Book 6 Module 15

CATEGORY B1.1 B1.3

THE JET ENGINE 6
THRUST MODIFICATION
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Licence By Post

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results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 B1.3 EASA 66 15.7 15.15 15.20 ISSUE 02 1105
© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
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Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
ROLLS ROYCE plc

for permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

Page

Thrust augmentation 1
Water injection 1
Water – methanol injection 2
Air intake injection 3
Combustion chamber injection 4
Reheat 4
Variable nozzle 6
Reheat systems 6
Flame propagation 8
Thrust reversal 10
Clamshell doors 11
Bucket type doors 11
Cold stream reverser/hot stream spoiler1 12
Safety features 13
Typical operating system 14
Lockout 19
Maintenance safety 20
Turbo prop engines 20
Noise suppression 21
Source of noise 21
The jet efflux 22
Turbine noise 23
Compressor and fan noise 24
Fire detection and extinguishing 24
Fire extinguishing systems 24
Extinguishants 25
Fixed systems 27
Maintenance 30
Storage 32
Fire and overheat detection 33
Unit type detectors 33
Melting link type 33
Thermo-couple type 34
Differential expansion switch type 34
Light detectors 35
Continuous type detectors 35
Gas operated fire-wire 35
Electrical fire-wire detectors 37
Liquid type detectors 39
Flight deck operation 39
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The various subjects in this book are fairly straight forward, though some
sections might need a little more time than others. Some of the topics are not
common on commercial aircraft (thrust augmentation for example) but
because it does exist you will need to know something about it. Other systems
such as thrust reverse are fitted to most jet engined aircraft.

The CAA will expect you to know enough about the systems to be able to fault
rectify and to know their interrelationship with other services such as
instrumentation, power supplies, aircraft configuration for operation etc.

Written to level 2 of the B1.1 and B1.2 EASA Part 66 syllabus.

 THRUST AUGMENTATION

There are occasions when the maximum thrust developed by a gas turbine
engine is inadequate. This can happen during the take-off run when the mass
airflow through the engine has been reduced by either high ambient
temperature or at a high-altitude airport. When these two factors are
combined, eg ‘hot and high’ take-off, it is difficult to get a safe take-off speed
unless a reduction of auw (all-up-weight) is made.

The loss of thrust experienced by the reduction in mass airflow due to altitude
is the result of the fuel metering system reducing fuel flow accordingly. The
loss of thrust due to high ambient air temperature results in the fuel system
reducing fuel flow to keep the turbine temperatures within limits.

Methods used to increase the ‘normal’ maximum thrust of a jet engine include
those that increase the mass of the airflow and those that increase its
rearward acceleration.

WATER INJECTION

To enable the engine speed and hence thrust, to be increased for take-off,
water can be sprayed into the combustion chamber or compressor inlet or
both to keep the turbine gas temperature down to an acceptable level and
increase the mass airflow.

Cooling the air within the engine reduces the temperature and increases the
air density without increasing the compressor workload. The air temperature
drops and density rises as the water evaporates, with no increased energy
absorption by the turbine.

The water flow rate for the required turbine temperature reduction is set by
the engine manufacturer. Generally, water/air ratios are 1 – 5 : 100 by weight.
The quantity of water carried is usually sufficient for one ‘wet’ take-off only.

De-mineralised water is used to reduce contamination of the compressor/

turbine blades.

Water – Methanol Injection

Currently the addition of a water/methanol mixture has proved to be the best

means of restoring or increasing the power of an engine for take-off.

The water increases the density of the air and methanol acts as a fuel, which
is burnt in order to maintain the correct air/fuel ratio. This ratio will have
been changed due to the increased mass flow caused by the cooling effect of
the water. The addition of methanol also acts as an anti-freeze, which prevents
the freezing of the water at high altitude/cold weather.

-1-
 Fig. 1 COMBUSTION CHAMBER WATER
INJECTION SYSTEM

If water only is added then the fuel system is adjusted to allow more fuel to be
burnt to increase the thrust. Adjustment to the engine fuel system is not
normally necessary when a water/methanol mixture is used.

The addition of water has two effects on the performance of the engine: the
cooling effect of water increases the density of the airflow to increase the
thrust and, when the water is converted into steam, it provides a high
volumetric expansion, which increases the thrust even further.

-2-
 Fig. 2 PERFORMANCE CURVE FOR WATER INJECTION ENGINES

Air Intake Injection

Spraying the mixture into the air intake is more effective for engines with
centrifugal compressors than it is for axial compressors. With centrifugal
compressors, an even distribution of the mixture is obtained whereas, with an
axial flow compressor, even distribution is uncertain – though it may still be
used.

For axial flow compressors, better results are obtained when the
water/methanol is injected into the combustion chambers. There is then no
distribution problem and this permits the use of larger quantities of
water/methanol. Normally, with this method of injection, the mixture is
delivered to the upstream side of the swirl vanes.

When water/water methanol mixes with the air at the compressor intakes the
temperature of the air is reduced and, as a result, the air density, mass airflow
and thrust are increased. If water alone were to be injected, it would reduce
the turbine inlet temperature and permit an increased fuel flow to be used.

When methanol is added, the turbine inlet temperature is partially restored by

burning the methanol in the combustion chamber. This restores the engine
power without adjusting the fuel flow.

When the system is switched on, a water/methanol mixture is pumped from

an airframe mounted tank to a control unit which meters the flow fed to the
air intakes. The metering valve has a servo piston powered by engine oil.

-3-
The flow of the engine oil to the servo piston is controlled both by a shut-off
cock and the position of a servo valve, which in turn, is moved by the control
mechanism. This control mechanism balances propeller torque system oil
pressure (on prop-jet engines) against atmospheric air pressure on a capsule
assembly within the control valve.

The oil cock is interconnected with the throttle lever in such a manner that,
until the throttle is moved to the take-off position, the oil cock remains closed
and the water/methanol system is inoperative. Moving the throttle lever to the
take-off position opens the oil cock to motivate the water/methanol system.

Combustion Chamber Injection

The reduction in turbine inlet temperature due to water injection enables the
fuel system to provide for an increase in the maximum rpm providing
additional thrust without exceeding the safe turbine gas temperature limits.

When methanol is used with the water the turbine inlet temperature is
partially restored without extra fuel from the fuel system.

Water/methanol flows from an airframe mounted tank to an air turbine drive

fuel pump and is delivered to a water flow-sensing unit (figure 1). From the
water sensing unit the mixture is distributed to the burner feed arms where
two jets at the base of each arm spray the mixture into the upstream side of
the swirl vanes to cool the air entering the combustion zone. The water
pressure, between the sensing unit and the discharge jets, is sensed by the
fuel system control, which automatically resets the engine speed governor to
give a higher maximum rpm.

The water/methanol system is brought into operation when the throttle lever
is moved into the take-off position where it closes a micro-switch to provide an
air supply for the air turbine-powered water pump. The water flow-sensing
valve opens when a correct pressure difference exists between water pressure
and compressor delivery air pressure.

The valve in the water flow sensing unit also acts as a non-return valve to
prevent air pressure feeding back from the water discharge jets, and provides
for the operation of an indicator to show when water/methanol is flowing.

REHEAT

Reheat (afterburning) is a method of augmenting the basic thrust of an engine

to improve the take-off, climb and acceleration performance of the aircraft by
the introduction of additional fuel. The increased power could be obtained by
the use of a larger engine, but as this would increase the weight, frontal area
and specific fuel consumption. Reheat provides a reasonable solution to the
problem of providing increased thrust for short periods or time.

-4-
It is particularly effective at high speed.

Reheating consists of introducing and burning fuel between the turbine and
the jet pipe-propelling nozzle, utilising the unburned oxygen in the exhaust
gas to support combustion.

Fig. 3 REHEAT CURVES

The resultant increase in the temperature of the exhaust gas gives an

increased velocity to the jet leaving the propelling nozzle and therefore
increases the engine thrust.

This can be seen by referring to the thrust formula:

THRUST = MASS (V0 – V1)

Note that V0 – V1 is the acceleration given to the gas stream. The acceleration
can be increased by as much as 70% by after-burning - with the same
increase in thrust of course.

In modern engine design the manufacturer will endeavour to achieve the

maximum dry engine thrust (thrust without reheat) possible, but is limited by
the maximum temperature the combustion chamber and turbine assembly can
withstand.

Consider an engine running in a non-reheat condition, at full throttle

conditions (maximum dry), the nozzle will be choked. This means that no
increase in gas exit velocity can be achieved unless the gas temperature is
increased. Remember that temperature affects the Mach number of the gas
flow and when Mach 1 is reached the nozzle is said to be choked.

When reheat is selected it increases the temperature of the gas flow and also
alters the Mach number of the exhaust gas.

-5-
In addition to this the volume of gas will increase, and unless the nozzle is
allowed to open, the exhaust pressure and temperature will increase.

This increase will cause a back-pressure on the engine and reduce the mass
flow from the engine compressor. This would result in stall and surge. It is for
this reason that the reheat system is fitted with a fully variable jet-pipe nozzle.

Variable Nozzle

If it is assumed that an after-burning engine is operated initially without

reheat, then at full throttle conditions the nozzle will be choked. Figure 3
shows typical thrust/rpm and compressor characteristic curves for an engine.
When reheat is applied, the augmented thrust will occur at 100% rpm,
therefore, on the compressor characteristics, the augmented thrust should
also lie on the 100% rpm line. Position ‘X’ represents the operating point for
100% rpm operation without reheat.

When reheat is applied without increasing the nozzle area, the flow resistance
which the compressor feels will increase, and the mass flow rate will decrease
along the constant rpm line to point ‘Y’, which is in the surge region. This is
unacceptable and, for optimum conditions, the added flow resistance caused
by the specific volume increase in the after-burner must be exactly balanced
by a decrease in flow resistance. This is brought about by opening the nozzle.

Under these conditions the operating point for reheat operation will coincide
with point ‘X’. In practice, the nozzle is operated to maintain a constant, preset
pressure ratio across the turbine. As nozzle exit temperature rises during
reheat, so also must the nozzle exit area increase to maintain a nozzle
pressure such that the turbine pressure ratio is constant.

Reheat Systems

There are different types of reheat systems in use, and, they are normally only
fitted to military aircraft. However the EASA syllabus calls for its inclusion and
at least one civil airliner had it fitted - Concorde. Sadly no longer flying.

Figure 4 shows a block diagram of an engine control system.

The control of the engine is through duplicated electronic engine fuel control
units (ECUs) providing automatic change-over in the event of a failure being
detected in one control channel. The pilot’s lever controls the engine throttle
via the ECU so that N2 (HP spool) is adjusted by varying the fuel flow.

The relationship between N1 (LP spool) and N2 is controlled by the variable

primary nozzle, which adjusts the pressure drop across the LP turbine. This
relationship is determined by a logic network in the control unit known as the
‘E Schedule’.

-6-
 Fig. 4 TYPICAL ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

A pilot operated engine Rating Selector Switch is provided which, with the
engine throttles in the fully forward position, programs the correct datum TET
(turbine entry temperature) for the flight condition.

The engine conditions are automatically adjusted to suit the required engine
rating so that under normal take-off, climb and cruise conditions there is no
need for the pilot to adjust his/her throttle levers to prevent any engine TET
limitations from being exceeded. The engine rating selector switch also selects
the appropriate reheat conditions for the engine rating in use.

By referring to figure 4 it can be seen that control of the reheat fuel flow is by a
separate electrical control system and a fuel control unit. The fuel is supplied
from the first stage engine driven pump. The amount of reheat boost is
automatically controlled by scheduling a ratio of engine/reheat fuel flow to suit
the engine and aircraft operating conditions.

Reheat fuel flow will not occur until two independent switches have been
activated. Initiation is by a pilot operated Arming Switch while a second switch
fully energises the system when the engine reaches approximately 81% rpm.

With the reheat system in operation the engine primary nozzle is still
controlled by the engine control system. On reheat ignition, to keep the jet pipe
pressure constant, the primary nozzle is opened to ensure the correct
relationship between N1 and N2 so that engine operating conditions are not
affected.

There are two separate systems used to detect reheat ignition. An ionisation
probe extends into the reheat flame area and detects the presence of ions in
the reheat flame.

-7-
The second method employs tappings, which measure the increased pressure
drop through the jet pipe resulting from the increased velocity of the reheated
exhaust gas. On receipt of either of these signals the control unit increases the
fuel flow until the required value is reached.

When reheat is cancelled the system is automatically purged of any residual

fuel.

Flame Propagation

For efficient operation the fuel must ignite under all conditions once selected,
the jet pipe nozzle area must increase and the flame should not heat the jet
pipe to excessive temperatures.

To ensure some cooling of the jet-pipe the flame is designed to be towards the
centre-line leaving a layer of cooler air that has come straight from the engine
next to the jet-pipe wall. This layer is hot, of course, but no-where near as hot
as the reheat flame. (Exhaust gas temperatures vary but are in the region of
up to about 800°C. Reheat flame temperatures are about 1700°C.)

Fig. 5 SIMPLIFIED REHEAT SYSTEM

Once fuel has been selected to go to the re-heat burners it is most important
that combustion takes place immediately. For there to be a build-up of
unburned fuel, even for a short period, could be catastrophic. If it were to
combust altogether it would be explosive in nature.

-8-
Combustion requires:

* Oxygen.
* The correct gas velocity.
* A high temperature or a spark igniter.

There is usually sufficient ‘un-burnt’ oxygen in the exhaust gas to support

further combustion.

The normal exhaust stream velocity can be from 750 to 1200ft/sec (229m/s to
366m/s). This is too high to allow a stable flame to be maintained, so an area
of reduced velocity (and increased pressure) is designed to be in the after-
burner region.

Because the speed of burning kerosene fuel at normal air/fuel ratios is only a
few feet per second the area immediately after the burners is also designed to
produce eddies. This further reduces the gas speed and provides for flame
stabilisation.

The atomised fuel is sprayed under pressure into the jet pipe through a
number of burners to give an even spray of fuel mixture. This mixture now has
to burn – at all altitudes and under varying conditions.

Combustion can be initiated by:

* A catalytic igniter.
* A spark igniter.
* The flame/very hot gas from the engine combustion chamber.
Sometimes called the Hot Shot system.

The catalytic igniter consists of a platinum based element that produces a

flame by a chemical reaction when in the presence of an air/fuel mixture.

A spark igniter is similar to the igniter plug fitted to the engine combustion
system. They are fitted close to each burner and produce a series of sparks
with the current coming from a high energy capacitive type unit.

The Hot Shot system relies on the flame and/or the hot gasses coming from
the combustion chamber to spontaneously ignite the fuel/air spray. This
means that the injectors are placed very close to the exit side of the turbine.

Figure 5 shows a simplified system using a catalytic igniter. Note the thrust
selector, the cam box which actuates the after-burner fuel control unit. The
variable propelling nozzle is controlled automatically by sensing P3 and P6
pressures to ensure they maintain their correct ratios.

The pump, controlled by the Pressure Ratio Control Unit, supplies hydraulic
oil under pressure to jacks/actuators that move interlocking nozzle flaps at
the end of the jet pipe.

-9-
Notes. 1. On some systems the jacks may be pneumatically actuated.
2. On modern aircraft all the mechanical linkage (from the
pilot’s thrust control lever to the after-burner control unit
and from the pressure ratio control unit to the pump) will be
replaced by electrical cables using either analogue or digital
electrical control signals. Also the after-burner control unit
and the pump will be electronically controlled either by an
electronic control unit of by a FADEC unit.

THRUST REVERSAL

With increased aircraft weights and subsequent increase in wing loadings, this
has led to increased landing speeds and problems in stopping safely on
existing runways. To help slow the aircraft on landing reverse thrust has been
developed so that the rearward movement of the gas stream flow is re-directed
forward.

Reverse thrust may be achieved by:

* Putting the VP propeller into reverse pitch (piston and turbo-prop

engines).
* Moving blocker doors into the jet efflux of a pure jet engine and re-
directing the hot stream forward.
* By moving blocker doors into the cold stream flow of the high
bypass jet engine and re-directing the air forwards. On some high
bypass engines this may be accompanied by the same action with
the hot stream flow, on others the hot stream flow is not altered.

Fig. 6 CLAMSHELL DOOR SYSTEM

- 10 -
After landing, the aircraft logic circuitry will allow the pilot to select reverse
thrust. As soon as any of the actions above are complete the engines are
accelerated and the forward moving air produces a braking effect. This can
reduce the landing run by about 25%. The wheel brakes are still the most
effective braking system the aircraft has (converting the aircraft’s kinetic
energy into heat energy).

Thrust reverse systems in general satisfy the following requirements:

* At least 50% of maximum thrust should be available in reverse.

* The reverser should not affect the normal working of the main core
engine or induce any loss of thrust.
* When in use, the reverser should not cause debris or excessive
amounts of hot air to enter the intake (or excessive debris to
impact the structure).
* The discharged hot gases should not impinge on parts of the
aircraft (tyres, landing flaps, cabin windows etc). Impingement of
the turbulent gas stream may cause damage by vibration as well
as by heating.
* Fire hazards must be avoided. Hydraulic and lubricating systems
should not be fitted near the jet pipe.
* The reverser must not be operated until required to do so. It is
necessary to ensure that:
- Accidental selection of reverse thrust is impossible.
- No single failure in the operating system selects
reverse thrust.
- The thrust changing elements are biased away from
the reverse thrust position (fail safe).

Clamshell Doors (Figure 6)

On selection of reverse thrust air pressure is supplied to jacks causing the two
doors to rotate about the pivot (located on the wall of the jet pipe). The doors
block the normal gas flow exit and uncovering ducts on the side which direct
the air in a forward direction (about 45° to the engine centre-line) through
cascade vanes. The doors are loaded by the gas stream in such a way as to
provide effective sealing at the door edges so preventing gas leakage. The
mechanical linkages are capable of operating without lubrication in the hot
gases up to 900°C.

The actual design of the doors varies between engines.

Hot Stream Blocker or Bucket Type (Figure 7)

This type of reverser is relatively cheap and does not produce much reverse
thrust but does ‘spoil’ what thrust there is. There are also difficulties in fitting
noise suppressers to the jet-pipe.

- 11 –
 Fig. 7 HOT STREAM BLOCKER OR BUCKET SYSTEM

Cold Stream Reverser and/or Hot Stream Spoiler (Figure 8)

As the majority of the thrust from a high by-pass ratio turbofan is from the fan
(70 to 80%), the above reversal systems would be of little use without also
reversing the thrust of the cold, ducted air. Ideally, both flows on a ducted fan
engine should be redirected forward to provide maximum reverse thrust.
However, on some engines (early versions of RB211 for example) the fan
stream is reversed while the hot stream is nullified or spoiled. On some
engines (later versions of the RB211) the hot stream is not reversed or nullified
(see figure 9) and just the cold stream flow is reversed.

Rearward movement of the translating cowl, which surrounds the thrust

reverser unit, raises blocker doors within the fan duct and closes off all
rearward air movement (figure 10).

Fig. 8 COLD STREAM REVERSER/HOT STREAM SPOILER

- 12 -
At the same time, cascade vanes in the wall of the reverser case are exposed.
Fan air is now deflected off the blocker doors and through the cascade vanes
at a suitable forward angle to prevent re-ingestion.

The two hot stream spoiler doors are stowed, one at either side of the exhaust
unit, during normal forward thrust conditions. These doors move rearwards
and swing across the hot stream flow to deflect the path at right angles to the
engine centre-line.

Safety Features

On landing the pilot operates a lever on the thrust levers and pulls the thrust
levers through a gate. This causes the reverse thrust system to operate the
blocker doors, translating cowl, spoilers etc and the engines will accelerate.

The increased rpm will produce a higher reverse thrust.

Fig. 9 COLD STREAM REVERSER – RB211-524D

The operation of the system can be dangerous if operated at any time other
than on landing or rejected take-off, so the following safety features are
incorporated:

* Reverse thrust cannot be selected until the engine thrust lever is

brought back to idle and the engine is at a low rpm.
* The engine cannot be accelerated if the doors have not moved to
their correct positions (micro-switch controlled).

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 * Mechanical locks prevent doors moving from the forward thrust
position until reverse thrust is selected.
* Reverse thrust cannot be selected unless the aircraft is on the
ground (weight switches made).
* If the operating system fails the reverser will stay in the forward
flight configuration.
* On multi engined aircraft provision is made that reverse thrust on
engines is symmetrical.
* Reverser status must be indicated to the flight crew – often by
indicator lights.

All the above can be controlled by micro-switches (or proximity switches)

operating through a simple logic network. With most modern aircraft it will be
via an electronic engine control computer or FADEC.

Fig. 10 REVERSE THRUST MECHANISM – PW4000

Typical Operating System

A typical operating system is shown in figures 10 and 11. Figure 11 shows the
locking system for both reverse and forward thrust positions. On this reverser,
the translating cowl is moved by 6 screwjacks positioned equidistant around
the reverser casing.

- 14 -
Each screwjack is driven by a gearbox. Two flexible drives connect an air
motor to the gearboxes of the two upper screwjacks and further flexible drives
interconnect the remaining 4 screwjacks.

A hand turning mechanism is incorporated into one of the screwjacks for

maintenance purposes, such as winding the cowl to reverse position and/or
back to forward thrust position for fault diagnosis.

The cowl has two independent locking systems located either side of the
engine. Two pneumatic lock rams are fitted between the air motor and a
selector valve (sometimes called the double selector valve). Operation of the
lock rams mechanically releases the cowl locks and allows movement of the
cowl. At the same time two indicator rods extend from the adjacent cowlings
and give a visual indication of the status of the cowl – either ‘locked’ or
‘unlocked’.

Fig. 11 A REVERSE THRUST SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

The locks are latched in the unlocked position until the cowl returns to the
forward thrust position. Once the forward thrust position is reached the
latches are released and internal springs allow the rams to re-engage the lock
mechanisms.

- 15 -
A sequence valve is incorporated in the right-hand (primary) lock ram. This
provides an override signal for the pressure regulating and shut-off valve. The
operation of the left-hand (secondary) lock is identical to that of the right-hand
lock but it is not fitted with a sequence valve.

Depending on the requirements of the particular operator a proximity sensor

may be fitted to the left-hand lock to give a flight deck indication of an ‘unlock’
or ‘unstow’ warning.

A Pressure Regulating and Shut-off Valve (PRSOV), positioned in the inter-

services fairing, controls the air supply from the engine compressor to the air
motor.

A pressure switch senses the availability of pressure air to the air motor and
illuminates the ‘reverser pressure’ light on the flight deck.

Fig. 12 THRUST REVERSE – REVERSE SELECTION

Selection of the system is via the selector valve. It is selected both electrically
and mechanically (hence the name ‘double selector valve’). The electrical
selection is made via a switch on the throttle control quadrant activated by the
separate reverse thrust lever. A rod connected to the throttle pulley system
makes the mechanical selection by moving the primary spool.

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The sequence of operations is as follows:

* Thrust lever moved to ‘idle’.

* Reverse thrust lever moved to the reverse position. This is a ‘piggy-

back’ type lever and is usually moved rearwards (instinctive
movement). The first part of the movement will configure the
system, the second part will accelerate the engine. The actual
selection can only be made with the main throttle at ‘idle’ due to
the mechanical interlock between them.

The movement of the throttle and reverse thrust levers has the following effects
provided that the ground/air sensor (weight switch/weight-on-wheels switch)
has identified that the aircraft is on the ground:

* Activates the switch in the throttle quadrant which:

(a) Energises the PRSOV to allow pressure air to the air motor.
(b) Energises the solenoid in the selector valve. This allows
pressure air to move the secondary spool to the right.

* Positions the primary spool to the right which allows air to pass
through the secondary spool setting the lock sequence valve to:

(a) Unlock the cowl right lock.

(b) Move the secondary lock valve to unlock the cowl left lock.
(c) Provide the PRSOV with a positive override by connecting it
to the pressure air supply. This will hold the valve open
until the primary lock and sequence valve is retracted.

Air passing through the secondary lock valve will set the Direction Control
Valve (DCV) on the air motor so it can run in the correct direction and move
the cowl to the reverse thrust position. The air motor brake is released and the
motor runs to open the cowl.

Initial movement of the cowl will give indications on the flight deck dependant
on the requirements of the operator.

Once the cowl has reached the mid-travel position the mixing mechanism
allows the stop to be removed from the throttle input to the Fuel Control Unit
(FCU) allowing acceleration of the engine in reverse thrust mode.

On reaching full extension a sensor detects the cowl position and give
indications on the flight deck.

Below are listed 2 examples of customer options for the B747 using the RB211
engine. There is no need to commit the details to memory, but you should
understand them and know that different combinations of flight deck
indications are available.

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 Cathay Pacific Airways

COWL INDICATION LAMP STATE

Initial movement to reverse REV UNLOCK ILLUMINATED

REV UNSTOWED ILLUMINATED
Fully extended FULL REV ILLUMINATED
Forward thrust selected FULL REV EXTINGUISHED
Stowed REV UNLOCK EXTINGUISHED
REV UNSTOWED EXTINGUISHED

Quantas Airways

Initial movement to reverse REV UNLOCK ILLUMINATED

REV OPERATING ILLUMINATED
Fully extended FULL REV ILLUMINATED
REV OPERATING EXTINGUISHED
Forward thrust selected FULL REV EXTINGUISHED
REV OPERATING ILLUMINATED
Fully stowed REV UNLOCK EXTINGUISHED
REV OPERATING EXTINGUISHED

Forward thrust is selected by moving the reverse thrust lever forward and
downward. Movement of the main thrust lever is restricted by the baulk
mechanism in the mixing system until the cowl has moved through about 25%
of its total travel, when power can be increased progressively as the baulk is
removed.

Selection of forward thrust cancels the electrical signals. However, the supply
to the selector valve is maintained through a cowl stow relay in the indicating
system.

Fig. 13 LOCK BAR – RB211

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The primary spool valve is moved to the left by the mixing mechanism which
redirects pressure air through the secondary spool valve and into the retract
line to the DCV in the air motor. The DVC switches the supply air to run the
motor to move the cowl to the forward thrust position.

The electrical signal from the stow relay re-energises the PRSOV and releases
the air motor brake.

The cowl moves to the forward thrust position and the stow sensors remove
the electrical supplies and the motor brake is applied. The appropriate
indications are displayed informing the crew that the reverser is locked in the
stowed position.

Lock-Out

In the event of a reverser failure it is possible to lock the reverser in a safe

condition and allow normal operation of the engine in forward thrust. The
aircraft can be operated with the reverser locked out only if the fault is within
certain categories. Reference to the MEL (Minimum Equipment List) will
identify the conditions that have to be met before a ‘lock-out’ is permitted and
whether it is an ADD (Acceptable Deferred Defect).

Fig. 14 DE-ACTIVATION KEY – RB211

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With reference to figures 13 to 15 a typical lock out procedure is as follows:

1. With the primary lock ram fully retracted install the lock bar.
2. Deactivate the PRSOV by fitting the locking key with 2 screws.
3. Install locking segments to gearboxes 2 and 3 with the captive
bolts.
4. Place a suitable warning placard on the flight deck to advise the
flight crew that a specific reverser has been locked out and record
the details in the Tech Log.
5. Record all the work done and sign the appropriate documentation.

Fig. 15 LOCKING SEGMENTS – RB211

Safety

When working on or near the engine reverse thrust mechanism the system
must be mechanically locked in the safe mode (refer to the AMM). This will
prevent any possible inadvertent movement. When the system is selected it
moves to full range normally within about 2 seconds – anyone near the engine
when this happens could suffer fatal injuries.

TURBO PROP ENGINES

Reverse thrust is achieved by the pitch angle of each blade of the propeller
being reversed. This is usually done via the hydro-mechanical pitch change
mechanism that is used for normal pitch changes (changing from fine to
course etc depending on flight phase and engine throttle settings).

- 20 -
When reverse pitch is selected on the ground – normally using levers on the
thrust levers and with similar safeguards to those stated above to prevent
selection in the air - the engine is throttled back. The blades are moved to fine
than to zero angle and then to a negative angle. At this position the engine rpm
is increased and a high reverse thrust obtained.

With some turbo prop aircraft, besides using this setting to help the brakes
during landing or an aborted take-off, it can be used to taxi the aircraft
backwards. Of course, this system only works with VP (variable pitch) blades,
but then it is almost certain that there are no turbo prop engines fitted with
fixed pitch propellers.

NOISE SUPPRESSION

In recent years, with the development of the high thrust fan engines, apart
from the quest for yet more thrust and fuel savings, one of the biggest
problems has been the ability to meet the stringent noise limitations set by
most airport operators and governing bodies.

The noise levels of engines goes down from pure turbo jets with high noise
levels to high bypass ratio jet engines which have relatively low noise levels but
without some form of noise suppression may still exceed legal noise levels.

An indication of relative noise levels as measured in PNdB (perceived noise

decibels) is (approximately):

Busy restaurant - 80
Pure jet (without noise suppression) - 120
Pure jet (with noise suppression) - 110
High by-pass fan engine - 100

Bearing in mind that the scale is not linear, modern aircraft jets engines are
significantly quieter than their predecessors, and the trend is to make them
even quieter still. The busy restaurant is included for comparison purposes.

Source of Noise

Noise is un-wanted sound and is made up of high frequency pressure waves in

the air. This can be represented on a graph in the form of a wavy line not too
unlike a sine wave. The higher the frequency of the wave the higher the pitch
of the sound, and the greater the depth of the wave the louder the sound.
Noise from jet/turbo prop aircraft originates from the following sources:

* The airstream. Very low noise level and not too much of a problem.
* The propeller. Can be a problem but is not as significant as noise
from the engine. Some piston engines have silencers fitted to the
exhaust not too unlike those fitted to automobiles.

- 21 -
 * The jet engine combustion process. Does not make a significant
contribution to overall noise levels.
* The jet engine exhaust efflux.
* The jet engine turbine section.
* The jet engine compressor/fan section.

The Jet Efflux

The jet exhaust noise is caused by the mixing of high speed exhaust gases
with the stationary surrounding air and the vortices produced at that
interface. The high-speed gases produce a shear force with the surrounding air
due to its viscosity.

The faster the exit velocity the greater the noise produced so if the velocity can
be reduced then noise levels would go down. Not an easy thing to do with pure
jet engines as the velocity of the jet efflux is directly related to thrust, so the
next best thing is to mix the jet efflux as much as possible with the
surrounding air using various methods (giving a high mixing rate) (figures 16
and 17).

In the corrugated nozzle, atmospheric air flows through the corrugations into
the exhaust stream and thus increases the mixing rate. With the lobe type
nozzle the exhaust flow is directed through the lobes and the central nozzle
readily mixing with air passing between and outside the lobes.

In order to maintain the correct nozzle area the nozzle has to be enlarged with
resultant weight and drag penalties.

Another way of reducing the noise is to make the efflux air slower (see above)
and smaller. This is done in the high by-pass ratio engines by using the energy
in the engine air to drive the fan thus taking out much of the energy in the jet
efflux air stream. It is then slower and smaller.

Fig. 16 CORRUGATED TYPE NOZZLE

- 22 -
 Fig. 17 LOBE TYPE NOZZLE

By taking out more energy from the jet efflux and using this to drive the fan
then effectively the noise level of the jet efflux is going down and that of the fan
is going up – but fan outlet airspeeds are less. If the noise levels of the jet
efflux, fan and turbine can be made nearly the same then this would be the
ideal situation.

To reduce the noise level still further the jet efflux area can have its shape
changed and its area reduced. This is achieved by pneumatically powered
jacks operating flaps that, when closed, reduce the outlet area and chance its
outlet shape to more like a rectangle. This can be selected at power settings up
to 65% so not to be used for take-off, which is when the aircraft is most noisy
and when it is close to populations – where noise matters.

Turbine Noise

Compressor and turbine noise comes from the interaction and reaction of
wakes between rotors and stators and can be defined into two types of noise,
Discrete noise and Background noise.

Discrete noise comes from the regular passage of the rotors passing through
the wakes of the previous stators producing a series of tones and harmonics
for each stage. The lower the speed of the rotors the lower the intensity of the
noise, so that fan noise is considerably less than turbine/compressor noise.

This noise can be reduced by careful design of the rotors and stators, and
increasing the rotor/stator gap. If guide vanes are not fitted at all (as with
some single stage fans) than noise levels are reduced significantly (both
discrete and background).

Background or White noise comes from the reaction of each blade to the gas
passing over its surface and any turbulence caused. Any turbulence created
increases the background noise.

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Compressor and Fan Noise

The blades produce noise in a similar way to the turbine blades in addition to
the disturbance at the blade tips, where there may be a mixing of supersonic
and subsonic air, increases the noise level. This produces the familiar
‘chainsaw’ sound as the larger fan powered aircraft pass overhead.

With low bypass engines the exhaust noise level drops as the velocity of the
exhaust gas is reduced, the turbine level also drops as turbine gas is reduced
but the LP compressor noise rises over a wider range of thrust. This trend
continues until the compressor noise is similar to that produced by the
exhaust of a pure jet.

Revised design of engines can appreciably reduce noise generation; new

materials for rotating and static blades and increased gaps between them
reduce the noise levels considerably.

Further reduction of noise from the engine can be achieved by the use of
acoustic linings and panels to absorb the sound.

In a high bypass ratio engine the fan noise may be suppressed by an

absorbent liner on the inside wall of the bypass duct. This liner can be a
honeycomb of aluminium sandwiched between a stainless steel sheet of
porous material which acts as an absorber of sound waves. A further liner may
be used around the core engine high temperature region, which is a similar
honeycomb sandwich with a stainless steel inner and a sintered metal outer
sheet.

The disadvantage of all these sound reduction techniques is additional weight

with increased fuel consumption, which is partially due to increased air
friction on the duct walls.

The Regulations

Aircraft noise requirements are laid down in EASA CS36 – Aircraft Noise.

FIRE DETECTION & EXTINGUISHING

Types of Fire Extinguishing Systems

Fire extinguishing systems can be classed as Fixed, Portable and Mixed

systems. The term ‘fixed’ refers to a permanently installed system of
extinguishant containers, distribution pipes and controls provided for the
protection of powerplants, APUs, landing gear wheel bays and cargo
compartments. A self-contained system is fitted to paper towel waste bins in
toilets.

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A portable system refers to hand held fire extinguishers provided in flight-crew
and passenger compartments. (Refer to the book in this series entitled Safety -
module 7 - for details on hand held extinguishers).

A mixed system is used in some aircraft baggage and service compartments.

The distribution pipelines are fixed in the appropriate compartment and
connect to adapter points within the crew area to which a portable
extinguisher is plugged in when required via a flexible hose and self-sealing
coupling. Not very common.

Extinguishants on Fixed Systems

Methyl Bromide (MB). Boils at about 5°C and is used for the protection of
powerplants. It is toxic and must not be used in confined spaces such as
cabins. The effects of breathing the vapours may not be immediately apparent,
but serious or even fatal after-effects may be sustained. Maroon coloured
bottles. Not common.

Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF). This is semi-toxic and is particularly

effective against electrical and liquid fires. It is used in powerplant and APU
fire zones and portable extinguishers. It is gaseous at normal temperatures
and condenses to a liquid at -4°C.

It has little or no corrosive effect, although halogen acids will form if its
products, which have been decomposed by fire, come into contact with water.
In contact with fire BCF volatilises instantly, giving rapid flame extinction.
Green coloured bottles.

Bromotrifluoromethane (BTM). Similar to BCF. Semi-toxic and is used in

powerplant, APU and cargo compartment fire zones.

BCF and BTM are very effective extinguishants, however, they are halogenated
hydrocarbons and their discharge into the atmosphere seriously affects the
ozone layer. Being banned in some applications and research is being carried
out to find an effective replacement.

General

Fire zones are designated in an aircraft where there is a potential fire risk.
Each fire zone will have a fire and/or smoke detector system and a fire
extinguisher system. Certain fire zones will have fireproof bulkheads (engines)
and fireproof linings (cargo bays).

Cargo bays are categorised according to their access in flight for fire fighting
purposes.

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 Fig. 18 FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS - OVERVIEW

Fig. 19 FIRE/OVERHEAT/SMOKE DETECTION - OVERVIEW

The following are usually designated fire zones and/or fire potential hazards:

* Engines and APUs.

* Fuel tanks.
* Cargo bays.
* Wheel bays.
* Toilets (paper towel disposal bins).
* Electronic/electrical bays.

- 26 -
Fixed Systems

Regulations laid down by the CAA state that aircraft in the transport category
must have provision to tackle an engine fire at least twice. In some cases two
bottles per fire zone are provided whilst in others a ‘two-shot’ system is used
with one bottle per zone.

With reference to the ‘two-shot’ system shown (figure 20). The fire switches are
supplied with 28Vdc from the essential or hot bus bar. When the extinguisher
switch is operated current will flow to the appropriate fire bottle head
detonator unit and to the warning lamp/indicator fuse. The head will operate
allowing the extinguishant to go to the fire zone via the directional flow valve.

Should the fire persist or re-start then the bottle from the other fire zone can
be discharged by moving the switch to the ‘shot 2’ position. This will cause the
appropriate head on the other bottle to operate allowing the extinguishant to
flow via the directional flow valve to the fire.

Fig. 20 A TWO-SHOT SYSTEM (ONE BOTTLE PER FIRE ZONE)

- 27 -
The directional flow valve is similar to two non-return valves in that it will only
allow extinguishant from the selected bottle to the fire zone. It will not allow
extinguishant back down the pipe towards the other bottle. It has an arrow
stamped on the body to indicate direction of flow to the engine.

In an emergency most aircraft have systems that will operate all the fire bottles
automatically (except those in the toilets).

Note the inertia switch which operates if the aircraft is put through more than
say 3g (crash landing). It sets off all fire bottles connected to the circuit. On
some aircraft a rubber-covered crash strip may be fitted beneath the aircraft. If
the fuselage touches the ground the two elements of the strip come into
contact to complete a circuit – operating ‘all’ the extinguishers.

On some aircraft, when the system is operated, the pressure in the pipelines
pushes out a small plastic discharge indicator disc on the outside of the
fuselage/engine nacelle. This allows outside verification that the system has
been operated.

Should the bottle over-pressurise, due to high ambient temperature conditions

(parked outside in tropical regions), then a disc will burst in the extinguisher
head or one attached to the bottle (to prevent the bottle exploding) and the
extinguishant will be piped overboard via a discharge indicator disc. In this
case all the extinguishant will be lost.

Fig. 21 TWIN-HEADED EXTINGUISHER AS FITTED TO THE B777

- 28 -
Note: All fire systems are connected to the essential or hot dc bus bar.

Figure 21 shows details of a fire-bottle as fitted to the B777. Filled with halon
and pressurised with nitrogen. It is fitted with two discharge heads, one for the
left engine the other for the right engine. The two engine fire bottles are located
in the fuselage centre section.

It is fitted with a pressure switch that gives a low pressure warning to the
flight deck and is operated (discharged) by a dc supply to the squib or
detonator. Power is 28Vdc from the battery bus and when the squib detonates
it ruptures the diaphragm and the extinguishant is discharged under pressure
via pipes to the appropriate engine.

Fig. 22 DISCHARGE HEAD & INDICATOR DISC DETAIL

Figure 22 shows the discharge head and indicator disc arrangement of a

Gravenor system. It shows the head after it has been fired and shows the fired
indicator pin. A small amount of extinguishant will go down the discharge pipe
and push out the rubber seal and at the same time push out the coloured
disc. This is situated on the outside of the engine/fuselage and is inspected
before each flight. If the disc is missing then the unit must be checked to see if
the rubber bung is in place (the disc sometimes gets displaced by the airflow).
If the bung is missing the bottle must be suspected as being discharged.

- 29 -
 Fig. 23 SINGLE HEAD EXTINGUISHERS

Figure 23 shows how one manufacturer has located the engine fire bottles.
Instead of placing them inside the fuselage or within the engine cowling they
are fitted within the pylon. Note that two are fitted to each engine leading to a
spray ring around the engine. Note the fire handles which are normally
situated in the flight deck above the pilot’s and co-pilot’s heads.

The short length of pipe from each extinguisher to the pipe junction allows the
non use of a one-way valve in each supply pipe as the amount of extinguishant
wasted going to the other extinguisher when one is operated is negligible.

MAINTENANCE

All maintenance is carried out at times specified in the maintenance schedule

and in accordance with the AMM. Below are listed some of the general points
that should be considered.

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Extinguishers

Check that the bottle is of the correct type as laid down in the AMM, that all
markings on the container are legible and that the bottle is securely attached.
Check the bottle is within life (bottle date stamped). The bottle should be
checked for signs of leakage, corrosion, dents, scores and damage.

The state of charge should be checked by reference to the flight deck indicator
(if fitted) and/or the gauge on the bottle (if fitted) and by carrying out a weight
check.

The fully charged weight of the bottle is stamped on the bottleneck or on the
bottle itself (also in the AMM). On some aircraft this weight includes the
blanking caps but excludes the squib units, on other aircraft (Boeing for
example) the weight includes the squib units (check the manual). Typical
weight tolerances are Boeing 4% and BAe 0.1 lbs.

Check the pin type discharge indicator that the pin is flush with the cap.
Check the threads for security, damage and locking. On assembly where
specified use the approved grease, eg barium chromate grease.

Check detonator heads/squib units for corrosion, damage and security of

attachment. Check electrical cables for security of attachment and correct
fitting. Check date of manufacture stamped on the unit and check the life of
the unit as laid down in the AMM.

Check squibs/detonators for continuity and insulation. Remember to use

safety test meters for this purpose with the detonator off the aircraft, removed
from the bottle and facing away from any personnel.

NOTE

Early squibs/detonators were wired to the aircraft using a terminal block on

the squib/detonator head and compression fittings. Double check this wiring –
particularly on the ‘two-shot one bottle per fire zone’ system that detonators
are correctly wired.

The wires should have identification codes, which must be correlated to the
aircraft wiring diagram. If they have no codes or they have been obliterated
than an (electrical) system function check must be carried out – with the
squib/detonator wires disconnected. The sole reason for this check is to make
sure that the correct pair of wires are fitted to the correct squib/detonator – so
that when the pilot selects ‘shot one’ he/she gets ‘shot one’ and not ‘shot two’ –
which would mean the extinguishant going to the wrong fire zone.

On most modern fire systems the detonators are connected by a plug and
socket and the pins are so arranged that incorrect connection cannot be made
between the male plug and the female socket (normally on the squib).

- 31 -
Cables

These are inspected in the same way than any other cables on the aircraft
would be. They are checked for chafing, moisture ingress, fraying and
condition of insulation. Check for correct support and clearance. If necessary
carry out continuity and insulation tests.

Pipelines

Before installation the pipes should be blown through with clean dry air or
nitrogen. After installation the pipe system should be pressure tested in
accordance with the AMM. Check pipes, spray rings, threads and unions for
damage, corrosion and security of attachment.

Valves

Should be checked for corrosion, damage, security of attachment, cleanliness,

freedom of moving parts and correct location with respect to extinguishant
flow. When fitting new valves always fit new seals.

Discharge Indicator Disc

Check for corrosion, damage and security of attachment. Check that the
plastic disc is in position and the sealing plug is in the pipe.

General

Check that all locking is correct and secure. Modern systems will be fitted with
BIT (built in test) equipment. Test this and also check any on-board fault
computers for any indicated faults.

STORAGE

Extinguishers should be stored in a room, on shelves, in their original

packaging with blanking caps fitted. They should be out of direct sunlight, in a
corrosive free atmosphere at normal room temperature. They should be
inspected annually (see above) and at the end of their life (normally 5 years)
they must be returned to the manufacturers.

Squibs/Detonators should be stored as for extinguishers above and issued on

a ‘first in – first out’ basis.

Keep all records/release certificates and cross refer these to the actual
aircraft/ extinguisher fitted.

- 32 -
 FIRE & OVERHEAT DETECTION

The fitting of fire and overheat detectors is laid down in JAR25 (EASA CS 25)
(for large aircraft). They must be fitted in Designated Fire Zones of all power-
plants, any fuel burning heaters (may be a one-shot system for heaters)
(heaters are rare on large aircraft) and cargo compartments.

The system should be able to:

* Show when a fire/overheat condition starts and when it stops.

* Not give spurious warnings when it fails.
* Be capable of being checked by the flight crew from the flight deck.
* Provide both audible and visual warnings, with cancellation of the
audible warning with automatic reset.

There are several fire and overheat detection systems and the following gives a
brief description of most of them. The detectors can be divided into two main
groups – unit type and continuous type.

Fig. 24 TYPES OF DETECTORS

UNIT TYPE DETECTORS

These are used in fire zones singly or more than one to give better coverage. In
some cases they are used in conjunction with a continuous detector.

Melting Link Switch

Consists of a pair of contacts held apart by a mechanism controlled by a

fusible plug. At a known temperature the plug will melt allowing the contacts
to come together under the influence of a spring and completing a circuit to a
warning light and aural warning in the flight deck (rare).

- 33 -
Thermo-Couple Detector

The thermo-couple principle is used in jet pipe temperature measurement as

well as in fire detection. When two different metals are held in contact with
each other and are heated, they will produce a small pd (potential difference -
a voltage that can be measured). The higher the temperature the higher the
pd. When a particular pd value is reached in a fire detection circuit a sensitive
relay will operate or an electronic circuit will operate to cause a visual/aural
warning in the flight deck. When the fire goes out, the thermo-couple cools and
the pd drops and the relay/electronic circuit will cancel the warning.

Differential Expansion Switch

This consists of a switch in the fire zone connected between the dc essential
bus bar and the warning systems in the flight deck. It consists of two contacts
held apart on a spring-bow assembly, which is secured at either end of an
alloy steel barrel or expansion tube. When the unit experiences heat, the
barrel expands length-wise. It’s coefficient of linear expansion is greater than
that of the spring-bow assembly, thus the spring-bow is caused to straighten
and the contacts to close – causing a flight deck warning.

Fig. 25 DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION SWITCH

- 34 -
QUESTION What do you think happens when the unit cools down? (2 mins).

ANSWER This is fairly straight forward I suppose. Of course the barrel will
contract (more than the spring-bow) and cause the contacts to
open, thus switching off the warning.

The unit is adjustable by the manufacturer only and is adjusted to operate at

different temperatures. The units look very similar but their part numbers
relate to their operating temperature and it is therefore most important to
check that the correct unit is being fitted in the correct location.

Besides the usually visual inspection for security, corrosion, damage, etc, the
unit is tested by the use of special heated tongs that are clamped to the
expansion tube. These will cause the unit to expand and give a warning light
in the flightdeck. When removed the unit will reset causing the light to go out.

Light Detectors

Use photo-electric light detectors that register visible light as an electric

current. The electronic circuitry analyses the light spectrum and will only give
a warning when it detects light coming from a hydrocarbon fire. They are self
re-settable.

Earlier light detectors where housed in light proof areas as they would be set
off by any light. It is important to note where these are fitted and take care
when gaining access. These are rare.

CONTINUOUS TYPE DETECTORS

A number of detectors would have to be used for large fire zones, so it is often
better to use a single continuous type. Often called fire-wire detectors.

Gas Operated Firewire

Consists of a fire-wire about 4mm in diameter connected at one end to a

pressure operated responder and sealed at the other end. The construction of
the firewire consists of a small bore metal tube inside of which is housed a
titanium hydride core and helium gas.

Sometimes called the Systron-Donner System.

When the fire-wire is subjected to an increase in temperature over part of its

length the pressure of the helium gas increases and when the pressure
reaches the responder setting value the switch closes and connects a 28Vdc
supply to the aircraft warning circuits.

- 35 -
 Fig. 26 GAS OPERATED FIREWIRE – GENERAL LAYOUT

Fig. 27 CROSS SECTION OF FIREWIRE

When the temperature decreases, the pressure drops and the warning circuits
are de-activated. The fire-wire may be used for overheat and fire detection.

When the firewire is subjected to a local high temperature, such as a small

flame, the increase in pressure of the helium gas alone may be insufficient to
operate the responder. In this condition the central titanium hydride core will
give off a considerable amount of hydrogen gas (sometimes called an avalanche
gas), which increases the helium gas pressure. This operates the responder.

As soon as the temperature drops below a certain value the titanium hydride
core absorbs the hydrogen gas, the pressure drops in the helium gas and the
warning signal is cancelled. This cycle is repeatable indefinitely.

The fire-wire is pre-pressurised so that a pressure integrity switch will operate

should the fire-wire develop a leak. This is incorporated in the responder and
linked in with the element self-monitoring circuits.

- 36 -
 Fig. 28 GAS OPERATED FIRE-WIRE

Electrical Fire-wire Detectors

These form a continuous stainless steel loop around the fire zone with both
ends of the small diameter tube entering the control box. Modern technology
exists for the single loop to pass around several fire zones with the electronic
control box able to detect where in the loop the overheat has occurred.

The element has one or two central electrodes, which are insulated from the
outer tube by a temperature sensitive material. In some aircraft the outer tube
element is supported on special metal supports and may be protected within
perforated stainless steel tubes. It is more usually supported in rubber covered
‘P’ clips to prevent chafing.

- 37 -
 Fig. 29 CROSS-SECTION OF ELECTRICAL FIRE-WIRE

There are basically two types of fire wire – resistance type and capacitance type
(although some systems incorporate both principles in their operation).

Resistance Type. With this type the central electrode has a positive voltage
applied to it. As the temperature rises the insulation breaks down and current
will flow from the central electrode to the outside of the fire wire to earth.
This current will cause a relay to operate in the control box and cause
warnings to come on in the flight-deck.

When the fire is out and the temperature drops the insulation will regain its
former properties, the current will cease to flow, the relay will open and the
warnings will be cancelled.

When the ‘press to test’ switch is pressed in the flight-deck a relay is operated
within the detector unit which sends a dc current through the complete
circuit. This will only happen if the circuit is complete, and all electrical
supplies are connected and on (usually both a dc and an ac supply is
required).

Fig. 30 RESISTANCE TYPE FIRE-WIRE DETECTION CIRCUIT

- 38 -
The ac supply provides power for the fire wire, the dc supply for the relay and
the dc test for the test circuit. When the ‘press to test’ button is operated (from
the flight deck) a current is passed through the control box and the complete
length of the central electrode of the fire-wire to operate the warning circuit to
the flight deck.

Should the electrode be broken or the control box not work correctly or any
supply be missing then the warning aural/lamp will not operate.

With a break in the fire wire, fire detection is not affected but ‘press to test’ is.

Capacitance Type. Capacitance is the ability to store charge and the central
electrode and shell of the fire wire form a capacitor with the ‘insulation’
between called a dielectric. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on
several things and one is the value of the dielectric (dielectric constant). This
changes with temperature. As temperature rises so does the capacitance of the
fire-wire.

The core is supplied with half wave ac current which the wire stores during the
first half of the cycle and returns to the control box during the second half of
the cycle. With an increase in temperature the returned current becomes
greater, and at a pre-set value operates a relay to trigger the warning systems
in the flight-deck.

A ‘press to test’ facility is also provided. If the wiring or fire-wire are shorted to
earth then a false warning does not occur.

Liquid Type Detector

A length of tube is filled with liquid and connected to a pressure sensitive

control box. With a temperature rise, the pressure rises causing a pressure-
operated switch to close and sending a 28Vdc current to the warning systems
in the flight-deck. When the temperature drops, the pressure drops, the
pressure operated switch opens and the warning signal is cancelled (rare).

FLIGHT DECK OPERATION

To give a better understanding of the system the following example gives

details of how the crew would operate a typical system. It is based on the
Airbus A320 and details refer to figure 31.

Two identical ENGINE FIRE panels are provided (one for each engine – 1 & 2)
situated on the overhead panel.

- 39 -
 Fig. 31 FLIGHT-DECK FIRE CONTROL PANEL – A320

1. ENGINE 1 FIRE PUSH BUTTON

Normal position IN and GUARDED. When released OUT an electrical

signal causes for each engine:
An aural warning cancellation.
The squib (cartridge) arming.
The fuel LP valve closure.
The hydraulic fire valve closure.
The air bleed valves (pneumatic system) closure.
The pack valve closure (air conditioning packs).
The generator de-activation.

ENGINE 1 FIRE LIGHT

Illuminates red independently of the push button position as long as the

respective fire warning is activated.

2. AGENT 1 PUSH BUTTON

Activated when the corresponding ENGINE FIRE PUSH BUTTON is

pushed. When pressed the bottle discharges.

SQUIB lights illuminate white when the ENGINE FIRE PUSH BUTTON is
pushed to allow identification of the button to be pushed.

DISCH lights illuminate amber when the related extinguisher bottle is

discharged.

3. TEST PUSH BUTTON

Enables the detection and extinguishing systems operation to be

checked.

- 40 -
When pressed:
A continuous repetitive CHIME SOUNDS and MASTER
WARN LIGHT FLASHES and ECAM ENG FIRE warning is
activated.
On FIRE panel:
ENGINE FIRE PUSH BUTTON illuminates red.
SQUIB lights illuminate white provided both lamps are
serviceable and associated supplies are available.
DISCH lights illuminate amber.
On ENG panel (pedestal):
FIRE lights illuminate red.

’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’

- 41 -