of our commitments with our clients. A con-
tract suggests the frst and last of these steps and the designed alliance (Kimsey-House et
al., 2018) invokes the power of the relationship adding the third element into the contract.
So how do we maintain the formality of a contract with the human elements of building
trust and why is that important?
What I have discovered in my coaching experience is that the more I concentrate on
developing a robust, compassionate and safe relationship with my clients the more we can
explore their life and work with curiosity, clarity and challenge.The clearer we are at the
beginning of the relationship and each individual session, about what the work is that we
need to do and how we will do that together, the more quickly and deeply we get to the
heart of the matter, as Alison Hardingham suggests “well begun is half done” (Hardingham
et al., 2004, p. 98). Mentoring and supervising hundreds of coaches I have observed that
time spent exploring and building a shared approach to the coaching relationship saves
time and reduces the angst created when a coach realises they have hit an ethical dilemma
they failed to consider at the outset.
 Contracting in coaching 345
Co-active Coaching (Kimsey-House et al., 2018) introduces the idea of the “designed
alliance”, where a contract is developed with the client and their agenda at the centre
and where the power resides in the relationship, not resting with the coach. Approaching
contracting in this way means coaching is beginning and ending in partnership where
clients can explore their work and life in a safe alliance built around the way they think,
learn and work. So, we may start from the position of agreeing with our clients on our
“terms of engagement”, the more usual contractual agreements and then begin to build
our designed alliance for our way of working together. Let’s walk through these different
elements systematically: First thinking about the terms of engagement, or contract, for
the relationship, moving on to working through building an alliance for the relation-
ship, bringing in ideas about multi-stakeholders in the arrangement and then considering
contracting for each session.Throughout I will offer some ideas for a practical approach.

Terms of engagement, contracting, for the relationship

This is what we more typically think of when we consider contracting in coaching.
Agreeing the terms of engagement can be in the form of a written contract or a more
verbal agreement and, as Alain Cardon (2008) states, this is the most explicit agreement
with legal overtones. Essentially, this is an explicit agreement between coach and client
about what each can expect from the other (Block, 2000) but, as John Bennet (2008) sug-
gests, contracting is far more than a formality.
The purpose of contracting in coaching at this stage is to agree together on the basis for
your work together.The intention is to ensure everyone connected to the process knows
what is expected of them, as these are the terms that will form the basis of the commission.

Contracting for the relationship with individuals

Coaching clients come to coaches in all sorts of ways, on personal recommendations, via
websites through marketing campaigns or various other routes. In whatever way they
present to a particular coach, the client and coach will want to establish some basis for
working together. It has been suggested that possibly up to 30 per cent of the success of
the coaching (Lambert, 1992; McKenna and Davis, 2009) will rely on the relationship.
Given the importance of these relational factors, it is in the interests of both coach and cli-
ent to be sure there is a good ft.The most usual approach to the frst stage of contracting
is to have a conversation; some coaches refer to this as a “chemistry meeting”. Katherine
Tulpa (2012, p. 38) suggests that taking a coaching approach to that discussion helps both
parties to gain greater understanding of each other and the relationship required to meet
the goals of the client.
In some ways, the easiest part of contracting as a coach is the contracting for the logisti-
cal elements, such as how much, when, where, for how long, payment terms and cancella-
tion policies, etc.As John Fielder and Larry Starr (2008) suggest, focusing on the “what” of
coaching is insuffcient because coaching is more than “the sum of its parts” (Fielder and
Starr, 2008, p. 25) and they argue it is naïve for coaches to simply contract for the exchange
of payment for services.They suggest the contract should also acknowledge the “complex
systemic and qualitative aspects of coaching” (p. 25). So, of course we will want to discuss
the logistics of the coaching relationship, but we also need to make sure we have explored
lots of “what ifs”, which are more related to the “how” it will be done.
346 Karen Foy
As coaches, many of us are drawn to the profession because we recognise the potential
to support people to transform their lives and businesses, but we also need to recognise
coaching also has the potential to cause harm. William Rothwell and Roland Sullivan
(2005) identify contracting as a “complex, human-interactive process requiring sensitivity,
skill and fexibility”.When contracting for the coaching relationship, we need to be able
to balance the need for clarity around protecting the client and ourselves as coaches with
the need for building a trusting, intimate relationship and safe space for shared discovery.
In my experience, I have found the best way to do this is by co-creating a working
relationship based on deciding together with my clients how we will manage “what if ”
situations. For example, what will we do if we fnd the coaching is no longer working
for one of us? What will we do if we uncover something in our work together that raises
concern? We can’t cover every possible eventuality, but there are a few key areas we can
use as a foundation for this safe space.

Contracting as a designed alliance

This is your relationship: own it, put a human face on it, bring your whole self to it, and make it
a shining example of your coaching presence.
(Blakey and Day, 2012, p. 48)

John Blakey and Ian Day (2012) argue that, without strong contracts, coaches have no
“personal legitimacy”; they suggest there is no basis to build upon and no boundary to
maintain (p. 48).They refer to the coaching contract as a “covenant” [or “sacred promise”].
This term begins to draw our thoughts away from the legalistic and into the more intimate
relationship and the co-creation of a sanctuary for honesty, exploration and discovery that
provides a safe space to confront sometimes diffcult truths.
In a meaningful coaching session, we are encouraging our clients to be at their learning
edge and adopt a growth mindset (Dweck, 2007). The conditions to allow this explora-
tion and learning need to be created in partnership; this is where we build the legitimacy
and identify the boundaries we will maintain. If we step back as coaches and consider
what it takes for us to share some of the less attractive parts of ourselves, we get a glimpse
into the needs of our clients. Imagine working with a leader in an organisation, whose
very survival in their role is about being decisive, confdent and resilient, who commits to
coaching to allow them to survive and thrive in work and life.Very often, the coaching
conversations are the only opportunity for that person to discuss their concerns or show
the slightest vulnerability.What would you imagine they need from you as a coach? What
would you need as a coachee?
If we agree with Sir John Whitmore that “building awareness and responsibility is the
essence of good coaching” (Whitmore, 2015, p. 33) we have to be brave enough to be
alongside our clients whilst they build their awareness through facing the times when they
are potentially not so decisive, when their confdence is less robust or when their resilience
wobbles. In our contracting, we want to discuss how we can best serve our clients (our
legitimacy) to stay with sometimes uncomfortable feelings in the service of self-discovery
and understand where our boundaries lie. Our purpose in supporting our clients to re-
connect with all parts of themselves is to tap into their greatness, which John Blakey and
Ian Day (2012) argue cannot be liberated if we keep the conversation in a cocoon. Perhaps
you can recall a time when you felt less than your best, empathise with the vulnerable
feelings and sometimes shame in sharing those experiences with another. When we are
 Contracting in coaching 347
contracting, we need to be working on an alliance, which means a relationship free from
the fear of judgement, where our explorations are held in trust and we are accepted as a
perfectly fawed human being by another perfectly fawed human being. In a relationship
without power imbalances, clients can be free to speak their shame rather than allowing it
to become an inhibitor to learning.
How do we bring this rather esoteric approach into the practical realm of contracting
for a coaching partnership with our clients?

A practical approach with individuals

The International Coaching Federation’s core competencies suggest one way for coaches
to contract.The guidelines follow the spirit of a designed alliance, refected in the heading
Co-creating the relationship, and provide behavioural indicators for a coach to establish and
maintain agreements (ICF, 2019).The competency covers the relationship from beginning
to end of both the relationship and each session. The 11-point defnition can seem like
overload and formulaically following it by going through it point by point is probably not
the best approach to winning business.
Many of the more logistical points, such as cost, cancellation policy and organisational
issues, can be consigned to a written agreement for ease. To co-create a relationship the
verbal emphasis can be focused on building or designing the alliance that means the cli-
ent and coach can work together in a trusting space. Bennet (2008) suggests that the less
formal approach to contracting could lead to higher degrees of trust and therefore a more
effective relationship.There is no empirical evidence to support this assumption, but if we
think about the commitments we make in meaningful relationships in our lives, I wonder
just how many are held strong because we have signed a document? Any written contract
needs to be supported by a conversation to build the alliance.
To contract for the relationship, it is useful to fnd a way to have a conversation before
the coaching starts.This can be a telephone call or a face-to-face meeting.The prospective
client will want to know you are the right coach. I have found the most benefcial way
for me to conduct these meetings is from the basis that I am not looking to win business
but to establish who would be the right coach for what the person seeks.This may seem
counter-intuitive when, as new coaches, we are all wanting to accept whatever business
comes our way, but if we trust the research that 30 per cent of the success of the coaching
is dependent on the relationship, why would we risk our reputations as coaches?
We may not have the appropriate style, skills or personality that meets the need of the
client, but we may know other coaches who do. Before this truth became real for me, I
would work with anyone who asked me, only to fnd I was working hard, struggling to
connect and not really enjoying working with some clients. Once I committed to having a
conversation to really understand the client and be honest with them about my approach,
I have increased my client list with great people I love working with.
There are so many things you will want to cover in a contracting conversation before
you start the coaching journey together, and the key here is to weave this into a conversa-
tion rather than run through a checklist. If we approach the conversation, as Katherine
Tulpa suggests, using our key coaching skills of listening and curiously asking questions,
we begin to build our alliance. We can check out how someone likes to work, what
they need from us and we can gently discuss the nuances between different interventions
by discussion rather than rules and weave in the boundaries around confdentiality and
exceptions to it.
348 Karen Foy
For example, one person I was having this conversation with said they wanted to learn
leadership strategies from our coaching. It would be easy to jump in and begin a lecture
on the difference between teaching or mentoring and coaching; but think about what
that would do for our relationship-building.What I did was get curious to fnd out what
led them to think they needed that, which uncovered all the great skills and experience
they had in leadership and it also uncovered the real issue at the heart of the reason for the
coaching, which was related to having lost their motivation for leadership because it took
them away from the real job they loved.
The key elements we need to cover in this conversation are:The purpose of the coach-
ing, what brought the person to coaching and what they hoped to achieve, what they
expect from a coach and what can be expected from them. We might want to use this
time to gain an understanding of how the person best thinks and learns and we can
share our way of coaching. We need to discuss confdentiality and exceptions that may
require you to take action.This can feel a diffcult subject to raise when we are really say-
ing if there is a concern, but none of us know what might be uncovered in a coaching
conversation and we need to have discussed what we will do in the event of something
being shared that could suggest harm to others or potential illegality.We are not setting
ourselves up as judge and jury, but we need to be honest upfront that we may need to
take advice.These are conversations best had whilst they are still an academic possibility,
not an in-the-moment fact.
It is worth noting that contracting is not a one-off event but something that is re-
visited regularly as the relationship grows; we also need to invest in good contracting at the
start of each session, which we will explore later and note that there are many similarities.
Below is a checklist for you to consider all of the elements in preparation for your frst
conversation. Using the acronym PROMISES it offers a reminder for the key elements of
your relationship contracting. See Table 32.1.

Multi-stakeholder considerations
For many of us as executive coaches there is an added dimension to our contracting:We
may be commissioned to coach someone by a sponsor, sometimes a line manager or, quite
often, a HR professional in an organisation.This brings at least three people into the con-
tracting arena, maybe more. Internal coaches are also impacted by this extra dimension
when asked to coach colleagues in the business.The same areas need to be addressed as for
the individual: Purpose, relationship, outcome, boundaries of coaching and logistics and
then some specifc agreements need to be made to ensure clarity and safety.

A practical approach for multi-stakeholder contracting

The initial pre-coaching meeting is even more important in a multi-stakeholder coach-
ing engagement and I would go so far as to suggest that, without this discussion, it would
be advisable not to go ahead with the coaching. One area to pay particular attention to
when discussing the coaching with the potential coaching client and the sponsor (usu-
ally the person paying for the coaching) is how confdentiality will be managed. I have
found it is essential to remind sponsors that, although they are paying for and requesting
the coaching, my focus will be the needs of the individual client and I am not prepared to
share information without the knowledge and agreement of the coaching client (except
in cases of serious criminality or where there is a serious risk of harm). If I undertake
 Contracting in coaching 349

Table 32.1 Promises in the Coaching Relationship

Purpose What brought the person to coaching? What is the work that needs to be done?
Often people present with a long-standing issue or concern, but something will
have triggered them to take action and seek coaching now. How do they feel
coaching will help them?
Relationship How will you build a partnership for the work to be done? Has the person had
coaching before? If so, what worked well and what worked not so well; if not,
what do they need to know about you and you about them to build a trusting
and effective partnership?
Outcome What needs to be different at the end of the coaching relationship; how will success
be defned? This needs to be highly specifc and measurable.
Margins What are the margins or boundaries you are working within? What is up for
discussion and what is not? Particularly if this work is being sponsored and paid
for by a third party. Is there clarity about the boundaries between coaching and
other interventions?
In case This is your opportunity to explore how you will deal, in partnership, with
emerging issues or dilemmas.A discussion more easily held in the abstract
in advance rather than an embarrassed bargaining discussion when you hit a
roadblock.This element of the conversation might start with a “what will we do
if …”
Strategy What strategy will you agree for the relationship.This should cover logistics such
as:When, where and how often you will get together and for how long, cost,
cancellations, review process and any reporting requirements, payment terms and
cancellation policies.
Expectations In order to avoid entering unknowingly into obligations and commitments, we
need to have a discussion where we can surface some of our own and our client’s
expectations for the coaching relationship.
Safety How can we create a safe working relationship where the client feels supported by
their coach and thinking partner to express themselves fully? Confdentiality will
be key but where are the parameters? What does the person need to build trust
and intimacy? Have you considered the duty of care to your client and others? In
short, how do you intend to honour their information and well-being?

any psychometric assessments or 360-degree feedback questionnaires, for example, the

information belongs to the individual client (sometimes called the coachee) and it is up to
them to share it. Of course, different sponsors and individual clients may request different
arrangements, and this is up to the coach to agree with both parties before embarking on
the coaching journey.
It is also important to get an understanding of what can and what cannot be the top-
ics of coaching conversations; for example, what happens if the individual client wants to
discuss a plan for leaving the organisation that is paying for the coaching? Some organisa-
tions may be fne with this, others may not, but we need to be sure we work ethically by
being clear on the parameters.
Again, your coaching skills will be key in this conversation to gain clarity on any vague
aspirations and goals the sponsor has for the coaching. As coaches we can be drawn into
performance managing by proxy for managers evading their responsibility. In coaching,
we should never be stepping into this performance management role and instead remain
focused on coaching.
Surfacing hidden agendas and unexpressed expectations can ensure you keep out of
the minefeld of managing by proxy. Insisting on a pre-coaching conversation with the
350 Karen Foy

Multi- Multi- Multi-

stakehiolder stakehiolder stakehiolder
Meeting 1: Meeting 2: Meeting 3:
Comissioning Mid-point Evaluation &
& Contracting Review Close

Figure 32.1 Three stage multi-stakeholder process

sponsor or manager brings all of the expectations into the open, and it also helps you dis-
courage “off the record” discussions where managers want to discuss your coaching client
without their knowledge. Contracting with all stakeholders and agreeing a way forward
will keep you working ethically and with integrity.This is another of those points where
you will be grateful you took the time to explore the “what ifs” before they happen. One
coach I know always includes in their “what ifs” a question to be sure what will happen if
because of our coaching your employee decides to leave?
Essentially, whether you are contracting for a one-to-one relationship or there are three
or more people in the relationship, you need to think about how you can set the founda-
tions for a safe, productive and rewarding journey of discovery in partnership; how you
might review progress at the mid-point in the coaching journey (maybe after session three
or four), which allows you to check in with the sponsor and invite them to provide feed-
back on how they perceive the coaching is progressing; fnally, a closing review meeting,
offering the opportunity for both parties to provide their closing feedback to the coach
and each other. See Figure 32.1.

Contracting for the session

Contracting is a continual process, even in the relational aspects of the contract there may
be adjustments over time. An important aspect of the continuum is contracting at the
beginning of each session. Coaching sessions can stand or fall on the attention given to the
“bookends” or beginning and ending of each session. In the same way as we partner for a
coaching relationship, we need to partner for the success of each session.
It is the same basis we are working from:What is the work we need to do together and
how will we do it? Often when a coaching session doesn’t seem to go as well as we would
like we can trace the issue back to a less well-defned beginning.The noticeable differen-
tiator between a novice coach and a more experienced practitioner is the length of time
they spend getting a clear objective for the coaching, clarifying success for the session and
deciding on how the partnership will work.
Coaches face a number of challenges at the inset of a coaching session: Sometimes it is
that it’s diffcult to get a clear start for the session, when there has been some small talk in
the greeting that then blends into the subject area for the client, and the coach struggles
to get back to a clear goal setting.There is the challenge of a client bringing a number of
different topics for discussion, which may or may not be related, or they bring a topic for
discussion that changes part way through the session, or is just such a wide or deep issue
that there would never be the time available to cover it in one session.
The beginning of a coaching session can be seen as a place where, like Ariadne, we
are gathering up the thread that will allow the individual client to explore the labyrinth
 Contracting in coaching 351
of their topic. Once we have the guiding thread, we can explore the topic of discussion
and always fnd our way back to the thread that is leading us to the goal.As we get to the
end of the session we can check in: Did we get where we needed to get to? It takes time
and exploration at the beginning to be sure we have the right thread.This element of the
conversation is a crucial part of coaching, not a process to get through in order to get to
the real business of coaching. The key areas we need to get clear on are: What does the
person want to discuss in the session; what would make the time spent looking at the issue
worthwhile; what makes the subject important at this time; how will coach and coachee
work in partnership to achieve the goal, whilst working within the boundaries and conf-
dentiality discussed in the relationship contract.

A practical approach for session contracting

Claire Pedrick (2020) provides a process for coaches to use at the beginning of every
coaching session that sets a clear foundation for the work to be done and I offer it here,
with permission and a slight adaptation to support the frst of the bookends of coaching.
It is offered with some ideas about possible questions, but this is not a script. Used as a
script it will fail to build the intimate relationship you seek to deepen the exploration and
discovery in the conversation; used as a prompt it will allow that deep dive.
As some many know, the stoker is the person on the back of a tandem, offering extra
peddle power to get started or climb hills.The term is also used to describe someone who
lights and builds a fre by adding wood or coal. It’s this later defnition we use, as we will
use a parallel analogy as we draw the relationship to a close. See Table 32.2.
You will notice confdentiality and ethics are not explicit in this model and, of course,
you will have explored it in depth at your pre-coaching discussion, but it is worth not-
ing that we need to re-visit our commitment to privacy, with its exceptions at the start
of every session.These exceptions are likely to include where there is serious criminality
(for example, if the reporting of our “crime” to the police would lead to a visit by a police
offcer within the following 48 hours and a possible arrest of the individual). Secondly,
where there is a serious risk of harm to the client or another individual.The most obvious
example is maybe where the client’s emotional state means there is a serious risk of suicide
or self-harm. In such cases the coach may need to act (hopefully jointly with the client),
contacting the appropriate services to ensure the client is safely in the care of others.

Table 32.2 STOKERS – Starting the session

Subject “What would you like to focus on?”

“What is the work you would like to consider today?”
Timing “Given we have 30 minutes today, what would be a good use of that time?”
“In the time we have, what part of that would you like to focus on”
Outcome “What would you like to have at the end of that time?”“What would make our
time together successful?”
Knowledge “How would you know you have that outcome?”
“What would be different at the end of this session?
Essence “What makes this important?”
Role “How can we best work together on this?”
“What would you like from me as your coach?”
Start “Where would you like to start?”
352 Karen Foy
Once that element is added I fnd this really useful in my coaching and a great intro-
duction to the work beyond the welcoming chat, a coach can signal a move to the coach-
ing by asking,“so what would you like to focus on today?”. Given that often people have
wide-ranging topics or maybe multiple topics, the time element allows the client to con-
sider the most relevant aspects, or when there are two or three issues a coach can prompt
a focus by asking how the topics link together, a great way for clients to get thinking from
the onset.
In the coaching partnership we need a clear objective we are working towards and the
client needs to know exactly what success would look like. Checking on outcome and
how they will know they have it brings clarity to the conversation. Even if your client says
they want to explore a subject and they don’t really want action plans at the end you can
still help them clarify what they want to know by the end of the session.
A key element in this process, and one that has the power to transform the coaching
from transactional to transformative, is checking in on the importance or meaning for the
client in this topic; why this subject and why now? This can be viewed as the goal behind
the goal.To take a facetious example, if someone’s goal was to be a millionaire, we could
accept that at face value and work with them on how they might achieve that. But, if we
check in on the goal beneath that, there may be much more to discover, so we can ask
questions like “and what would being a millionaire give you?”, the answer to which could
open up the real goal and motivator.
The role element in this process is really an opportunity to uncover those psychologi-
cal contracts (Carroll, 2005) we discussed earlier.What is the individual client expecting
from you, what are you expecting from them? How will you work together to achieve
the desired outcome? In early sessions, you might use this opportunity to talk about your
particular approach or perhaps to remind your client that coaching is not like regular
conversations and that there may be silences and that is OK, they can use the time as they
want to. It is also your opportunity to gain permission; for example, to call out incongru-
ence, share observations, challenge unhelpful flters, mindsets or beliefs and bring known
history and behaviour patterns into the session when it is in service of the client moving
forward.
The fnal section, the start, may seem simple, but this really demonstrates to your client
that they are in charge, they are leading the content of this conversation.You are starting to
gather the thread of this conversation through this in-depth exploration and you are hold-
ing that thread whilst they explore the labyrinth and they choose which tunnels. Using
this process means you have a clear picture of where you need to get to and how you will
do that together, and you can always check in with your explorer if the conversation seems
to go too far from the guiding thread.

Closing an individual session in partnership

We began this chapter thinking about Stephen Covey and “starting with the end in mind”
and I would like to conclude with a thought to the other bookend, the ending. Whilst
we could explore a full chapter on the ending of a coaching conversation it is beyond
the scope of this one, but I would like to offer a glimpse at how you can conclude your
contracting by checking in and partnering to close the session.
I mentioned above that we could think about STOKERS as a fre stoker on a steam
train or a boiler room on a ship. If we think about it in that sense, we can link our
 Contracting in coaching 353

Table 32.3 DOUSE – Ending the session

Double check the contract/goal against the “Where are we in relation to our contract/the goal for the
proposed actions session?”
“What will you do now?”
Obstacles “What might get in the way?”
“How will you be accountable to yourself?”
Uncovered “What have you uncovered/learnt about yourself that will
support your continued progress?”
Support “What support do you need?”
“How can you get that?”
Ending “How would you like to close the session?”
(Acknowledge the work done during the session.)

beginning to our ending by dousing that fre. As coaches we need to put as much energy
into ending well as we did beginning.
It’s not unusual for novice coaches to notice they are running out of time and start to
panic.This can be avoided by planning the session structure from the start, keeping a clock
in sight through the session and managing the session in a series of chunks, each with its
allotted time.
DOUSE offers a parallel process to STOKERS, helping the coach as they move into
closing the session, helping them draw the session to an end in partnership with their cli-
ent. See Table 32.3.
Following this process means you are partnering at the end of the session, so your cli-
ents are leaving the session with a well-formed outcome, you are handing the thread back
to them for them to continue their self-discovery.As we know, it’s estimated that maybe up
to 40 per cent of the success of coaching is down to factors outside of the coaching con-
versation (Assay and Lambert, 1999; McKenna and Davis, 2009). This includes not only
the personality and readiness of the client, their context and situation, but also the support
they receive from the boss, family and friends.As coaches we want to help clients leverage
their network as a mechanism for support, resources and accountability.

Conclusions
The aim of this chapter was to inspire you to consider contracting in your coaching from
a perspective of building a safe and productive space for your clients and yourself to learn
and grow together. Hopefully it has given you some practical approaches to help you do
that. In conclusion, I want to share with you a mnemonic, the ABC of coaching: Always
Be Contracting. I hope what is implicit here is that contracting is not a one-off event,
either for the relationship or the session; we are always checking in and adjusting where
necessary.
Another takeaway I hope for your coaching is that time spent in contracting is not
something to get through to get to the real work, contracting is the real work and it
requires time and commitment.Think of it as a short internal fight from one region to
another.The whole fight may take 1 hour but 10 or 15 minutes are spent on the climb
to fying altitude and the same coming in to land. If you follow a similar pattern, you will
have the bookends for a great journey of discovery.
354 Karen Foy
References
Bennet, J.L. (2008). ‘Contracting for success’. The International Journal of Coaching Organisations, 6(8), pp.
7-14.
Blakey, J. and Day, I. (2012). Challenging coaching: going beyond traditional coaching to face the FACTS. p. 48,
London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Block, P. (2000). Flawless consulting: a guide to getting your expertise used, 2nd edition. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Cardon, A. (2008). ‘Coaching contracts and agreements, how contracts and agreements keep coaching clients
in the driver's seat’. http://metasysteme-coaching.fr/english/-coaching-contracts-et-agreements/
(accessed 15/3/20).
Carroll M. (2005). ‘Psychological contracts with and within organisations’. In Tribe, R. and Morrissey,
J., eds., Handbook of professional and ethical practice, for psychologists, counsellors and psychotherapists. UK:
Brunner-Routledge, 34.
Covey, S. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people, 15th edition. London: Simon & Schuster.
Dotlich, D.L. and Cairo, P.C. (1999). Action coaching: how to leverage individual performance for company success.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dweck, C. (2007).Mindset, changing the way you think to fulfl your potential.York: Random House Publishing.
Fielder, J.H. and Starr, L.M. (2008). ‘What’s the big deal about coaching contracts’. The International
Journal of Coaching in Organisations, 6(4), pp. 15-27.
Hardingham, A., Brearley, M., Moorhouse, A. and Venter, B. (2004). The coaches coach, personal development
for personal developers. London: CIPD.
Kimsey House, H., Kimsey House, K., Sandahl, P. and Whitworth, L. (2018). Co-active coaching: the proven
framework for transformative conversations at work and in life - 4th edition. London:Aladdin.
Lambert, M. (1992). ‘Implications of outcome research for psychotherapy integration’. In Norcross, J.C.
and Goldstein, M.R., eds., Handbook of psychotherapy integration. New York: Basic Books, pp. 94–129.
McKenna, D. and Davis, S. (2009). ‘Hidden in plain sight’. Industrial & Organisational Psychology, 2(3), pp.
244–260.
Pedrick, C. (2020). Simplifying coaching. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill-Open University Press.
Rothwell,W. and Sullivan, R.L., eds. (2005). Practicing organization development: a guide for consultants. New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Tulpa, K. (2012). ‘Coaching within organisations’. In Passmore, J., ed., Excellence in coaching the industry
guide. London: Kogan Page, pp. 19-40.
Whitmore, J. (2015). Coaching for performance: GROWing human potential and purpose, 4th edition. London:
Nicholas Brealey.
33 Feedback and evaluation in coaching
Jonathan Passmore and David Tee

Introduction
Briner (2012) wrote a provocatively titled article (‘Does coaching work and does anyone
really care?’), which challenged practitioners to incorporate evidence-gathering into their
coaching practice. Whilst the evidence for the effectiveness of coaching has advanced in
subsequent years (see Bozer & Jones, 2018), it is still important for us as individual coaches
to evaluate the effect our work with clients has produced. It may be that the evaluation is
being called for by a third party, such as organisations that hire external executive coaches.
Coaching researchers, too, are calling for greater evaluation of the benefts that coaching
produces (see Athanasopoulou & Dopson, 2018; Grover & Furnham, 2016). In this chap-
ter, we will provide an insight into different forms of evaluation and feedback, covering a
range of useful theories that can inform coaching evaluation, before offering some practi-
cal steps on evaluation.

What is feedback?
Although there may be some approaches to coaching where the coach sees it as permis-
sible to give feedback to their client, other approaches argue the coach should avoid it
(Lancer, Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2016). However, many of the models of evaluation in
this chapter do require the coach to be able to elicit and work with feedback, be it from
the client or other stakeholders. It is in this sense that we shall be exploring the role of
feedback here.
McDowall and Kurz (2008) defne feedback as a process where a ‘sender’ relays a ‘mes-
sage’ – which is some information – to a recipient.As such, most forms of communication,
be they oral, written or other, can be treated as feedback.This chapter features models and
techniques that often ringfence certain forms of data, at certain times from certain sources,
as feedback. However, all information encountered by the coach when coaching, from a
feeting facial expression made by a client during a session through to a formal written
audit of performance, has the potential to be treated as useful feedback.

What is evaluation?
Evaluation is typically defned in dictionaries as judging the worth, value or quality of
something. At this simplistic level, for us it would mean answering the question ‘How
good was this coaching?’. If you pause for a moment to consider any coaching with which
you have been involved, you will immediately realise that this question raises many, many
more.What does ‘good’ mean? Good for whom? How will we know? At what time during
or after the coaching can we reach a sensible determination of its ‘goodness’? and so on.
356 Jonathan Passmore and David Tee
The research on coaching typically seeks to generate evidence, rather than to evalu-
ate. Of course, these two practices are connected, but ‘evidence’ to a researcher might be
limited only to what we know about coaching when conducted under strict, controlled
conditions, such as in a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. It would be highly unu-
sual for us to coach in such artifcial circumstances, so we need to look for other means of
generating evidence (Grant & Stober, 2006).
Matthewman (2009) suggests a range of approaches that are more suited to the practi-
calities of evaluating coaching in the real world:

• Cost: What were the inputs required to produce the achieved output? These may
include your fees, the room hire or the opportunity costs associated with your client’s
time in coaching;
• Effectiveness: To what extent did the client achieve their intended outcome? Has
individual or organisational performance changed in a desired manner?
• Cost-effectiveness: Could the same outputs have been achieved more effectively
using a different intervention? Perhaps the client could have read a book rather than
paid an executive coach for eight sessions;
• Cost–beneft analysis: Assigning fnancial values – often problematic – to all the
inputs and outputs to determine whether there was a net fnancial beneft;
• Value: To what extent do the outcomes of your coaching contribute to the client’s
organisational objectives?

Any of these approaches, in isolation or combination, will generate useful information for
us, but the last point is critical. Not every organisation that makes use of coaching does so
to generate quantifable performance changes. For example, an organisation may have a
strategy of being seen to invest in and develop its staff. For them, the mere act of coach-
ing taking place may mean something they value has already occurred, regardless of the
outputs of that coaching. Therefore, as coaches, we do need to think more broadly than
just bottom-line impact when evaluating our work.
It is also worth distinguishing between iterative (repeated, ongoing) evaluation and
summative (outcome) evaluation. Adopting both strategies allows us to identify issues,
opportunities and change possibilities in how we are working with a client as the relation-
ship unfolds, rather than solely drawing conclusions once our work is complete.

Theories of feedback in personal development

Theories concerning the importance of feedback are often linked to work by research-
ers such as Locke and Latham whose work focused on goal setting (1991).You may have
the goal of providing consistently world-class coaching, but the goal itself is not enough.
Unless you are receiving feedback – ideally specifc, real-time, objective feedback – it will
be hard for you to evaluate the extent to which your goal is being realised. It is therefore
helpful to consider how you will purposefully incorporate feedback into your coaching
evaluation strategy.

Feedback Intervention theory (FIT)

Kluger and DeNisi (1996) integrated goal-setting theory, control theory and other models
into FIT in an attempt to capture the effect feedback has on performance. It encourages
you to take into account cognitive interference from factors such as high anxiety or low
 Feedback and evaluation in coaching 357
self-effcacy, as these may enhance or derail the effectiveness of your coaching in any given
single instance.
FIT also encourages you to set clear objectives for what you intend your coaching
to generate. Over and above any organisational- or client-level goals, you will also have
desired outcomes: by articulating these, you can then purposefully plan for how you can
realistically achieve them. In addition, FIT makes you aware of what it calls ‘meta task pro-
cesses’ that may explain the feedback you are receiving. For example, you may set yourself
very high, demanding standards of perfection in much of what you do. Feedback from
one client after a session may indicate that your coaching was not 100% perfect and you
may consequently feel despondent. However, through the meta task process of conducting
a general comparison with peers (e.g. other coaches), this may result in a more realistic
conclusion that no coach is permanently perfect and that your performance goal may
need to be adjusted.

Feedback orientation theory

How receptive are you to purposefully seeking out, mindfully considering and then mak-
ing constructive use of feedback? London and Smither (2002) conceptualise feedback
orientation as a range of factors that combine together to determine your typical recep-
tivity to feedback.
There may be cultural or organisational norms around the importance of feedback that
have infuenced you, in addition to a range of individual-level factors, such as your belief
in the value of the feedback or whether you are accountable to use that feedback.
By consciously considering your own feedback orientation, you can determine how
likely you are to constructively respond to the information generated as you evaluate the
effectiveness of your coaching, and develop a plan on how you are going to respond.

360-degree feedback
Whilst traditional workplace feedback may have been obtained from a single source –
typically one’s line manager – 360-degree feedback uses multiple raters (Fletcher, 2015).
Feedback from any single individual may be shaped by personal bias and their lim-
ited experience (i.e. maybe only one coaching session), but by adding together feed-
back from multiple sources this should, in theory, introduce greater objectivity into the
evaluation.
For coaches whose feedback orientation needs them to believe in the accuracy and
merit of the data, bringing in a 360-degree feedback system should increase their buy-
in to attending to and making changes as a result of evaluations. As we shall detail in
the SOAP-M model (below), getting the judgements of multiple sources pre- and post-
intervention makes it increasingly likely that we can more accurately assess the impact of
coaching in an individual.

Theories of evaluation in personal development

Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluation
Arguably the most widely used of the evaluation models, Kirkpatrick originally published
his four steps in the 1950s (Kirkpatrick, 1959). Intended for workplace training evaluation,
each of the four levels becomes increasingly complicated to execute, but the information
358 Jonathan Passmore and David Tee
revealed is considered to be of greater value. Nonetheless, Kirkpatrick stated that all four
levels were of importance and that it would be a mistake to skip Levels 1 and 2 to just
focus on the latter steps (Reio, Rocco, Smith & Chang, 2017).

Level 1: Reaction
How does your client react to your coaching? You may seek information about the con-
tent of the session, your style as a coach or even the location in which your coaching took
place. Reaction is important, as it may determine how likely your client is to engage with
future coaching or to recommend coaching to others in their work, team or organisation.

Level 2: Learning
In a training context, the learning outcomes may be predetermined, so this would be
an opportunity to test whether the trainee has acquired the desired knowledge or skills.
Coaching is less prescribed, with some learning possibly being unpredicted, emergent
and serendipitous. Nonetheless, we may iteratively (session-by-session) and summatively
seek to evaluate what learning or unlearning the client has experienced whilst working
with us.

Level 3: Behaviour
This level concerns transfer of learning from the safe, liminal coaching space to the client’s
place of work. Any manner of ‘Eureka!’ moments of insight may have occurred during
your client’s coaching sessions, but this is an opportunity to evaluate how these have mani-
fested themselves in the client’s day-to-day conduct in their working role.

Level 4: Results
Similar to Matthewman’s ‘value’ and ‘cost–beneft analysis’ strategies, Kirkpatrick’s fourth
level concerns the business results generated by the coaching, ideally with a fnancial value
attached.This should be anticipated when frst meeting and contracting with your client:
How is what they wish to achieve through coaching aligned to outcomes of genuine value
to their organisation?
Reio et al. (2017) point to criticisms raised concerning the Kirkpatrick model. One
key criticism is the assumption that the four levels are causally linked. If so, this would
mean that, for example, a coaching client would need to positively react (Level 1) to your
coaching in order for learning (Level 2) to take place. However, coaching should arguably
be a safe but constructively challenging experience: Many clients might not react favour-
ably to having their assumptions and opinions challenged, but it may generate a signifcant
amount of learning for them.

Phillips’s ROI Model of Evaluation

Building on the Kirkpatrick model, Phillips and Phillips (2007) acknowledge that value
for organisations may take many forms but should ultimately be converted into fnancial
data.Whilst their evaluation framework is intended to identify the return on investment
(ROI) of a project or intervention, it is relatively easy to convert this process to capture
 Feedback and evaluation in coaching 359
return on expectations (ROE) instead, where fnancial beneft genuinely is not the core
consideration.
One advantage of this ROI evaluation model is that it provides the coach with a process
to follow from initiating the relationship through to post-intervention. Whether it is in
conversation with the individual client or an organisational stakeholder, the coach would
clarify at the very start what are the payoff (or expectation) benefts for the organisation,
align those to the organisation’s needs, then align these to the client’s job performance
needs and learning needs. Finally, the coach and client can negotiate around the client’s
preferences for how they best learn or work with a coach.
These map, in reverse order, to the four Kirkpatrick evaluation levels. Therefore, as
the coaching progresses, the coach can track ‘reaction’ against the client’s stated prefer-
ences, ‘learning’ against the client’s stated learning needs and so on, moving back up the
Kirkpatrick levels and, ultimately, making a calculation against the ROI metric identifed
at the very start of the process.
There are certain assumptions and faws in this approach. Firstly, it assumes that the cli-
ent and the organisational stakeholder have thought about and can clearly articulate each
of these needs and, in addition, that the needs of the client are in direct alignment with the
needs of their host organisation.The example of a key senior leader who is contemplating
early retirement or a career move would challenge this latter point.
Furthermore, as with any intervention in a real-world setting, it is hard to confdently
attribute every gain realised by a client whilst they worked with a coach to the effect of
that coaching alone. At best, we can point to a correlation, but the client would also have
been gaining more experience and role maturity all the time the coaching was taking
place. In addition, the coach may have only had a direct relationship with the individual
client, whereas the successful outcome was probably infuenced by the efforts of many
internal and external suppliers and customers to that client.
Nevertheless, particularly in private sector settings, an increased ability for you as a
coach, or for coaching as a profession, to be able to plausibly point to ROI evidence
would, as Phillips and Phillips (2007) assert, help organisations buy into and value the
benefts that coaching can create.

Kaufman’s Model of Learning Evaluation

Although commonly referred to as Kaufman’s model, this evaluation framework was
devised by Kaufman and Keller (1994). As with the Phillips model, this was purposefully
positioned as building upon Kirkpatrick: Kaufman and Keller describe this as ‘Kirkpatrick
plus, viewing the source model as important but incomplete.The Kaufman model was also
designed with training in mind, rather than coaching, but is easy to apply to our context.
The fve Kaufman levels are summarised in Table 33.1 and Table 33.2.
The key alterations here are:

(a) splitting Kirkpatrick’s ‘Reaction’ into two sub-levels. This may make more sense in
a training context, where a well-delivered workshop may be let down by poorly
produced resource material, meaning Level 1b: ‘Reaction’ would be evaluated more
favourably than Level 1a: ‘Enabling’. With the much more facilitative, non-directive
nature of coaching, the coach’s way of being with their client is often the main
resource or catalyst, so one would expect ‘Enabling’ and ‘Reaction’ to be much more
closely linked.
360 Jonathan Passmore and David Tee

Table 33.1 Sample feedback form. Please rate today’s session using the scale 1–10, where 10 is high and
1 is low.

Criteria Rating 1–10 Comments

Building our working relationship

Helping you feel safe
Being fully present throughout the conversation
Listening to you
Helping develop your awareness
Facilitating your learning
Overall
What did you fnd most helpful in today’s session?

What one aspect could we do different next time to make this an even better session?

Table 33.2 Kaufman 5 levels

Level What

Level 1: Enabling What were all the resource inputs (materials, human, fnancial, etc.) required
for the coaching to happen?
Level 2: Acquisition The equivalent to Kirkpatrick’s learning.What mastery and skills or
knowledge acquisition has occurred as a result of the coaching?
Level 3: Application Equivalent to “transfer”. How has this learning actually been applied within
the organisation?
Level 4: Organisational This may take the form of identifying organisational performance or strategic
outputs gains, or it may be a cost–beneft analysis or ROI calculation.
Level 5: Societal The impact and consequences in and for the society in which the client’s
outcomes organisation is situated.

(b) Bringing in societal considerations. Kaufman had been arguing this point since the
1970s, stating that no organisation was a means unto itself and that it needed to look
beyond its own self-serving goals. With HR taking an increasing role in corporate
responsibility, it becomes more likely that we, as coaches, should be asking questions
about how outcomes have a positive impact upon the immediate community, society
more widely and the environment.

Passmore’s SOAP-M model

The SOAP-M model aimed to blend four levels of analysis which could be used for HR
interventions, with a further level available for academic researchers (Passmore & Velez,
2012; 2015).The model is summarised in Table 33.3. In the following section we describe
in detail the levels included in the model, emphasising their objectives, as well as their
relevance.
 Feedback and evaluation in coaching 361

Table 33.3 SOAP-M 5 level evaluation model

Levels Focus of evaluation

Level 1: Self Assessment undertake by the client/participant of the impact on them.

Level 2: Others Assessment undertake by Line manager, peers, direct reports and
stakeholders (Others) of the impact on the client/individual.
Level 3: Achievements Assessment based on an assessment of the individual’s achievement of goals
or objectives.
Level 4: Potential Assessment based on the development of potential.
Level 5: Meta-analysis Researcher review of research studies – combining data from multiple
studies to produce an overall effect measure (effect size).

Level 1: Self
In a similar way to Kirkpatrick’s model (Kirkpatrick, 1959: 1979), Level 1 is based on
evaluation of the intervention by the individual. Data would be collected by a question-
naire; the more specifc the questions, the more helpful the evaluation will be to the
coach.
Level 1-type evaluation offers benefts to the participant and the organisation. Collection
of data is low-cost. It provides the opportunity for learners to have a voice and refect on
their own learning. It provides quick, almost instant feedback for the coach at the end of
the session and allows for adaption for the next encounter.
This level might include:

• Experiential feedback at the end of a coaching session from client;

• Experiential feedback at the end of a coaching assignment from the client;
• Competency ratings by the client.

Where possible, the completion of an anonymous experiential feedback form is likely to

reduce bias, such as socially desirable answers, and thus enhance the quality of the data.
However, in many situations this is not possible. Secondly, providing the form at the end
of the session can increase response rates and specifcity of the feedback.
It could also include the completion of a self-rating competency questionnaire; for
example, one which has been designed specifcally for the organisation or sector. This
could be completed as a pre- and post-intervention questionnaire to measure the indi-
vidual’s development during the coaching. It could include the completion of a self-rating
psychometric questionnaire, such as the MSCEIT (an emotional intelligence question-
naire) or MTQ48 (a resilience questionnaire). Such instruments allow the self-assessment
results to be compared with a norm group as well as the potential to undertake a pre- and
post-coaching intervention assessment.

Level 2: Others
The evaluation at Level 2 is completed not by the individual themselves but by others. In
this case, their line manager, peers, direct reporters and stakeholders.The evaluation could
use either a predesigned internal or sector-specifc questionnaire, a generic competency-
leadership questionnaire like ILM72 or a psychometric, which allows 360 ratings such as
362 Jonathan Passmore and David Tee
Saville Wave. As with self-rating, the evaluation could use a pre- and post-assessment by
others to evaluate the impact of the coaching on the individual.
A number of weaknesses exist at the ‘individual’ and ‘other’ level. Firstly, personal fac-
tors such as divorce, or the impact of other interventions, such as attending a leadership
programme or engaging with an informal mentor, may account for the change, or lack of
change, over the time period of the intervention. Secondly, the use of individual evalua-
tion does not allow for the use of a control group.

Level 3: Achievements
While Levels 1 and 2 are concerned with behaviour, personality or attitude, Level 3
shifts the focus to the impact of these newly-acquired behaviours on the achievement
of key personal tasks. This may include performance against targets set at the annual
appraisal or monthly/quarterly goals – such as sales targets. This type of assessment
requires measurable goals and some form of comparison with previous attainment lev-
els and/or comparison with colleagues in an attempt to isolate factors such as chang-
ing economic conditions or personal circumstances. The impact of a pandemic can
have widely differing impacts, from signifcant increases in the sales of face masks and
a depression in holiday sales for the same period. Level 3 can also be used to assess
organisational-level goals such as proft, growth in turnover, market share or stock value/
share price, where the responsibility for these rests with the individual, such as a chief
executive or sales director.
The higher one moves up the organisation, away from individual performance, the
harder it is to identify any single intervention which has had an impact, which is one of
the challenges facing the use of ROI as a mechanism. Other variables, such as economic
conditions, competitor behaviour and technology change, may all play a role.

Level 4: Potential
Level 4 of the SOAP-M model looks at potential. Recently developed psychometrics
claim to assess an individual’s potential as well as their actual performance. Coaching
may help individuals develop their ability to self-refect and to be more self-aware,
thus growing future potential. Over time this may show itself in enhanced relationships
and more effective management of crisis situations, which may not be present over
the period of the coaching intervention. Such aspects are harder to measure through a
competence framework and, as we note, may not be immediately evident in individual
achievements.
As with previous levels, the assessment could take place as pre- and post-assessment,
with completion of the questionnaire at T1 (prior to the intervention) and at T2 (a few
weeks or months after the intervention).

SOAP overview
We believe the frst four SOAP levels are all practical methods which most HR profes-
sionals could use to evaluate coaching’s impact on individuals and groups. As we have
identifed, this works best when there is pre- and post-assessment and when there is an
ability to compare an individual’s results with others.
 Feedback and evaluation in coaching 363
Level 5: Meta-analysis
Meta-analysis is a more sophisticated data analysis and we believe this is a useful tool for
wider reviews of interventions, such as coaching.The approach combines individual stud-
ies to assess the overall effectiveness of the intervention. By grouping studies together, the
signifcance of local factors can be reduced and a greater focus be placed on assessing the
intervention.
However, while meta-analysis has been used extensively in health interventions, the
number of meta-studies of organisation interventions, such as coaching, is more limited.
Some studies have been conducted but more research is needed to better understand
coaching effectiveness in different situations and as a tool with different presenting issues.

Practice of coaching evaluation

Stakeholder needs
In the previous section we offered a number of alternative evaluation models, each provid-
ing ways in which coaching’s impact can be evaluated. At a practice level, most coaching
assignments have multiple stakeholders, each with their own needs.At a sponsor level, the
sponsor is interested to assess the impact of coaching on organisational performance.The
line manager may be more concerned about an individual’s work performance, while the
individual client’s concern may be toward a mix of short-term performance and longer-
term personal development.The coach too seeks feedback for learning and development,
as well as to track the value they are providing to clients.We have summarised the perspec-
tives of different stakeholders and their needs in Table 33.4.

Feedback/evaluation for coaches

The coach may be seeking data for a number of purposes: to provide evidence that their
coaching works, as well as feedback that can help their development and enable them
to adjust their coaching approach with this specifc client. The coach may use informal
methods to achieve these outcomes, such as inviting feedback at the end of the session or
issuing a questionnaire.

Table 33.4 Stakeholder needs

Stakeholder Evaluation needs

Coach • Learning and development;

• Impact of coaching on their client.
Individual client • Skills/performance development;
• Personal growth.
Line manager • Impact of coaching on their team member against the specifc areas of
development.
Sponsor • Impact of coaching individual performance;
• Development of potential.
Board • Long-term impact of investment in coaching.
364 Jonathan Passmore and David Tee
In our experience, asking specifc questions can be more helpful in eliciting construc-
tive feedback. Asking the question, ‘How was the session for you?’ often leads to vague
statements such as ‘That was great’ from clients. Instead, the coach may be better having
follow up questions to the general starter question: ‘What specifcally did you fnd most
helpful?’ and,‘If there as one thing we could do differently next time to make the session
even better, what would that be?’
We would also suggest that coaches not only seek feedback at the end of a session,
certainly after the frst or second session, but that they also invite a review conversation at
the end of the assignment.This offers an opportunity to gather data about how the client
both experienced the coaching assignment and how it has impacted on their work.The
opportunity exists at this stage to return to the original goals, and to consider whether or
which of these have been achieved and where further work is needed.

Evaluation for clients

From our experience, individual clients tend to be more focused on their experience of
coaching than on measurable data. Intangible facts play a large part, including the coach-
ing relationship. Rather than draw on performance data, the client may take a wider
perspective and consider how they have grown and developed through the coaching
relationship. Of course, this is not universally true: some clients may be interested in their
development against specifc competences or performance data.

Evaluation for sponsors and line managers

In some assignments the sponsor may be the same person as the client. In other assign-
ments, this role is separated, with the coaching co-ordinator, HR manager or chief exec-
utive-chairperson acting as the sponsor who commissions the coaching. In our view, the
role of the sponsor is one which needs to be managed, with the sponsor’s voice brought
into the contracting, goal-setting and evaluation.This can be achieved through tripartite
contracting at the start, between coach, client and sponsor, a review meeting at the mid-
point of the assignment to review progress and revise (if needed) the goal or objectives
and a fnal review meeting to evaluate the impact of the coaching from the perspective of
both the client and the sponsor.

Evaluation for commissioning managers

In addition to individual sponsors, many organisations have a programme or commission-
ing manager who may be responsible for evaluating the coaching programme and report-
ing this to a project board. At this level, a more quantitative approach is required which
extends beyond the number of people coached and hours of coaching delivered (input
data) towards a greater focus on outputs and outcomes. However, as we noted above, such
data can be tricky to collect and susceptible to contaminating factors.While much atten-
tion has been paid to ROI as a model, results from that model rely so heavily on estimates
of the benefts that its value as a tool has been robustly challenged (Grant, 2012).

Evaluation timing
We have suggested above that evaluation should be a regular practice that takes place
across the coaching assignment.This can happen at the end of each session by the coach, at
 Feedback and evaluation in coaching 365
the mid-point of an assignment with the client and the sponsor or at the end of an assign-
ment with the client and the sponsor. It can also happen at an organisational programme
level through an annual review or a periodic programme evaluation; for example, at the
end of a contract period with a provider (see Table 33.4).
Feedback has many uses for coaches, helping their ongoing development, as well as
enabling them to fex and adapt to meet the needs of specifc clients.These feedback data
can be useful not only for self-refection, but as material to explore in supervision.
For sponsors, too, seeing evaluation as an integral part of the process is important, and
one which runs from beginning to end, moving from a focus on the individual over time
to a focus on the impact of the coaching programme on organisational objectives and
performance.

Conclusion
In this chapter we have explored the issue of evaluation and feedback. Evaluation has been
an often-neglected aspect of coaching, with the methods employed tending to be more
informal than formal and more experiential than quantitative. However, this is begin-
ning to change, with more organisations adopting a strategic view of coaching and more
coaches adopting more formal feedback systems into their process.

References
Athanasopoulou, A. and Dopson, S. (2018). ‘A systematic review of executive coaching outcomes: is
it the journey or the destination that matter the most?’ The Leadership Quarterly, 29(1), pp. 70–88.
doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.004.
Bozer, G. and Jones, R.J. (2018). ‘Understanding the factors that determine workplace coaching
effectiveness: A systematic literature review’. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,
27(3), pp. 342–361. doi:10.1080/1359432X.2018.1446946.
Briner, R.B. (2012).‘Does coaching work and does anyone really care?’ OP Matters, 16, pp. 4–11.
Fletcher, C. (2015). ‘Feedback development as a development tool’. In K. Kraiger, J. Passmore, N. dos
Santos and S. Malvezzi, eds., The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of training, development and
performance improvement. Chichester, UK:Wiley Blackwell, pp. 486–502.
Grant, A.M. (2012).‘ROI is a poor measure of coaching success: towards a more holistic approach using
a well-being and engagement framework’. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Practice and
Research, 5(2), 74–85. doi:10.1080/17521882.2012.672438.
Grant, A.M. and Stober, D.R. (2006).‘Introduction’. In D.R. Stober and A.M. Grant, eds., Evidence based
coaching handbook. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., pp. 1–14.
Grover, S. and Furnham, A. (2016). ‘Coaching as a developmental intervention in organisations: A
systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it’. PLoS ONE, 11(7), pp.
e0159137. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159137.
Kaufman, R. and Keller, J. (1994).‘Levels of evaluation; beyond Kirkpatrick’. Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 5(4), pp. 371–380. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920050408.
Kirkpatrick, D. (1979). ‘Techniques for evaluating training programs’. Training and Development Journal,
33(6), pp. 78–92.
Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1959). ‘Techniques for evaluating training programs: Reaction’. American Society for
Training and Development Journal, 18, pp. 3–9.
Kluger, A. and DeNisi, A. (1996). ‘The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical
review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory’. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2),
pp. 254–84.
Lancer, N., Clutterbuck, D. and Megginson, D. (2016). Techniques for coaching and mentoring, 2nd ed.
Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
366 Jonathan Passmore and David Tee
Latham, G. and Locke, E. (1991). ‘Self-regulation through goal setting’. Organizational Behaviour and
Human Decision Processes, 50, pp. 212–247.
London, M. and Smither, J.W. (2002). ‘Feedback orientation, feedback culture, and the longitudinal
performance management process’. Human Resource Management Review, 12(1), pp. 81–100.
doi:10.1016/s1053-4822(01)00043-2.
Matthewman, L. (2009). ‘Evaluating coaching effectiveness’. Coaching Psychology International, 2(1), pp.
21–22.
McDowell, A. and Kurz, R. (2008). ‘Effective integration of 360 degree feedback into the coaching
process’. The Coaching Psychologist, 4(1), pp. 7–19.
Passmore, J. and Velez, M. (2015). ‘Training evaluation’. In K. Kraiger, J. Passmore, N. dos Santos and S.
Malvezzi, eds., The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of training, development and performance
improvement. Chichester, UK:Wiley Blackwell, pp. 136–153.
Passmore, J. and Velez, M.J. (2012). ‘SOAP-M: A training evaluation model for HR’. Industrial and
Commercial Training, 44(6), pp. 315–325. doi:10.1108/00197851211254743.
Philips, J.J. (2007). ‘Measuring the ROI of a coaching intervention’. Performance Improvement, 46(10), pp.
10–23. doi:10.1002pf.167.
Phillips, J.J. and Phillips, P.P. (2007).‘Show me the money:The use of ROI in performance improvement,
part 1’. Performance Improvement, 46(9), pp. 8–22. doi:10.1002/pf.160.
Phillips, P.P., Phillips, J.J. and Edwards, L. (2012). Measuring the success of coaching: A Stes-by-step guide for
measuring impact and calculating ROI. Alexandria,VA: Association for Talent Development.
Reio,T.G., Rocco,T.S., Smith, D.H. and Chang, E. (2017).‘A critique of Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model’.
New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 29(2), pp. 35–53. doi:10.1002/
nha3.20178.
34 AI and digital technology in
coaching
Edith Coron

Introduction
Coaching, like many industries, is increasingly drawing on technology to augment or
replace functions previously carried out by humans, or to support the delivery of services.
The pace of change and the use of these technologies are likely to increase over the com-
ing decade, with implications for coaches, as well as for those who use coaching services.
In this chapter I discuss how the technology is developing, what digital does, what artif-
cial intelligence offers and the implications for the coaching profession.

Hall of mirrors
Exploring the impact that digital technologies already have, and that artifcial intelligence
can have, on the world of coaching is like entering a hall of mirrors with a maze of refec-
tions. The mirror – a threshold between reality and fantasy in Alice in Wonderland – is
confusing for most people when it comes to AI and digital technologies, and blurry for
many in the context of coaching.To orientate ourselves in this haze, some defnitions are
needed.

Defnitions
Digital technologies is an umbrella term for computer-based products and solutions that,
through programs, combine simple algorithms with limited amounts of data.
An algorithm is a suite of mathematical instructions that are programmed by a human,
which are to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations.Algorithms
pre-existed the computer era and can be traced to Euclid in 300 BC. Digital coding and
microprocessors gave birth to digital algorithms and have penetrated our lives through eve-
rything from online shopping, social networks and global positioning systems or GPS, to
head-hunting and even university entrance applications.
Data are either a mass of information collected to be examined, considered and used to
help decision-making or information in an electronic form that can be stored and used by
a computer.The term big data refers to extremely large data sets that may be analysed com-
putationally to reveal patterns, trends and associations, especially those related to human
behaviour and interactions.1
Artifcial intelligence incorporates into computer programs complex algorithms applied
to a vast quantity of information.
368 Edith Coron
Machine learning is a branch of artifcial intelligence wherein a computer generates rules
that underlie or are based on raw data that have been fed into the computer.2
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning and comprises algorithms that permit
software to train itself to perform tasks such as speech and image recognition by exposing
multi-layered neural networks to vast amounts of data.
Neural networks are computer programs that simulate the interconnections between
neurons in a human brain and are able to learn by a process of trial and error.
Chatbot is a computer programme that simulates human conversation through voice
commands, text chats or both and uses Natural Language Processing or NLP.
Natural Language Processing (NLP) is the understanding, analysis and generation of
human natural language.
When discussing AI specialists often refer to three types of artifcial intelligence:

Artifcial Narrow Intelligence (ANI) mimics human intelligence and/or behaviour within a
narrow range of parameters and contexts. So far, all existing AIs are “narrow”. This
includes even AlphaGo, which beat a professional Go player in 2015, and AIs that can
now do a better job of detecting cancer than doctors.They perform in one specifc
area in which they have been programmed.
Artifcial General Intelligence (AGI) mimics human intelligence and/or behaviour to be
indistinguishable from that of a human and capable of handling any intellectual task.
We are not there yet.
Artifcial Super Intelligence (ASI) mimics human intelligence and/or behaviour and sur-
passes it. ASI has long inspired science fction and there is much speculation about
the moment when, if ever, it will come into existence.That moment is known as the
“point of singularity”.

AI applications to coaching
One could argue that the ancestor of the “digital coach” was ELIZA, the frst ever chatbot,
which was designed in 1966 by a Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor, Joseph
Weizenbaum MIT.This text-based programme identifed a relatively small number of key
words and simulated the conversation a therapist might have with a patient (Standford,
1966).These exchanges would sound familiar to many coaches.

Box 33.1: Sample ELIZA conversation

A sample conversation was as follows:
Young woman: It’s true. I’m unhappy.
Eliza: Do you think coming here will help you not to be unhappy?
Young woman: I need some help, that much seems certain.
Eliza: What would it mean to you if you got some help?
Young woman: Perhaps I could learn to get along with my mother.
Eliza: Tell me more about your family.

Some 50 years later, technology has made some signifcant inroads into the coaching pro-
fession. These include:
 AI and digital technology in coaching 369
Communication technology (video conferencing), enables virtual individual or team/group
coaching, while technologically supported facilitation tools can be used for brain-
storming, surveys and questionnaires.
Admin digital tools cover booking appointments, logging in coaching hours, sending
reminders to clients, accounting and legal contracting.
Feedback questionnaires flled in by the client and/or the coach help to measure client satis-
faction and coaching effectiveness.
Sourcing platforms offer coaches on demand. These may be either B2B (subcontracted
coaches) or B2C (coaches connecting directly with clients) such as the International
Coaching Federation’s “Find a Coach” platform. Clients choose from a list of coaches
in explicit, predetermined categories (coaching qualifcations, gender, professional
background, location, languages, etc.).
Matching seeks to go further and put coaches and clients in contact with one another using
questionnaires to gather both objective information to create profling categories, as
in the sourcing platforms, and subjective information based on values, communica-
tion styles and preferences and personality profles (either self-declared or through
the questionnaires), among others. Answers are correlated by similarities in pools of
coaches and clients on the assumption that these similarities will create an affnity or
the right “ft”.
Numerous digital coaching platforms incorporate sourcing and sometimes matching. They
offer distance coaching, either by prior appointment or on demand.The coaching is
carried out live or through voice or text messages.
Online self-awareness tools such as self-evaluation psychometric tests (MBTI, Hogan, Process
Communication Model, etc.) or 360-feedback profles are now common features in
the coach’s toolbox. A qualifed coach may then play a complementary role, debrief-
ing after the tests and following up with additional coaching sessions.
Online tools and coach services can be incorporated into e-learning platforms that often
offer digital resource libraries (videos, TedEx talks, articles, blogs) with or without
teaching modules.
Metaphoric associative cards are drawn from psychotherapy and commonly used in coaching.
They, along with numerous other coaching support tools or models, can be found
online and are included in virtual coaching sessions.

All the above are digital adaptations of resources that coaches have long used in their
original, non-technological forms. MBTI Step I was a handwritten test that used carbon
paper to calculate scores!
The frameworks, categories, criteria and contents are all defned by humans.
Digitalisation allows different stages of the coaching processes to be automated and sys-
tematised and has already profoundly changed the profession.
Virtual exchanges also are taking the place of face-to-face sessions. Coaching, indeed,
has become ubiquitous, adapting to the exigencies of time zones and remote connections.
Building and sustaining a meaningful relationship through electronic communications can
be a challenge for coaches. It tests their capacity (and that of the client) to be fully present
when much useful information can be lost and to develop new “listening” skills.
Many business clients are experienced in remote professional interactions with teams
spread around the world, struggling with the shortcomings of long distance and digital
exchanges.They know how hard it is to sustain effective communications, build trust and
maintain a relationship.We can learn from them.
370 Edith Coron
“Coach on demand” is also a slippery concept that could question the very principle of
ownership by the client of the coaching itself.The risks of the coach being a crutch and
of the coaching session being a quick fx are real.The commoditisation of coaching is a
growing trend with implications for all coaches.

Artifcial intelligence at the heart of coaching

It is at the very heart of coaching – that is, the coaching relationship and the coaching
conversation – that artifcial intelligence, as it is developing, has the potential to play an
even more signifcant role.
Automatic coaching chatbots are question-and-answer exchanges between a human being
and a programme. They use tree-diagram formats based on pre-established scenarios,
where an AI can understand speech or text delivered in natural language. In our daily lives,
we are familiar with Alexa or Siri. Several similar programs that are adapted to coaching
are available, with some of these operating only as telephone applications (apps).
Asynchronous data analysis: Some digital platforms are applying machine learning to
recorded coaching sessions. Using Net Promoter Scoring (a marketing indicator), and
Natural Language Processing, they analyse what they defne as “anonymised data” from
their users by monitoring an array of criteria.
Coaches have long been recording their sessions for the purpose of certifcation by
their professional organisations. The recordings and their transcripts are analysed by
assessors who evaluate the coach’s professional competencies based on an explicit set
of criteria. Recordings of sessions are also used in the mentoring and supervision of
coaches.
Synchronous Data Analysis: Introducing AI in real time into the coaching conversation
implies, in the words of David Clutterbuck, a “coach–AI partnership” (2018), and poten-
tially puts a wealth of information, literally, at the fngertips of the coach. The AI could
be an observer of the session, a source of additional information, a sounding board and a
mirror – in short, a “third party” resource.This resource, which must be made accessible
in full transparency to the client, would also dramatically impact the coach-client relation-
ship.A new alliance needs to be built in which coach and client jointly defne the role they
want to assign to the tools and without which their mutual trust could be threatened by
an excessive reliance on the AI.
Monitoring the client, the coach and the exchanges between them, the AI could iden-
tify silence, body language and various patterns, among them linguistic (repeated words),
narrative (limiting assumptions) and conversational (fow and tracks) (Clutterbuck, 2018).
Some physical trackers, already widely used in sports apps that are marketed as “digital
coaches”, could be added (e.g. body temperature, heartbeat, etc.) to gain insights into the
emotional state of the client and perhaps even of the coach. Big players like Google and
Facebook are working on voice and facial emotion recognition through deep learning
with neural networks.

Crossing the threshold

By stepping into the world of emotions, AI-supported tools could cross the threshold
separating “machine intelligence” from what has been, until now, the preserve of human
intelligence. Moreover, and because they are designed by humans, AIs have suffered since
their inception from a strong dose of anthropomorphism; it is almost AI’s birthmark.
 AI and digital technology in coaching 371
When computer pioneer Alan Turing designed his now-famous test – the Turing test –
(1950), the machine was deemed to have succeeded if it fooled the judge into thinking
it was human. Regarding his own test, Professor Weizenbaum was reportedly so annoyed
that people confused the early chatbot, ELIZA, with a real psychiatrist that he abandoned
all research on AI.The “ELIZA effect” has now entered our vocabulary.
By moving into the heart of coaching and seeking to decipher human emotions, the
AIs are seen by their critics as crossing a point of no return, one that ultimately threat-
ens the very humanity of coaching and carrying the risk that coaching becomes a mere
commodity.
Their supporters argue that digital technologies and AIs are instead an opportunity that
the coaching profession should embrace and that they merely refect what coaching is,
with all its shortcomings and achievements.
AIs are permeating coaching, much as they have permeated and will continue to per-
meate many other human endeavours.They are the Janus, the two-faced Roman god, of
our time or, as the astrophysicist Stephen Hawkins once warned, “either the best, or the
worst thing, ever to happen to humanity”.

Developing literacy
This binary proposition calls on our profession to develop literacy around AI in order to
infuence AI development and applications in a way that reinforces the ethical tenets and
raison d’être of coaching.
The International Coaching Federation defnes coaching as “partnering with clients in
a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize their personal
and professional potential” (ICF, 2019).
How then might this new “three-way partnership” (client–coach–AI) best serve this
defnition? While it appears paradoxical, could so-called “cobots” (collaborative robots)
actually enhance the unique human contribution that coaching brings to the world by
relying on what only human coaches so far have the capacity to do – that is, not merely
identifying emotions but connecting with them, tapping into their intuition, nourishing a
relationship and holistically blending thoughts, perception and experience?
Digital and AI applications are, and will be for the foreseeable future, tools that we
humans defne and design. In coaching, we must choose how they are used with transpar-
ent intentionality and mature ethical responsibility. We can apply the same mindful care
and professional standards that we bring to a coaching conversation, where we defne the
intention and the objectives, to “Coaching 5.0”, starting with our profession itself.What
do we want coaching to be and to become and to what purpose?
From its humanistic roots to the role it plays in the prevailing performance culture,
coaching has become a kaleidoscope that confuses many.The transformation coaching is
experiencing could prove to be an additional opportunity to clean up and strengthen our
profession.
For instance, the various monitoring tools discussed above could be used to further
defne, implement and guarantee the standards of a profession that is not regulated and is
often seen as lacking clear metrics.To accomplish this, the various professional organisa-
tions that set those standards (International Coaching Federation, European Mentoring
and Coaching Council, International Association of Coaching, etc.) must co-operate more
and proactively engage in the design of AI-supported measurement tools.The introduc-
tion of AI, some argue, could minimise the subjectivity inherent in human judgment and
372 Edith Coron
further standardise the assessment process in the credentialing of coaches and potentially
in measuring the return on investment of coaching.
With asynchronous recordings as data, AI could allow for more precise monitoring of
the coach’s professional development needs. It could create opportunities for in-depth
review of each coaching session.The coaches themselves could use AI-supported analysis
of their work to self-monitor and to gain additional insights on their coaching sessions.
Coaching suffers from the confusion, in the public eye, over what it really is and does,
in light of the frequent crossover between coaching, counselling, mentoring, training and
consulting. Many coaches too often cross the lines, and several online coaching plat-
forms reinforce this confusion by offering “blended solutions” to people’s development.
Professional organisations still have an important role to play to reduce this confusion.

Data and coaching

Indeed, looming over technology-supported coaching is the crucial question of the data.
Artifcial intelligence requires algorithms, computing power, storage capacity and data.
When it comes to coaching, the topic of data is highly sensitive since the cornerstone
of the coaching relationship is confdentiality.
Many questions arise:

• What databases could be built and used in coaching?

• Who has access to them and for what purpose?
• How might they be modelled?
• What kind of ethical rules should govern them?
• Who sets those boundaries?

As noted earlier, coaching and technology have remained worlds apart for a very long
time. The relationship remains tarnished by mutual suspicion stemming from ignorance
on each side about the other’s world, a suspicion that is also fuelled by the general brou-
haha that surrounds AI and the frm conviction that human complexity – the realm of
coaches – cannot be left to mere algorithms.
Some coaching startups are bridging the gap, working hand in hand with AI developers
to test and implement prototypes with tools for linguistic/semantic analysis in coaching
platforms and apps, as well as others in the matching process. Some of these are highly
mindful of setting ethical boundaries, particularly when it comes to the use of the data
they access and build.
Some online coaching platforms pride themselves on being able to offer HR profes-
sionals the data they need to monitor motivation, performance and well-being by feeding
back to the client company what are known as “rich data”, which can be broken down
by clusters such as gender, age, geography, etc. But where does the anonymity they pledge
start and confdentiality end?
One constraint is the lack of universal rules regarding data protection. In the European
Union the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) governs the use and manage-
ment of personal data. Different territories have different requirements. Overall, coaching
professionals must engage with these standards along with AI developers and decision-
makers.This implies that coaches need to familiarise themselves and keep up to date with
the digital environment in which they operate.
Coach training schools have a crucial role to play in educating future coaches in the
use of technologically supported tools. Newcomers to the profession have a digital fuency
 AI and digital technology in coaching 373
and appetite that can put them in a good position to contribute to the coaching of the
future. There is also a need for established coaches who are less dependent on market
demand and less likely to be lured by the hipness of these tools, to offer their professional
maturity.
AI literacy is also needed to better serve those of our clients whose jobs are increasingly
impacted by AI. Concern about job loss, the risk that their skills become obsolete and the
need to learn how to work with “cobots” are all issues that could arise in coaching con-
versations. Most coaches take their professional development to heart, and our accrediting
bodies require that we do so. By broadening our skills and strengthening our credibility,AI
literacy could be an additional string to our bow.
Finally, AI literacy would allow coaches do what they do best, at their best: Coach. It
enables them to tap into their best coaching tool, themselves, and thus to embrace what
coaching, at heart, is all about; that is, developing and nourishing a refective approach that
sustains informed and intentional choices.
In machine learning,AIs need to be trained.The machines are fed and annotate tens of
thousands of data points. AI trainers verify, validate or, in the event of errors, re-annotate
the data points. Coaches have the skills to undertake this task as AI trainers.
A much talked-about issue regarding AI concerns biases. Which data points based on
which criteria are fed into the machines? How are they refned? Humans bring their
own biases to this process and the programs and, in turn, risk magnifying those biases.
Professional coaches who are aware of the recurring pitfall of the coach setting the agenda,
and are also familiar with the models that can be applied and the tools that can be used,
would act as safeguards.

Coaching and AI: A picture in the picture

Coaching is but a microcosm of the broader picture.The issues raised about data and the
introduction of AI in coaching echo familiar questions about AI in general.
In this debate, philosophers have taken centre stage, because the term “artifcial intel-
ligence” itself brings up philosophical questions. Does intelligent behaviour imply or
require the existence of a mind, and to what extent is consciousness replicable as com-
putation? AIs act intelligently. Does that make them intelligent? The “narrow” artifcial
intelligences, the only type of AIs existing, likely to exist for quite some time, that we have
been referring to all along, are computer-based systems that exhibit intelligent behaviour.
To step into the fctional world of Artifcial Super Intelligences (ASI), those would need
to be self-aware and to make independent choices.
Philosophers, as well as leading fgures in the scientifc and business worlds, have been
calling for an “ethics of action” for machines and humans alike when it comes to AI
developments.Tellingly, the Institute on Artifcial Intelligence at MIAI@Grenoble Alpes,
has established an Ethics Committee headed by a philosopher, Thierry Ménissier. The
Institute is one of the four AI hubs in France that bring together public and private
sectors.
Coaches are well placed to engage in support of the “ethics of action”. Ethics are the
backbone of coaching and we are directly plugged into these changes, at an individual and
collective level, as coaching professionals – through our clients, whether they be organisa-
tions and/or individuals – and as members of society at large..
A cognitive co-revolution of the machines and the humans is underway, and it is accel-
erating, observes Olivier Malafronte (2019). In line with these changes, and when AI
brings “new models of society”, coaches have the potential to support the development
374 Edith Coron
of specifcally human competencies: Cognitive and emotional, favouring “being” rather
than “doing”.

Coaches as role models

Interestingly, some of the very players who are changing our world are encouraging
coaches to step up and assume this role. David Peterson (2019), Global Director of
Leadership and Coaching at Google, has offered a list of actions for coaches in the digital
world:

• Do transformational, not transactional, development;

• See the really big picture;
• Get better at understanding art and science;
• Embrace and leverage new technologies;
• Be role models in adaptability.

Virtual coaching
As for anything technology-supported, the frst requirement for virtual coaching is that
the coach be fully comfortable with the technology used. Coaches can do this by:

• Becoming familiar and at ease with handling remote communication tools so all the
available interfaces and features of the tools are used seamlessly;
• Being mindful of the type of communication tool that their clients can access in the
client’s specifc geographical location;
• Having the ability to troubleshoot technical problems the clients might encounter
(image, speakers and microphones) and, when needed, having a mutually understood,
communicated back-up plan (phone instead of video).

When receiving clients in our offce, we are mindful of the space we offer. The same
applies to remote coaching. How does the virtual room look? What background is dis-
played for the client to see and what does it convey? Is the virtual room quiet and private?
Can the coach’s face and upper half of their body be clearly seen? The coach can encour-
age their client to follow their lead.
The coach has the responsibility to be as present in a virtual coaching session as they
would be in a physical one.This involves being mindful of the state of their body, maybe
using a Mindfulness meditation to prepare and having a glass of water at hand. It may also
involve being aware of and managing the pitch and volume of their voice, speaking slowly
and articulately, while also allowing for silence and maintaining eye contact through the
camera. Thought thus has to be given to both the positioning of the camera and the
screen, allowing suffcient distance between the person and the camera, to allow not just
their face to appear and for the camera to be at eye level.
It is equally important to check the client’s level of comfort; e.g. whether their space is
suitable for the meeting, encouraging them to reframe the camera to allow more of them-
selves to be visible and checking whether they have what they may need to hand, such as
a glass of water. It is equally important to review these aspects at the end of the session,
checking what has worked well and what may need to be adjusted in technological terms
for the next meeting.
 AI and digital technology in coaching 375
Thought also needs to be given to the length of each session. It may work better to
plan for shorter sessions than in face-to-face coaching, such as one hour instead of two, or
to allow for a break if a longer session is planned.The coach also needs to pace the virtual
coaching engagements to allow time for note-taking and meta refection on the session, as
well as ensuring there is enough time between sessions for the coach to resource, refresh
and refocus.
Thought also needs to be given to which tools might be used in the session. Different
tools may be needed to suit the digital environment, or familiar ones may need to be used
in different ways. In the case of psychometric tools, 360-degree feedback and other types
of data, it is essential that the coach be qualifed to use them and is profcient in their
debriefngs.
If working through a blended coaching platform, the coach must be knowledgeable
about the resources offered by the online library as well as the content of the learning
modules.
The coach needs to explicitly defne the boundaries of the confdentiality of all the
data. One specifc issue is the recording of sessions.Who owns the data, who has access to
it and when will it be deleted are all worth discussing as part of the contracting process.

Conclusion
In our journey through the hall of mirrors charted in this chapter, we must remain focused
on our humanity. Coaching, the intimate relationship between two people, is a uniquely
human process.While digitisation can enhance this relationship, such as through accessi-
bility,AI may reshape it. Coaches need to be part of this transformation and steer it, mak-
ing AI coaching a tool for clients which democratises coaching for all.

Notes
1 www.lexico.com/en/defnition/big_data
2 www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/machine-learning

References
Braddick, C. (2019). ‘Democratization coaching platforms, products and personalization’. Blog IOC,
Retrieved on 3 April 2020 from https://instituteofcoaching.org/blogs/democratization-coaching-pl
atforms-products-and-personalization.
Clutterbuck, D. (2018).‘The coach–AI partnership’. Retrieved on 3 April 2020 from www.coachingand
mentoringinternational.org/the-coach-ai-partnership/.
ICF. (2019).‘Defnition of coaching’. Retrieved on 3 April 2020 from https://coachfederation.org.
Turing, A. (1950). ‘The turing test’. Retrieved on 8 April 2020 from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
turing-test/.
Peterson, D. (2019). ‘The digital coach’, Conference paper, Sydney, Australia shared with the author by
The Leadership Group.
Stanford. (1966). ‘ELIZA’. Retrieved on 3 April 2020 from https://web.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2
/text/dialogues.html.
Cezon, M. and Ménissier,T. (2020).‘IA et coaching, une réfexion éthique et prospective sur leurs apports
réciproques’. Retrieved on 8 April 2020 from https://revue-europeenne-coaching.com/numeros/
numero-10-04-2020/ia-et-coaching-une-refexion-ethique-et-prospective-sur-leurs-apports-recipr
oques.
Malafronte, O. (2019). Founder of Pocket Confdent AI, interview with the author.
Section 6

Continuing coach
development
35 Supervision in coaching
Suzanne Lines

Introduction
Coach supervision is now an established practice. Each of the coaching bodies recognises
the importance of coach supervision, the Global Code of Ethics for Coaches, Mentors and
Supervisors (GCMA) requires all signatories to engage in supervision and many organi-
sations today expect coaches to be actively engaged in coaching supervision. To make
the most of supervision and recognise the importance for our continued professional
development, we need to understand what it covers and how best to prepare for it. In this
chapter, we will look at the core functions and purposes of supervision, in addition to how
the focus of supervision has changed to meet the needs of coaches today.We will offer a
framework for supervision and the multiple lenses we need to develop as coaches.We will
look at some of the key relationship dynamics which beneft from a supervisory lens (for
example parallel process, transference and counter transference).We will also offer a frame-
work for choosing your supervisor, what to consider in creating an effective supervision
relationship and the benefts to you, your clients and the client’s organisation.

The development of supervision

Supervision is still a relatively new activity. Coach supervision emerged in the early 2000s, as
practitioners looked to therapeutic practice to enhance their coaching (Hawkins and Smith,
2006). Since then, a small body of evidence has emerged to demonstrate the value of super-
vision (Bachkirova et al., 2020; Hawkins,Turner and Passmore, 2019). Many coaches work in
organisational settings and therefore need to manage multi-cornered contracts and a range
of stakeholders. Balancing this range of needs is very different to 1:1 contracting.
Michael Carroll noted how supervision has changed in the last 40 years. From therapy
the focus was on the supervisor, then the focus on the supervisee to our profession’s current
focus:The work itself:“centred on practice; the actual work done with a view to using that
work to improve future work” (Carroll, 1996, 2014, p. 124). More specifcally he suggested:

1. Supervision is no longer only an inward-looking process to help supervisees do their

work better. It also helps them look outwards and take a systemic approach;
2. Supervision should be supervisee not supervisor-led, with a focus on learning not
teaching;
3. Critical refection is a central method for generating learning;
4. The supervisor has a dual role of facilitating learning and promoting high quality work
by their supervisees (Carroll, 1996, 2014).
380 Suzanne Lines
The purpose of coach supervision
The primary purpose of supervision is to provide a refective space to ensure we as coaches
provide the best service we can to our clients. Our clients are at the heart of all that we do
and that requires us to apply a rigour to our practice, refecting on our work, how we have
been with our clients and what we are learning so that we can work as cleanly as possible in
service of the multiple systems to which they belong.That rigour requires that we also con-
tinue to grow vertically and horizontally and that we take care of ourselves as professionals.
Peter Hawkins and Nick Smith (2006) suggested that coach supervision has three main
functions:
• Developmental:
{{ Developing the coach’s skills and understanding of their processes, their interven-

tions and their impact;

• Resourcing:
{{ Attending to the emotions triggered in the coach from the work. Examples

include feeling competent, potential over-identifcation with clients or being

well defended against some emotions which we therefore don’t see or work with
and therefore miss key elements of the work;
• Qualitative:
{{ Attending to the quality of the work, working ethically, looking out for blind

spots, our biases and our own areas of vulnerability.Working with ethical dilem-
mas where there is no clear right or wrong.

Other writers have provided alternative views on the purpose of supervision. These are
summarised in Table 35.1.

What is coaching supervision?

As with coaching, there is currently no single defnition of coach supervision. Given the
continued debate about the precise nature of coaching itself, it seems unlikely that we will
come to a single defnition on coaching supervision, and yet there are important unifying
key elements.

Let’s look at some of the defnitions of supervision:

Coaching supervision is a co-created learning relationship that supports the super-

visee in their development, both personally and professionally, and seeks to support
them in providing best practice to their client.Through the process of refecting on
their own work in supervision, the supervisees can review and develop their prac-
tice and re-energize themselves. It offers a forum to attend to their emotional and
professional wellbeing and growth.Through the relationship and dialogue in this alli-
ance, coaches can receive feedback broaden their perspectives, generate new ideas and
maintain standards of effective practice.

(Hodge, 2016, pp. 87–106)

Coaching Supervision is a collaborative learning practice to continually build the

capacity of the coach through refective dialogue for the beneft of both coaches and
Table 35.1 The purpose of supervision

Writer Kadushin (1976) Proctor (2000) Hawkins (2006) Carroll and Gilbert Newton (2012)
(2005–2011)

Field Social work Counselling Coach-specifc supervision

Focus of supervision Supervisor → Supervisee → The work

1 Administrative/ Normative Qualitative Accountability Accounting for all parties,

Managerial taking a meta perspective.

2 Supportive Restorative Resourcing Refection Nurturative, offering

recognition, encouragement,
The 3 core functions
support.

3 Educative Formative Developmental Experiential Learning Transformative New ways

of thinking, feeling and
behaving.
(Adapted from Newton 2012, p. 104)
Supervision in coaching
381
382 Suzanne Lines
clients. Coaching Supervision focuses on the development of the coach’s capacity
through offering a richer and broader opportunity for support and development.
Coaching Supervision creates a safe environment for the coach to share their suc-
cesses and failures in becoming masterful in the way they work with their clients.
(ICF, 2020)

Coaching Supervision is a formal and protected time for facilitating a coach’s in-
depth refection on their practice with a Coaching Supervisor. Supervision offers
a confdential framework within a collaborative working relationship in which the
practice, tasks, process and challenges of the coaching work can be explored. The
primary aim of Supervision is to enable the coach to gain in ethical competency,
confdence and creativity so as to ensure best possible service to the coaching clients,
both clients and coaching sponsors. Supervision is not a “policing” role, but rather a
trusting and collegial professional relationship.
(Association for Coaching, 2019)

Supervision is the interaction that occurs when a mentor or coach brings their coach-
ing or mentoring work experiences to a supervisor in order to be supported and to
engage in refective dialogue and collaborative learning for the development and
beneft of the mentor or coach, their clients and their organisations.
(EMCC, 2020)

In reviewing these defnitions, fve key principles emerge:

• Clients:At the heart of the process;

• Regular: Creating protected time;
• Relationship: Safe and trusting;
• Process: Refexive and collaborative; developing mastery;
• Ethics: Ensuring ethical practice.

Michael Carroll and Maria Gilbert offer a defnition of a supervisee:“anyone, of any pro-
fession, who brings his/her work experience to another in order to learn from it” (Carroll
and Gilbert, 2005, p. 11).This for me simplifes something that is complex, rich, rewarding,
challenging and testing, and reminds me as a coach, supervisee and coach supervisor, that
the primary purpose of supervision is to continue learning and expanding our frame of
reference so that we become ever more effective in service of our clients and their systems.
Increasingly, many issues brought to supervision have an ethical dilemma that offers an
opportunity to develop “the ethical maturity of the client, coach, supervisor and the wider
systems” as well as fnding a resolution to the issue (Hawkins,Turner and Passmore, 2019,
p. 26). Ethics, as we know, are not a simple case of “right or wrong”; they invite us to refect
and take responsibility for developing our own “moral map” (Malik, 2014, p. 344) and are
core to effective supervision.
Our coach training will have given us great tools, models and techniques:The next stage
of that learning is the live ongoing application and refection on our practice to develop the
skilful capability of when and how to use that knowledge and skills to best effect.
Peter Hawkins and Nick Smith (2006) talk about three C’s: Competencies, Capabilities
and Capacities. See Table 35.2.
 Supervision in coaching 383

Table 35.2 Three C’s of supervision

Competencies Capabilities Capacities

Both are about doing and know-how. Being.

Content and Process: Skills/models/ Context appropriate use of Skills Personal qualities.
frameworks. / models/frameworks.

Can be learned – in the classroom. Can be learned – only live and The human qualities
on the job. that can be nurtured
and refned.

They describe supervision as having “a vital role to play in helping the supervisee turn
their competencies into capabilities and to ensure that the capabilities are held within an
ever-increasing capacity to work with others with fearless compassion”.To do this well, we
need to know ourselves well. The best medium to achieve this is through critical refec-
tion.A refection that goes beyond content and explores, unpacks and reframes assumptions
underpinning our map of the world: Beliefs, behaviours and theories (Carroll, 1996–2014).
Supervision at its best is “transformative rather than transmissive” (Carroll, 1996–2014).
David Kolb’s experiential learning model (1984) is at the heart of this critical refec-
tion and that mindset shift. Refecting on our experience, learning from and through the
testing of that new learning, we can then transform the way we think, feel and behave.
See Figure 35.1.
There are of course other ways to critically refect and you will come across terms such
as Coach Mentoring and Peer Supervision, in addition to group or 1:1 supervision. A
brief summary is provided in Table 35.3.

A framework for supervision

The 7-Eyed Supervision Model offers 7 different lenses or perspectives to support critical
refection (Hawkins and Smith, 2006). See Figure 35.2.

Concrete
Experience
(doing / having an
experience)

Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
(planning / trying out (reviewing / reflecting
what you have learned) on the experience)

Abstract
Conceptualisation
(concluding / learning
from the experience)

Figure 35.1 Kolb’s Learning Model

384 Suzanne Lines

Table 35.3 Methods to engage in refective practice

Critical Refection Coverage of the 3 core functions of supervision Elements covered from the 7-Eyed
includes Model for Supervision (a framework
for supervision overleaf)

Coach A term specifc to the ICF. Focussed on coaching Eye 2 – the coach’s interventions.
Mentoring skills relevant to the core competency credential
level.The focus is on the Developmental
function.The Resourcing and Qualitative
elements are excluded.
1:1 Supervision Expect to include all 3 core functions of All 7 eyes.
supervision. More likely to have time for a
personal deep dive. If contracted for, can include
coaching credential preparation.
Group Expect to include all 3 core functions of All 7 eyes.
Supervision supervision. Opportunity to learn from others,
may have less time on personal issue. Supervisor
has responsibility for group process. If contracted
for, can include coaching credential preparation.
Peer Supervision Opportunity for shared learning, vulnerability, Eyes covered will be dependent
deep refection and productive challenge in on the individuals involved.
both parties (David Clutterbuck, 2018). Needs Works best for those experienced
greater commitment as no one person has in psychological contracting
responsibility for group process therefore greater and managing group process
need for structure. Quality dependent upon the For a comprehensive guide, have
rigor of individuals involved. Potential risk of a look at ‘Peer Supervision in
psychological (out of awareness) game playing, Coaching and Mentoring’ by
collusion, competition, playing safe. Tuner, Lucas and Whitaker and
‘Group Supervision’ by Proctor
Less likely to be acceptable for accreditation.

Any time one person meets another, we are not only meeting that individual but
coming into contact with their whole system: We are meeting their values, beliefs and
their behaviours shaped by their life experiences, and we also bring in our own values
and beliefs, and our behaviours that have been shaped by our life experiences. Some of
these experiences will be openly shared:Things that would appear comfortably on a CV
perhaps. Other elements that have shaped us as individuals are not always so visible: Some
we will be aware of and some will be out of conscious awareness. So there is a lot to take
account of in any relationship. We then overlay the organisational culture and the key
stakeholders within that (our client’s organisation, their key stakeholders, our own organi-
sation or the associate company we work for) and you can see there is a lot that comes into
the coaching space.When we contract with our client, we become part of their system and
can then not always see other relational dynamics at play.The 7-Eyed Supervision Model
can help us see and work with those complexities more clearly. See Table 35.4.
Cochrane and Newton (2018) add an 8th eye:“the contact, awareness, connectedness,
overall values and philosophy that the supervisor” brings.When this is working well, it can
constructively impact the quality of the supervisory relationship whatever issues and chal-
lenges arise and therefore has a constructive impact on the work. See The Eyes, the Focus
and Skills of the 7 Eyed Model in Table 35.4.
 Supervision in coaching 385

2. The
intervention

3. The Client
7. The Wider
Coach
Context
relationship

1. The Client
System

6. The 4. The
Supervisor’s Coach’s
process process

5. The Coach
Supervisor
relationship

Figure 35.2 The 7 Eyes from the 7-Eyed Model for Supervision (Hawkins & Smith, 2006)

Key dynamics occur in any relationship and not just between clients, coaches or super-
visors. Supervision provides a lens for us to catch these and work through them in a way
that our own biases, vulnerabilities or blind spots often mean we can’t see as clearly on
our own.As a helping profession, we can be at risk of wanting to be helpful to our clients,
when looking to be useful will be more effective and more sustainable. In order to be of
use to the organisation as well as the individual, we need to hold the balance of needs in
our contracting, which requires an appropriate psychological distance between all parties
so that “parties are perceived as equal” (Micholt, 1992) and we don’t fall into the drama
triangle (Karpman, 1968) with “organisation as persecutor, client as victim and coach as
rescuer” (Hawkins and Smith, 2006). See Table 35.5.

Choosing your supervisor

Stephen Palmer (2017) in a survey exploring the supervisor–supervisee relationship, sug-
gested “trust” was a key feature of the coaching supervision relationship. This may seem
obvious, but as coach supervision is a place to which we bring the things from our client
work that may result in us feeling vulnerable, a trusting relationship with your supervi-
sor is vital.The relationship needs to be one in which you are supportively stretched and
challenged with no element of shame or judgement. That safety enables you to bring
your vulnerabilities: “uncertainty, risk, and emotional exposure” Brenee Brown (2012).
She describes vulnerability as “the birthplace of love, belonging, joy, courage, empathy, and
creativity. It is the source of hope, empathy, accountability and authenticity”. Whilst the
word love is a word not often used in an organisational setting, these are essential qualities
to bring to our work as coaches, supervisees and supervisors.
In addition to the quality of relationship with your supervisor, think too about mutual
social power:
Table 35.4 The 7-Eyed Model: Eyes, Focus and Skills

The Eyes The Focus The Skills

386 Suzanne Lines

1 The Client The client’s issue Separating data from any preconceptions/assumptions/interpretations.
The Client’s system The client’s values, beliefs, culture,
their organisational context.
What they brought, how they
presented, impact they are have.
2 The Coach’s Strategies employed. Exploring new options.What else might we have done?
interventions How, why and what. Often the coach
will bring an impasse, where they
are stuck.
3 Relationship between Relationship, rapport, dynamic Developing an observer’s perspective by standing outside the relationship, what does this meta
Coach and Client between the 2 and how that relates perspective tell us about the work to be done?
to the client’s system.
4 The Coach The Coach’s experience How are Working through anything that was stimulated in the coach and explore how this might
they affected? What resources provide useful data for what else is going on in the client’s system.
do they have, what more may be
required?
5 The supervisory Quality of relationship and being Attending to the dynamic of this relationship and how it might illustrate the dynamics in the
relationship alert to parallel process. coach–client relationship (parallel process).
6 The supervisor’s The supervisor’s inner response. Using the unconscious data (feelings, thoughts, hunches) from the supervisor’s own internal
process process and using that as a refection of what the coach might be picking up from their
client.
7 The wider context Key stakeholders: Organisational Attending to context and the “whole-systems perspective” Requires a high level of transcultural
context and need; cultural, competence (Hawkins and Smith, 2013) both organisational and geographical to understand
political, economic, social, the organisational patterns and how these show up in the client’s challenges.
technological, legal, ethical and
environmental context.
 Supervision in coaching 387

Table 35.5 Common dynamics processes in supervision

Parallel Process The process which refects what is going on between coach and client
mirroring what is going on between client and the organisation. It can be
seen in the supervisor and supervisee relationship too.
Psychodynamics The dynamic interplay between our conscious and unconscious mind
with the more positive emotions in our conscious awareness and those
more negatively charged in our unconscious mind or “out of conscious
awareness”. How we deal with emotions, our hopes and fears and how
those ensuing behaviours might relate to early life experiences and
the sense we made of them. Denial and anxiety being central defence
mechanisms in this framework (Murdoch and Arnold, 2013).
Transference or “When clients shift across the characteristics of someone else onto the coach”
projection (Hay, 2007).As examples looking to be rewarded, punished, parented etc.
You can also see this when we project onto others, feelings or behaviours
that belong in the past and/or belong to someone else.
Counter transference Our own emotional reaction to a client or their issues:An emotional reaction
which arises from our own past experience.This could show up in
potential blind spots as we can mirror or get caught up in patterns that
match our own and potentially collude (Murdoch and Arnold, 2013).

A strong supervisory relationship is based on mutual social power.The supervisor needs

to be seen by the practitioner as having suffcient reward, coercive, expert, legitimate
and referent power to carry out their responsibilities. In particular, they need “referent”
power (reference point or role model of shared world view and values.) It doesn’t matter
how expert you see someone; if their values and approach don’t ft with yours then you
will dismiss their input. Practitioners also need social power in the eyes of their supervi-
sor.The practitioner is not a blank slate that the supervisor writes on.They have expe-
rience and expertise that needs to be recognised.They have a legitimate right to have
their own ideas and to be an active participant in supervision, rather than a submissive
follower. Most importantly, they need to have their values and worldview recognised
and appreciated. If the supervisor doesn’t appreciate the practitioner’s value position,
then they can’t provide supportive and congruent supervision.
(Hewson, 2016, pp. 1–2)

As you think about choosing your supervisor, you may fnd Julie Hay’s C5 cluster a
useful framework: Context, contact, contract, content, contrast (Hay, 2007). See Table 35.6.
Supervision works best when it is ongoing as a key part of your ethical practice and
for those unplanned for challenging situations or issues that need to be unpacked in a
timely manner. Regular supervision enables you to develop your own internal supervi-
sor and, for most of us, helps develop that internal muscle quicker than we could on our
own. Our supervisor will notice our patterns and help create a greater awareness of those
patterns that resource us and get us stuck.They provide a helicopter view, and will make
links across time with progress we are making and areas for growth. As coaches, we look
to support our clients in developing greater autonomous behaviour:

• Thinking, feeling and choice of actions which is based on present centred awareness
rather than being driven by archaic responses to triggers from the past;
388 Suzanne Lines

Table 35.6 Hay’s C5 cluster

Context Contact Contract Content Contrasts

Their professional Quality of Practically: the administrative What you How are you
context and relationship part: how often, how many, most want alike, how
organisational as described length of sessions, length from your are you
experience. above. of contract, cancellation, supervision, different?
location, how long for, your
Their coach and where, when how much. supervisor. How might
supervision Professionally: purpose and that impact
training, code outcomes. What is the focus your work
of ethics, Psychologically: our hopes of supervision together?
commitment and fears for the working and your
to CPD, relationship; how could learning edge?
psychological these get in the way, how
underpinning. What do you not
will they be addressed? How want them to
do you best learn? How do bring?
you respond to feedback,
challenge, support? What
will stop you from bringing
the things you most want to
explore?

And we look to contribute to organisational cohesion and growth;

• Looking at the health of the organisational system and accounting for stakeholders.

An ongoing supervision relationship creates safety and context for those challenging situ-
ations where we need support right away. Someone who knows us and the context of our
work can tune in really quickly to our patterns and unpack unexpected issues that arise
more deeply and in a more timely fashion.

Preparing for supervision

As with any meeting, thinking about your purpose and desired outcome in advance will
help you shape the session with your supervisor. As you prepare, you will have begun the
process of self-supervision, enabling you to have a richer discussion with your supervisor.

1. Put some quiet time aside;

2. Refect on your recent client work:
3. Create an agenda for what you’d like to cover;
4. Identify what you would most like from the session;
5. Identify what you most want from your supervisor.

In that refective preparation, include your helicopter thinking:

• Remind yourself of your contract with your supervisor and the overall goals you have
to develop your practice; as well as
• The detail of the specifc issues arising from your client work.
 Supervision in coaching 389
As you refect on your client work (you might refer back to your notes, your learning
journal if you keep one or review any recordings of the work) include both task: The
interventions you chose and how you used them; and relationship:The relationship with
your client, you in relationship to yourself and your supervisor). It can be useful to include:

• Progress update:Your objectives and your client’s;

• What’s working well, what could be working better (and balance the two!);
• Things you might be wrestling with (an intervention, reactions, emotions, getting
stuck or the contract);
• The additional skills and competencies you want to develop;
• What niggles and stresses are you noticing? Either in your system or your client’s
system?
• What personal patterns in you are you noticing and how are these affecting your work?
• What patterns are you noticing across your client base? What do these tell you about
your signature strengths and areas for growth?

You may fnd the Henley Eight useful. See Table 35.7.
Notice any areas you’d rather not bring to supervision, any patterns you see.
Use the 7-Eyed Supervision Model and see if there are any relevant perspectives that
shed new light on your enquiry or that you might have missed and have a look at the three
core functions of supervision.
Imagine an equilateral triangle in which a balance of all three core functions need
to be addressed for us to be effective with our clients.Too much time on the qualitative
aspect and the risk is that the supervision is too structured; too much on resourcing and it
will be too comfortable; too much on transformative and it will be too challenging. See
Figure 35.3.
David Clutterbuck believes “that over 90% of what is brought to supervision is not
solely about the coach and clients but involves the complex interfaces with the sponsoring
client organisation” (Hawkins et al., 2019), with current research “suggesting that supervi-
sors believe half of the issues brought to them by executive/business coaches are related
in some way to the original contracting between clients and their organisations” (Turner
and Clutterbuck, 2019).
You will notice the emphasis on the contract in this piece: Going back to the contract
gives you a clear container to evaluate progress and aid your critical refection.

Table 35.7 Henley Eight

1. What did I notice?

2. How did I respond – behaviourally, emotionally, physiologically and cognitively?
3. What does this tell me about myself as a person?
4. What does this tell me about myself as a coach?
5. What strengths does that offer?
6. What pitfalls should I watch out for?
7. What did I learn from this observation/refection?
8. What might I do differently next time?
390 Suzanne Lines

Qualitative / Accounting

Practising Competently & Ethically

Quality of the work. Contracts, ethics, organisation, context

Boundaries & responsibilities
Competencies, standards, criteria
Focussed on thinking; learning philosophy; behaviour and
technique

Risk – too structured

The Equilateral
Supervision Triangle

Resourcing / Nurturing Developmental / Transformative

Support & Confront Development & Growth

Attending to the emotional responses to Reflect on content, process and skills

the work personally and professionally Action, research
Transference and counter transference Learning cycle; experiencing, reflecting,
Philosophy: humanistic analysing, doing, exploring methods, models and
Reflection, supervision of supervision philosophy. Exploring self as instrument
Developing competency, narrative

Risk – too comfortable Risk – too challenging

Figure 35.3 The Supervision Triangle (adapted from Newton, 2012)

Notice any patterns and where you feel most comfortable. Consider how you might
use those three corners to really stretch and support your practice.

Benefts of supervision
Supervision is a critical part of our CPD and it evidences to our clients that we take our
professional responsibilities seriously. It offers:
• Protection to clients (cases are reviewed);
• Refective space for practitioners (resulting in insights for improvement);
• Help for practitioners to identify their strengths and areas for development;
• Alerts practitioners to ethical and professional issues in their work;
• A forum to consider and explore:
{{ tensions that emerge from various stakeholders (the company, the client, the

profession);
{{ personal impact of the work and how the coach deals with the personal reactions

to their professional work;

 Supervision in coaching 391
• A third-person perspective from the supervisor who is outside of the client system
and with that separation may see more of the dynamics at play;
• A forum for accountability.
(Carroll, 2008)

It can “accelerate competence, maintain professional and ethical standards and protect the
psychological health of the coach” (Cochrane and Newton, 2018).
Peter Hawkins and Nick Smith capture a number of these elements in their defnition:

The process by which a coach/mentor/consultant with the help of a supervisor, who

is not working directly with the client, can attend to understanding better both the
client and the client system and themselves as part of the client–coach system, and by
so doing transform their work and develop their craft. Supervision also does this by
attending to the transformation of the relationship between the supervisor and coach
and to the wider contexts in which the work is happening.
(Hawkins and Smith, 2013, p. 169)

Not only is the learning accelerated, it is also tailored to you and your client situations.
You develop greater awareness of your signature strengths as well as developing your own
internal supervisor. It offers you a pause to take a helicopter view and critically refect on
your own patterns and how these are affecting your client work, allowing you to notice
deeper systemic patterns for you, your client and their systems. However much work we
have done on ourselves, there is always more to learn, and working in supervision is a place
where we won’t be let off the hook. Expect to be re-energised, leave with greater clarity
on next steps far more quickly than if you’d tried to get there on your own, new learning
with more choices and more ideas for next time.
Healthy supervision enables us to integrate that learning and develop our ethical matu-
rity as professionals, which Michael Carroll and Elizabeth Shaw defne as:

having the refective, rational, emotional and intuitive capacity to decide actions are
right and wrong or good and better, having the resilience and courage to implement
those decisions, being accountable for ethical decisions made (publicly or privately),
being able to live with decisions made and integrating the learning into our moral
character and future actions.
(Carroll and Shaw, 2013, p. 153)

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have shared an overview of supervision, a range of defnitions and how
to make it work for you and your clients. Coaches bring their own development to coach-
ing, their discomforts (conficts of interest, values clash), conversations that have triggered
an emotional response, where choices are to be made that affect the client, the organisa-
tion, the coach and where there is no right or wrong, as well as when a coach needs a safe
space to explore and make sense of their own thinking and feeling. Many coaches report
that some of their most useful supervision is when they didn’t think they had anything to
bring.We invite you to revisit your supervision arrangements and alliance.What will take
your coaching to the next level and how might you use your supervision now to support
yourself as you continue with your mastery of our craft?
392 Suzanne Lines
References
Association for Coaching (2019a) Coaching Supervision Guide. [Accessed 25 April 2019] https://cdn
.ymaws.com/www.associationforcoaching.com/resource/resmgr/accreditation/coach_accreditation
/supporting_documentation/ca_supervision_guide.pdf
Bachkirova,T. et al. (2020). ‘Supervision: a systematic literature review’. International Coaching Psychology
Review, 15(2), in press.
Brown, B. (2012). Daring greatly. How the courage to be vulnerable transforms how we live Penguin group, London:
Penguin Books Ltd.
Carroll, M. (1996). Effective supervision for the helping professions. London: Sage Publications.
Carroll, M. (2008).‘Coaching psychology supervision: Luxury or necessity?’. In S. Palmer and A.Whybrow,
eds., Handbook of coaching psychology, a guide for practitioners. Hove: Routledge, pp. 431–448.
Carroll, M. and Gilbert, M.C. (2005, 2011). On being a supervisee: Creating learning partnerships, 2nd ed.
London:Vukani Publishing.
Carroll, M. and Shaw, E. (2013). Ethical maturity in the helping professions: Making diffcult life and work
decisions. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Cochrane, H. and Newton, T. (2018). Supervision and coaching, growth and learning in professional practice.
Abingdon: Routledge.
EMCC (2020) Supervision. Retrieved on 23rd April 2020 from https://www.emccouncil.org/quality/
supervision/ and https://www.emccouncil.org/quality/supervision/guidelines/
Global Code of Ethics (2019). Retrieved on 23rd April 2020 from https://www.globalcodeofethics.org/
Hawkins, P. (2018).‘Chapter 28.’ Coaching supervision,The complete handbook of coaching,Third Edition. In E.
Cox,T. Bachkirova, and D. Clutterbuck (ed), London: Sage Publications, pp. 434–450.
Hawkins, P. and Smith, N. (2006).Coaching, mentoring and organizational consulting, supervision and development.
Maidenhead: Open University Press/ McGraw Hill Education.
Hawkins, P., Turner, E. and Passmore, J. (2019). The manifesto for supervision. Henley on Thames: Henley
Business School. ISBN: 978-1-912473-24-3.
Hay, J. (2007). Refective practice and supervision for coaches. Maidenhead: Open University Press/McGraw
Hill Education.
Hewson, D. (2016).‘Social power in supervision’. Retrieved on 26 April 2020 from www.refectivesuper
vision.com.
Hewson, D. and Carroll, M. (2016). Refective practice in supervision. Hazelbrook, NSW: MoshPit Publishing.
Hodge, A. (2016). ‘The value of coaching supervision as a development process: Contribution to
continued professional and personal wellbeing for executive coaches’. International Journal of Evidence
Based Coaching and Mentoring, (14)2, pp. 87–106.
ICF. (2020). ‘Coaching supervision’. Retrieved on 23 April 2020 from: https://coachfederation.org/co
aching-supervision.
Karpman, S. (1968).‘Fairy tales and script drama analysis’. Transactional Analysis Bulletin, 26(7), pp. 39–43.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Malik, K. (2014). The Quest for a Moral Compass. London:Atlantic Books Ltd.
Micholt, N. (1992). ‘Psychological distance and group interventions’. Transactional Analysis Journal, 22(4),
pp. 228–233. doi: 10.1177/036215379202200406.
Murdoch, E., Arnold, J., Hodge, A., Magill Sr, S.P., Patterson, E., Mackenzie, I., Lanz, K. and Prentice K.
(2013). Full spectrum supervision “Who you are is how you supervise”. St Albans: Panoma Press Ltd.
Palmer, S. and Whybrow,A. (2019). Handbook of coaching psychology, 2nd ed. Hove: Routledge.
Passmore, J. (2006). Excellence in coaching, the industry guide. London: Kogan Page.
Passmore, J., Peterson, D. and Freire,T. (2013).‘The psychology of coaching and mentoring’. In J. Passmore,
D.B. Peterson and T. Freire, eds., Wiley-Blackwell handbook of the psychology of coaching and mentoring.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 1–11.
Proctor, B. (2008). Group supervision, a guide to creative practice, 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications.
Turner,T., Lucas, M., and Whitaker, C. (2018). Peer Supervision in Coaching and Mentoring:A Versatile Guide
for Refective Practice. Oxon, Routledge.
36 Manager as coach
Jenny Rogers

Introduction
Coaching is now seen as a key skill for managers, not only as a tool to develop their
teams, but as a way of leading and managing. In this chapter, I will explore the concept
of coaching for managers and how this can often be seen as a contradiction of previ-
ous assumptions about both management and coaching. In the second section, I will
explore alternative styles of leadership and argue that coaching is a leadership style which
can enhance individual and team performance. Finally, I will offer a questionnaire to aid
managers refection about their style of leadership and advice on how to move closer to
a coaching style.

What is managerial coaching?

While most readers will be clear in their minds what is and is not coaching, managerial
coaching, or a coaching style, is harder to defne. McCarty and Milner (2013, p. 769)
offered one defnition:“Coaching managers are managers who coach their team members
in a work context”. Beyond this, most writers refer to the core defnitions of coaching
from John Whitmore, or professional bodies. At its heart, managerial coaching is when a
manager uses a coaching style in the leadership of their team, which encourages their team
members to take personal responsibility and develop greater self-awareness as a result of
the conversation.
However, where managers are concerned there are common misapprehensions. Many
managers will claim that they are already coaching their staff when in fact what they
are doing is offering advice but in a terribly nice way. Julia Milner and Trenton Milner’s
research (2018) reported in the Harvard Business Review confrms the naïve compla-
cency of the 98 managers in their study. Untrained participants were asked to coach each
other for fve minutes and then to rate their own videoed performance, while experienced
coaches rated the same material.The managers thought they had done pretty well, while
the experts disagreed, pointing out that mostly what the managers had done was telling
not coaching. The good news here is that after only 15 hours of training, the managers’
performance as coaches improved enormously.
I have heard many managers claim that coaching is an optional extra rather than a
mainstream way of managing staff, or that it is a “technique” that can be switched on
and off at will. It would not be at all unusual to fnd managers who wistfully claim that
they would do more coaching if only they had more time, based on the assumption that
coaching has to be a tortuously long process rather than something that can include a
394 Jenny Rogers
two-minute conversation in a corridor. Others will tell you that they consider it to be a
fad and that if they wait long enough, it will surely pass.
None of this is surprising when you remember that management itself is a relatively
young profession and that its origins in the late 19th century have been permanently
infuenced by the theories of Frederick Taylor at Bethlehem Steel in Pennsylvania and
whose ideas about “scientifc management” were the forerunner of every later attempt
to improve productivity and control through top-down methods involving measurement
and scrutiny.
Think about any organisation you know well. Does it set objectives and expect them
to cascade downwards? Does it have a performance appraisal system with bonuses? Do
people have targets and Key Performance Indicators? Do people work long hours with
implicit encouragement to leave their personal lives at home? Are the most senior people
permanently exhausted? Do bosses confuse giving orders with being in control? Is there
an assumption that leaders can infuence everything right down to the last detail on the
shop foor and that if any or all of this doesn’t seem to be working then you simply have
to try the same tactics but harder? The more of these questions are answered with a yes,
the more likely it is that some version of scientifc management is still frmly planted in
the heads of the organisation’s bosses.
Mostly these ideas achieve precisely the opposite of their intention. They result in
pointless meetings, demotivated staff, frontline staff who “know what’s really going on”
while those at the top remain in sunny ignorance.These beliefs waste time and energy, cre-
ating fear and dependency because people are too risk-averse to make their own decisions,
dread punishment and skilfully delegate upwards. This then produces decision-making
bottlenecks at the top of the organisation. No wonder that, the more senior you are, the
longer the hours you work and the more stressed you are likely to feel.
The other pervasive infuence on all of this is the impact of the military. In the 19th and
early 20th centuries, armies were one of the few examples of large organisations. Ordinary
soldiers, whether conscripts or volunteers, tended to be barely educated men, often with
poor health. An army is potentially in a constant state of emergency, so it is essential for
orders to be given through a clear hierarchy and to be obeyed without question. In the
middle years of the 20th century, war and National Service exposed many thousands more
men and women to these ideas. Modern armies are very different, but the principles linger
on; for instance, in formal corporate dress where the underlying visual metaphor is still
some faint facsimile of military uniform.
There have been plenty of healthy counter-infuences. One of the stated aims of Tom
Peters’ and Robert Waterman’s best-selling book (1982) ‘In Search of Excellence’ was “to
challenge the bean counters”. Daniel Goleman’s work (1996) on emotional intelligence
has fltered into virtually every leadership and management development course, and in
‘Coaching for Performance’ (1992) John Whitmore made a coherent and compelling case
for coaching as a mainstream way of managing people.Whitmore himself was a product
of Essalin and the “Human Potential Movement” of the 1960s and 1970s in California.
Here the essential philosophy was that humans have an infnite capacity for resourceful-
ness, that we are responsible for ourselves, can make choices in all but the most extreme
circumstances and can achieve our potential without manipulating or exploiting others.
The Essalin legacy, often underrated or forgotten as crucial to the development of modern
coaching, thrives as the Landmark Forum even today.
Along with all of this has been a sharp decline in automatic respect for authority.
Ordering people about no longer works, if it ever did.This creates the central paradox of
 Manager as coach 395
a manager’s work.The only justifcation for being a manager is to manage performance,
holding people to account. Everything else is secondary. If you press too hard you will get
resistance. If you don’t press at all because you have too much faith in harmony and in
wanting everyone to be happy or to like you, then you will get sloppy performance along
with the chances that your own role will become an irrelevance.

Defning coaching in the world of management

In the world of executive coaching there is a wide measure of agreement about what
we mean by coaching. In the world of management there is much less. Daniel Goleman
(2000) offered six leadership styles, coaching was one of the six and his approach may have
unintentionally contributed to this confusion. Goleman claims that each style has its pluses
and minuses. His point is that the most effective leaders mix and match at least four of the
styles. See Table 36.1.
This article is now 20 years old and it seems to me to be showing its age.The descrip-
tions of coaching suggests it is a soft-belly activity. Goleman accentuates this by compares
it with “counselling”. He writes, “Coaching focuses primarily on personal development,
not on immediate work-related tasks”, though he comments that coaching is most prob-
ably poorly understood and that managers may lack the essential skills to do it well even
if in the longer term it is likely to improve results.
The contemporary approach to managerial coaching is far more ambitious. It empha-
sises the importance of personal connection, curiosity, open-mindedness and emotional
intelligence while linking this frmly with the duty to manage performance. It blends
management interest and support for personal goals and career development of your staff
with performance standards and holding people to account. As in executive coaching,
your aim is to raise self-awareness so that people make better choices, own their choices,
learn – and do their best work for the organisation. It is not abdication nor is it a soft
option.
This may explain why the holy grail for organisations is now engagement: Staff who will-
ingly work hard, are open to learning, will take responsibility without being told and who
believe that their jobs add value. It is more than “the learning organisation” and certainly

Table 36.1 Goleman’s Six Leadership Styles

Coercive Do it my way – or else. Can work in an emergency or for severe performance

problems but demotivates and creates resistance.
Authoritative Inspires; sets direction while giving a degree of freedom around how to
implement it. Can work where there have been long standing problems; less
effective where the leader lacks credibility in technical expertise relevant to the
role.
Affliative Puts the emphasis on harmony and teamwork but may collude to ignore poor
performance.
Democratic Consults, builds consensus and involvement, but sometimes at the cost of swift
decision-making.
Pacesetting Drives for high performance standards but may alienate people who can’t keep
up.
Coaching Concentrates on personal and career development but may not work when less
motivated or less competent staff resist change.
396 Jenny Rogers
much more than “job satisfaction”. It is an intensely felt commitment to the organisation
and the job – and it is rare. The reason the canny organisation wants to achieve this is
because of the clear link between employee engagement and performance. Some of the
benefts are described, for instance, in Michael Treacy’s book (2003) Double Digit Growth:
You retain the most talented people, they behave with more care around safety issues,
sickness absence is reduced. Research commissioned by the Gallup Organization across 26
countries shows that organisations who score highly on employee engagement perform
nearly fve times better than those at the bottom.

Linking engagement with managerial coaching

What has this got to do with coaching? A simple questionnaire can help managers refect
on their own levels of engagement. See Table 36.2.
The starred items; that is, 9 out of the 12, are strongly associated with coaching behav-
iours. Sometimes what participants fll in shows sadly low levels of engagement. One
useful question to encourage further refection is: “What would your boss need to do to
engage you more?” Followed by,“How much of this behaviour do you do yourself?”.
This research fts beautifully with some classic mid-20th-century thinking based on
the work of the social psychologist Kurt Lewin. Lewin set up action research projects
with matched groups of boys who were given the same task.The only variable was lead-
ership style. Lewin named the three styles Autocratic, Laissez Faire and Democratic. This
ground-breaking work (1939) was followed up in the early 1960s by George Litwin with
Harvard MBA students, repeating the experiments with similar results. The groups led
in the Autocratic style were initially productive but, soon enough, disputes, protests and
sabotage invariably undermined performance.The groups led in a Laissez Faire style had
a pleasant time but achieved little.The groups led in the Democratic style, defned as an
emphasis on goals and a great deal of good humour and reinforcing feedback, consistently
outperformed the other two groups.

Table 36.2 Engagement Questionnaire

Yes No
✓ ✓
*My boss takes a keen interest in me as a human being.
*The organisation invests in my learning and development.
My job is important.
*I am clear what is expected of me at work.
*I have helpful conversations about my future with my boss.
*I get a lot of recognition for my work.
*I ally myself closely with my colleagues.
*My ideas about how things can improve in the organisation are taken seriously.
*I’m fully able to use my skills at work.
*I am developing in my role all the time.
I respect what this organisation does.
I feel well informed about what is going on in the organisation.
High Low
✓ ✓
Your overall level of engagement?
(Tables 36.2 and 36.3 are reproduced by kind permission of McGraw Hill Education Ltd. from ‘Manager as Coach’ by
Jenny Rogers with Karen Whittleworth and Andrew Gilbert)
 Manager as coach 397
Lewin’s methods and data have been subjected to some ferce critical scrutiny but
it seems to me that the essential message holds true. I have re-lived and reproduced
the results of this research myself, running a simulation called The Climate Lab. It was
developed by the American consultant John Bray, who had worked with George Litwin
– themes that are explored in their book ‘Mobilizing the Organization’ (1996). Groups of
managers are randomly divided into three.The task is to make paper planes to a tightly
defned specifcation. Unknown to participants, the groups are led by actors briefed to
manage the groups in the three styles identifed by Lewin. In the many dozens of times
I have run this simulation, the results are exactly as Lewin and then Litwin describe. In
effect the “Democratic” style is just another word for coaching and effortlessly produces
superior results.The democratically led group produces far more paper planes of higher
quality and in a far more enjoyable way than is ever achieved by either of the other
groups.
In this sense modern line management coaching builds on a hundred years of research
into human motivation. Of the many distinguished 20th and 21st century ideas in this
territory, the one that I fnd most persuasive is Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci’s Self
Determination Theory (2000). It embraces many other similar theories.Their proposition
is that for emotional health, human beings have three needs:

Autonomy: being able to make your own decisions, feeling in control of your life;
Relatedness: feeling connected to, respected and liked by others; being able to connect,
respect and like in return;
Competence: having skills that you can use and develop.

Any top-down managerial style potentially breaches all three of these needs. The more
managers insist, the more people are robbed of autonomy and the more their energy goes
into resistance.The less a boss is able to make and encourage genuine relationships that are
based on liking and respect, the less connected staff will feel. The less people are able to
identify, grow and feel proud of their skills, the less willing they will be to make such skills
available to the organisation.At the same time, the organisation needs to create alignment,
to develop and insist on technical and behavioural standards. No wonder that being a boss
is such hard work and that it takes such high levels of maturity.

Traditional and coaching styles of management compared

One way to make these differences clear is to contrast what we might call the best of the
traditional approach to line management with an approach which puts coaching at the
centre of the action. See Table 36.3.

The benefts of a coaching style

While most of us can cite examples from our experience of how coaching is a tool which
helps employees develop and grow, there has been less research in this area than one might
imagine. Taylor Sparks and William Gentry in their research looked at trends in leader-
ship competencies since 2001. They argued that listening and communication skills that
involve others, the setting of clear performance expectations and self-awareness had all
become vital skills that the millennium leader must master to be effective (Sparks and
Gentry 2008).
398 Jenny Rogers

Table 36.3 Traditional and coaching styles compared

Traditional manager Manager as coach

Beliefs about my Power comes with the job; I have to earn authority;
role More seniority means more stress; Sharing responsibility reduces stress;
Decisiveness is important; My staff are intrinsically resourceful;
I add value by giving direction. I add value by developing my people.

I am good at Giving instructions; Listening without judging too soon;

Clarifying and analysing problems; Facilitating other people’s thinking;
Making decisions quickly; Challenging people’s self-imposed barriers;
Offering people my solutions; Offering feedback;
Creating momentum and urgency. Holding people accountable for jointly-
made decisions.

I dread My staff getting something wrong; Avoiding opportunities for feedback;

Expressing uncertainty; Undermining my staff by doing their
Admitting mistakes. thinking for them;
Showing off how experienced I am.

Enjoyment in my Pleasure in my status and its tangible Seeing my staff develop.

role comes from rewards.

In a second study by John Larrson and Stig Vinberg (2010) the researchers noted that
leaders in successful organisations were more likely to have 1–1 conversations with team
members where individual and organisational goals were discussed; they were more likely
to give constructive feedback, both positive and negative; and they were more likely to
refect on their own leadership practices.
In this sense, managerial coaching appears to be a response to changing expectations
in the world of work. In the modern workplace, team members are more highly educated
than two decades ago and have different expectations about the type and level of engage-
ment. Managers ignore this at their peril. Failing to adapt to the new leadership charac-
teristics according to the research is likely to lead to lower levels of performance and a
manager who is seen as out of touch.

Coaching skills for line managers

Having coaching skills as a boss starts with having a coaching mindset.This is the big leap
that managers fnd so challenging. Many managers are astonished to fnd out how often
they are doing the opposite of genuine coaching, with behaviours like these:

Giving advice in disguise and using closed questions, which contain a hidden instruction
such as “Would it be a good idea if you …?” or “Have you considered …?”;
Delving into an interrogation of factual detail around some tricky issue rather than fnd-
ing out what appetite the other person has to think independently or of asking frst
what their own ideas are;
Asking “Why?” questions, which make people close down because they feel under attack –
and typically get the answer “I don’t know” or else a rambling justifcation;
 Manager as coach 399
Failing to ask what people already know about a subject before launching into giving
instruction;
Acting on the assumption that the core of a manager’s job is to solve other people’s prob-
lems by taking over their responsibilities;
Finding genuine delegation extremely diffcult, secretly believing, “Only I can do this to
my own very high standards”.

It is still news to many managers that giving instructions, especially if offered curtly, can
create biological as well as psychological defences.The amygdala, the brain’s alarm signal,
may see attack, and responds by sending cortisol to the prefrontal cortex, shutting down
our higher levels of thinking.We become preoccupied with defending ourselves, we stop
listening, trust is destroyed.The resulting response can be anywhere on a spectrum from
frank aggression to the passive resistance of playing dead.
Learning to coach as a boss means working from the basic assumption that everyone
is resourceful and that, with the right support, can reach their potential.When managers
protest that many of the people they lead seem incapable of acting independently and
allegedly want to be babied and directed all day, every day – which can indeed seem to
be true – the question to ask is,“How did they learn to be like that?” followed by,“How
could they learn that you now expect something different?”.

The skills of coaching as a leader

The actual skills involved have a large amount of overlap with the skills that all execu-
tive coaches must also have. The fve foundation skills are these: Creating rapport;
listening and summarising without judgement; questioning that encourages people
to think for themselves; goal-setting; challenging. None of these is an everyday skill.
Genuine listening is rare. Impatience gets in the way:The belief that you already know
the answer or that what the other person is saying differs so much from your own
viewpoint that it is not worth paying attention properly, wanting to reform and cor-
rect others, talking about yourself and your own amazing experience, psychologising
and interpreting. We can all be guilty of every one of these barriers to the genuine
listening that forms the heart of coaching, whether as a boss or as an external coach.
It is a shock for many managers to fnd out through training how poor their listening
skills are, and then a relief to discover that guided practice can quickly make a positive
difference.
Where managers are concerned, the other primary skill is knowing how to give feed-
back.This skill, crucially, takes coaching as a boss way beyond the territory described by
Goleman. Can there be any skill taught on virtually every management development
course and which is so underused or misunderstood in practice? Feedback is constantly
confused with criticism; the two words are frequently used as synonyms. Genuine feed-
back is given for the beneft of the receiver, its aim is development, rather than being an
excuse for the other person to unload their anger. It is a calm two-way process, descrip-
tive rather than evaluative.When given skilfully, it can dismantle resistance, increase self-
confdence and raise self-awareness.
Much of the time feedback at work is not offered at all or is not given skilfully. It may
consist of vague compliments such as “Thank you, that was good, you did well”. Then
there may be hurtful criticism such as “Everyone thinks that you’re not a team player”
or convoluted statements in which some nugget of real feedback is entombed inside
400 Jenny Rogers
equivocation and distraction. These common problems explain why so many poor per-
formers can hide successfully in an organisation, often for years, and why the high-fiers
can feel under-appreciated and leave. Neither is good for organisation health.What makes
the difference as a boss is learning how to get over your reluctance to give feedback at
all out of fear of offending or of being misunderstood and then learning how to describe
exactly what you have seen and how it affected you:

At that meeting, I saw how well you intervened by leaning forward slightly at just the
critical moment, keeping a smile on your face and insisting on fnishing your sentence
despite the way X tried to interrupt you. I saw how it changed the dynamic of the
meeting. It landed really well with me, I felt proud to have you in my team.What did
you feel about it yourself?

This kind of feedback is essential to managing performance in a coaching style. It works

for positive messages as well as negative ones, and when it becomes the default way of
managing people you would expect to see a dramatic effect on bottom line results.
Much of this is new to the managers whom I train. One way to help managers embed
these ideas is the OSCAR framework. OSCAR was developed by Karen Whittleworth
and Andrew Gilbert (for more details, see Manager as Coach, 2012).We feel it is far better
suited to the managerial role than the venerable GROW model.This is because it allows
for the manager-coach to disagree or add ideas at the Choices and Consequences phase, it
has an emphasis on action and, unlike GROW, specifcally includes a review stage.
OSCAR is easy to remember and emphasises that there is an optimum place for a par-
ticular type of question at each phase. See Table 36.4.

Table 36.4 The OSCAR Framework

Outcome What’s the issue?

What would you like to achieve here?
What help do you need from me in this conversation today?
Situation What’s going on around this issue right now?
Tell me who is involved apart from you
What’s the immediate trigger to deciding something needs to change?
In an ideal world what would be happening?
What’s standing in the way of that ideal?
What would you say your own contribution is here?
What happens if you do nothing?
Choices and What have you already tried?
Consequences What other options have you considered?
Might there be some other less obvious things to try?
Taking each of the main options in turn what are the upsides and downsides of each?
Which seems to be the best option?
Actions What immediate action might you take here?
What longer term plan might be sensible?
Who else needs to be involved?
What could sabotage this plan?
Review What’s the best way to review progress here?
When might we review it together?
 Manager as coach 401
When is coaching not the answer?
When you are an enthusiast for coaching as the default management style, it is easy to
overlook its limitations. In an emergency, no one needs to be coached: Crisp, direct
instructions are what is needed. If you are at the end of a long process of consultation, it
is part of a boss’s role to call time and say which path will be followed, however unhappy
some people are going to be that their own ideas will not be adopted.
Coaching may help to identify the problem, but it is also not the answer if what you see
is the persistent, intrusive distress that suggests a long-term mental health problem needing
the help of an expert clinician or therapist. Nor is it the solution for the most extreme
type of performance problem.The give-away signs here are low levels of technical com-
petence combined with low levels of emotional intelligence in someone who has lost the
confdence of their colleagues and who has little motivation and ability to improve. Here,
a formal disciplinary process is often the only solution.
I have heard some very senior bosses proudly claim that they have “a coaching culture”
when what they mean is that they and their colleagues all have external coaches and, in
some cases, that they have, most commendably, invested in training a cohort of internal
coaches.This is a long way from having a coaching culture where a coaching style perme-
ates every interaction at every level in the organisation, including Sales and relationships
with suppliers. For a discussion about coaching culture, see Chapter 3.
Coaching as a boss is signifcantly different from being an executive coach, though
the overlap is also enormous. As an executive coach you can be clear that the client’s
agenda is the one that counts, even though it is important to acknowledge that in execu-
tive coaching there are always three parties: The client, the coach and the organisation.
Even so, it is perfectly legitimate to put personal issues as well as professional ones on
the agenda: Clients can allow themselves to be vulnerable here in a way that it may feel
unsafe or inappropriate to explore with a boss. The confdentiality boundaries are dif-
ferent. As an executive coach both you and the client can walk away if you wish.When
you coach as a boss, it is the organisation’s agenda that has to dominate; performance
is at the heart of it because the boss’s own reputation is intimately connected with the
reputation of their staff. As the boss or as the team member, you can’t just say, “This
relationship isn’t working” and terminate it. That makes true objectivity impossible for
the manager-coach.

Conclusion
The benefts of becoming a manager-coach are clear. There is the pleasure of see-
ing people develop and grow, knowing that you have probably had a signifcant hand
in the process. There will be more creativity, higher levels of problem-solving and a
greater likelihood that bottom-line performance will improve. Those managers who
try it will consistently report greater job satisfaction and reduced stress. Their offces
are less likely to be flled with apparently powerless and unhappy people dragging in
their heavy load of moans and problems and expecting the boss to magic it all away.
Because coaching is based on respect rather than on hierarchical authority, relation-
ships improve and work can become enjoyable, not a chore.Where coaching becomes
deeply embedded as a shared set of assumptions about how to manage people, the
organisation becomes more nimble, far better able to manage change without trauma.
402 Jenny Rogers
The benefts can spread to improved ways of dealing with suppliers and customers too.
However, these gains do not just happen by chance. Few managers genuinely know
how to coach unless they have had training, and this needs the insight to see why it
matters, the budget to make it happen and endorsement at the highest levels in the
organisation.

References
Gallup engagement surveys (n.d.). www.gallup.com/access/239210/employee-engagement-survey.aspx?g.
Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional intelligence:Why it can matter more than IQ. London: Bloomsbury.
Goleman, D. (2000).‘Leadership that gets results’. Harvard Business Review, March–April, pp. 79–90.
Larsson, J. and Vinberg, S. (2010). ‘Leadership behaviour on successful organisations: Universal or
situational dependent’. Total Quality Management and Business Excellence, 21(3), pp. 17–334.
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R. and White, R.K. (1939).‘Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created
social climates’. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, pp. 271–301.
Litwin, G., Bray, J. and Lusk Brooke, K. (1996). Mobilizing the organization. London/New York: Prentice
Hall.
McCarthy, G. and Milner, J. (2013).‘Managerial coaching: Challenges, opportunities and training’. Journal
of Management Development, 32(7), pp. 768–779.
Milner, J. and Milner,T. (2018). ‘Most managers don’t know how to coach people. But they can learn’.
HBR,August 2018. https://hbr.org/2018/08/most-managers-dont-know-how-to-coach-people-bu
t-they-can-learn.
Peters,T. and Waterman, R. (1982). In search of excellence. New York: Harper and Row.
Rogers, J. with Whittleworth, K. and Gilbert, A. (2012). Manager as coach. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill
Education.
Ryan, R.M. and Deci, E.L. (2000).‘Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation,
social development and well-being’. American Psychologist, 55(1), pp. 68–76.
Sparks, T. and Gentry, W. (2008). ‘Leadership competencies: An exploration study of what is important
now and what has changed since the terrorist attacks of 9/11’. Journal of Leadership Studies, 2(2),
pp. 22–35.
Treacy, M. (2003). Double digit growth: How great companies achieve it – no matter what. New York: Penguin.
Whitmore, J. (1992). Coaching for performance, 25th Anniversary edition. London: Nicholas Brealey
Publishing.
37 Refective practice in coaching
Ann James

Introduction
The concept of “refection” will mean something to most of us; we are invited, in all sorts
of situations and contexts, to refect on our actions, our ideas, our behaviour, on events.
Taking time to refect provides a means for the coach to examine the evidence available
about themselves, their presence and the quality of their coaching. For coaches, refective
acuity is an asset. It can be applied deliberately to enhance their propensity for self-aware-
ness, and enrich the experience of those with whom they work. In short, it’s a skill worth
having. In this chapter I will examine the place for refection in coaching, drawing upon
a range of theories and models and go on to present some hands-on, practical techniques
for making refection a natural part of the coach’s toolkit.

Why refection matters

Refection gives coaches a way of examining what they do, who they are when they are
doing it and how they can do it better. In an unregulated feld, every coach has a respon-
sibility and duty of care to protect themselves, their clients, stakeholders and the wider
profession.Through refection – and in conjunction with supervision – they can explore
their actions and “test” their instincts and insights in the interests of creating and maintain-
ing a coaching environment that is physically, ethically and psychologically safe.
Refection has a role in a coach’s training and qualifcation as they journey towards
accreditation or credentialling. It draws attention to gaps in technical, practical and aca-
demic resources that the coach may wish to address. It might also reveal areas which the
coach might want to develop or explore further.
Professional bodies will usually expect applicants for membership or accreditation to
be able to demonstrate the ability to refect on their practice – International Coaching
Federation (ICF), European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC), Association for
Coaching (AC), to name but a few, all encourage refection as part of the coach’s period
of training and development.
It is through refection that we all can become aware of our otherwise out-of-aware-
ness patterns. These patterns show up in the behaviour, thinking, attitudes and beliefs of
coaches, just as they do in everyone, whatever their context. Bringing these patterns into
awareness can help coaches to identify their natural strengths:What comes most instinc-
tively to them and how they can leverage that; what approaches they are drawn to and,
conversely, what they might be resistant to trying.
404 Ann James
Regular engagement with refection can therefore help to crystallise one’s identity as
a coach, bringing a useful clarity not only to the coach’s self-perception but also to their
capacity to differentiate themselves in a competitive coaching marketplace.
Later in this chapter, we’ll be dipping into some practical activities that coaches can
use to aid refection; there are also some examples taken from practice to illustrate how
some of these can be applied. First, let’s consider some of the theories that underpin the
approaches we’ll be illustrating.

Theories of refective
Donald Schön (1991) was a leading MIT social scientist and consultant. He examined fve
professions – engineering, architecture, management, psychotherapy and town planning –
to understand how professionals in practice solved work day problems. He described an
attentive process of experimentation, of “probing, playful activity by which we get a feel
for things. It succeeds when it leads to the discovery of something there” (Schön, 1991,
p. 145).
He distinguished between two kinds of refection: Refection-in-action and
refection-on-action.
Refection-in-action is the kind that takes place during the “doing” stage. For the
coach, that would suggest bringing refective awareness to the coaching conversation as
it is happening and, in doing so, making it possible to adapt his interventions, demeanour
and decisions there and then, in service of the desired outcomes.
Refection-on-action takes place later.The coach will look back at the conversation and
seek insights that serve his wider learning.
Schön advocates that we develop our professional competence as much through
refecting on our actions as we do through gaining knowledge; it’s a process of systemic
feedback, review and adapting how we do things which is ongoing and cyclical, not linear
or transactional.
Cassidy, Jones and Potrac (2004) were interested principally in sports and athletics
coaching.They identify three levels of refection – technical, practical and critical – which
transfer elegantly to the world of coaching.
Technical refection could be described as the “entry level” and demonstrates what
many coaches would recognise as something they do already. It involves the applica-
tion and effective use of knowledge in order to establish whether stated objectives were
achieved:Was the session successful? did the coaching “work”?
The Practical stage involves a closer examination of how and why the objectives were
met or not met, and the impact of the individual coach’s contribution to the outcome:
What precisely was done? What drove the coach’s decisions to do it that way?
Equipped with these, the coach can move on to the Critical stage of their enquiry.
This is the most considered level of refection, opening up insights into the effects of the
perceived meanings, biases and understanding of applied knowledge that the coach brings
to their work. Beyond this level lies the deep learning that can be drawn upon for future
beneft.
Jones (2018a; 2018b) similarly looks to sports coaching as a useful source, identifying
three questions to prompt refective learning:What? So What? What Now?
In asking What? the coach is invited to describe what has happened factually, in terms
of observable evidence.This is a purely descriptive process. Moving to So What? helps to
 Refective practice in coaching 405
establish why it is important to examine what has been observed. It overlays the descrip-
tive with a more theoretical approach, prompting insights into what has been described.
What Now? suggests time for action, focusing the coach’s attention on how those insights
can infuence and inform what they do next time. There are clear similarities here with
the Action Learning model (Revans, 1998). This is expanded on later in the section on
Supervision.
Whilst some frameworks we use in refective practice are sequential in nature, refection
itself is a non-linear and cyclical process.
Kolb (1984) defnes learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). His theory of experiential learning and
the Refective Learning Cycle gives us a useful frame of reference for refective practice,
suggesting that learning happens when knowledge is expanded through the refective
examination of actual experience. Kolb identifed four stages in the cycle:
The frst is Concrete Experience:That’s when something happens for the frst time, or a
previous event is experienced in a new way. When it has happened, the refector moves
on to Refective Observation, which fags up any inconsistencies between the experience
itself and their prior understanding or expectation of how it would be.The scene is then
set for some Abstract Conceptualising, noting any new ideas and insights that are emerging
from the refective observation. Energised and equipped with these, the refector – the
coach - can get busy with Active Experimentation, generating and committing to ways they
can apply those new ideas and insights to their future coaching to see what happens.Then
it all starts again.

The coach in the coaching

Refection sits at the heart of coaching: Coaches guide their clients through an essentially
refective activity, whilst simultaneously drawing upon their own “inner voice” to do it
as best they can.The coach is not an outlier in the coaching setting; they are an intrinsic
part of the dynamic and, as such, contribute to what plays out in the coaching interaction.
The coach is a part of what happens, not apart from it. Whatever one’s chosen model or
preferred approach to refection, one’s practice of it is likely to be enhanced by recognising
and working through certain identifable stages.
Jackson’s Four Cornered Model (2004) is a reliable “catch all”. It gives us a useful
checklist when choosing resources for refection: Balance, Objectivity, Perspective and
Capability.The model is applicable to all of the approaches explored and illustrated in the
rest of this chapter.
Refection encourages us to become aware of our preferences and biases by challeng-
ing our “default” ways of experiencing and interpreting events.We are then better placed
to engage. It’s a bit like working those muscles that have become a bit lazy or under-
developed because we tend to rely on the ones that have already strengthened without
thought. In learning about how we learn, we extend the range of options available to us
and create Balance.
Refection allows us to review events with a degree of emotional and temporal dis-
tance. In the immediacy of the moment, events can have an impact that drive – and can
then be driven by – our emotional responses and reactions. For example, an encounter, a
conversation or any other stimulus that leads us to feel threatened, unsure of ourselves or
defensive can set off physiological processes in the body that inhibit our capacity to be at
406 Ann James
our best. From a position of refection, the event and its consequences can be considered
with Objectivity, affording opportunity for measured insight and learning.
Perspective becomes possible through this objectivity. In stepping back from the con-
fnes of immediacy, we can take a bigger view of the matter in hand. We are more able
to extract the learning from the experience, and to take that learning into future events,
meaning that when we encounter similar challenges, we can engage with them in a dif-
ferent way.
The more we refect, the better we become at refecting; the better we become at
refecting, the more Capability we have for doing it in the moment, in real time, even as
we are in the midst of events.

Developing refective practice

Whilst refecting is something everyone can do, some may have a greater predisposition
for it than others. For those with a natural leaning toward introspection, the invitation to
refect takes one to a familiar and comfortable place. Time spent journaling or working
quietly through some of the other approaches set out here is something to relish. Others
might regard these as potentially isolated and lonesome endeavours, and prefer to use
more physical, interactive approaches, refecting for shorter periods or in company.
It’s important that every coach identifes what works for them. This isn’t the same as
sticking with what comes most easily. It might help to settle on at least one or two tech-
niques that they can engage with readily and regularly; then to experiment with some that
feel less intuitive and refect on the learning from the experimentation itself.

Developing refective capability and supervision

The more a coach becomes used to refecting, the more able they are to adopt a “refexive”
stance.The distinction is an important one, captured by Bolton (2014, p. 7):

Refection is in-depth review of events, either alone … or with critical support of a

supervisor or group … Refexivity is fnding strategies to question our own attitudes,
theories-in-use, values, assumptions, prejudices and habitual actions; to understand
our complex roles in relation to others.

The refective coach will typically engage in a coaching session, then go away and mull
over that session using any number of approaches or frameworks that allow them to think
deeply about it. The refexive coach has the ability to elevate their application of those
refective skills, noticing and working with their unique imprint on the coaching session
as it happens, and so informing their choices in real time, coaching with greater agility
and awareness.
The International Coaching Federation (ICF) advocates refective practice through
supervision as a vehicle for “illuminating the corners and rooms that we are not paying
attention to”.
Supervision is a powerful medium for refection in the company of another or others,
bringing an important extra dimension to the – also valuable – solo refective activities
that the coach will be engaging in independently.
Supervision provides a framework and guided environment, facilitated by a trained
supervisor, where the coach can bring and extend their refections on their work. It’s an
 Refective practice in coaching 407
opportunity to engage in a two-way exploration which can shed light on otherwise uni-
dentifed blind spots, biases and gaps.
The supervisor can prompt new thinking and insight in the coach by encouraging him
to adopt a “fy on the wall” view of himself in the context of the coaching relationship: For
example, how do his values and personal qualities show up? Does he want to “be helpful”?
Offer solutions or advice? Share his stories and experiences with the client?
What information can the coach get from their feelings and responses in the coaching
relationship? If the coach doesn’t recognise them as “mine”, where might they belong? Is
the coach picking up feelings that could be a clue to what is going on in the client’s world?
What experiences might the coach have had elsewhere that are present in the coaching
in a way that might hinder the work?
Group supervision is conducted in a variety of ways, informed by the skills and prefer-
ences of the supervisor and the needs of the group members. Group supervision some-
times draws on the Action Learning Set model (Revans, 1998), which was designed to
examine complex, real-world challenges and problems with a diverse group of peers.The
“Set” follows a structured refective process, encouraging curiosity, creative insight and
a commitment to turn words into possible future actions and commitments. The group
reconvenes to explore the outcomes and to consolidate learning.

Techniques for refective practice

In this section, we’ll consider some hands-on refection tools and set out some step-by-
step suggestions for giving them a try.The “Stories” are those of coaches who have shared
their experiences in supervision.

Metaphor and visualising

Both these approaches engage the imagination, creating the possibility of distancing one-
self from the immediacy of a perplexing or emotive scenario, making it easier to engage
with, rather than retreat from it. Metaphor gives us a way of making sense of something
by seeing it in terms of something else with similar qualities or dynamics that we already
know; visualising is an implicit aspect of working with metaphor,“seeing” differently with
the mind’s eye.

Box 37.1: Story

My supervisor invited me to speak for a few minutes about what was on my mind. I offoaded some wor-
ries about a recent coaching session where I had introduced a coaching technique and lost my way part
way through. I thought I looked incompetent, I was anxious and felt I never really got back on track. My
confdence had been hit; I was due to meet the client again the following week and I felt embarrassed.
My supervisor asked me to pause, close my eyes and notice any images that came to mind.
I saw a twisty, bumpy road with lay-bys and tracks off to the left and right.
My supervisor then suggested we take a few minutes break.Then he asked me to talk about my
image:“What do you notice?”;“What stands out?”;
The words came easily, if slowly:

the road looks rough and bumpy … those lay-bys make me feel anxious, like I’m hesitating, stalling; it’s
where you pull over with a puncture … I feel my hands gripping as I look at those bends … I wonder
where the exits go? … my road doesn’t have a clear end, it just fades into the distance.
408 Ann James

My supervisor’s fnal question took me deeper into refection:

“What does your image have to say to you about the coaching session you described?”
After a pause, I remember feeling my face relax and smiling softly.The insights started to come:

the road has texture; coaching is all about light and shade, nuance … the lay-bys are places to pull over
and to pause; I can slow down, draw breath and think … the bumpy moments will hurt less if taken at low
speed … go easy on those bends, loosen up, be curious about what’s around the corner … I wonder where
the exits go? there’s always an alternative route.. like my road, the session didn’t have a clear destination …
how can I address that in setting goals and outcomes?

I left feeling settled, fred up and with ideas for things to try. And I’d completely forgotten that I
had felt incompetent!

In a group, one coach can talk freely about their enquiry for a few minutes whilst others
notice and capture in sketch form the images or scenes that come to them.They then sim-
ply hand the sketches to the coach with no verbal description or requirement to explain.
What do they prompt in the coach’s thinking?

Working with pictures and space

Mind mapping, drawing or working with spatial representations (for example, as with
constellations work) are all ways of bringing visible order to arbitrary elements of an event.
Such approaches help us to see connections and relationships that might be inacces-
sible by just thinking or talking. Sketching out an image, setting to work with some col-
oured pens and a blank page, arranging a handful of pebbles on a table top, for instance,
all are ways of creating a scene for refection. As with the story told above, what does
the scene have to say about the coach’s enquiry? What are the emergent insights and
learning?

Keeping a refective learning log or journal

Keeping a private log of events, thoughts, ponderings, niggles and experiences is a way of
building a rich and diverse treasure trove of raw material for refection.The treasures may
be collected in written form, be recorded either as audio or audio/video, or be sketched,
photographed or captured in any number of other ways.
Newby (2018) suggests a series of questions and activities to keep in mind when build-
ing a log:
What to ask:

• What happened in the session?

• What techniques and tools were used and were they effective?
• What did you learn about the client?
• What issues remain?
• What were the action points agreed?
• What did you learn about your coaching?
 Refective practice in coaching 409
What to do:

• Gather information and evidence by describing the incident and explaining the
context;
• Refect by teasing out what you were trying to achieve and noticing what were the
consequences of your actions;
• Identify the learning by analysing how you feel now, whether you could have acted
differently, what you have learned and how that learning will infuence your future
practice.

Hay (2007) offers six steps for working deeply and refectively with log material, which
may be applied and interpreted as follows:

1. Capture events as they occur: By taking written notes, mentally “logging” what’s hap-
pening, perhaps supported by an audio/video recording of the session (being diligent
about confdentiality and contracting);
2. Review those events: Alone or with others, using a refective model such as those dis-
cussed here to gain insight into what was going on in the session;
3. Review a series of sessions to look for patterns, paying attention to any themes that may
be showing up in the coach’s beliefs, behaviours or emotions. For example, offering
advice, paying disproportionate attention to “favoured” elements of the conversation,
feeling anxious about competence. Useful tools might be a learning journal, log or a
map, highlighting words and phrases that draw attention;
4. Plan ahead to implement the learning points that have emerged, with the intention
of applying these to deliver better coaching.These may be specifc, small changes and
experiments that can then be refected upon further once tried;
5. Plan for intentional application of that learning to specifc events, deciding exactly
when, how and with whom to introduce something different. This helps to keep the
change manageable, and ensures it is introduced in a deliberate and ethical way;
6. Do it, stick with the plan and capture what happens – this creates a new “event” to work
with, effectively starting the entire cycle again.

The act of writing is something that most of us are able to do; drawing upon writing as a
tool guides us towards refection via a familiar path.We all write; refective writing requires
us to think about how we write differently, moving to a more refective stance.
Rosinski (2003) advocates journaling as a means of engaging with refective practice,
suggesting “a coaching journal is a valuable tool to help you refect on your own personal
journey, to aid your thinking about what is truly important to you … where you can
capture insights and learn from experience” (p. 16).
Moon (2004; 2007) is particularly interested in the activity of refective writing. She
acknowledges that refection is tricky to defne and to demonstrate with any degree of
consensus, evidenced by just some of the approaches and models explored in this chapter.
It can therefore be tricky to communicate and to grasp quite what is required in stepping
into “refective practice”.
She provides what she calls a “map” for refective writing, identifying four levels which
I have characterised with the following titles (i) description writing, (ii) shallow refective
writing, (iii) refective writing and (iv) deep refective writing.
410 Ann James

Box 37.2: Levels of refective writing

Level 1: Description or reporting of what happened: Typically this is written as a blow-by-blow
account of observable events;
Level 2: Shallow refective writing: This includes an acknowledgement of the raw materials for
refection, perhaps by noting the impact of the events described, but without taking it any
further into the refective space;
Level 3: Refective writing:This includes evidence of self-awareness and some attention to one’s
own and others’ motives and impact on events;
Level 4: Deep refective writing:This exhibits clear evidence of the writer taking a more objective
view of events, being curious about what they notice, learning from their observations and
considering how they might apply the learning in future.
For most people moving straight to deep refective writing is a step too far. Instead those new
to refective writing need to undertake a journey of development, which starts by recognising
they probably use a descriptive style in most of their current writing tasks and aiming to add some
refection to their work.The next stage is to move to Level 3, with a consistent use of a refective
voice and fnally over time to develop a deep refective stance.

Box 37.3: Story

A coach came to supervision with a concern about an ethical dilemma. She had made these notes,
which she brought with her:
Tough session today and I’m on the train home feeling sick. He (the client) said he wants me
to help him prepare to go for a promotion. He looked and sounded like he didn’t really mean it.
There’s a baby on the way and his partner wants to take time out. I know from ‘a reliable source’
he’s not in the running – on the contrary, he’s probably going to be let go. Stupid me … I heard
myself blabbering, congratulating him on the baby and saying I was right behind him.What was
I thinking? Help!
The coach had captured her narrative in mainly descriptive terms (Level 1), with some evi-
dence of Level 2, noticing the impact of events (“Feeling sick”,“Stupid me”,“What was I think-
ing?”, “Help!”).
Using Moon’s approach, this coach was able to take the refection further and deeper, frst to
Level 3:

I’m noticing how agitated I feel, cross at myself for taking the easy option and actually a bit angry with
him for springing that one on me. I notice I’m feeling responsible for protecting his family; I wonder why
that might be? I feel I’ve been put in a diffcult position by the company sharing their reservations about
him with me.

Then into Level 4: I’m curious about that feeling of having this sprung on me; I rarely get taken by
surprise. I wonder if that feeling’s relevant for him? where’s the anger coming from? and the feeling
of responsibility? Next time, I’ll share my feelings with him – lightly and in the spirit of curiosity
– and be fne if he brushes me off. I also need to speak to the sponsor to clarify boundaries and
encourage my client to have a conversation with his boss about his aspirations.
With further refection and by following through on her commitment to action, the coach
discovered in the next session that her client and his partner had been taken by surprise by the
pregnancy; he was feeling a weight of responsibility for his family and was worried that he might
 Refective practice in coaching 411

lose his job. The coach focused her attention on supporting him to prepare for a conversation
with his boss.That opened up the possibility of a sideways move with longer-term prospects if he
committed to further training.

In her seminal book, The Artist’s Way, Julia Cameron (1994) advocates a daily, private
writing exercise, The Morning Pages, as a discipline for capturing one’s apparently random
thoughts.

These daily morning meanderings are not meant to be art. Or even writing … Pages
are meant to be, simply, the act of moving the hand across the page and writing down
whatever comes to mind. Nothing is too petty, too silly, too stupid or too weird to be
included.
(Cameron, 1994, p. 10)

The idea is that the writer sets aside time frst thing in the morning, even before getting
up, to fll three pages with continuous writing. In adopting a judgement-free, stream of
consciousness approach to capturing deliberately unorganised thoughts on paper, one can
clear the mental clutter and re-connect with a more centred state. These pages have no
need to “make sense”; no-one else will read them. In fact, Cameron suggests that even the
writer doesn’t re-read them for at least several weeks.
As a doorway to refective insight, the combined act of emptying out, leaving be, then
returning later is a powerful one, whatever one then chooses to do with the results.

Working with feedback

Feedback is rich source of material for refection. Skiffngton and Zeus (2003) identify
three important components of feedback: Data gathering, measurement and evaluation.
Coaches can elicit feedback in each of these areas from several sources: For example,
their individual clients, their corporate sponsors and their peers. The client might be
asked to offer their thoughts on what happened in a coaching session (the data), perhaps
using some form of scaling to quantify their responses (the measurement) and then to
share how effective or otherwise the coaching session was in relation to their desired
outcomes (the evaluation). A series of sessions undertaken as a coaching package could
be reviewed in this way, too, inviting feedback from the sponsor and other stakeholders.

The Henley Eight

Henley Business School (Passmore and Sinclair, 2020) has developed a resource for its
coach training programmes; “The Henley Eight”. This framework supports refective
thinking and writing through the application of eight questions, designed to bring the
coach’s attention to the responses they have, in the moment, when events occur. More
signifcantly, they keep the focus on what the coach can learn about themselves from those
responses.
It can be very easy to attribute one’s responses to the other person or the event, locat-
ing the reasons for one’s responses somewhere “out there”: “He annoys me”, rather than
412 Ann James
“when he does that, I feel annoyance”; “she’s too much”, rather than “in her company I
can feel overwhelmed”.
Behind our feelings and thoughts are deeply held personal beliefs and values that can
lead us to interpret or judge other people and their motives. Once we can recognise those
beliefs and values as ours, rather than allowing them to be at the mercy of external events,
we are better able to take ownership of our responses and to learn from them.
The Henley Eight offers a pathway, one question at a time:

• What did I observe? (noting visual and auditory evidence that could be picked up by
a video camera;
• What was my response? (noting emotions, physical sensations or physiological indica-
tors evoked by what just happened);
• What does this tell me about me? (rather than what do I interpret this response to
mean or tell me about them);
• What does this tell me about myself as a coach? (based on what I have just learned
about myself);
• What strengths does this offer? (how what I have just learned about me as a coach
might serve my coaching practice);
• What are the potential pitfalls? (how what I have just learned about me as a coach
might hinder my coaching practice);
• What did I learn? (noting what I can take forward into my practice);
• What might I do differently next time? (committing to applying the learning).

Box 37.4: Story

A coach used The Henley Eight framework to refect alone on a couple of minutes of a coaching
session.The client had come to the session very excited and with “great news for you”.At the last
session, she had asked for her coach’s help in preparing for a presentation to an important potential
client. She had just heard that the pitch had been successful and she wanted to thank the coach for
“making it happen”.When the excitement settled, the coach felt he had got a bit carried away and
shared his refections with his supervisor:
What I noticed was: She bounded into the room, smiling, hugged me, said “I’ve got great news
for you” and “I couldn’t have done it without you”;
My response is/was: I felt fattered, a bit superior, hugged her back, “caught” her excitement
and was a bit over the top;
What that tells me about me is: I enjoy praise and like being told I was responsible for some-
one’s success;
What that tells me about me as a coach is: I want to be seen as an expert helper;
What this says about my strengths as a coach is: I will be driven towards achieving success-
ful outcomes;
What this says about my potential pitfalls as a coach is: I might lead my client to my version
of their success so that I can share or claim the glory;
My learning/refection is: Flattery, appreciation and success can be very enticing to me; I can
now recognise the emotional and physical signs that I’m being drawn in;
I will apply this new insight/learning by: Focusing on acknowledging my clients’ successes
and place the credit for their achievements with them. My role is to support the coaching
process that enables their success.
 Refective practice in coaching 413
Conclusion
In many professions and educational settings, refective approaches are becoming increas-
ingly commonplace as ways of supporting development and a culture of lifelong learning.
In times of constant and rapid change, learning cannot be confned to organised train-
ing and education alone. Perhaps more than ever before, our experiences are our main
educators. Some experiences will be planned, leading to intended learning; others will
be unplanned and unpredictable and the learning therefore emergent. Refective practice
gives us a means of engaging with our experiences productively:That is, having ways of
recognising what we know after having an experience that we didn’t know before having it,
then being able to articulate how we intend to apply that new knowledge to future experi-
ence. Coaching is by nature refective; it’s about asking the client to pause and spend time
examining their thoughts, feelings and behaviours as a means of bringing about desirable
change. It follows that the refective coach who examines themselves in such a way will be
better placed to bring about desirable change in how they work.
There are many different ways to refect; some of them have been introduced in this
chapter.What they all broadly have in common is pausing the action, asking critical ques-
tions, being receptive to answers and insights outside of one’s typical range, being willing
to apply those, to experiment and to take measured risks in the interest of growing capa-
bility and expanding future resourcefulness. Importantly; enjoy it.Without the “feelgood”
factor, refection is unlikely to be sustained (Chivers, 2003). Find what works, nurture
variety, work through the tough bits and then do it all again.

References
Bolton, G. (2014). Refective practice writing and professional development, 4th edition. London: Sage
Publications.
Cameron, J. (1994). The artist’s way, a course in discovering and recovering your creative self. London: Souvenir
Press.
Cassidy, T., Jones, R. and Potrac, P. (2004). Understanding sports coaching, the social, cultural and pedagogical
foundations of coaching practice. London: Routledge.
Chivers, G. (2003). ‘Utilising refective practice interviews in professional development’. Journal of
European Industrial Training, 27, pp. 5–15.
Hay, J. (2007). Refective practice and supervision for coaches. London: McGraw Hill, Open University Press.
Jackson, P. (2004).‘Understanding the experience of experience: A practical model of refective practice
for coaching’. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 2(1), pp. 57–67.
Jones, G. (2018a).What is refective practice, Spielverlagerung, Retrieved on 18 June 2020 from https:/
/spielverlagerung.com/2018/03/07/what-is-refective-practice/
Jones, G. (2018b). ‘Good reasons to become a refective coach’. Available at https://newbycoachlive.wo
rdpress.com/2018/02/05/5.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience at the source of learning and development. London:
Prentice-Hall.
Moon, J. (2004). The handbook of refective and experiential learning. London: Routledge Falmer.
Moon, J. (2007).‘Getting the measure of refection: Considering matters of defnition and depth’. Journal
of Radiotherapy in Practice, 6, pp. 191–200.
Newby, A. (2018). ‘Good reasons to become a refective coach’. Available at https://newbycoachlive.wo
rdpress.com/2018/02/05/5.
Passmore, J. and Sinclair,T. (2020). Becoming a coach: the defnitive ICF guide. London: Pavilion Publishing.
Revans, R.W. (1998). ABC of action learning. London: Lemos and Crane.
Rosinsky, P. (2003). Coaching across cultures. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Schön, D.A. (1991). The refective practitioner, how professionals think in action. Aldershot: Avebury.
Skiffngton, S. and Zeus, P. (2003). Behavioural coaching. Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
38 Establishing your coaching business
Michael Beale

Introduction
Running a successful coaching practice can lead to both fnancial and geographical free-
dom, together with a tremendous feeling of success and fulflment when you’ve helped
your clients succeed. However, many coaches struggle to make a commercial success of
their coaching practice. This chapter aims to give you some pointers and questions to
answer that will signifcantly increase your chances of developing a successful coaching
practice.
In the frst section I’ll consider the challenge of setting up a coaching business, in the
second I’ll give a top-level view of the solution, in the third I’ll give more detail and,
fnally, in the fourth section I’ll summarise this into ten tips for making your practice a
success.

The challenge
A major reason that many coaches struggle to make a commercial success of their practice
is that they assume that developing their coaching skills is enough to establish a successful
coaching practice.This may be true for a few individuals,but not for the majority.Coaching
is, at least in theory, an easy career to enter. Anyone can set themselves up as a coach, and
the fnancial cost to entry is low. Jonathan Passmore (Passmore, 2019) describes these as
the “Uber-coaches”, refecting the low barriers to entry and lack of checks required in the
coaching profession to establish core knowledge or ftness to practise.
Unfortunately, these low barriers to entry in an unregulated market mean that there is
a lot of competition, with widely varying degrees of competence.
At the same time, many potential coaching prospects do not make commercially good
clients. They may not understand the value of coaching, how it can help them, or they
don’t want to pay or, of equal importance, are not prepared to put the work in to get the
results they want. So, attracting and contracting with the right clients to make your prac-
tice a success is not a trivial pursuit.
In addition, the traditional routes to market are full of “noise” and “confusion”, so fnd-
ing a way to get heard or noticed above the crowd may be a bigger challenge than many
new coaches anticipate.
 Establishing your coaching business 415
The solution
In my experience, there are four areas that lead to a successful coaching practice:

• Looking after yourself;

• Attracting the right clients;
• Working on the business as well as in it;
• Continually developing your coaching skills.

It’s easier to invest our time and energy in what we enjoy most, rather than what we need
most for our business to succeed. Curiously, it’s often easier to notice this trait in our
clients rather than ourselves – it may be worth investing in a coach to help you on this
journey, or at least consider how you would coach yourself if you were your own client!
The good news is that, provided you invest enough time and energy into each of these
areas, the challenge becomes very doable.
In this chapter I’m going to focus on the frst three, with the emphasis on the second,
attracting the right clients, which is often the most challenging. The rest of this book
focuses on the fourth area, continually developing your coaching skills.

Looking after yourself

This may not seem a challenge when looking out from the comfort of a well-paid job.
However, without that job, the regular income and support network that often goes with
it, the mortgage payments and school fees can begin to look frightening which, in turn,
can make prospecting and coaching even more challenging.
To turn this from a potential challenge to a genuine opportunity:

• Invest in your mental and physical health;

• Be clear about your vision for your business and your purpose, how it helps you, your
clients and (assuming it does) the community in general.This will help you maintain
your motivation while you establish your business;
• Ensure you have saved enough saved cash, or you have cash fow from other sources,
to give your business enough time to succeed. Monitor cash fow carefully;
• Have a plan Z. Know in advance what you’ll do if the business isn’t successful.

At frst the last point may seem counterintuitive; however, hiding from this possibility
rarely works and can drain your energy.Very few of my clients that have taken the time to
develop a plan Z have needed to use it, and those that have are the ones who have been
surprised by how well they’ve subsequently done.
Unless you’ve previously worked in a coaching practice, establishing your practice is
like going on a hero or heroine's journey.You can plan for many of the challenges you’ll
face, but some can’t be planned for.
You’ll need some of the attributes your best clients have as they overcome the chal-
lenges they face.A touch of ambition, courage, discipline and openness will be a great help.

Attracting the right clients

Many potential coaches look for the one or two guaranteed magic bullets in setting up their
practice.This rarely works on its own.What works is fnding out what’s current best practice,
416 Michael Beale
and then continually testing and building on this to fnd out what works with your target
clients in the environment they work in and with the coaching approach you use.
I’ve found the following ideas useful both for myself and my clients:

1) The principles of luck;

2) What’s next;
3) How will clients beneft?
4) How do clients buy?
5) Who are your ideal clients?
6) How do you qualify out clients you don’t want?
7) What’s your proposition?
8) How do you reach out to them or get them to reach out to you?
9) Pricing;
10) Case studies, referrals and testimonials.

Let’s look at what works in more detail, to give you something to build on. I’m presenting
this as a linear list; however, one answer may impact the others, so it’s often best to answer
all these questions fairly quickly, and then start again, this time starting with “who are your
ideal clients?” and then ask and answer the remaining questions in order, tailored to your
prospective clients.

1:The principles of luck

When I completed a short modelling project on how coaches attracted clients, I found
that many successful coaches exhibited the characteristics that Richard Wiseman identi-
fed in his book “The Luck Factor” (Wiseman, 2003).
Wiseman outlines four such factors. Incorporating these behaviours can act as an
amplifer for any approach for attracting clients.

• Be proactive.We don’t really know what’s going to work, until we test it. Being proac-
tive maximises our chance of success.
• Listen to our lucky hunches.We often know more than we think we do. Pay attention
to our feelings and intuition. Meditative practices can help.
• Expect good fortune.This can be easier said than done if we’re going through a tough
patch; however, if we keep a keen look out for what might work, we’re much more
likely to fnd it.
• Turn bad luck into good. Often what we think is bad luck isn’t. If we’ve tried some-
thing and it hasn’t worked yet, we can normally develop it so it will work. Focus on
what we can learn and develop, rather than what appears not to have worked.

These principles are a great starting point for any sales and marketing activity.

How are you going to use the principles of luck to establish your business?

2:What’s next?
A good next step is to use a feedforward approach, developed by Marshall Goldsmith
(Goldsmith, 2008). Start with a list of 6–10 potential clients that you know and create your
own version of this script:
 Establishing your coaching business 417
“You’re someone who whose opinion I respect, I am going to start a coaching business
that is going to offer clients exceptional value. I’d like your advice; can I have 10 minutes
of your time?” Most people will say yes.Then ask,“If you were me and starting a coaching
business, what are the top two ways you would go about attracting clients?”. Whatever
they say, write it down and then say “Thank you, I really appreciate your input. Is it OK if
I come back to you if I have any further questions later?”.
You’ll end up with some great ideas, and have introduced your business, in a very pro-
fessional way to several potential clients.
Variations of this approach have signifcantly improved the career trajectory of many
of my clients.

How can you use this approach to help establish your coaching business?

3: How will clients beneft?

Clients contract with us because they perceive they will beneft in some way.We owe it to
prospective clients to be clear about how they might beneft from coaching.
In my experience, coaching helps clients:

• Clarify and achieve what’s important to them, literally help the client get from A to B.
• Turn learning into results – clients often know what to do, but still don’t do it. Coaching
can be the catalyst that makes it easier for them to take and maintain the right action.
• Signifcantly improve their results with respect to areas such as leadership, manage-
ment and project management, sales and relationships.
• Overcome blocks such as limiting beliefs and procrastination.

Being clear about the value you offer and being able to articulate the value you bring,
either in a direct, straightforward way or through case studies and stories, will help you
attract clients, you’ll come over better and you’ll fnd it easier to reach out to new people.
In addition, if you’re also clear about how the practice benefts you, you’ll fnd it much
easier to motivate yourself through both the good and the less good times.
Throughout our coaching assignments, and particularly when a programme has fnished,
it’s always worth clarifying the beneft the client has achieved. It helps both our coaching
and our marketing.You may fnd out that clients beneft in ways you hadn’t yet thought of.

How will clients beneft from your coaching?

4: How do clients buy?

Something else that will increase your chances of success is if you know the steps your
potential clients go through before they buy coaching services.You can then either add
value by guiding them through the whole journey or focus your efforts at potential clients
who are at one particular stage.
James Muir (Muir, 2016) suggests that buyers go through these stages before they contract:

• Unaware of any problem or opportunity;

• Aware of problem, but not its implication;
• Defned problem or opportunity but not a way of solving it;
• Understand and compare solutions;
418 Michael Beale
• Evaluate best option;
• Justify decision;
• Final decision and contract;
• Implement.

If we want to help guide our clients through these stages, we need different activity and
messages for each stage.This explains why selling any service is more complicated than we
might have frst thought.

• Unaware of any problem or opportunity (not a prospect; however, we can seed the
idea of coaching through telling stories about successful coaching);
• Aware of problem, but not its implication (facilitate the client to understand the full
implications of a problem or challenge if not addressed);
• Defned problem or opportunity but not a way of solving it (articulate how we can
help our potential client solve their problem);
• Understand and compare solutions (we may introduce alternative solutions for com-
parison purposes);
• Evaluate best option (demonstrate how our approach is best);
• Justify decision (this if often about reducing any risk associated with what we’re offering);
• Final decision and contract (contracting);
• Implement (set up for success).

It’s much simpler to focus only at the latter stages, when our client has already decided
they want coaching.The problem is that there may be signifcantly more competition at
this stage, compared with a coach that can guide them through all of the steps.

How do your ideal clients buy coaching services?

5:Who are your ideal clients?

Attempting to appeal to everyone doesn’t work as a marketing approach. As Seth Godin
says (Godin, 2018) “begin with the smallest viable market”.
Choose the people who are ambitious, are coachable, will pay well, will recommend
you, you’ll learn from and will enjoy working with.This means you must either reach out
to the right potential clients or fnd a way of attracting them to you.This may mean hard
work and learning new skills when you start but will pay off when your clients recom-
mend you to others.
From a marketing perspective, attempting to market to everyone simply doesn’t work.
So, write out a list of the potential clients that you want to work with.
Ideally, they will have some signifcant problem or challenge that you can help them
solve, you’ll know how to reach them, they’ll talk to you and either have a budget for
coaching or access to one.They also need to be coachable.

Who are your ideal clients?

6: How do you qualify out clients you don’t want?

Attracting the right clients can be the biggest predictor of success for your practice. It’s
not only attracting clients; it’s attracting the right clients for you. It’s equally important
 Establishing your coaching business 419
to know who you don’t want to coach. This can save a signifcant amount of time and
unnecessary heartache.
I’ve found that the following criteria works for me. If they have these characteristics,
coaching always works; if they don’t, it’s unlikely to.

• The client has a touch of ambition, courage, determination and openness;

• They are prepared to invest at least a minimum amount of time and emotional energy
to the programme;
• We select each other.The client chooses the coach, and the coach chooses the client,
we genuinely enjoy working together;
• The client is able and happy to pay, provided I meet or exceed the service I’ve con-
tracted to provide.

Age and sector aren’t important for me, but they may be for you and the market you
operate in.
I’ll always qualify clients for these characteristics in either the sales process or the dis-
covery phase of any programme. I’m happy to walk away from any client that I don’t think
will get value from what I do.

How do you qualify the clients that you want to coach?

7:What’s your proposition?

It’s useful to be able to articulate the value we offer in a couple of short sentences, so our
potential clients immediately know that what we offer might be of value to them.While
there are several structures, I prefer a three-part approach:

I work with ambitious people of all ages (description of my ideal clients)

and coach them (verb describing what I do)
to achieve success and fulflment (an example of the results I get).
I’ve learnt what I say isn’t so important provided I’m congruent and catch their interest
enough to be able to ask them some questions to talk about what’s important to them.
What’s your client proposition?

8: How do you reach out to them or get them to reach out to you?
In my experience there are four key ways of attracting or reaching out to potential clients:

Hunting. This is traditional selling; we directly reach out to potential clients with an
attractive proposition.While this may not be for everyone, there are many useful les-
sons to be learnt from good sales practice.
Three approaches that work include asking for advice, asking to take part in a
research project or offering a free taster, like a leadership assessment or free discovery
phase.
Attraction.This encompasses content creation and new media.The idea is to create and
distribute content which appeals to potential clients so they follow you and contract
with you when they have a real need for your services.This includes books, articles,
podcasts and websites.
420 Michael Beale
You need to be able to create content and either know about or know people that
know about the latest changes in media technology and apps. While the principles
may be the same as they always were, the technology is changing very quickly.
Nurturing.This is where we build very strong relationships with infuencers and buyers
of coaching services, so that when they have a need, they contact you frst.
Existing clients are a great starting point. Developing case studies is useful, as is the
offer of a small number of free coaching sessions, to help them better understand the
process and what they can achieve.
Outsourcing.We pay others to market for us.This may be through paying people to sell
for us, paying a commission on sales or through advertising such as LinkedIn, Google
or Facebook ads.
Warning, just like gambling in a casino, this can be a sure way of losing signifcant
amounts of money unless we test with seed investment frst. In all cases we want to
keep our investment as small as possible until we’ve achieved a positive ROI from
what we’re doing.We can then scale our activity.

In my experience each can be made to work, however each requires a certain skill level
and therefore an investment in time to master. It’s therefore recommended to choose one
and master it before spreading yourself too much between all of them. Choose the best
balance between how your target clients buy, and what you’ll enjoy doing.
It’s also worth thinking about your brand.Your brand is the sum of all the touchpoints
with your clients. It is the “personality” your clients and potential clients perceive and is
made up of several factors including your marketing, the price you charge, the service you
give and what people say about you. If your brand is unique you have the potential of
charging signifcantly more for the service you offer.

How will you attract the clients you want?

9: Pricing
Knowing what to charge is a key part of establishing your coaching business. Coaching
fees range from free or pro-bono assignments to £250K+ for coaching top international
CEOs.There are four different approaches to pricing. Free, by time, by brand and by value.
Each has advantages and disadvantages, and each creates a different impression on your
potential clients.
Free can be both very good and very bad. Good free clients can teach you to help them
solve interesting challenges, recommend you, help you with case studies and pay you later,
when they are in a situation to do so. Bad free clients don’t get better, don’t recommend
us, complain and we don’t learn anything (other than we should have qualifed them out
earlier.)
My recommendation is that we have stricter qualifcation for free clients than for cli-
ents who pay.We can, of course, choose to coach for free to give back to the community,
but make it a conscious choice.

Time – Most coaches charge by time.This has the advantage that most buyers of coaching
understand paying for time.The disadvantage is that we’re likely to coach to fll the
time available, which may not be in the best interest of the client. In addition, it’s easy
to compare the prices between coaches, which can push down prices.
 Establishing your coaching business 421
Brand – If, for example, a CEO or celebrity asks for a coach by name or reputation, then
(within reason) the coach can charge what he or she likes as they haven’t any compe-
tition. It’s the return on your investment for establishing a unique brand.
Value – This is where you and the client establish what you expect the client to achieve at
the end of the programme, and agree a fee based on the client achieving or beating
whatever criteria is set.This requires establishing realistic measurement criteria and a
high level of trust between the client and coach.The benefts are the client and coach
are working to totally aligned objectives, the coach is focused on helping the client
achieve value and the coach has the opportunity of earning signifcant fees.
My recommendation is that whichever pricing approach you choose, invest in fnding
more about value pricing, as this method of charging is likely to lead to you improving
your coaching skills on a continual basis.

How will you approach pricing?

10: Case studies, referrals and testimonials

Case studies, referrals and testimonials improve our coaching (we know what value we’ve
helped our client achieve), the process helps our clients articulate the value we bring to
others and gives us material for our marketing.
The art is to seed the idea as part of the contacting phase, rather than ask at the end of
the programme. Ask a version of “If I do a really good job of helping you achieve what’s
important, would you be happy to contribute to a case study? (or referral, or testimonial)”.
Then later remind them that they agreed earlier.

How will you approach getting case studies, referrals and testimonials?

Working on the business as well as in it

It’s worth taking a step back from time to time and consider all the elements that will lead
to the success of your practice. We’ve already considered you looking after yourself and
attracting clients.
In addition, you will be choosing the people you work with, you will have to keep
track of your fnances, particularly cash fow, which we’ll discuss shortly. In addition, you’ll
need processes to keep all the areas of your business working effectively and effciently.
You’ll need to follow all the legal and statutory rules of running a business.
Invariably you’ll make mistakes, often it’s the only way to learn. As Ray Dalio (Dalio,
2017, p. 352) notes,“Mistakes are a natural part of the evolutionary process.Without them
we don’t evolve”. In marketing and establishing a successful practice we’re likely to make
more mistakes than we do in most endeavours.
Who will you get to help you? What will you want them to do?
Before we sum up, there are two key areas that I’ve found make a signifcant positive
difference to my clients. Developing the right support network and managing cash fow.

Develop the right support network

There at least four reasons to develop the right network to support you.
422 Michael Beale
1) You can share experiences, resources and ideas;
2) Some will become clients and/or introduce you to potential clients;
3) Some will be role models with signifcant in-depth experience in key aspects of the
business;
4) We’re social creatures. Starting a practice can be lonely, so having people who will
genuinely help us that we’re not selling to, and are not selling to us, is empowering.

Who do already have in your network? What are you doing now to grow your network?
What else could you do in the future?

Managing cash fow

Building on the previous section, Alan Weiss commented (Weiss, 2008, p. 3), “Fees are
actually dependent on only two things: Is there a perceived value for the services provided
that justify the fee, and do both parties possess the intent of acting ethically?”
Fees, the amount you charge, are one of the most important aspects of cash fow. Others
include the number of paying clients you have and how quickly they pay. On the debit
side you have your marketing expenses, bad debts, how much you need to draw out of the
practice and any other costs your practice incurs.
A 12-month cash fow plan is an essential part of establishing your practice. Many
potential coaches use this as part of the decision whether to leave their current job and
spend 100% of their time on their practice or start more slowly and start their business as
a side project to their current employment.
If you run out of cash and can’t borrow, your business fails.
How much cash, or additional income will you need before you start your business?

Ten points to consider for your business

To conclude, here is a checklist of actions and questions to help you succeed:

1) Imagine you were your own client; how would you coach yourself to establish your
coaching business? This can be a surprisingly effective approach at improving both your
coaching skills and your ability to establish your business.
2) Commit how much time you’ll invest every week in 1) working with clients 2) devel-
oping and marketing the business 3) developing yourself.
3) Do you know what you will do if your business fails? At frst glance this appears a very
negative question. However, very few of my clients who have asked and answered it
have needed to follow it through.
4) Make a list of all the people you can ask for feedback and feedforward. Confrm with
them that they will help you if asked. Assuming the answer is yes, ask them what they
would focus on (one or two key areas only) if they were you and starting a successful
coaching business.Write down their answers. Depending on their answers, feel free to
modify the following questions.
5) Write out a list of potential ideal clients:What are the characteristics of the clients that
you want to work with? How might they beneft from working with you? How might
you contact them or how might you attract them? What would you say frst? How
might you engage with them? What’s the frst small step in the engagement process?
How would you contract with them? How would you measure the success of the
engagement? Write out the characteristics of clients who you would NOT work with.
How would you say “no” to them politely?
 Establishing your coaching business 423
6) Write out who else you need to help you with your business. This may include an
accountant, PA, coaching supervisor, copywriter, social media support.What will you
want from them? How are you going to contract with them?
7) Write out 2–3 milestones to achieve each quarter for the next 12 months.What are
your key 2–3 focus areas for the next quarter; what additional 1–2 skills do you need
to develop over the next 12 months? How are you going to measure progress?
8) Write out your cash fow forecast for the next 12 months. How many months can you
work without bringing in any revenue?
9) How are you going to publicise your achievements? How are you going to celebrate
every step forward?
10) Write out the long-term vision for the business. How are you planning to exit the
business when the time is right?

Conclusion
Almost all the successful coaches I work with say that setting up their coaching practices
turned out to be much more of an adventure and a challenge than they initially expected.
However, all are grateful that they persevered. Their coaching practice has been an ena-
bler for them to achieve fnancial and geographical freedom, together with a signifcant
amount of personal satisfaction.Answering the questions posed in this chapter will signif-
cantly help you make your adventure easier and more satisfying.

References
Dalio, R. (2017). Principles: Life and work. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Goldsmith, G. (2008). What got you here won’t get you there. London: Profle Books Ltd.
Godin, S. (2018). This is marketing:You can’t be seen until you learn to see. London: Portfolio Penguin.
Muir, J. (2016). The perfect close:The secret to closing sales. Herriman, UT: Best Practice International.
Passmore, J. (2019).‘How to develop a coaching culture in your organization – a 10-step plan for every
organization’. 17th March Serbian Coaching Conference, Belgrade, Serbia.
Weiss, A. (2008). Value-based fees: How to charge – and get – what you’re worth. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Wiseman, R. (2003). The luck factor: Four simple principles that will change your luck – and your life. London:
Arrow Books/Penguin Random House.
Section 7

Tools and techniques for

coaches
39 Fifteen tools and techniques for
coaches
Julie Flower

Introduction
During coach training, and as you progress through your career, you are likely to draw
on a range of theoretical approaches and pick up a sometimes-dizzying array of tools and
techniques. It may seem that each new CPD module or learning workshop you attend
presents yet more handy diagrams, acronyms and models.This can sometimes seem over-
whelming.A tool is only a tool and can never replace a strong client relationship, a sound
theoretical base or core coaching skills. However, coaching tools can provide clients with
new and helpful ways of exploring situations, refecting and structuring their thoughts, as
well as gaining commitment to act.They can also provide a refreshing change in energy
and a different way of working, for both client and coach.
This chapter offers 15 tools and techniques that are drawn from areas as diverse as lead-
ership and management theory, creative problem-solving and improvised comedy. They
are deliberately described in a practical, rather than theoretical, way and are likely to suit
the eclectically trained practitioner.They are intended to be used, adapted and integrated
into your wider coaching practice, within the bounds of your own professional compe-
tence, preference and curiosity.You will amplify the use of the tools through the quality of
your questions, your presence and your knowledge of underpinning coaching theory and
the evidence around behavioural change. Many of the tools can be used equally well in
individual and group or team coaching settings. It is hoped that you will fnd something
in here to add to your existing repertoire of tools and techniques, in order to best support
your clients.

Technique 1:Visual metaphors

What is the tool?
Visual metaphors are a useful tool to help clients access and explore a situation.They can
be expressed in multiple ways; for example, inviting the client to draw or to cut pictures
out of magazines during the session, or by using imagery/picture coaching cards from
which the client can choose.
Metaphor can be a very powerful way to explore situations (past, present and future),
especially where they may be complex, sensitive or diffcult to express in words. Often a
metaphor can more effectively capture the emotions and nuances of a situation and pro-
vide parallels that are helpful to a client in identifying and effecting change.
428 Julie Flower
How is it used?
• The coach asks the client to select (or draw) an image with which they specifcally
identify as a metaphor, given their current situation or their goal for the future.
• The client is then asked to briefy explain why they selected the metaphor and how
the metaphor relates to them.
• The coach uses the language and imagery used by the client to explore the metaphor
to encourage insight and learning.
• Areas of focus might include: Their role, and the role and perspective of others in
the metaphor; the benefts and pitfalls – present and future; emotions; what needs to
change; learning.

When does it work best?

Visual metaphors can be very effective with clients who clearly have a preference for
images and stories. However, they can also work well in bringing a fresh approach to those
who usually express themselves in words.Visual metaphors are versatile and can be used
to explore almost any kind of coaching scenario, including handling diffcult relation-
ships, developing new strategy or goals; and decision-making.They can provide a relatively
quick route in to a complex situation and can provide a less challenging way to articulate
sensitive situations, making them very useful in a team coaching context.

Technique 2: Expert Interviewer

What is the tool?
The Expert Interviewer is an exercise from improvised comedy in which a client is
endowed with being an “Expert” in a specifc (usually nonsensical) feld and is required to
answer questions on the topic. It is designed to build confdence in clients, increasing their
spontaneity and fexibility of thinking, enabling them to feel more comfortable thinking
on their feet and reacting “in the moment”.Through practising with a “nonsense” subject,
the client may observe patterns, frameworks and approaches that can help when it comes
to exploring “real” subjects.The approach also generates humour in a situation that many
people would naturally fnd terrifying.

How is it used?
• The coach endows the client with a “specialism”.
• It should be a subject that appears to defy logic or is something that no one would
normally be an expert in (such as teaching mice to tap dance or manufacturing edible
cars).
• The coach sits or stands across from the client and asks them questions, as if they were
being interviewed on a chat show or as part of a conference Q&A session.
• The questions should be open and encourage the exploration of themes that have
parallels with the client’s real situation (such as how they came up with such an inno-
vative idea; how they dealt with detractors; what their dreams are for the future of the
project; or what are the secrets of their commercial success) but are always specifcally
related to the nonsensical subject.
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 429
• In the debrief, explore how it felt for the client (emotions, physical sensations) and the
techniques/resources they used to respond as the “Expert”.
• Encourage the client to draw out the learning. It may then be helpful to repeat the
exercise with a “real” subject.

When does it work best?

It is of most beneft to clients who are struggling with their confdence and spontaneity
when speaking in public or who want to develop their style. Clients who are open to
new ideas and have a sense of playfulness and fun are likely to enjoy it more, but the most
learning will come for those who fnd public speaking and thinking on their feet uncom-
fortable.The coach is well-placed in this exercise to refect back observations with respect
to body language, facial expression and voice.

Technique 3: Hypothesis trees

What is the tool?
A hypothesis tree is a way to logically explore and test assumptions, recommendations or
decisions. It is problem-solving tool that invites individuals to consider how much evi-
dence is required to make a convincing case.The tool is used extensively in management
consulting; it can be an effcient way to get to the heart of an issue and a compelling way
to construct an argument.The tool enables the grouping of similar ideas and helps clients
structure their thinking, particularly in the case of complex, multi-faceted decisions and
promotes critical thinking.
It starts with an assumption and then groups arguments and evidence beneath it in a
logical and ordered way. See Figure 39.1.

statement, assumption or
for this to be true recommendation to test
we would need
to believe that...

supporting supporting supporting

statement and statement and statement
1 2 3

evidence evidence evidence

evidence evidence evidence

how far does the evidence support your hypothesis?

Figure 39.1 Hypothesis tree

430 Julie Flower
How is it used?
• The coach asks the client to identify a hypothesis (in the form of a statement) that
they would like to test.The coach invites the client to writes this on a Post-It note.
• The coach then asks the client “what would need to be true?” in order for the hypoth-
esis to stand.
• These ideas should be captured on Post-Its and then grouped to form three or four
themes (statements again) at the second level of the tree, e.g. issues relating to capacity,
resources and timing might fall naturally under a theme of “It is feasible”.
• The coach then explores each branch with the client by asking what evidence would
be needed to make each thematic statement true and where that would be found, as
well as what evidence would undermine the statement.
• Exploration is likely to lead to action-planning around collection and review of evi-
dence; refnement or complete rewriting of the hypothesis; and an improved aware-
ness of the most important factors for the client in their decision-making.

When does it work best?

Hypothesis trees work well when clients have a potential way forward that they would like
to test or when they are faced with a complex problem and limited time and resources
in which to address it.The hypothesis tree can also be a useful way to bring an evidence-
based perspective and challenge to a topic.The coach helps to shine a light on potential
gaps and shortcomings in the evidence.The main pitfall of hypothesis trees is the risk of
confrmation bias – the selection of evidence to support the argument. Challenge from
the coach and an encouragement to consider alternative hypotheses can guard against this.

Technique 4: The “Yes, and …” exercise

What is the tool?
The concept of “yes, and” comes from improvised comedy. It is a way of thinking and
interacting which focuses on accepting and building on “offers” made by others (“yes,
and”) rather than blocking suggestions (“yes, but”). It intends to heighten self-awareness
of accepting and blocking behaviours and enable clients to practise and develop new skills.
It is associated with improved collaboration, communication and creativity.
The principle of “yes, and” can be illustrated and explored through a range of exercises,
either in a 1:1 or group situation.A simple approach is outlined below.

How is it used?
• The coach asks the client to imagine that they are planning a day out together.
• The coach explains that the only rules are that they will alternately make suggestions
and each sentence must begin with the words “yes, and …”, trying to build on the
previous idea. It is important to say that ideas don’t need to be considered “rational”
or “feasible”.
• One will begin with an “offer”, such as “let’s go to the beach”.
• The other will then respond with “yes, and …” then adds something to the previous
idea, such as “yes, and let’s build a sandcastle”.
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 431
• This should continue, alternating between coach and client for a couple of minutes,
trying to keep the energy up and avoiding too many delays thinking about responses.
• Encourage the client to genuinely seek to build on the last suggestion (such as “yes,
and let’s make the sandcastle resemble the Eiffel Tower”) rather than purely building
on the general theme (such as making lots of different suggestions for things to do at
the beach).
• In the debrief, encourage the client to refect on how it felt to have to respond in the
moment:When did they (feel they wanted to) block? What skills did they need? How
might this be relevant to their current situation?
• A development of this exercise is then to repeat with a “real” topic (the coach may
want to step aside and the client can “yes, and” themselves).

When does it work best?

“Yes, and …” works well when clients feel that they would like to be more spontaneous
with their thinking and more supportive of others’ ideas. A “yes, and” approach can help
leaders to create more collaborative climates and more powerful individual conversations.
If a client tends to jump to the negative aspects of a new idea,“yes, and” can be a powerful
way of encouraging fexibility of thinking.
Clients often fnd “yes, and …” revelatory in its simplicity and breadth of application. A
helpful homework activity is to ask the client to deliberately take a “yes, and” approach (say-
ing it to themselves in their heads) with different types of interaction, including with family,
friends and at work, and to note their refections on the impact on themselves and others.

Technique 5: Paired comparison analysis

What is the tool?
Paired comparison analysis is a simple analytical tool which can help clients to weigh-up
options and make decisions. Using a simple grid, clients are asked to compare specifc pairs
of options, choosing the preferred option in each pair. All the options are compared with
each other in this way, with the most frequently chosen emerging as the preferred option,
either to be taken forward or to prompt further research or analysis.
Where clients have a small number of options or ideas to consider but the criteria may
be relatively subjective or the ideas quite different from each other, this tool provides the
basis of a focused and structured conversation. See Figure 39.2.

How is it used?
• Ask the client to identify all the relevant options/ideas that they are considering, list-
ing them with a short name (up to three words).
• Ask them to think about what is most important to them in making their decision, so
they start to explore their decision-making criteria.
• The client should list the options vertically down the left-hand side of a simple grid,
each denoted by a letter (A, B, C, etc.), if helpful.
• The same options should be listed across the top to produce a grid.
• Work through the grid systematically, comparing each pair of options in turn (i.e.
beginning with options A and B).
432­ Julie Flower

Total for
A B C D E each
option

Option A B A A E 2

Option B C D B 2

Option C C E 2

Option D E 1

Option E 3

Figure 39.2 Paired comparison analysis

• The client should write the letter denoting the preferred option of each pair in each
of the relevant squares in the grid.
• When completed, total up the choices in order to identify a preferred choice or
choices.
• Throughout the exercise, encourage the client to consider why they have made the
choices they have and to explore pairs of options that they find more difficult to
compare in greater depth.
• The outcome of this exercise may be surprising to clients and may provoke further
discussion around what is most important for clients and their next steps in research-
ing an option or implementing a decision.

When does it work best?

Paired comparison analysis works best when there is a relatively limited number of options
(no more than 8–10), and the criteria may be somewhat subjective for the client. Having
to choose one option over another in each pair helps to drive insight and awareness for
the client about what is most important and why.
As a decision-making tool it works well in a range of client situations, including changes
in career direction, prioritisation of new product/service ideas and purchasing decisions.

Technique 6: Lifeline
What is the tool?
Lifeline is a visual tool that involves a client reflecting on key moments in their life
to identify common themes and consider events and transitions in context. By drawing
peaks, troughs and plateaus with respect to the level of positive, neutral or negative impact
each event has had on their life, valuable insight can be gained which may help with man-
aging life transitions, making career choices, identifying values and raising self-awareness
more generally.
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 433
How is it used?
• Ask the client to draw a line across the middle of a piece of paper (or, ideally, a fip-
chart) to represent their life.
• The line should include peaks, plateaus and troughs to represent the impact that each
event has had on the client’s life. Intensity of positivity or negativity may be repre-
sented by the height of the peak or depth of the trough.
• Encourage the client to select and represent events/moments that are meaningful to
them, rather than necessarily those that others would choose.
• Use the lifeline as the basis for an in-depth discussion in relation to the client’s
goals.
• Areas of exploration might include:
{{ What patterns do you notice with respect to the highs and lows?

{{ What surprises you about the lifeline?

{{ What does your choice of events tell you?

{{ Which aspects of this are relevant to the present/future/your goal?

{{ What insights does this give about you as a person? (Exploring values, sources of

meaning, strengths.)
• The lifeline can be embellished by the client with symbols, drawings or further words
as the conversation develops.

When does it work best?

Lifeline works well with clients who are keen to make some kind of signifcant change in
their lives but are unsure where to begin. By taking a longitudinal approach, patterns and
insights may be brought into a client’s conscious awareness. Lifeline can also help those
who are facing transitions in their life and would like to draw on learning from the past
to build resilience and inform their future approach.
It can also be a helpful and relatively rapid way of accessing and exploring a complex
client story at the beginning of a relationship, building a foundation for further work.
If a client has experienced a particularly diffcult childhood or past, lifeline may not
be a helpful choice of exercise within a coaching context or within the boundaries of
an individual coach’s professional competencies. Sharing the approach with the client
and offering a choice of whether or not to proceed is particularly important with this
tool.

Technique 7: Sculpt
What is the tool?
A sculpt is an experiential tool that involves a client “embodying” an action, idea or con-
cept. It is a fexible tool that can be used to help a client or client group physically explore
a feeling, a change or an idea, both in themselves and in relation to other people or parts
of a system. The role of the coach is to help the client explore their experience during
the sculpt in order to develop insight and learning in relation their area of focus or goal.
Sculpts are used in a number of coaching approaches, including as emergent creative
experiments in Gestalt, constellations and in systemic team coaching.They also have ori-
gins in psychodrama and can be powerfully phenomenological. A sculpt may be static or
434 Julie Flower
involve movement. It may be emergent or more structured, such as exploring a metaphor
or a timeline.

How is it used?
• For an individual, an application is to ask the client to physically embody the change
they would like to make.
• After they have done that, encourage them to experiment with the embodiment to
experience how (different) it feels. Prompts could be to experiment with status, physi-
cality, emotion or positioning with respect to “others”.
• You may wish to share how you are experiencing the client’s embodiment.You may
also invite the client to embody other stakeholders to explore their potential reactions.
• In a group or team setting, a potential application is in the embodiment and exploration
of a situation as a metaphor.A good example is a swimming baths, with deep and shal-
low ends, lifeguards, changing rooms, sun loungers and any number of other details.
• Ask the group members to take up a position in the metaphorical swimming bath
space that represents how they feel in relation to a relevant issue, such as the team’s
new strategy.
• Once everyone is in place, ask each person in turn to explain their position and their
choice. Encourage members to refect on their position in relation to others. Ask
participants to articulate where they would like to be and what they might need from
themselves or others to get there.
• During this exercise, people may decide to move and explore different positions in
relation to each other. Ensure you give time for participants to explore the physicality
of being in the space, including what that looks and feels like.

When does it work best?

Sculpts work well when clients are “stuck” in their heads and may beneft from a change
in perspective. Sculpts can also help clients who want to develop the confdence to do
something different and may beneft from embodying the change in the safety of the
coaching session.
They can also help to explore complex and potentially challenging group dynamics in
a way that focuses on the system and relationships within it, rather than individuals.

Technique 8: Ladder of Abstraction

What is the tool?
The Ladder of Abstraction is a tool used in creative problem-solving to help frame a prob-
lem or question at the most useful level and to drive the generation and exploration of
options and ideas.The Ladder is based on the principle that a problem needs to be asked
at the right “level” in order to come up with the most useful solutions. Using the analogy
of a ladder, when you are on the higher rungs you are likely to be able to see the bigger
picture and, when you are lower down, you will have greater detail. Both those perspec-
tives are needed in order to address many complex issues.
The Ladder uses the questions “why?” (moving up the ladder) and “how?” (moving
down) to help a client explore what is driving a problem, determine how best to frame it
and generate ideas at the most helpful “level” to address it. See Figure 39.3.
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 435

why?
more abstract
why? concepts

Question to address

how?
more concrete
ideas
how?

Figure 39.3 Ladder of Abstraction

How is it used?
• The Ladder of Abstraction can be used in a 1:1 or team coaching situation.
• Identify a problem question beginning with “how to …?”, write it on a sticky note
and put it on the wall or on a large piece of paper.
• Ask the client to identify all the reasons they can think of for why this question should
be addressed. These should be listed on separate sticky notes and added to the level
above the original question.
• It may be useful to continue up another “rung” or two, asking “why?” each time, to
determine the root causes of the problem/question.
• Throughout this exercise, encourage the client to refect on what “level” it would be
most useful to address the problem.
• Use “how?” questions to prompt the client to generate ideas for how specifc prob-
lems identifed in the “why?” levels can be addressed, again, going down a number of
“rungs” if it makes sense to do so.
• The client should be encouraged to generate “how?” ideas freely and creatively before
considering the different options in greater detail.
• Encourage the client to identify where they would like to focus their next efforts in
addressing the problem question, at the level they have framed it.

When does it work best?

The Ladder of Abstraction works well when a client is working on a complex problem
that they are fnding diffcult to defne (for instance, it may have multiple root causes and
many possible solutions). It is a visual tool and enables clients to see links between issues
and gain insight on how the framing of a problem can impact on how fully and appropri-
ately it is ultimately addressed.
By encouraging the creative generation of ideas and exploration of root causes, the
Ladder can work very well as a group problem-solving tool. It enables exploration at both
a strategic and more operational level.A tool called a strategy map uses similar principles.

Technique 9: 2×2 matrix

What is the tool?
A 2×2 matrix is a simple grid that enables a client to map and potentially prioritise dif-
ferent options and ideas based on two variables determined by the client.The process of
436 Julie Flower

idea 5
HIGH idea 1
idea 3
e. g. impact
criterion 1

idea 2
idea 4
LOW
LOW HIGH
criterion 2
e. g. ease of implementa˜on

Figure 39.4 2×2 matrix

selecting the position of each option relative to the selected variables/criteria and to each
other can lead to helpful insights for the client about what is most important to them and
how to move forward with any decision. Popular with management consultants, the 2×2
matrix is simple, adaptable and accessible as an individual or collaborative technique to aid
prioritisation, decision-making and problem-solving.
Also known as the Ansoff Matrix, it was originally developed as a strategic planning tool.
However, any pair of variables can be used and the applications are very wide. Common
variables include, for service improvement ideas, impact vs. ease of implementation, or for
stakeholder mapping, infuence vs. interest. See Figure 39.4.

How is it used?
• Ask the client if they are familiar with a 2×2 matrix and explain the basic concept.
• Draw out or ask the client to draw a grid (ideally on a fipchart) and to identify what
should be on each axis (this can promote an interesting discussion about what is most
meaningful for them).
• Once the axes are labelled, an optional stage is to ask the client to name each quad-
rant as this sometimes helps them to gain a greater understanding of their analytical
process and to bring the quadrants to life.
• Using sticky notes, identify the ideas or options and ask your clients to work through
placing each of them on the grid. Ask questions to help them challenge and clarify
their thinking, noticing any contradictions, incongruency and times of hesitation or
emphatic behaviour.
• Invite the client to step back from the grid and consider:
{{ Is anything missing?

{{ Does anything need to be moved in relation to each other?

{{ Are there any placements that you are unsure about? What do you need to gain

clarity?
{{ What is this telling you about your next steps?

• Work with the client to action plan and build commitment based on their analysis
and refection. This may mean a decision to do one specifc thing, to fnd further
information and test with others, or to prioritise certain activities over others.
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 437
When does it work best?
A 2×2 matrix works best when a client has identifed a number of options or ideas that
they would like to weigh up against each other, in order to choose one or prioritise their
course of action. It helps if a client has a reasonable amount of information about each
idea or option. However, the use of the matrix can be helpful way of exposing and explor-
ing gaps in knowledge.
It also works well as a facilitated team activity, providing a framework for exploring
and agreeing what is most important and how to progress, with a strong visual reference.

Technique 10: Letter from the future

What is the tool?
This is a very simple yet powerful tool to help clients explore, articulate and build com-
mitment towards a goal or future vision. By imagining a specifc point in the future and
engaging in the physical act of writing, clients can connect not only with the activities
but also the emotions and thoughts of that future state.This can help build confdence
and motivation, as well as a much clearer sense of what they would like the future to
look and feel like. It is a playful and powerful way for a client to hold themselves to
account.

How is it used?
• The technique can be used within the session or as a “homework” activity.
• Ask the client to choose a timeframe for their letter from their future self. Depending
on what they would like to achieve, they may want to write more than one letter,
based on different stages of their plan.
• Encourage the client to use letter paper or a card, which they can then place in an
envelope.
• This is a free-form exercise but, if the client would like prompts, ask them to consider:
{{ What will be happening in the future state, once the vision or change has been

realised?
{{ How will it feel?

{{ Who else will be involved?

{{ What will have been some of the high points along the way?

{{ And what were the setbacks?

{{ What have you learned in getting there?

{{ What might be next for you?

• The letter should be placed in an envelope and kept by the client.

• At the next session, ask them to refect on what they learned from writing the letter.
They may want to share the letter but there is no obligation to do so.
• Ask them how they would like to refer to and use the letter in the future.

When does it work best?

Clients who enjoy writing are likely to enjoy this exercise, but others may derive ben-
eft and could be encouraged to begin with a postcard if a letter seems too challenging.
438 Julie Flower
The approach works well with clients who would like to instigate signifcant change in
their life or career and may have doubts about the feasibility of the plan or their own
motivation to get there.

Technique 11: Crazy Eights

What is the tool?
Crazy Eights is a fexible and creative tool to rapidly enable a client to gain different
perspectives on an issue or to develop new ideas for a product, service or change in their
lives. Originating in the design industry, it puts clients on the spot to respond creatively
and spontaneously in the moment to question prompts related to the goal or theme of
the coaching.
Using one sheet of paper, a client generates eight images or responses in eight minutes
before taking a step back to explore certain ideas or wider themes in more detail. The
technique helps to free-up the mind and encourage fexible and playful engagement with
a topic, which often leads to new insights and ideas.

How is it used?
• Give the client a piece of paper (A3 or A4) and ask them to fold it into eighths
and then reopen it again so the folds are visible. Place the sheet vertically so the
client has four pairs of horizontal boxes in front of them. Ideally, give them a felt
tip pen.
• Explain that they will be asked to fll one box each minute in response to a question.
This is likely to be an image but can contain text and they should try and withhold
judgement about the quality of their work.
• Ensuring that you are clear about the goal they would like to work on, set a timer for
one minute, ask the frst question and press “start”.
• After one minute, instruct them to stop, immediately ask the next question and start
the timer again. Repeat until all eight boxes are flled.
• You have free rein to invent your own questions and have chance to do so in the
one-minute gaps. Or you can simply ask them to come up with an idea a minute in
response to a design question or problem.
• Here are some potential questions to prompt the generation of “Crazy Eights”, using
an example of a client wishing to improve cross-organisation working within their
work system:
{{ What is the frst thing that comes to mind when I mention the system?

{{ What does happiness look like in the system?

{{ How would your grandmother view/have viewed the system?

{{ If there were no divisions within the system, what would it be like?

{{ A computer programme is being made to help clients navigate the system.What

does the homepage look like?

{{ A flm is being made about the story of your system.What’s on the poster?

{{ The system has had a great day.What does that look like for you?

{{ Money is no object and anything is possible! What does that look like in the

system?
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 439
• Once the boxes have all been flled, ask them to refect on the Crazy Eights and
identify:
{{ Which boxes stand out for them and why;

{{ Any wider themes or insights.

• At this point you can then continue the coaching conversation, supporting the client
in their development of a specifc idea or approach towards achieving their goal.

When does it work best?

Crazy Eights is a very adaptable tool which may help clients who feel they overthink
things and would like to develop their fexibility. It is also useful for clients who feel
“stuck” for new ideas or perspectives as the rapid nature of the exercise encourages crea-
tivity and provides a choice of ways to access ideas.

Technique 12: Connecting with what is important

What is the tool?
This simple approach is the use of an object, book or piece of music of the client’s choos-
ing to help gain greater insight on what is important and meaningful for a client. The
items or sounds provide a powerful refective tool for the client, offering emotional con-
nections and access to new insights in a way that may sometimes be diffcult with words
alone.

How is it used?
• Ask your client in advance to bring along an object, book or piece of music (or all
three) that means something to them to your next coaching session.
• Discuss and clarify your client’s goal for the session before beginning the activity.
• Give the client time to explain why they have chosen the item(s) to you in their own
words.
• Use the client’s share as an opportunity to ask refective questions to encourage fur-
ther insight in relation to their goal.
• If you fnd that this sort of exercise would be useful during a session, but you haven’t
had chance to prepare, you can adapt it by asking the client to fnd something in their
bag or the room that is meaningful to them or giving them a moment to search for a
piece of music on their phone.

When does it work best?

This approach works well when a client is keen to refect on what is most important to
them or to reconnect with their values and sense of self.This can be particularly helpful
when clients are facing change or transition in their life or career. It may also be useful for
clients who are experiencing stress, feel overwhelmed at work and would like to fnd new
ways to connect with important themes in their lives.
440 Julie Flower
Technique 13: CIA technique – Control, Infuence, Accept
What is the tool?
The CIA model is a simple way of gaining perspective and commitment to act in a com-
plex situation where a number of external strategic factors are at play. By encouraging
clients to consider what is directly within their control, what falls under their infuence
and what is a wider issue that they may wish to infuence in the future but, currently,
probably simply needs to be accepted, new insight and motivation can be found.This is
particularly useful where the size and complexity of the challenge has led to overwhelm
and stasis.
Problem-solving can feel overwhelming, particularly when the issues concerned appear
“wicked” or very “messy”.This approach begins by focusing on what a client does have
agency over, rather than what they do not, building up their confdence and resources for
wider infuence in the future.

How is it used?
• This tool works well if you use a fipchart and draw three large concentric circles,
with the inner one marked “control”, the next one “infuence” and the outer one
“accept”.
• Using sticky notes, ask the client to work through and identify some of the things that
they can control about the situation or problem they are facing (this might include
their own attitude, behaviours or emotional responses).
• Do the same process for factors that are within their realistic sphere of infuence, such
as the design of new rotas.
• And, fnally, do the same for factors that are causing them concern and are relevant to
the context but over which they have little or no infuence, and which they probably
need to accept in order to address their current goal.
• Once these are mapped out, ask the client to refect on the choices they have made
and anything they feel uncomfortable about. Challenge them on assumptions and
“thinking errors”, where relevant.
• Continue the coaching conversation by working with the client to identify how they
could make changes within the themes under their direct control and how they could
infuence them. Encourage them to identify a plan of action, monitor progress and
report back at the next session.
• Encourage the client to keep a copy of their diagram so that they can review it at
points in the future.

When does it work best?

CIA works well when clients have become frustrated or overwhelmed about the strategic
context in their organisation or industry (such as national policy or consumer trends) to
such an extent that they feel unable to make any change or improvement. By focusing on
what is within the client’s ability to control or infuence, momentum and confdence can
be gained so that, in the future, infuence can potentially be exerted on factors that initially
fell into the “accept” circle.
 Fifteen tools and techniques for coaches 441

personal 10
finances
development

10 5 10
5

social+ 5 health+
0
leisure 5 fitness

10 5
5 10

career family
10

Figure 39.5 Wheel of Life

Technique 14: The Wheel of Life

What is the tool?
This Wheel of Life is a simple yet powerful tool to enable a client to look holistically at
the integration of different aspects of their life and identify where they would like to make
changes. By identifying the factors that are most important to them, clients engage with
those areas and consider them in relation to each other and their lives as a whole. Using
simple scaling, the tool can be used to establish a baseline and measure change over time,
providing a useful opportunity for reflection and evaluation. See Figure 39.5.

How is it used?
• Ask the client to draw a large circle on a piece of paper and to draw lines on it to split
it into a number of equal “slices” – usually between six and eight.
• The client should add a scale on each section, where zero is in the middle and 10 is
on the outer rim of the circle.
• Ask the client to identify the most important and relevant factors that they would like
to cover. Depending on your client’s goal and area of focus, these may be obvious. If
a client is looking holistically, highlight if they have made clear “omissions”, such as
health, work or relationships, explore the reasons for their choices to ensure the most
useful and appropriate selections are made.
• Ask the client to write a factor in each section of the circle. Work through with them
where they currently are in terms of satisfaction with each aspect on a scale of 0–10.
• Once this is completed, as them to reflect on the whole and to identify the areas they
would like to focus in on. These may not always be the factors with the lowest scores
as they may be content with a lower score in some areas of their lives, relative to others.
• Continue the coaching conversation, incorporating a solution-focused approach,
where helpful, to identify where on the scale they would like to get to and how they
will do it.
442 Julie Flower
When does it work best?
The Wheel of Life is very helpful for clients who are fnding it diffcult to fnd balance in
their lives or have a sense of being “off kilter”. Often, clients who have signifcant respon-
sibilities (such as caring responsibilities) or have been through a major change (such as
a redundancy) may beneft from looking across different aspects of their lives in a more
holistic way. By using simple scaling, clients can gain insight into where they need to focus
their attention and can gain a sense of progress and impact.

Technique 15: The Story Spine

What is the tool?
The Story Spine uses a series of simple prompts to help a client develop a compelling
story, building on techniques used within theatre, literature and flm-making. It is a simple
and versatile tool with a number of applications, including: Promoting client creativity;
exploring a client’s vision and developing a commitment to act; putting together personal
stories for use in presentations or articles; exploring past decisions and pathways leading
to the present moment.

How is it used?
• Share the basic story structure with the client:
{{ Once upon a time there was …

{{ Every day …

{{ One day …

{{ Because of that …

{{ Because of that …

{{ Because of that … (repeat as many times as needed);

{{ Until fnally …

{{ And ever since that day …

• Encourage the client to experiment with completing the sentences, writing them
down where possible.This will often lead to the revisiting of themes, exploration of
different endings and refection on the “because of ” statements.
• Ask the client to stand back from the stories and refect on where that leaves them
with respect to their goal.

When does it work best?

The Story Spine is an adaptable tool that works well with clients who are interested in, or
would beneft from, harnessing the power of storytelling. This can be very powerful for
those wanting to make presentations and speeches more personal, emotionally resonant
and compelling.The story spine is also an excellent way for clients to engage in a creative
and insightful way with their own past, present or future “stories”.
Index

Page numbers in italics indicate fgures. Page numbers in bold indicate tables.

2×2 matrix technique 435–437, 436 Alexander, G. 176, 180, 181

360-degree feedback 357 American Psychological Association (APA)
“3 blessings” activity 318 120, 190
“5 whys” technique 94 Ammentorp, J. 19
7-Eyed Supervision Model 383–385, 385, Andrews, H. 20
386, 389 APPEAR framework for ethics in coaching
339, 340
ABC (+DE) model of coaching 209 appraisals 4, 5, 6, 7, 7
ABC of contracting in coaching 353 appreciation 66
acceptance and commitment (AC) coaching approach, defnition 126
301–311; acceptance in 306;ACT matrix Armstrong, H. 134
308–309, 309; choice point model 308, 308; artifcial intelligence see AI and digital technology
committed action in 305; control agenda in in coaching
302; core concepts 302–303, 303; “defusion” asynchronous data analysis 370
in 305–306; experiential avoidance 302; attachment styles 74–75
explanation of 301–302; GROW model in 304; attention in good listening 105, 107–108, 112
the observing self in 307; in practice 304–307; Attention Restoration Therapy (ART)
present-moment awareness 306–307; private 292–293, 293
experience 302; psychological fexibility in attention training and switching focus of 217
302–303, 303; starting using 307; ten useful Augsberger, D. 105
questions for coaches 310–311; theory and authority: accessing/generating 239
research 303–304; tools and techniques 308, automatic coaching chatbots 370
308–309, 309; values-based living in 301–302, autonomy in managerial coaching 397
304–305; when to use 309–310 awareness: centre of 40; directed and undirected
ACT matrix 308–309, 309 224, 228; present-moment 306–307; see also
Action Coaching Model 344 self-awareness
action learning model (space, place, pace) 138
Action Learning Set model 5, 6, 407 Baban, A. 211
action planning 181–182 Bachkirova,T. 8, 40, 44
actualising tendency 190 Bandura, A. 177
admin digital tools 369 Bane, K.D. 20
affective outcomes of coaching 15, 17–18 Barbour, P.J. 268
affrmations in coaching 114–116 Baron, L. 18
AI and digital technology in coaching Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory
367–375; applications to coaching 368–370; 115, 120
coaches’ role in development 374; data and Bateson, G. 96–97
coaching 372–373; defnitions 367–368; Beck,A. 208, 325
developing literacy 371–372; development of behavioural coaching see GROW model
370–371; ethics of 373–374; virtual coaching behavioural experiments 216–217
374–375 behavioural focus in integrative coaching
Ainsworth, M. 74, 142 324–325
Albright, M. 143 behaviours: seeing needs behind 63–64
444 Index
“Being, Doing and Knowing” model of team CareSource, Ohio, USA: coaching culture
coaching 269–272, 271 snapshot 30
Bennet, J.L. 345, 347 Carr, C. 268
Berg, I.K. 197 Carroll, M. 379, 382
Berman, M.G. 292–293 Carson, S. 97
“best possible self ” exercise 318 cash fow: management of 422
Bigelow, B. 4 Cassidy, T. 404
biographies: clients’ personal 173, 239 challenge and support in coaching, balance
Bion, W.R. 53 between 152–163; barriers to challenge
Blakey, J. 346 161–162; challenge and support matrix 155,
Bluckert, P. 223 155, 157–159, 158; defning 155–157; and
Bolton, G. 406 the evolution of coaching 153–155; how
Boniwell, I. 314, 315 to challenge 162; in practice 173; value of
Borrington, S. 44 challenge 152–153; Zone of Uncomfortable
Bossons, P. 125 Debate (ZOUD) 159–161, 160
boundaries in organisations: coaching across 29, change: contemplation and preparation stages of
31–32, 33, 34 82; model of, understanding clients’ 53–54;
Bouradas, D. 133 neuroscience research on behavioural 243–244,
Bowlby, J. 74 247–250; and resistance, relationship between
Bowles, S. 15, 16, 17, 19 54–55, 223–224, 226; seven-stage process
Bowman, C. 159 model of 191; six necessary and suffcient
Boyce, L.A. 19 conditions for 69–70, 70; summaries to enable
Bozer, G. 17, 18, 19 directional 122–123; targets in cognitive-
Bradley, L.M. 18 behavioural coaching 213, 215; transtheoretical
Bray, J. 397 model of 82, 287, 287
Bridges,W. 168, 265 Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Brief Family Therapy Centre 197 Development (CIPD) 13
Bright, D. 17–18 chatbots 368, 371; automatic coaching 370
Briner, R.B. 355 choice point model 308, 308
Brookes, B. 339 CIA model/technique (Control, Infuence,
Brown, B. 385–387 Accept) 183, 183, 440
Brown, H. 15 circular questioning 96–97
Brummel, B.J. 15, 16 CLEAR goals 179
Burton, G. 17, 211 clients: attracting the right 415–421
business of coaching see coaching business: clients: communicating interest and openness
establishing your 52–53; developing our ability to understand
49–50; exercising caution 49; impact on goal-
C5 cluster framework 387–388, 388 setting 82–86; little questions and feedback
Cain, S. 133 forms 55–57, 56; refection questions for coaches
Cairo, P. 344 50; starting out 48–49, 173; understanding how
Cameron, J. 411 clients feels about you 50–52; understanding
Cardon, A. 345 resistance 54–55; understanding their model
career change 283, 285–286, 286 of change 53–54; using their words 54;
career coaching 280–288; career changers 283, understanding your 48–57; see also contracting in
285–286; explanation of 280–281; GROW coaching; relationship in coaching
model in 218; initial career choice/young Climate Lab simulation 397
people 282–285; Kaleidoscope Model 285–286, Clutterbuck, D. 89, 169, 270, 336, 389
286; in practice 173, 282–284; retirement/older “coach on demand” concept 370
workers 281, 284, 286; return to work 284; ten coaches’ self-understanding 39–46; Level 1, self-
useful questions for coaches 287–288; theory inventory 41–42; Level 2, self as an instrument
and research 281–282; tools and techniques 42–43; Level 3, fully professional self 43–46, 45;
284–286; transtheoretical model of change in three Ps model (philosophy, purpose, process)
287, 287; for women 284, 285–286, 286; when 46; self as precursor for 39–41
to use 286–287, 287 coaching: affective outcomes 15, 17–18; cognitive
career genogram technique 285 outcomes 16, 18–19; common coaching goals
careers counselling 5, 6, 7 14–15; effectiveness of 13–21; evidence for 17–21;
 Index 445
growth of coaching 13–14; results outcomes “connecting with what’s important”
16–17, 20–21; skill-based outcomes 16, 19–20 technique 439
coaching business: attracting the right clients conscious cognition in integrative coaching 325
415–421; business processes 421–422; case constellations in Gestalt coaching 229
studies, referrals and testimonials 421; cash fow containment in systems-psychodynamic
management 422; challenges and solutions coaching 235
overview 414–415; establishing the 414–423; contemplation stage of change 82
feedforward approach 416–417; identifying continuing professional development (CPD):
benefts for clients 417; identifying ideal clients coaches’ 341, 390–391
418; identifying proposition and value 419; continuum of motivation in positive psychology
looking after yourself 415; pricing 420–421; coaching 318
principles of luck in 416; qualifying out clients contracting in coaching 344–353;ABC of 353;
418–419; reaching out to clients (hunting, Action Coaching Model 344; confdentiality
attraction, nurturing, outsourcing) 419–420; 348–351; as a designed alliance 344–350;
stages/steps to buying coaching services DOUSE model for closing the session
417–418; support networks 421–422; ten 352–353, 353; of individual sessions 350–353,
points to consider 422–423 351, 353; with individuals 345–348; multi-
coaching cultures see organisations: developing a stakeholder considerations 348–350, 350;
coaching culture in PROMISES checklist 348, 349; STOKERS
coaching defnitions and overview 3–11; model for starting the session 351, 351–352;
comparison with other interventions terms of engagement 345; see also relationship
4–7, 5, 6, 7; defning coaching 3, 7–8, 11; in coaching
developing your defnition 10–11, 11; control agenda in acceptance and commitment
evolution of 153–155; growth and adaptation (AC) coaching 302
of coaching 10; roots of coaching 4; specialist Cooper, M. 189
approaches 8–10 Cooperrider, D. 168
coaching relationship see relationship in coaching cost/cost-beneft analysis/cost-effectiveness in
Co-Active Coaching model 182, 317, 345 coaching evaluations 356
Coakley, C.G. 104 counselling 4, 5, 5–7, 10, 141, 153
cobots (collaborative robots) 371 Covey, S. 344
Cochrane, H. 384 Cox, E. 135, 335, 337
codes of ethics 335, 339, 379 CPD (continuing professional development):
cognitive outcomes of coaching 16, 18–19 coaches’ 341, 390–391
cognitive therapy 208 crazy eights technique 438–439
cognitive-behavioural coaching 208–219;ABC “Creating the Team Edge” approach 268–269,
model 209; explanation 208–209; hot cross bun 269, 270, 277; programme and techniques 273,
model 209–210, 210; in practice (steps 1–6) 273–276
211–213; ten useful questions 218–219; theory creative experimentation in Gestalt coaching 225
and research 210–211; tools and techniques creative imagery in neuroscience coaching
214–217; when to use 217–218 246–247
cognitive-behavioural therapy 10, 211 Crockett, A. 17–18
collaborative empiricism 211–212 Csigas, Z. 15
collusion 154 culture change: narrative coaching for 263
commissioning managers: evaluation for 364 curiosity 52, 95
communication: non-violent see non-violent Curtayne, L. 17, 211
communication
communication technology (video Dalio, R. 421
conferencing) 369 Daloz, L. 155, 157
compassion 63–64; see also empathy data analysis: asynchronous and synchronous 370
competence in managerial coaching 397 data in coaching 372–373, 375
competent self: coaches’ 45, 45 David, O.A. 211
compliments 66 Davis, S.L. 189
confdentiality 348–351, 375 Day, I. 346
confict and remedial clients: systems- de Haan, E. 9, 69, 189
psychodynamic coaching for 239 de Jong,A. 333, 336
congruence 162, 188 de Shazer, S. 197
446 Index
Deal, T. 24 Empty Chair exercise 227
Deci, E.L. 397 enactment in Gestalt coaching 226
deeper questions in eco-coaching 297 engagement: employee 395–397, 396
“defusion” in acceptance and commitment (AC) environment: impact on goal-setting 87–88
coaching 305–306 environments of eco-coaching 294
demands and requests: distinction between 64 Esalen Institute 4
DeNisi, A. 356 ethics in coaching 333–342;AI and digital
designed alliances 344–350 technology 373–374;APPEAR framework 339,
dialogic self: coaches’ own 45, 45 340; coaching supervision 382; codes of ethics
digital coaching platforms 369 335, 339; developing and maintaining 339–342;
digital technology see AI and digital technology importance of 335, 335–337, 337; issues across
in coaching professional contexts 337–339; nature and
Dippenaar, M. 20 perspectives of 333–335, 334; professional
directed awareness 224, 228 ethics 334–335
distribution networks: building a coaching culture European Mentoring and Coaching Council
into 28, 31–32 (EMCC) 382
divergent thinking in neuroscience coaching evaluation in coaching 355–365; defning 355–356;
246–247 Kaufman’s model of learning evaluation
Dotlich, D. 344 359–360, 360; Kirkpatrick’s levels of evaluation
DOUSE model for closing the session model 357–358; Passmore’s SOAP-M model
352–353, 353 360–363, 361; in practice 363–365; return on
Downey, M. 107, 133, 134 investment (ROI) model 358–359; stakeholder
Drake, D.B. 88, 260, 262, 263 needs 363, 363–364; theories of 357–360; timing
Drucker, P. 65 of 364–365
Duckworth, A. 245 evolution in eco-coaching 296
exceptions in solution-focused coaching 205
eclecticism see Universal Eclectic Model of executive centre of self 40
executive coaching executive coaching 8–9; managing access to
eco-coaching see outdoor eco-coaching external coaches 28–29, 29, 32, 33, 34;
ecosystemic team coaching 268 see also managers as coach/managerial
education: coaches’/coaching 339–341 coaching; Universal Eclectic Model of
effectiveness: in evaluation of coaching 356; executive coaching
evidence for coaching 17–21 experiential avoidance 302
ego 162 experiential learning model 383, 383
Ehrenreich, B. 143 expert interviewer technique 428–429
e-learning platforms 369 exploring and exploiting in neuroscience
“elephant in the room” 99, 160, 160 coaching 252
eliciting information 95
ELIZA (chatbot) 368, 371 Facilitating Client Growth 81
Ellis,A. 208, 325 feedback in coaching 355–365; 360-degree
Elston, F. 315 feedback 357; defning 355; digital feedback
EMCC (European Mentoring and Coaching questionnaires 369; feedback forms 55–57, 56,
Council) 382 360; feedback goldfsh bowl exercise 275–276;
emotions in coaching 141–150; approaches Feedback Intervention Theory (FIT) 356–357;
to working with 147–150; calibrating in feedback orientation theory 357; in refective
neuroscience coaching 250, 250; challenge practice 411; skills in managerial coaching
of using 142–144; emotional life in systems- 399–400; theories of 356–357
psychodynamic coaching 233–234; examples feedforward approach 416–417
147, 148, 149; growing presence of 144; feelings: identifying and expressing 61–63
history of 141–142; pathway for working with Feggetter, A.J.W. 20
145–147; in positive psychology coaching 315; Field Theory in Gestalt coaching 222–223
regulation in neuroscience coaching 244 Fielder, J. 345
empathy: conveying through empathic listening Fillery-Travis,A. 8, 135
120–121; making and receiving requests with Fine, Alan 176
64–66; for others and self in neuroscience Finn, F.A. 18
coaching 250–252, 251; in person-centred Flaherty, J. 52, 148, 169, 172
coaching 188 formulation: cognitive-behavioural 209, 213
 Index 447
Fosha, D. 69 GROW model in coaching 79–80, 130, 176–185;
Four Cornered Model 405–406 in acceptance and commitment (AC) coaching
“Four Is” framework of questioning 99 304; in career coaching 218; explanation
Fouracres, A. 315 and overview 176–177, 177; gap analysis
frameworks in coaching: defned 126 perspective 181, 181–182; in integrative
Freud, S. 4, 232 coaching 324–325; in neuroscience coaching
Frost, P. 52 243, 245–247, 248; in practice 178–182; Steps
functional analysis 215, 215 1–4 (goal, reality, options, will/wrap-up/
way forward) 178–183, 183, 185; ten useful
Gallwey,T. 4, 7, 178, 260, 262 questions for coaches 184, 185; theory and
Gannon, J. 189 research background 177–178; tools and
gap analysis 181, 181–182 techniques 182–183, 183; topic element of
Gardiner, M. 20, 210 (T-GROW) 176, 177, 185; when to use 184
General Data Protection Regulation growth mindset in neuroscience coaching
(GDPR) 372 249–250
Gentry, W. 397 growth of coaching 13–14
Gestalt coaching 221–231; awareness in 224, 228; Guillaume,Y.R.F. 15
coaching relationship in 225; constellations Gyllensten, K. 19–20
229; creative experimentation in 225; Empty
Chair exercise 227; enactment in 226–227; Haämaälaäinen, R.P. 44
exaggeration in 228; explanation and principles habitual responses: inhibiting 246–247
of 221, 222; Field Theory 222–223;“If your HAPA (Health Action Process Approach) model
foot had a voice” example 228; Paradox of behavioural change 247, 248
Theory of change and resistance 223–224, 226; Harcup, J. 14
phenomenology/individual experience in 225; Hardingham,A. 126, 128, 178, 344
in practice 173–174, 224–226; self and other in Harris, R. 308
41, 43, 223; space and metaphor in 228–229; Hastings, R. 272
Systems Theory 223; ten useful questions Hawkins, P. 268, 341, 380, 382, 391
230–231; theory and research 222–224; tools Hay, J. 387–388, 409
and techniques 226–231;“walking the stage” Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model
exercise 229; when to use 229–230 of behavioural change 247, 248
Gilbert, A. 400 health and safety in eco-coaching 294, 295
Gilbert, M. 382 health coaching 9–10
Global Code of Ethics for Coaches, Mentors and Henley Eight,The (model): in coaching
Supervisors (GCMA) 339, 379 supervision 389, 389; in non-violent
goal-setting in coaching 79–90; broadening communication 59–61; in refective practice
88–90; challenging traditional 81; change 411–412
and evolution of goals 88–89; in cognitive- Hodge, A. 380
behavioural coaching 212; common homework in cognitive-behavioural coaching 213
coaching goals 14–15; factors impacting hot cross bun model 209–210, 210
(goal, client, coach, organisational sponsor, human capital 13–14
environment) 81–88, 83–86; traditional Human Potential Movement 4, 394
practice of 79–81, 80; see also GROW model in Huston, R.E. 4
coaching; SMART goals hypothesis formulation in systems-psychodynamic
Godin, S. 418 coaching 236–237
Goff, P.J. 19 hypothesis trees technique 429, 429–430
Goldsmith, M. 416
Goleman, D. 394, 395 iBEAM framework 262
Gordon, T. 118 ICF see International Coaching Federation
Gordy, C. 4 identity: centre of 40; coaches’ professional 338
Grant,A.M. 17, 18, 81, 178, 199–200, 211 “If your foot had a voice” technique 228
Green, L.S. 211 incongruence in person-centred coaching 188
grit 245, 247 individual coaching dimensions in organisations
Gross, J. 245 27, 28–29
group coaching dimensions in organisations individual experience in Gestalt coaching 225
27, 29, 31, 33, 33, 34; see also systemic team individual sessions: contracting of 350–353,
coaching 351, 353
448 Index
individuals: contracting with 345–348 Kline, N. 54, 105, 193
inner game model 7, 262 Kluger, A. 356
inquiry in good listening 105, 108–110, 112 Kochanowski, S. 20
insight 97 Koffka, K. 221
integrated approach to coaching 322–329; Kohler, W. 221
behavioural focus in 324–325; benefts of Kolb, D.A. 383, 405
322–323; coaching partnership in 323–324; Kombarakaran, F.A. 20
conscious cognition in 325; defning 322; Kopelman, R.E. 20
explanation and six streams model of 323–326; Kourdi, J. 125
GROW model in 324–325; systemic web in Kramer, G. 262
326; ten useful questions for coaches 327–329; Kurz, R. 355
tools and techniques 327; unconscious
cognition in 325–326; when to use 326–327 ladder of abstraction technique 434–435, 435
Integrative Development 262 Lai,Y.-L. 8
interest: communicating to your client 52–53 Lao T. 62
internal coaches: managing access within Laquercia, T. 108
organisations 29, 29–30, 33, 34 Larrson, J. 398
International Coaching Federation (ICF) 4, 11, Latham, G. 80
30, 141–142, 154, 155, 347, 371, 382, 406 LEAD coaching framework 28–32, 29, 33, 34;
interventions: comparison of coaching with other MODEL components 28, 33, 34; Zones 1–4
4–7, 5, 6, 7 (leaders, everyone, approach, distributed) 28–32
interviewer: expert techniques 428–429 leadership see executive coaching; managers as
Interviewing: Motivational 9–10 coach/managerial coaching
Iordanou, I. 338 Leary-Joyce, J. 224
irrelevance 154 Lee, G. 134, 136
Ives, I. 335 left-hand column technique 61
Leonard,T. 4, 8
Jackson, J.R. 19 letter from the future technique 437–438
Jackson, P. 405 Lewin, K. 168, 222, 396–397
Jensen, H.I. 19 Lewis, T. 145
JK Organisation, India: coaching culture snapshot Libri,V. 20
26–27 life coaching 10, 82, 211, 280
life wheel see Wheel of Life technique
job coaching see career coaching lifeline technique 432–433
job-crafting technique 285 line managers: coaching skills for 398–399;
Jones, R.J. 15–18, 20, 404 evaluation for 364
Josephson, P.E. 20 listening in coaching 104–113; barriers to
journaling in refective practice 408–411 106–107; conveying empathy through 120–121;
Jung, C. 4, 49, 145 defning good listening 104–105; developing
as a listener 112–113; importance of 105–106;
Kabat-Zinn, J. 306 Modes 1–4 (attention, inquiry, observation,
Kahneman, D. 61, 142 resonance) 105, 107–113; refective 118–120,
Kaleidoscope Model in career coaching 119; skills in managerial coaching 399
285–286, 286 Litwin, G. 396, 397
Katzenbach, J.R. 267 Locke, E. 80
Kauffman, C. 168 logs: learning in refective practice 408–411
Kaufman’s model of learning evaluation London, M. 357
359–360, 360 Long, S. 237
Kearns, H. 20, 210 Lowman, R.L. 19
Keats, J. 49, 53 Lucey, C. 316
Kegan, R. 82 luck: principles of 416
Keller, J. 359–360 Luthans, F. 18
Kemp, T. 20
Kennedy, A. 24 Mainiero, L.A. 285
Kilburg, R. 8–9 Maitland, S. 133
Kines, P. 20–21 Malafronte, O. 373–374
Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation model managers as coach/managerial coaching
357–358 393–402; benefts of 397–398; coaching as
 Index 449
management style 395, 395–396; comparison nature retreats 297
with traditional management styles 397, 398; as Neal, L.J. 19
default leadership style 29, 31, 33, 34; defning needs: seeing behind behaviours and
393–395; limitations of 401; linking employee communications 63–64
engagement with 395–397, 396; OSCAR negative capability 49, 53
framework 400, 400; self-determination theory neurolinguistic programming 168
in 397; skills for line managers 398–399; skills neuroplasticity 249–250
of 211, 399–400 neuroscience coaching 243–254; emotions,
Martela, F. 44 calibrating 250, 250; empathy for others
Mason, C.M. 18 and self 250–252, 251; explanation of
matching 369 243–244; exploring and exploiting in 252;
Material Engagement Theory 136 GROW model in 243, 245–247, 248; Health
Matthewman, L. 356 Action Process Approach (HAPA) model of
Maturana, H. 148 behavioural change in 247, 248; neuroplasticity
McCarthy, G. 393 and growth mindset 249–250; in practice
McChrystal, G.S. 277 245–248, 248; self-effcacy in 245, 247, 248; ten
McDermott, I. 168 useful questions for coaches 253–254; theory
McDowall, A. 355 and research 244–245; tools and techniques
McKenna, D.D. 189 249–252;Triadic Brain model 250, 250; when
Megginson, D. 169 to use 248–249
mental health issues 6 Newby, A. 408
mentoring 5, 6, 6–7, 7 Newton, T. 384
metaphors: in eco-coaching 296; metaphoric Nichols, R. 134
associative cards 369; in refective practice non-directed person-centred coaching
407–408; and space in Gestalt coaching 153–154, 163
228–229; use in complex refections 117–118; non-verbal communication and observation 105,
visual metaphors technique 427–428 110–111, 112
methods in coaching: defned 126 non-violent communication 58–66; brief
Michie, S. 248 overview of 58–59; compliments/appreciation
Miller, B. 121 66;The Henley Eight technique 60; left-hand
Milner, J. 393 column technique 61; Principle 1, separating
Milner, T. 393 our observations from our responses 59–61;
mind set in goal-setting 90 Principle 2, identifying and expressing feelings
mindfulness 297, 306 61–63; Principle 3, seeing needs behind
Minuchin, S. 171, 172 behaviours and communications 63–64;
miracle question in solution-focused coaching Principle 4, making and receiving requests with
203–204, 204 empathy (with example) 64–66
model of change: understanding clients’ 53–54 Noon, R. 43
Moon, J. 409 Norcross, J.C. 69, 190
Morin, L. 18
Motivational Interviewing 9–10 Oades, L.G. 211, 315
Muir, J. 417–418 objectivity 179
Murphy, M. 4 observation and non-verbal communication 105,
110–111, 112
narrative coaching 257–265; explanation and observations: separating from responses 59–61
phases of 257–259, 258; Narrative Pivot 262, observing self in acceptance and commitment
262; Narrative Rewind Process 263; practice (AC) coaching 307
and principles of 260–261; techniques in O’Connell, B. 48, 57, 197
systems-psychodynamic coaching 237–238; ten O’Connor, S.A. 200
questions for coaches 264; theory and research OD consulting 6, 7
259–260; tools and techniques 261–263, 262; Ogba, F.N. 210
when to use 263 old-style approach to coaching 25
Narrative Pivot 262, 262 Olivero, G. 20
Narrative Rewind Process 263 “one-, one-and-a-half- and two-person” model
Nash, O. 167 71–72
National Human Activity Pattern Survey one-to-one coaching 4, 5, 5, 6, 14, 134, 184;
(NHAPS) 292 see also individuals
nature play approach in eco-coaching 297 online coaching (virtual coaching) 369, 374–375
450 Index
online self-awareness tools 369 perspectives in coaching 95–97, 126, 262
openness: communicating to your client 52–53 Peters, J. 268
organisational sponsors: impact on goal-setting 87 Peters, T. 394
organisation-in-the-mind concept 235, 237 Peterson, D. 374
organisations: career coaching within 282 Peterson, S.J. 18
organisations: benefts of 26–28; CareSource, phenomenology in Gestalt coaching 225
Ohio, USA (organisational snapshot) 30; Phillips, J.J. 358–359
defning organisational culture 24–25; Phillips, P.P. 358–359
developing a coaching culture in 24–35; JK pictures and space in refective practice 408
Organisation, India (organisational snapshot) pilgrimages 297
26–27; LEAD coaching framework (Zones 1–4: positive effect 200
leaders, everyone, approach, distributed) 28–32, positive psychology coaching 314–320;“3
29, 33, 34; old-style approach to coaching 25; blessings” activity 318; activities 318; benefts
Rentokil Initial, UK (organisational snapshot) of positive emotions in 315;“best possible
32–34, 33, 34; three C’s approach (common self ” exercise 318; explanation of 314–315;
mindset, champions, campaign) 25; twelve frameworks 318; positive assessment in 317–
steps to 35 318; in practice 316–317; ten useful questions
O’Riordan, S. 292 for coaches 319–320; theory and research 315,
OSCAR framework in managerial coaching 315–316; tools and techniques 317–319; when
400, 400 to use 318–319
oscillation in solution-focused coaching 203 positive thinking 143
OSKAR model in solution-focused coaching possible selves technique in career coaching 286
200–202 Potrac, P. 404
outcomes: coaching 15–21 power: in coaching supervision 387
outdoor eco-coaching 291–299;Attention powerful questions 97–99
Restoration Therapy (ART) in 292–293, practice in cognitive-behavioural coaching 213
293; case studies 295, 296; explanation of pragmatic self: coaches’ own 45, 45
291–292; in practice 293, 293–294, 295; ten PRAIRIE elements of questioning 98–99
useful questions for coaches 297–299; theory preparation stage of change 82
and research 292–293; tools and techniques presence: coaches’ 66
295–297 presentation and re-presentation in systems-
psychodynamic coaching 237
paired comparison analysis technique present-moment awareness in acceptance and
431–432, 432 commitment (AC) coaching 306–307
Palmer, P.J. 138 pricing 420–421
Palmer, S. 9, 10, 19–20, 292, 385 private experience in acceptance and
Panchal, S. 244–245 commitment (AC) coaching 302
Papatriantafllou, O. 135 problems: defning and working with 212–213
Paradox Theory of change and resistance professional self: coaches’ fully 43–46, 45
223–224, 226 PROMISES checklist for contracting 348, 349
Passmore, J. 8, 15, 17, 121, 135, 334–335, 360–363, psychodynamic coaching see systems-
361, 414 psychodynamic coaching
Pavlov, I. 177 psychoeducation 214
Pedesky, C.A. 98 psychological contact 188
Pedrick, C. 351 psychological fexibility 302–303, 303
Pennington, W. 272 psychological models: use of 49
perception in person-centred coaching 188 psychological safety 99, 144, 269, 275, 294
PERFECT coaching model 168 psychology in the eclectic model 167
performance management 5, 6, 7 PURE goals 179
Perls, F. 221, 223
Perls, L. 4, 221, 223 Qi, X. 133
personal responsibility 8, 9 questionnaires 56, 56–57, 100; digital feedback
person-centred coaching 187–196; explanation 369; employee engagement 396, 396
of 187–189; in practice 190–193; ten useful questions for coaches: acceptance and
questions 195; theory and research 189–190; commitment (AC) coaching 310–311; career
tools and techniques 193–195 coaching 287–288; cognitive-behavioural
 Index 451
coaching 218–219; Gestalt coaching 230–231; relational style 74–75; in solution-focused
GROW model 184, 185; integrated approach coaching 202; story examples 70–73; see also
to coaching 327–329;“little questions” for contracting in coaching
understanding your client 55–57, 56; narrative Rentokil Initial, UK, coaching culture snapshot
coaching 264; neuroscience coaching 253–254; 32–34, 33, 34
outdoor eco-coaching 297–299; person- requests and demands: distinction between 64;
centred coaching 195; positive psychology making and receiving with empathy 64–66
coaching 319–320; refection 50, 118, resistance and change: relationship between
119; solution-focused coaching 205, 206; 223–224, 226; understanding clients’ 54–55
systemic team coaching 277–278; systems- resonance in good listening 105, 111–113
psychodynamic coaching 239–240 responses: separating from observations 59–61
questions in coaching 92–102; alternatives results outcomes of coaching 16–17, 20–21
of 101–102; avoiding the “tyranny of the retirement/older workers: career coaching for
question” 101–102; choosing the type of 281, 284, 286
question 93–97; common errors in questioning return on investment (ROI) model of evaluation
100–101; deeper, in eco-coaching 297; 358–359
“Four Is” framework of questioning 99; how rhetorical questions 93
questions work 92; miracle questions 203–204, Riddell, P. 244–245
204; perspectives and shifting perspectives ‘Ridler Report’ 267
95–97; powerful questions 97–99; PRAIRIE Rogers, C. 49, 58, 65, 69, 70, 115, 116, 153, 162,
(personal, resonant, acute, incisive, reverberant, 187–191, 272, 323–324, 336
innocent, explicit) elements of 98–99; question Rogers, J. 128
purpose 94–95; question structure 93–94; role: importance of in systems-psychodynamic
self-questioning skills, helping the client build coaching 235–236, 239
99–100; Socratic questioning 98, 214–215 Rollnick, S. 121
Rosenberg, M. 58, 62, 64, 66
rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) 208 Rosinski, P. 169, 409
Ratiu, L. 211 Rothwell, W. 346
redundancy: career coaching for 283, 287 Ryan, R.M. 397
Refective Learning Cycle 405
refective practice in coaching 403–413;Action Saarinen, E. 44
Learning Set model 407; in coach supervision safety: in outdoor eco-coaching 294, 295;
380; developing 406–407; in feedback 411; psychological 99, 144, 269, 275, 294
Four Cornered Model 405–406;The Henley Sanford, N. 155
Eight framework 411–412; importance of Santora, J.C. 18
403–404; learning logs and journals 408–411; Sarros, J.C. 18
metaphor and visualising 407–408; questions Sartain, D. 125
for coaches 50; Refective Learning Cycle 405; Schaap, P. 20
refective listening 111, 114, 116–121; shared Schein, E. 24
experiences/case studies 407–408, 410–411, Schön, D. 404
412; stages of 405–406; techniques for refective Schore, A. 69
practice 407–411; theories of 404–405; through Scoular,A. 126, 177, 180
supervision 406–407 sculpt technique 433–434
Refective Space Curve model of changing seasonal cycles in eco-coaching 297
perspectives 97 Sedgwick, D. 49
refexivity: coaches’ 337, 339–342 Seifert, C.F. 20
Reio, T.G. 358 self-awareness 4, 8, 9; developing within the
relatedness in managerial coaching 397 GROW model 179–180, 182, in Gestalt
relationship in coaching 68–75; in Gestalt coaching 223, 224, 228; impact on goal-setting
coaching 225; importance and conditions of 86, 90; in neuroscience coaching 251; online
68–71, 70; infuence on questioning 97;“one-, tools 369
one-and-a-half- and two-person” model self-compassion/self-empathy 244
71–72; person-centred coaching model self-determination theory 315, 397
188–189; relational coaching 71–72; relational self-effcacy: recovery/high recovery
coaching in practice 72; relational coaching 245, 247, 248
with fexibility 73–74; relational skills 74; self-harm 351
452 Index
self-inventory: coaches’ 41–42 Stelter, R. 259
self-obsession 154 stepping in/stepping out model of changing
self-questioning skills: building clients’ 99–100 perspectives 96–97
self-understanding: coaches’ see coaches’ Stevens, J.O. 43
self-understanding STOKERS model for starting the session 351,
Senge, P.M. 61, 168, 223 351–352
sensory acuity 52 Story Spine technique 442
Shaw, E. 391 strengths: in career coaching 284–285; in positive
Sheldon, C. 43 psychology coaching 315–316
Shpancer, N. 142 structural determinism 148
silence in coaching 132–138; action learning Styhre, A. 20
model for 138; applications of 136–137; in Sullivan, R. 346
felds outside coaching 132–135 Sullivan, S.E. 285
Skiffngton, S. 411 summaries in coaching 121–123; change
skill set in goal-setting 89 direction 122–123; periodical 121–122;
skill-based outcomes of coaching 16, 19–20 start of a session 121
Skinner, B.F. 177 supervision in coaching 379–391; 7-Eyed
SMART goals framework 80, 80–82, 89–90, Supervision Model 383–385, 385, 386, 389;
178, 179 benefts of 390–391; C5 cluster framework
Smith, D.K. 267 387–388, 388; choice of supervisor 385–388;
Smith, I.M. 15, 16 defnitions and key elements 380–383, 384;
Smith, N. 341, 380, 382, 391 development of 379; ethical considerations of
Smither, J.W. 20, 357 341–342; experiential learning model in 383,
SOAP-M model of evaluation 360–363, 361 383; framework for 383–385, 387; The Henley
Socratic questioning 98, 214–215 Eight model 389, 389; preparation for 388–390;
solution-focused and cognitive-behavioural purpose of 380, 381; refective practice through
coaching (SFCB) 199 406–407; Supervision Triangle 380, 390; three
solution-focused coaching 197–206; coaching C's of supervision 383, 383
agreement 202; explanation and features of Supervision Triangle 380, 390
197–199, 199; the miracle question 203–204, Swart, J. 14
204; oscillation 203; OSKAR model 200–202; synchronous data analysis 370
in practice 173, 200; seeking exceptions 205; systemic approach in eco-coaching 296
structuring the coaching session 201, 202–203; systemic team coaching 267–278; explanation and
ten useful questions 205, 206; theory and types of 267–268, 268; feedback goldfsh bowl
research 199–200; tools and techniques exercise 275–276; in practice,“Being, Doing
202–205; when stuck 204–205; when to use 205 and Knowing” model 269–272, 271; team
solution-focused therapy 10 shield exercise 273–275; ten useful questions
sourcing platforms 369 for coaches 277–278; theory and research:
space and metaphor in Gestalt coaching 228–229 “Creating the Team Edge” approach 268–269,
space and pictures in refective practice 408 269, 270; tools and techniques 272–276, 273;
Sparks, T. 397 when to use 276–277
specialist approaches to coaching 8–10 systemic web in integrative coaching 326
Spence, G.B. 89, 315 Systems Theory in Gestalt coaching 223
sponsors: evaluation for 364; see also stakeholders systems-psychodynamic coaching 232–241; case
SPORT model for defning goals 212 studies 233–234, 235–236, 238; containment
sport performance/psychology 4, 7, 168 in 235; emotional life in 233–234; explanation
stakeholder considerations/needs: coaching 232–234; hypothesis formulation 236–237;
contracts 348–350, 350; coaching evaluation narrative techniques 237–238; organisational
363, 363–364 role, importance of 235–236, 239; in practice
Stark, M. 71 234–236; presentation and re-presentation
Starr, J. 135 237; ten useful questions for coaches 239–240;
Starr, L. 345 theory and research 234; tools and techniques
“start with a goal” approach 79–80, 88–89 236–238; when to use 238–239
starting out: understanding your clients systems-thinking approach 168, 173, 291
48–49, 173
starting the coaching session 350–352, 351; Taie, E.S. 19
summaries 121 Taylor, F. 394
 Index 453
team coaching dimensions in organisations 27, 29, unconscious cognition in integrative coaching
31, 33, 33, 34; see also systemic team coaching 325–326
“Team of Teams” approach 277, 278 Underhill, B.O. 28
team shield exercise 273–275 undirected awareness 224
techniques see tools and techniques Universal Eclectic Model of executive
technology see AI and digital technology in coaching 167–174; background and overview
coaching of 167–168; benefts of 170–171; case study
T-GROW model 176, 177, 185 172–174; eligibility for inclusion 168–169;
therapy 4, 5, 10, 141, 150 risks of 171; tools and techniques for 169–170;
“thinking errors”: identifying 215–216 when to use 172
Thomson, B. 49
Thorndike, E. 177 Vakola, M. 133
three C’s approach (common mindset, champions, value in evaluating coaching 356
campaign) towards a coaching culture 25 values: coaches’ professional 336–337
three C’s of supervision 383, 383 values-based living in acceptance and
three Ds framework (dream, distress, damage) commitment (AC) coaching 301–302, 304–305
5, 5–6 van Gennep,A. 258
three Ps model (philosophy, purpose, process) 46 van Nieuwerburgh, C. 315, 316, 336
Tiggemann, M. 20, 210 video conferencing (communication
tools and techniques (for coaches) 427–442; technology) 369
2×2 matrix 435–437, 436;“5 whys” 94; Vinberg, S. 398
“best possible self ” exercise 318;“3 blessings” virtual coaching 374–375
activity 318; career genogram 285; CIA visual metaphors 427–428
technique (Control, Infuence,Accept) visualisation exercises 182
183, 183–184, 440;“connecting with what visualising in refective practice 407–408
is important” 439; crazy eights 438–439;
“Creating the Team Edge” programme 273, Wageman, R. 268
273–276; Empty Chair exercise 227; expert Walker, S. 41
interviewer 428–429; feedback goldfsh walking and talking therapy 291–293
bowl exercise 275–276; hypothesis trees “walking the stage” exercise 229
429, 429–430; job-crafting 285; ladder of Wallin, D.J. 262
abstraction 434–435, 435; left-hand column Wampold, B. 69
61; letter from the future 437–438; lifeline Wang, Z.X. 133
432–433; paired comparison analysis 431–432, Wasylyshyn, K.M. 15, 16
432; positive psychology coaching 317–319; Waterman, R. 394
possible selves 286; sculpt 433–434; Story Watson, J.B. 177
Spine 442; team shield exercise 273–275; visual “way of being” in coaching practice 336
metaphors 427–428; visualisation exercises 182; Weiss, Alan 422
“walking the stage” exercise 229;Wheel of Life wellbeing coaching 10
182, 183, 441, 441–442;“Yes, and…” Wertheimer, M. 221
exercise 430–431 Wheel of Life technique 182, 183, 441,
tools and techniques (use in coaching) 125–130; 441–442
defning 125–127; guidelines for 129–130, 130; Whitmore, J. 4, 7–9, 125, 130, 145, 146, 152, 168,
helpfulness of 127–128; risks of 128–129 176, 179, 184, 346, 394
training 4, 5, 6, 7; coaches’/coaching 339–341 Whittington, J. 53
Transtheoretical Model of Change 82, 287, 287 Whittleworth, K. 400
Treacy, M. 396 Whitworth, L. 4, 8
Treasure, J. 109 Whybrow, A. 10
Triadic Brain model 250, 250 Widdowson, L. 268
Trueblood, T.C. 4 Wildfower, L. 4
Tudor, K. 191 Williams, J.S. 19
Tulpa, K. 345, 347 Wiseman, R. 416
Tunariu, A. 314 Wolvin, A.D. 104
women: career coaching for 284, 285–286, 286
Uhrenfeldt, L. 19 Woods, S.A. 15
unconditional positive regard in person-centred words: narratives beneath 109–110; problems with
coaching 188 use of 108; using clients’ own 54
454 Index
workplace coaching 4; see also organisations: Yu, N. 16
developing a coaching culture in Yukl, G.A. 20
Worral, M. 191
Zeus, P. 411
“Yes, and…” exercise 430–431 Zhou,Y. 15
young people: initial career coaching Zone of Uncomfortable Debate (ZOUD)
282–285 159–161, 160