GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

LESSON
SOIL FORMATION
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TOPICS

Topic 1: Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Topic 2: Soil Formation and Characterization

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the history and importance of soil mechanics in
engineering applications;
2. discuss the importance of soil;
3. describe the weathering of rocks and soil formation;
4. discuss the mineralogy of soil; and
5. perform laboratory activity on visually describing the different
types of soils.

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From ancient to recent times, the civil engineering profession advanced the
construction of infrastructures with other experts. Soil has been of major concern in this
advancement as it considers the very foundation of the development. Civil engineering
must take into account the behavior of soil and its constituents. The soil’s structure,
mineralogy, and formation are some of the prevalent characteristics that should be
learned from the basic mechanics of soil to understand advanced geotechnical
engineering. Foundation engineering, on the other hand, lay upon the soil structure and
it is apparent that computations accounting therein involve soil properties and strength.
Conversely, this lesson is an important part of the course to advance your, the
students’, knowledge regarding soil mechanics. Conducting the laboratory exercise under
this lesson will help you identify soil by the visual-manual procedure following the ASTM
standards. The ability to describe and identify soils correctly is learned more readily under
the guidance of experienced personnel, but it may also be acquired systematically by
comparing numerical laboratory test results for typical soils of each type with their visual
and manual characteristics. As an aspiring civil engineer, you should have prior knowledge
of experiencing soil identification to be a globally competitive individuals in your field of
expertise.

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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

SUB-TOPICS

1.1 A Brief Historical Development

1.2 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

1.1 A Brief Historical Development

Since ancient times, the soils and rocks have significantly influenced engineering
and architecture, particularly in foundation engineering and slope protection system.
Since untraceable, a brief history discussed herein begins with a quote from Karl Terzaghi
(1951), who gave contributions to the development of soil mechanics and geotechnical
engineering up to the present times (Bjerrum et al., 1960; Murthy, 2006).

"Foundations can appropriately be described as a necessary evil. If a building is to

be constructed on an outcrop of sound rock, no foundation is required. Hence, in
contrast to the building itself which satisfies specific needs, appeals to the
aesthetic sense, and fills its matters with pride, the foundations merely serve as a
remedy for the deficiencies of whatever whimsical nature has provided for the
support of the structure at the site which has been selected. On account of the fact
that there is no glory attached to the foundations, and that the sources of success
or failures are hidden deep in the ground, building foundations have always been
treated as step children; and their acts of revenge for the lack of attention can be
very embarrassing."

His comment made engineers aware of the once hidden, now developing
knowledge in the foundation design. Murthy (2006) added that the substructures of such
engineering design are as crucial as the superstructures'. This comment means that
practicing engineers and architects should consult the right professional to design such
structures. As a civil engineering student, you should have prior knowledge of
geotechnical engineering and its updated developments. Likewise, the author indicated
that the foundation's design is a Civil Engineering branch.
Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963) published a book called Erdbaumechanik, which means
Soil Mechanics, which attempted to treat soils based on physical properties. This
pioneering publication in the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering field earned him
a fitting title as the Father of Soil Mechanics. Furthermore, he was born in Prague on
October 2, 1883, and died on October 25, 1963, in Winchester, Massachusetts, USA. More
readings about him in the book "From Theory to Practice in Soil Mechanics" by Bjerrum
et al. (1960).
Owed to Ralph B. Peck, Arthur Casagrande, A.W. Skempton, and other notable
authors, Soil Mechanics, and Foundation Engineering remain a significant part of Civil
Engineering. In fact, they were inspired by Terzaghi in his efforts to investigate the field.
On the other hand, the maturity of the development is not yet ripe even based on
scientific analysis, which has received much impetus in the current times. Laboratory tests
were advanced throughout the progress. However, in situ soil properties may not reflect
the actual field condition. To address the drawback, experts on-site developed the
observational approach that guided them to observe soil conditions during the

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construction stage. Subsequently, the findings will lead them to determine whether to
modify the considered design's construction methods based on the laboratory findings.
Similarly, immediate actions should be taken per the findings before the problem gets
bigger.
As a takeout point, you may consider an old proverb popularized by Benjamin
Franklin that says, "stitch in time saves nine." It is much better to solve the problem
immediately to prevent it from becoming more prominent. Well, solving a problem is
better than solving nine.
Moreover, the following table (Table 1.1) presents the brief historical
development of soil mechanics and the authors concerned in the contributions.

Year Author Contribution

3000-4000 years ago Egyptians Egyptian temples
(foundation design was not
based on the presently
known principles)
3000-4000 years ago Romans They initiated the
construction of
engineering structures
such as harbors,
breakwaters, aqueducts,
bridges, large buildings,
and roads.
2700 B.C. Egyptians Pyramids of Giza,
Challenged builders
regarding the foundations,
slope stability, and
underground chambers
construction.
14th Century Leaning Tower of Pisa
15th to 17th centuries Timber piles were used for
foundations
17th century Shahjahan, Mogul Emperor The mausoleum is built on
of Delhi (to commemorate the river bank of Jamuna.
his wife, Mumtaz Mahal) Masonry cylindrical wells
have been reported as the
foundation used.
1776 Coulomb Computation of lateral
earth pressures on
retaining walls on the
"Classical Earth Pressure
Theory."
1840 Poncelet He extended Coulomb's
theory by giving an elegant
graphical method for
finding the magnitude of
earth pressure on walls.
1856 Darcy He proposed a law for the
flow of water in permeable
materials.
1856 Stokes Gave an equation for
determining the terminal
velocity of solid particles
falling in liquids.

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1875 Culman Gave Coulomb-Poncelet
theory a geometrical
formulation, supplying the
method with a broad
scientific basis.
1857 Rankine Proposed a new earth
pressure theory, a Classical
Earth Pressure Theory
1885 Boussinesq He proposed a theory for
determining stress
distribution under loaded
areas in a semi-infinite,
elastic, homogeneous, and
isotropic medium.
1900 Mohr Stress circles are
extensively used in the
study of the shear strength
of soils.
1911 Atterberg He proposed simple tests
for determining the
consistency limits of
cohesive soils.
1925 Terzaghi He founded the
development of the
science of Soil Mechanics
and Foundation
Engineering.

The modern soil mechanics was born in 1925. Moreover, the current knowledge
of design procedures of foundations and soil mechanics is owed to the works of Terzaghi
and his collaborators (Murthy, 2006).

1.2 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Terzaghi defined soil mechanics as follows and quoted from Murthy (2006):

"Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to

engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical
disintegration of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of
organic constituents."

The term "soil mechanics" is generally accepted to define soil as a structural

material in the engineering science disciplines. The study of soil mechanics is to lay down
certain principles, theories, and procedures for designing a safe and sound structure.
Conversely, foundation engineering primarily deals with creating various substructures
under different soil and environmental conditions.
A significant role of soil deposits must be considered in designing structures. The
designer or an engineer has to use the existing theories and principles in soil mechanics
to adjust the design pertaining to its suitability to field conditions. Since soil deposits are
different in each location, infinite variations of the combinations occur and could
influence the overall design of the structures. Hence, the success or failure of the design
falls significantly on the knowledge and ability of the foundation engineer. Thus, the

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foundation engineer must be able to interpret the results of soil mechanics and in situ soil
conditions.

TASK

Do the following:
Group yourselves into three (3). Research the reasons behind Pisa's leaning tower
and the discovered soil mechanics. Input additional discoveries and contributions of some
authors from the preclassical period of soil mechanics (1700 – 1776), phase I classical soil
mechanics (1776-1856), phase II classical soil mechanics (1856-1910), modern soil
mechanics (1910-1927), geotechnical engineering after 1927, and end of an era. Prepare
a short PowerPoint presentation and refer to the book of Das & Sobhan (2014) entitled
"Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, specifically pages 1-13. Include references as
necessary. This task will be presented next meeting in a 10-minute presentation per
group.

ASSESSMENT
Name: __________________________________________ Score: ____________
Course/ Year/ Section: _____________________________ Date: _____________
WORKSHEET NO. ___

Assessment will be done through a long quiz about the introduction to soil
mechanics.

TOPIC 2: SOIL FORMATION AND CHARACTERIZATION

SUB-TOPICS

2.1 Soil and its Constituents

2.2 Weathering of Rocks and Types of Soil
2.3 Mineralogy of Soil Solids
2.4 Description and Identification of Soil

2.1 Soil and its Constituents

Many professionals have established various definitions of "soil" related to their
expertise. Agriculturists defined soils as the top thin layer of the earth, which support the
life of plants and where organic forces are predominant. On the other hand, geologists
defined soil as the material in the top thin zone within which roots occur. Apparently,

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from the point of view of engineers, soil includes all eath materials, organic and inorganic,
appearing in the location overlying the rock crust (Murthy, 2006).
Moreover, Das & Sobhan (2014) defined soil as the uncemented aggregate of
mineral grains and decayed matter (soil particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces
between the solid particles. Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the
study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to
various forces. Soil engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to
practical problems. Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering that
involves natural materials found close to the earth's surface. It includes the application of
the principles of soil and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining
structures, and earth structures.
Since soils are formed by weathering of rocks, let us consider the following
sections of this module on this topic. The constituents of soil are also discussed along the
way.

2.2 Weathering of Rocks and Types of Soils

The physical properties of soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that
constitute the soil particles. Hence, the rock from which it is derived. The discussion of
rock weathering mainly explored a rock cycle process, as Figure 1 presents.

Figure 1.1 Rock cycle (Das & Sobhan, 2014).

Basically, rocks are classified into three (3) categories: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic. Consequently, soils are formed by chemical and mechanical weathering.
Consider this video to expand your knowledge on the rock cycle and weathering:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vp_S3BDiR-I (Mr. Bradley - Learning Made Fun, 2020).
Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from
deep within
the earth's mantle. Depending on the proportions of minerals available, different types
of igneous
rock are formed. Granite, gabbro, and basalt are the common types of igneous rocks.
These and some igneous rocks are shown in Table 1.1, including the minerals they contain,
while Figure 1.2 illustrates the scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of quartz and basal
cleavage.

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Table 1.1 Composition of Some Igneous Rocks (Das & Sobhan, 2014).
Mode of Abundant Less abundant
Name of rock Texture
occurrence minerals minerals
Granite Intrusive Coarse Quartz, sodium Biotite,
feldspar, muscovite,
potassium hornblende
Rhyolite Extrusive Fine
feldspar
Gabbro Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Hornblende,
pyroxines, biotite,
Basalt Extrusive Fine olivine magnetite
Diorite Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Biotite,
hornblende pyroxenes
(quartz usually
Andesite Extrusive Fine
absent)
Syenite Intrusive Coarse Potassium Sodium
feldspar feldspar,
Trachyte Extrusive Fine biotite,
hornblende
Olivine, Oxides of iron
Peridotite Intrusive Coarse
pyroxenes

The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by weathering may become
compacted by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite,
dolomite, and quartz. Cementing agents have generally carried in solution by
groundwater. They fill the spaces between particles and form sedimentary rock. Rocks
formed in this way are called detrital sedimentary rocks. Since the chemical process can
also form sedimentary rocks, Table 1.2 presents the chemical sedimentary rocks and their
chemical composition.

Table 1.2 Chemical composition of some sedimentary rocks (Das & Sobhan, 2014).
Rock Composition
Limestone Calcite (CaCO3)
Rock Salt Halite (NaCl)
Dolomite Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)]
Gypsum Gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O)

(a)

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(b)
Figure 1.2 SEM of (a) quartz showing glass-like fractures; (b) basal cleavage of
individual mica grains (Das & Sobhan, 2014).

Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical

processes into smaller pieces. Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion
and contraction of rocks from the continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in
ultimate disintegration. Several examples of mechanical weathering are shown in Figure
1.3 and Figure 1.4.

(a)

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(b)
Figure 1.3 Mechanical erosion due to ocean waves and wind at Yehliu, Taiwan (Das &
Sobhan, 2014).

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4 Mechanical weathering of granite: (a) development of large cracks due to
freezing and thawing followed by a drainage pattern, (b) in situ mechanical
weathering of rocks (Das & Sobhan, 2014).

In chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are transformed into new
minerals by chemical reaction. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere forms carbonic acid,
which reacts with the existing rock minerals to form new minerals and soluble salts. We
can see how the weathering process changes solid rock masses into smaller fragments of
various sizes ranging from large boulders to microscopic clay particles. Uncemented
aggregates of these tiny grains in various proportions form different soil types. The clay
minerals, which are a product of the chemical weathering of feldspars, ferromagnesian,
and micas, give the plastic property to soils. There are three essential clay minerals: (1)
kaolinite, (2) illite, and (3) montmorillonite.
On the other hand, weathering products may stay in the same place or may be
moved to other areas by ice, water, wind, and gravity. The soils formed by the weathered
products at their origin are called residual soils, in which the gradation of particle size is
an important characteristic. Fine-grained soil is found at the surface, and the grain size

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increases with depth. At greater depths, angular rock fragments may also be found. The
following are the transported soils classified depending on their mode of deposition:
1. Glacial soils – are formed by the transportation and deposition of glaciers
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils—formed by the movement of soil from its original place by gravity,
such as during landslides

2.3 Mineralogy of Soil Solids

The following figures illustrates some of the common rock-forming minerals.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

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(g) (h)

(i)

Figure 1.5 Some typical rock-forming minerals: (a) quartz; (b) orthoclase; (c)
plagioclase; (d) muscovite; (e) biotite; (f) andradite garnet; (g) calcite; (h)
dolomite; (i) chlorite. (Courtesy of Dr. Sanjay K. Shukla, Edith Cowan
University, Perth, Australia)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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(e) (f)

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

Figure 1.6 Some typical rocks: (a) granite; (b) basalt; (c) rhyolite; (d) sandstone; (e)
limestone; (f) conglomerate; (g) marble; (h) slate; (i) mica schist; (j) folded
schist. (Figures (a) through (i) Courtesy of Dr. Sanjay K. Shukla, Edith Cowan
University, Perth, Australia; (j) (Courtesy of Dr. Nagaratnam Sivakugan,
James Cook University, Townsville, Australia)

There are large structures built several centuries ago around the world with, or
in/on rock, that are still intact and undergoing partial weathering. The Parthenon (Figure
1.7), built on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, in the second half of the 5th century B.C.,
is made of marble and built on a limestone hill underlain by phyllite, a fine-grained
metamorphic rock containing large quantities of mica and resembling slate or schist.

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Figure 1.7 The Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. (Courtesy of

iStockphoto/Thinkstock from
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parthenon.

2.4 Description and Identification of Soil

Generally, soils are classified as gravel, sand, silt, or clay, depending on the
dominant size of particles within the soil. Tabulated below are some of the worldwide
organizations which established the soil classification system by particle sizes.

Table 1.3 Particle Size Classifications (Das & Sobhan, 2014).

Name of Grain Size (mm)
Organization Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Massachusetts
Institute of
>2 2 to 0.06 0.06 to 0.002 < 0.002
Technology
(MIT)
U.S.
Department of
>2 2 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.002 < 0.002
Agriculture
(USDA)
American
Association of
State Highway
76.2 to 2 2 to 0.075 0.075 to 0.002 < 0.002
and
Transportation
(AASHTO)
Unified Soil
Classification
System (U.S.
Army Corps of
Engineers, U.S.
Fines (i.e., silts and clays)
Bureau of 76.2 to 4.75 4.75 to 0.075
< 0.075
Reclamation,
and American
Society for
Testing and
Materials)

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Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz, feldspar, and other
minerals. Sand particles are made of mostly quartz and feldspar. Other mineral grains also
may be present at times. Silts are microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine quartz
grains and some flake-shaped particles that are fragments of micaceous minerals. Clays
are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic particles of mica, clay minerals,
and other minerals.
Some terminologies should be considered relating to soil, rock, and contained
fluids. Some of these are the following which was gathered from (ASTM D2488, 2009) and
per ASTM D653:

clay - soil passing a No. 200 (75-µm) sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity (putty-
like properties) within a range of water contents, and that exhibits considerable strength
when air-dry. For classification, a clay is a fine-grained soil, or the fine-grained portion of
a soil, with a plasticity index equal to or greater than 4.

gravel—particles of rock that will pass a 3-in. (75-mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 4
(4.75-mm) sieve with the following subdivisions:
coarse—passes a 3-in. (75-mm) sieve and is retained on a 3⁄4 -in. (19-mm) sieve.
fine—passes a 3⁄4-in. (19-mm) sieve and is retained on a No.4 (4.75-mm) sieve.

organic clay—a clay with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties. For
classification, an organic clay is a soil that would be classified as a clay, except that its
liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75 % of its liquid limit value before oven
drying.

organic silt—a silt with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties. For
classification, an organic silt is a soil that would be classified as a silt except that its liquid
limit value after oven drying is less than 75 % of its liquid limit value before oven drying.

peat—a soil composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition

usually with an organic odor, a dark brown to black color, a spongy consistency, and a
texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous.

sand—particles of rock that will pass a No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and be retained on a No.
200 (75-µm) sieve with the following subdivisions:
coarse—passes a No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and is retained on a No. 10 (2.00-mm)
sieve.
medium—passes a No. 10 (2.00-mm) sieve and is retained on a No. 40 (425-µm)
sieve.
fine—passes a No. 40 (425-µm) sieve and is retained on a No. 200 (75-µm) sieve.

silt—soil passing a No. 200 (75-µm) sieve that is nonplastic or very slightly plastic and that
exhibits little or no strength when air dry. For classification, a silt is a fine-grained soil, or
the fine-grained portion of a soil, with a plasticity index less than 4.

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