Roles of Maximal

Strength and Rate of

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Force Development in
Maximizing Muscular
Power
Christopher Taber, MS, Christopher Bellon, MA, Heather Abbott, MEd, and Garett E. Bingham, MA
Center for Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences,
East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee

ABSTRACT improved performance of various sport across the spectrum of sport from
tasks such as sprinting (65,66), jumping aerobic to anaerobic sports.
THIS BRIEF REVIEW ENCOM-
(20,34,38,40), change of direction
PASSES THE ROLE OF MAXIMAL
(41,48,52), throwing (36,37), and weight- WHAT IS POWER?
STRENGTH AND RATE OF FORCE
lifting movements (11,26). Optimization Power is a work rate expressed by the
DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRODUC-
of power outputs at specific times of the equation,
TION OF MUSCULAR POWER. IT training year is often a primary goal
BEGINS WITH THE INVESTIGATION when using periodization strategies Power 5 Force 3 Velocity:
OF POWER OUTPUT AND ITS (32,55,59). Therefore, enhancing these
IMPORTANCE FOR SPORT. AFTER
The power equation reflects the 2
sport skills through the augmentation components that must be considered
THIS BASIS FOR POWER PRO- of peak power at particular times of when attempting to maximize total
DUCTION, THIS REVIEW EXAMINES the competitive season may increase power output. The first component is
BOTH MAXIMAL STRENGTH AND an athlete’s preparedness, thus giving velocity, which is directly related to
RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT them a greater probability of winning momentum. The second component
EFFECTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT an event. is force, which is associated with
OF OPTIMAL POWER OUTPUT. momentum through impulse.
A counterargument to this concept is
FINALLY, A RATIONAL WHY MAXI-
often made with respect to endur-
MIZING RATE OF FORCE DEVEL-
ance events, as peak power may not
OPMENT DURING THE be a vital performance characteristic
COMPETITION SEASON TO in tasks such as running, cycling, or
ACHIEVE SUCCESS IN SPORT IS swimming. However, multiple stud-
PROVIDED. ies have shown that the average
Velocity. The concept of examining
power output for the duration of
changes in momentum to understand
a distance event, and even peak
INTRODUCTION the velocity component of the power
power during the final sprint, may
equation is used because most sport
WHY IS POWER IMPORTANT? play a critical role in determining
activities involve accelerating a mass.
t has been previously suggested that the outcome of a race (42,44,58).

I power outputs are perhaps the most

important characteristic impacting
sport success (54). The reasoning behind
Additionally, literature exists suggest-
ing that levels of peak power outputs
can differentiate athletic performance
When the mass in question is an

KEY WORDS:
strength; rate of force development;
this concept is that power outputs have (4,6,7,9,21,25,30). As such, the devel-
power development
demonstrated a strong relationship with opment of muscular power is critical

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 Maximal Strength and Rate of Force Development

external load that is being acted on, over which force can be applied are shortening velocity of muscle is lim-
alterations in the mass can lead to not readily modifiable, the rate at ited because of the enzyme kinetics
changes in velocity, when the impulse which force is generated must be of skeletal muscle. Human muscle
is held constant. When these concepts increased. The purpose of this article cannot dissociate myosin heavy
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are applied to sport-related move- is to further elucidate the underlying chains from actin filaments faster
ments in which an athlete is accelerat- mechanisms of maximal strength and than what is performed by myosin
ing their own mass, any desired RFD in the optimization of muscu- ATPase. Therefore, additional con-
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change in momentum must be ob- lar power. sideration should be given to the
tained by altering the velocity, requir- fiber type in question because of type
ing a change in the impulse. MAXIMAL STRENGTH II fibers’ cross-bridge dissociation
Strength is a trainable skill that can occurring 4–9 times faster than type
Force. The force being applied during I fibers (15,16). Because shortening
be expressed during competition.
most actions in sport is not constant velocity is limited, maximal force be-
Strength is not only the ability to gen-
across the duration of time; therefore, comes increasingly important to pro-
erate force but also a vehicle that car-
integration must be performed to cal- vide a window in which greater
ries with it other abilities such as RFD,
culate the impulse, increases in power can be achieved
impulse, momentum, velocity, and
Z (13,14,16,17).
power. Different levels of strength exist
Impulse 5 Force dt : ranging from submaximal to maximal,
EFFECT OF INCREASED
with maximal strength being a major STRENGTH ON THE FORCE-
This allows for the force applied to factor influencing performance (57). VELOCITY CURVE
be represented as the area under the Research has shown that stronger ath- To cause a shift in the force-velocity
force time curve. Research has shown letes are found at higher levels of com- curve, strength training alone provides
that the duration of time in which petition in a variety of sports compared an adequate stimulus to alter the rela-
forces are applied in various sports with weaker athletes (4,9,25,27,30). tionship in untrained individuals (28).
skills is only negligibly modifiable, par- This information begins to illuminate However for those with advanced
ticularly at the highest levels (Table). the importance of maximal strength training age and increased strength,
This leads to the idea that in order in sports competition. However, the a mixed-methods approach should be
for the impulse to be increased, the exact relationship between maximum implemented to achieve continual in-
total force applied during the action strength and peak power is context creases in performance (67). As train-
must be increased. dependent and not completely ing age advances, a mixed-methods
clear (54,56). approach, in which both maximal force
Maximal strength. A growing body
and maximal velocity are addressed,
of evidence has been presented show-
ing that maximal strength has FORCE-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP should be used to achieve increases
Strength can be expressed over a range in both maximal strength and power.
a strong correlation with rate of force
of speeds and loads, but with increasing More specifically without a mixed-
development (RFD) and power
load an inverse relationship exists methods approach, the force-velocity
(5,6,8,38,39). The ability to generate
between force and velocity. Force and curve will be asymmetrically devel-
maximal force is limited by time con-
velocity exists on a continuum, with oped. Thus, the desired training effect
straints of sport specific tasks. This
which maximal force and maximal is to shift the curve up and to the right.
concept illuminates the importance
velocity are located at polar ends. In This shift represents increases in both
of RFD within the confines of those
a practical application, the heavier the maximal strength and maximal veloc-
time demands. Maximal strength rep-
load the slower the velocity and the ligh- ity, thus increasing maximal power
resents the upper limit of the ability to
ter the load the higher the velocity. This output (Figures 1–4).
produce force. Increases in maximum
strength increase the ability to gener- relationship is important because located This force-velocity relationship is also
ate higher forces through a spectrum in the middle of the force-velocity curve important because it serves as a basis
of velocities. is maximal power output (61,63). Studies for the development of power and pro-
have shown that human muscle velocity vides a theoretical basis for the struc-
Rate of force development. The pre- of shortening is limited (43,49), so to ture and implementation of training.
viously laid out concepts lead to a par- improve the force-velocity curve in- Protocols containing both high veloc-
adigm in which RFD is the creases in strength must be achieved. ity and high force training produce
underpinning mechanism behind the better results than training each aspect
expression of power in sport. If WHY IS SHORTENING VELOCITY alone, but a proper sequencing must be
the goal is to increase the rate at which LIMITED? used to maximize mixed training stim-
velocities change (accelerate), and Studies by Nyitrai et al. (43) and uli (46,47). Harris et al. (31) have
both the mass of the athlete and period Sargeant (49) have shown that shown that training maximal strength

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 Table Accordingly, stronger athletes have been
Time for Force Application shown to have an advantage in gaining
power (20,31). In weaker athletes,
Sources Task Time (s) increasing maximum strength has been
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Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (68) Sprinting ground contact time 0.08–0.10 show to produce greater increases in
RFD and power than does power train-
Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (68) Long jump take-off time 0.11–0.12 ing alone (19,20,31,46). Ultimately, an
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Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (68) High jump take-off time 0.17–0.18 intimate relationship exists between
maximal strength and power. The
Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (68) Javelin delivery 0.16–0.18 RFD can be perceived as the bridge
Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (68) Shot put delivery 0.15–0.18 between these 2 entities, as most sport
skills are not performed within a time-
Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (68) Hand take-off (horse vaulting) 0.18–0.21 frame that permits the expression of
Schmidtbleicher (50) Vertical jump ;0.3 maximal force production (1,3,68). Fur-
thermore, maximal strength is a critical
Stodden et al. (53) Baseball pitch 0.145 factor in the development of this
Koenig et al. (35) Baseball/softball swing 0.22–31 crucial training variable, whereas
RFD is the conduit through which
high forces can be expressed in athletic
before maximal velocity provides the For example, putting in golf is a low competition.
most beneficial adaptations and this force activity that can be positivity
may be due in part to delayed gains altered with increased strength; also, RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
in performance and shortening velocity driving distance can be positively Maximal strength is a vital component
limitations of skeletal muscle. impacted by increases in strength and in producing the high levels of force
Training for maximal strength was power ultimately improving club head needed in sport (54,59,68). However,
thought only to affect power output at speed (23,24). An athlete encounters the time required to complete many
corresponding heavy loads (31,39). a variety of forces during competition. sport specific skills is shorter than that
Stone et al. (55) have shown that train- As you raise maximal strength, the sub- needed to express maximal strength
ing with heavy loads had an effect on maximal effort that is expressed occurs (59,68). More specifically, a minimum
power outputs at light loads. For exam- at a higher absolute value (50). window of approximately 300 millisec-
ple, Stone et al. (54) have also shown onds is necessary to produce maximal
that the association between maximal MAXIMUM STRENGTH muscle force (1,2,59,68); however,
strength with power output may RELATIONSHIP WITH POWER force application during skills such as
account for up to 50% of the variance. OUTPUTS AND PERFORMANCE sprinting, jumping, throwing, and kick-
This association between maximal Studies have shown that a high corre- ing lasts approximately 30–200 milli-
strength and power output indicates lation exists between maximal strength seconds (Table). Accordingly, the rate
that maximal strength should be a focus and power output. Maximum strength at which force is developed within
in training even if the loads used are has been shown to establish the upper those short periods dictates the gross
higher than encountered in competition. limit of power production (22,54,61–63). amount of force applied during the
skill. As previously noted, a greater
force applied over a given period
creates a greater impulse, thus facilitat-
ing greater momentum and, subse-
quently, a higher power output.
Interestingly enough, muscular power
has been repeatedly shown to be a dif-
ferentiating factor in athletic success
(4,6,12,33,41,51). Although many stud-
ies have attributed improvements in
performance to enhanced power pro-
duction, it may be more accurate to
ascribe this development to greater
RFD, as it can be viewed as the under-
pinning mechanism in producing
greater power outputs. Therefore, as
Figure 1. Force velocity curve. noted by Stone et al. (54), RFD is

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 Maximal Strength and Rate of Force Development

faster subjects displayed higher ground

reaction forces over shorter ground
contact times, it can be inferred that
the primary mechanism underpinning
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these high forces is the rate at which

they are produced. This notion was
confirmed by Weyand et al. (65) in
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which the authors determined that

sprint performance is not limited by
an athlete’s ability to apply force, but
rather their ability to produce a high
RFD over the brief contact times ex-
hibited during sprinting.
In addition to sprinting, jumping is
Figure 2. Effect of heavy load training.
another critical skill applied in a vari-
ety of sports such as basketball, vol-
leyball, football, baseball, and soccer.
perhaps the most central factor to sport slower runners. However, the time As noted in the Table, take-off time
success across a wide spectrum of required to reposition the leg before during various jumping tasks ranges
events. This concept has been sup- the next step, referred to as “swing from approximately 100–300 millisec-
ported in a number of different studies time,” was not significantly different onds. This obviates the ability to
with respect to both general and spe- between groups. In other words, the express maximal forces within that
cific sport skills such as sprinting faster subjects covered a greater dis- limited period. Accordingly, multiple
(65,66), jumping (20,34,38,40), change tance per stride with less time spent studies have shown RFD and its asso-
of direction ability (CODA) (41,48,52), on the ground, but did not swing their ciates, such as impulse and power, to
throwing (36,37), weightlifting move- legs into position before the next step be primary contributors in jump per-
ments (11,26), and endurance-based significantly faster than slower subjects. formance (18–20,38,40,60).
activities (44,45,58). In fact, the authors noted that the slow-
In a study by Newton et al. (40), the
est subject was able to reposition her leg
investigators explored the effects of
GENERAL SPORT SKILLS between strides in nearly the same time
jump squats (JSs) versus back squats
Sprinting, for example, is perhaps the as the fastest 100-m sprinter in the
and leg presses over an 8-week period
most universal of sport skills in the world. Accordingly, the authors attrib-
on vertical jump performance in colle-
realm of athletics. In a pioneering study uted the greater sprint velocities
giate male volleyball players. Although
by Weyand et al. (66), the investigators achieved by faster runners to greater
the groups did not display significant
found that faster runners possessed sig- ground force application, rather than
pre-to-posttest differences in 1RM
nificantly greater force application, the sprinters’ ability to quickly reposi-
squat strength, the JS group displayed
stride length, and shorter ground con- tion their limbs during the flight time
significant increases in vertical jump
tact time (GCT) in comparison to between strides. However, since the
performance and also significantly
greater changes in comparison to the
control group. The data analysis indi-
cated that the primary mechanisms of
the improved jump performance were
an increase force production before
take-off and a higher RFD. Therefore,
the athletes who focused on ballistic
exercise during the 8-week training
period were better able to express
a higher rate of force over the brief
time of force application before take-
off, which would explain the greater
force outputs and subsequent increases
in jump performance. Furthermore,
jump performance has been related
to other general sport skills, particu-
Figure 3. Effect of high-velocity training. larly CODA.

74 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016

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 differences were also seen in 20-meter
fly-in times (V20) and a 200-m (200M)
constant velocity run. During the V20
test, the participants accelerated for 30
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m and sprinted maximally for the sub-

sequent 20-m distance. The 200M was
run on a 200-m track at a pace of 4.55
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m/s, for the purpose of examining run-

ning economy. Interestingly enough,
the experimental group improved sig-
nificantly in both of these tests
whereas the control group did not.
Referring back to the findings of
Weyand et al. (65) and Weyand et al.
Figure 4. Effect of mixed-methods training. (66), faster sprinters produce a higher
RFD and shorter GCT during sprint-
ing. These results were evident in the
To the authors’ knowledge, only 1 time required to produce maximal findings of this study, as the experi-
study has directly investigated the force (35), which again highlights the mental group ran a faster V20 and
association between RFD and CODA, importance of attaining a greater level had shorter GCT during the 200M.
which showed a favorable relationship of RFD to be able to make contact with Accordingly, a sound case can be
between these variables (60). Despite the ball. made that the improvements of the
this gap in the literature, a strong rela- experimental group were derived from
tionship between jump performance RFD AND ENDURANCE a higher RFD, which allowed them to
and CODA has been well established PERFORMANCE express faster sprint velocities in V20
(10,34,41,48,52,64). With an under- Although the importance of strength and better running economy in
standing that RFD is a primary mech- and power development is often over- the 200M.
anism in determining vertical jump looked in endurance sports, there is Based on the aforementioned evi-
performance (40,60), it can be inferred evidence that the average power out- dence, RFD is a critical training con-
that a relationship between RFD and put may also be a key factor contrib- sideration across a continuum of
CODA most likely exists. uting to the outcome of the event sports. As Stone et al. (54) indicated,
(42,44,45,58). This was shown very it may in fact be the most important
SPECIFIC SPORT SKILLS clearly in a study by Paavolainen et al. training variable in determining sport-
With respect to specific sport tasks, (45) that explored the effects of explo- ing success. Therefore, increased RFD
RFD also plays a key role in enhancing sive strength training on 5K perform- may in fact be the ultimate goal of the
these skills as well. Increased pitching ances in trained endurance athletes. training process.
velocity in baseball, for instance, has During this investigation, the experi-
been shown to accommodate training mental group performed 9 weeks of
programs that include ballistic exer- extensive explosive strength training CONCLUSION
cises such as JSs and bench press while the control group performed In conclusion, we have shown evi-
throws (37). In addition to the results minimal explosive exercise. This train- dence supporting the notion that
of Newton et al. (40), a sound case can ing consisted of various sprinting and RFD may be the most important fit-
be made that these alterations may be jumping exercises in addition to low- ness characteristic in sport. Through
underpinned by increases in RFD, as load, high-velocity strength training the development of high maximal
these exercises have been associated movements, such as a leg press and strength and application of this skill
with increases with this training vari- knee-flexor exercises. The training vol- through the vehicle of RFD, we can
able in other studies as well (19,29,40). ume between the experimental group begin to provide a basis for optimal
In addition, a previous study by Mar- and control group was made equal, power production in training and com-
ques et al. (36) explored the relation- with 32% of total training time being petition. Ultimately, maximal strength
ship between RFD and throwing dedicated to explosive strength train- will provide the upper limit for power
velocity in elite handball players. The ing in the experimental group but only production; however, RFD allows us
results of this investigation also indi- 3% of training time in the control to use this power production in a man-
cated a significant association between group. After this protocol, the subjects ner specific to each sporting task.
these variables. In addition to pitching, in the experimental group significantly Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
batting in both baseball and softball is improved their 5K times whereas the The authors report no conflicts of interest
another skill that often falls below the control group did not. Pre-to-posttest and no source of funding.

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 Maximal Strength and Rate of Force Development

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