Computer Architecture and Organization

Course Description
• This course provides an overview of
the architecture and organization of a
computer, how it is build. It includes a
discussion of the CPU, Memory, I/O
organization and peripherals.
 Computer Organization and Architecture

• Provides dept knowledge of internal working, structuring, and implementation of a computer

system.
• Organization defines the way the system is structured so that all those catalogued tools can be used
properly.

• Computer Architecture and Organization includes all topics such as introduction, ER models, keys,
relational model, join operation, SQL, functional dependency, transaction, concurrency control, etc.
Computer Architecture and
Organization
• In general terms, the architecture of a computer
system can be considered as a catalogue of tools or
attributes that are visible to the user such as
instruction sets, numbers of bits used for data,
addressing techniques, etc.

• Whereas, Organization of a computer system defines

the way system is structured so that all those
catalogued tools can be used.
Evolution of Computing Devices
It was the first computing system designed in the
early 1940s.
ENIAC

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

It considered of 18,000 buzzing electronic switches

called vacuum tubes, 42 panels each 9’ x 2’ x 1’. It
was organized in U-shaped around the perimeter
of a room with forced air cooling.
Evolution of Computing Devices
• Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) design was known as the first
digital electronic computer. It was designed and built by John
Vincent Atanasoff and his assistant, Clifford E. Berry in 1937.
• In 1941, Z3 was invented by German inventor Konrad Zuse.

• Transistors were invented in 1947 at Bell Laboratories which were a

fraction the size of the vacuum tubes and consumed less power, but
still, the complex circuits were not easy to handle.
• In 1968, Robert Noyce co-founded Intel Electronics company which
is still global market leader in IC manufacturing, research, and
development.
Evolution of Computing Devices
• In 1983, Lisa was launched as the first personal computer with a
graphical user interface (GUI) that was sold commercially; it ran on
the Motorola 68000, dual floppy disk drives, a 5 MB hard drive and
had 1 mb of RAM.
• In 1990, Apple released the Macintosh Portable; it was heavy
weighing 7.3 kg and extremely expensive.

• In 1990, Intel introduced to Touchstone Delta supercomputer, which

had 512 microprocessors.
Functional Units of Digital System
• A general-purpose computer system is the best-known example of a
digital system.
• Computer architecture deals with the specification of the instruction
set and the hardware units that implement the instructions.
• Computer hardware consists of electronic circuits, displays, magnetic
and optic storage media and also the communication facilities.
• Functional units are a part of a CPU that performs the operations and
calculations called by the computer program
• A computer consists of five main components namely, Input unit,
Central Processing Unit, Memory Unit, Arithmetic & Logical Unit,
Control Unit and an Output unit.
Input Unit
• Input units are used by the computer to read the
data.
• The most-well known input device is a keyboard.
Central
Processing Unit
• Referred as an electronic circuitry
within a computer that carries out
the instructions given by a
computer program by performing
the basic arithmetic, logical and
input/output (I/O) operations
specified by the instructions.
Memory Unit
• Referred to as the storage area in which programs are kept
are running, and that contains data needed by the running
program.
• Can be categorized in two ways namely, primary memory
and secondary memory.
• Primary storage is the fastest memory that operates at
electronic speeds. It contains a large number of
semiconductor storage cells, capable of storing a bit of
information.
• Cache memory is also a kind of memory which is used to
fetch data very soon.
• Secondary memory is used when a large amount of data and
programs have to stored for a long-term basis.
 Arithmetic &
Logical Unit
• Most of all the arithmetic and logical
operations of a computer are executed in
the ALU of the processor.
• It performs arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and also the logical operations like
AND, OR, NOT operations.
Control Unit
• The control unit is also known as the nerve center of a computer
system.

• The control unit is a component of a computer’s central processing

unit that coordinates the operation of the processor.
 Output Unit

• The primary function of the

output unit is to send the
processed results to the user.
• Output devices are pieces of
equipment that are used to
generate information or
other response processed by
the computer.
 • The primary function of a computer system is to execute
a program, sequence of instructions.
• These instructions are executed to process data which
are already loaded in the computer memory through
some input devices.
Basic • After processing the data, the result is either stored in
the memory for further reference, or it is sent to the
Operational outside world through some output port.
• To perform the execution of an instruction, in addition
Concepts to the arithmetic logic unit, and control unit, the
processor contains a number of registers used for
temporary storage of data and some special function
registers.
• The special function registers include Program Counters
(PC), instruction registers (IR), memory address registers
(MAR), and memory data registers (MDR).
 • The Program counter monitors the execution of
instructions. It keeps track on which instruction is being
executed and what the next instruction will be.
• The instruction register(IR) is used to hold the
instruction that is currently being executed.
• After processing the data, the result is either stored in
Basic the memory for further reference, or it is sent to the
outside world through some output port.
Operational • The two register MAR and MDR are used to handle the
data transfer between the main memory and the
Concepts processor.
• The MAR holds the address of the main memory to or
from which data is to be transferred.
• The MDR contains the data to be written into or read
from the addressed word of the main memory.
 • Whenever the processor is asked to communicate with
devices, we say that the processor is servicing the
devices. The processor can service these devices in one
of the two ways.
• One way is to use the polling routine, and the other way
Basic is to use an interrupt.

Operational • Polling enables the processor software to check each of the

input and output devices frequently. During this check, the
Concepts processor tests to see if any devices need servicing or not.

• Interrupt method provides an external asynchronous

input that informs the processor that it should complete
whatever instruction that is currently being executed
and fetch a new routine that will service the requesting
device.
General System Architecture

The General System Architecture is divided into two major classification units.
Stored Program Control Concept

• The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the storage of instructions in
computer memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or
intermittently.
• The idea was introduced in the late 1040s by John von Neumann who
proposed that a program be electronically stored in the binary-number
format in a memory device so that instructions could be modified by the
computer as determined by intermediate computational results.
• ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first
computing system designed in the early 1940s.
 • Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945,
which was later known as Von-Neumann Architecture.

• It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory Unit

(ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von-Neumann • Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program

computer concept, where instruction data and program data are
Model stored in the same memory.

Von- Neumann-based computer:

o Uses a single processor
o Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
o Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle
Components of Von-Neumann
Model
Central Processing
Unit
• The part of the computer that performs the
bulk of data processing operations in called
the Central Processing Unit.
• Defined as an electronic circuit responsible for
executing the instructions of a computer
program.
• The major components of CPU are Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and
variety of registers.
 Components of Von-Neumann Model

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

• The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for executing the
instructions.
• ALU allows arithmetic and logic operations to be carried out.

Control Unit (CU)

• The control unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like ALU, memory
and input/output devices.
• Consists of a program counter that contains the address of the instructions to be fetched and an
instruction register into which instructions are fetched from memory for execution.
 Components of Von-Neumann Model

Registers
• Refers to high-speed storage areas in the CPU.
Following is the list of the registers that plays a crucial role in data processing.

Registers Description

MAR (Memory Address This register holds the memory location of the data that needs to be accessed.
Register)
MDR (Memory Data This register holds the data is being transferred to or from memory.
Register)
AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and logic results

PC (Program Counter) This register contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.

CIR (Current Instruction This register contains the current instruction during processing.
Register)
Central Processing
Unit
• The part of the computer that performs the
bulk of data processing operations in called
the Central Processing Unit.
• Defined as an electronic circuit responsible for
executing the instructions of a computer
program.
• The major components of CPU are Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and
variety of registers.
Buses
• Buses are the means by which information is
shared between the registers in a multiple-register
configuration system.
• A bus structure consist of a set of common lines,
one for each bit of register, through which binary
information is transferred one at a time.
• A bus structure consist of a set of common lines,
one for each bit of register, through which binary
information is transferred one at a time.
• Control signals determine which register is
selected by the bus during each particular register
transfer.
Von-Neumann Architecture comprised of three major bus system for data transfer.

Bus Descriptions

Address Bus Address bus carries the address of data between the processor and the
memory.

Data Bus Data Bus carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the
input/output devices.

Control Bus Control Bus carries signals/commands from the CPU.

Memory Unit
• A memory unit is a collection of storage cells
together with associated circuits needed to
transfer information in and out of the storage.
• The memory stores binary information in groups
of bits called words.
• The internal structure of a memory unit is
specified by the number of words it contains
and the number of bits in each word.
Two major types if memories are used in
computer systems:
1. RAM
2. ROM
END!