UNIT II.

Theories of Teaching and Learning Mathematics

Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are expected to
1. explain the different theories of learning mathematics and examine how these
learning theories influence teaching practices;
2. discuss the nature, dimensions and models of mathematical knowledge;
and 3. describe their own theory of teaching and learning mathematics.

Content
1. Theoretical Perspectives on Mathematical Thinking and
Learning 2. Theories of Teaching and Learning Mathematics
2.1Behaviorist Theories
a. Classical Conditioning,
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1. Theoretical Perspectives on Mathematical Thinking and

Learning 2. Theories of Teaching and Learning Mathematics
2.1 Behaviorist Theories
a. Classical Conditioning,
b. Operant Conditioning
2.2 Cognitively Oriented Theories
a. Piaget’s Stages of Development
b. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
c. Skemp’s Relational Learning
d. Meaningful Learning (David Ausubel) (1968)
e. Radical Behaviorism and Cognitive Information Processing
f. Theory of Instruction (Gagne)
g. Theory of Embodied Mathematics
h. Zoltan Dienes’ six-stage theory of learning mathematics
i. Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory
j. Cognitive structuralism
k. Proposed Learning Via Insight (Bruner)
2.3 Constructivist Theories
a. Experiential Learning Theory(Kolb)
b. Van Hiele Model
c. Radical Constructivism (Von Glasersfeld)
d. Social Development Theory (Vgotsky)
e. Situated Cognition and Social practice theory (SPT)
f. Observational Learning
How do students learn math? Are there learning theories that are especially relevant
to the teaching and learning of math?
Progress is occurring in providing answers to these sorts of questions. However, the
prevailing teaching situation is summarized by the following quote:
 “For example, I've been in enough high school math classes over the last five
years to know that there is no developmental theory of how students learn
algebra. The kids who don't make it and don't respond to the kind of
instruction they're receiving are simply not included in the instructional model.
And teachers in the classrooms I've observed take no responsibility for the
lowest-performing students. That's because the prevailing a theory of learning
suggests that teaching mathematics is not a developmental problem but a
problem of aptitude. Some people get it, some don't.”
Elmore, Richard F. (2002). The Limits of Change [Online]. Accessed
2/18/02: http://www.edletter.org/current/
limitsofchange.shtml
This quotation captures the essence of a need for understanding of mathematics
developmental theory and a need for understanding of learning theories appropriate
to the teaching and learning of math. Both are missing in many math education
environments.

Mathematics became the driving force for almost all technological and
scientific developments in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It has a big
influence on our professional and social daily life activities. It plays a crucial role on
students’ success and nation building. Mathematics education has always been
treated as an important section of general education.
It is believed that a theory is essential to any meaningful development effort.
Different cultures and societies have different theories regarding education,
specifically with respect to the teaching and learning of mathematics as illustrated in
their curriculum. These variations of beliefs and values concerning mathematics
learning may result in different mathematics educational systems. The role of
teachers is to facilitate students’ thinking and learning. Therefore, teachers should
attempt to motivate their students to learn. To be aware of teaching practice activities
done by teachers, we should have enough knowledge about learning theories and
teaching methods. Different learning theories and teaching methods have been used
in educational systems all over the world. Theories of learning are the main focus of
this Unit, namely behaviorist theories, cognitively oriented theories, and constructivist
theories. These theories and their applications in the mathematics teaching methods
will be explained more by the rest of the reporters.

Behaviorism
The two main creators of behaviorist approaches to learning were Skinner and
Watson. Watson stated that human behavior is a result of particular stimuli extracted
from particular responses, while Skinner remarked that habits each of us develop
stem from our distinctive operant learning experiences.
 One of the most popular descriptions of learning is the one proposed by
Kimble stating “learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality
occurs as a result of reinforced practice.” Kimble’s definition has highlighted three
aspects of learning. First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second,
this behavioral change is relatively permanent. Third, the change in behavior does
not occur immediately following the learning experience.
In education, behaviorists apply rewards and punishments system in their
classrooms effectively. They believe that rewards have significant roles in learning.
The teaching methods based on behaviorism emphasize the claim that behavior can
be shaped by reinforcement through drill and practice. They set clear objectives to
help students and teachers.
In a mathematics class, using the behaviorist theory, the teacher reviews
previous material and homework, and then demonstrates low-level problem solving
followed by seatwork imitating the teacher’s demonstration. This pedagogical
approach of placing the primary focus on the teacher as a transmitter of knowledge
(that is, teaching by telling) is representative of a behaviorist theory. The common
method of teaching mathematics using the behaviorists’ theory is teacher-centered
and giving lecture is the dominant practice

What Is Classical Conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the
school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs
through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus.
 Behaviorism is based on the assumption that:
▪ All learning occurs through interactions with the environment
▪ The environment shapes behavior
Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally
occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the
sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food.
By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (food), the sound
of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.
How Classical Conditioning Works
In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is
important to become familiar with the basic principles of the process. Classical
conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a
learned response.4 There are three basic phases of this process.

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring
stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of
food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus.
During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an
unconditioned response (UCR).
For example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a
salivation response (the UCR).
At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn't until
this neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.

Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical
conditioning:
▪ The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.4 For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods,
you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the
unconditioned stimulus.
▪ The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus.4 In our example, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.
In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this
pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is
formed.
At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus
(CS). The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The
conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated
with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also
heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if
the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound
would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the
whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The during conditioning phase involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned
stimulus.
Phase 3: After Conditioning
Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the
conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response even without the
unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response
(CR).
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.
In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard
the sound of the whistle.
In the after conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the
conditioned response.

Other Principles of Classical Conditioning

There are several additional principles in classical conditioning that further
detail how the process works. These principles include the following:
Extinction
As its name suggests, extinction happens when a conditioned stimulus is no
longer associated with an unconditioned stimulus leading to a decrease or complete
disappearance of the conditioned response.
For example, Pavlov’s dogs started to salivate in response to the sound of a
bell after the sound was paired with food over several trials. However, if the bell was
sounded several times without the food, over time the dog’s salivation would
decrease and eventually stop.
Spontaneous Recovery
Even after extinction has occurred, the conditioned response may not be gone
forever. Sometimes spontaneous recovery happens in which the response
reemerges after a period of extinction.
For example, suppose after extinguishing a dog’s conditioned response of
salivation to a bell, the bell isn’t sounded for a period of time. If the bell is then
sounded after that break, the dog will salivate again — a spontaneous recovery of the
conditioned response. If the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli aren’t paired
again, though, spontaneous recovery won’t last long and extinction will again occur.
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus generalization happens when, after a stimulus has been conditioned
to a specific response, other stimuli that may be associated with the conditioned
stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. The additional stimuli are not
conditioned but are similar to the conditioned stimulus, leading to generalization. So,
if a dog is conditioned to salivate to the tone of a bell, the dog will also salivate to
other bell tones. Although the conditioned response may not occur if the tone is too
dissimilar to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus generalization often doesn’t last. Over time, stimulus discrimination
begins to occur in which stimuli are differentiated and only the conditioned stimulus
and possibly stimuli that are very similar elicit the conditioned response. So, if a dog
 continues to hear different bell tones, over time the dog will start to distinguish
between the tones and will only salivate to the conditioned tone and ones that sound
almost like it.
Higher-Order Conditioning
In his experiments, Pavlov demonstrated that after he has conditioned a dog to
respond to a particular stimulus, he could pair the conditioned stimulus with a neutral
stimulus and extend the conditioned response to the new stimulus. This is called
second order-conditioning. For example, after a dog was conditioned to salivate to a
bell, the bell was presented with a black square. After several trials, the black square
could elicit salivation by itself. While Pavlov found he could also establish third-order-
conditioning in his research, he was unable to extend higher-order conditioning
beyond that point.

How can a teacher use this theory?

A teacher can use this theory by creating a positive environment in their
classroom. Many students have something or many things they are anxious about in
the classroom whether it be presenting in front of the class, reading out loud or doing
a math problem. The teacher should make the students feel relaxed and calm by
being cheerful, pleasant and accepting. When teachers often shout or call out
students for misbehaving, they will feel scared, embarrassed and will not want to be
in the room. This type of environment will condition the students to be on-edge,
nervous and anxious. Classical conditioning can go both ways, so it is crucial for
teachers to keep a welcoming, positive atmosphere to help all students learn.
Classroom Implications
If the teacher is consistent and repetitive with these stimuli, eventually the students
will come to learn to behave properly through classical conditioning
If the teacher… Then the
students…

Before Counts down from twenty Tells the class Will not clean
conditioning up.
to clean up
Will clean up.

During Tells the class to clean up and counts Will clean up.
conditioning down from twenty

After Counts down from twenty Will clean up.

conditioning

The students’ behavior has been

conditioned!
 If the teacher… Then the
students…

Before Instructs the class to quiet down Will get quiet.

conditioning
Claps 3 times
Will not get quiet.

During Claps 3 times and instructs the class to Will get quiet.
conditioning quiet down.

After Claps 3 times Will get quiet.

conditioning

The students’ behavior has been

conditioned!
If the teacher… Then the students…

Before Wants students to learn multiplication Will not know answers.

conditioning tables

Use calculator to find Will be able to find

answers answers.

During Wants class to repeat using Will be able to find

conditioning calculators to learn multiplication answers and slowly
tables learn answers.

After Wants students to learn Will no longer need

conditioning multiplication tables calculators and will
know the answer.

The students’ behavior has

been conditioned!
References:

∙ Cherry,
Kendra. “What is Classical Conditioning?” Verywell Mind, 28 September
2018. https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859
∙ Crain,
William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed.,
Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.
∙ Goldman, Jason G. “What is Classical Conditioning? (And Why Does it Matter?)”
Scientific American, 11 January 2012.
 https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-is-classical
conditioning-and-why-does-it-matter/
∙ McLeod, Saul. “Classical Conditioning.” Simply Psychology, 21 August 2018.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html
∙ Platt,John R. "Lions vs. Cattle: Taste Aversion Could Solve African Predator
Problem." Scientific American, 27 December 2011.
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/lions-vs-cattle taste-
aversion/
∙ https://www.slideshare.net/JamieRBourret/classical-conditioning-in-the
classroom-15195207?from_action=save
∙ https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859

∙ https://www.simplypsychology.org/simplypsychology.org-classical
conditioning.pdf