18CSE458T

WIRELESS AND MOBILE

COMMUNICATION

2020-2021
EVEN SEMESTER
Why Wireless Communication
Stay connected – anywhere, anytime.
• Freedom From Wires
• No cost of installing wires or rewiring
• No bunches of wires running here and there
• “Auto magical” instantaneous communications without physical connection setup, e.g.,
Bluetooth, WiFi
• Global Coverage
• Communications can reach where wiring is infeasible or costly, e.g., rural areas, old
buildings, battlefield, vehicles, outer space (through Communication Satellites)
• Stay Connected
• Roaming allows flexibility to stay connected anywhere and any time
• Rapidly growing market attests to public need for mobility and uninterrupted access
• Flexibility
• Services reach you wherever you go (Mobility). E.g, you don’t have to go to your lab to
check your mail
• Connect to multiple devices simultaneously (no physical connection required)
Wireless Communication
• Any transfer of information between points that do not have a physical
connection, like wire or cable connection, would be WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION.

• Examples
• Short Distance - TV controlled by remote
• Long Distance - Space Radio Communication

• There are different types of wireless communication devices like mobiles. Cordless
telephones, Zigbee wireless technology, GPS, Wi-Fi, satellite television, and wireless
computer parts. Current wireless phones include 3 and 4G networks, Bluetooth, and
Wi-Fi technologies.
Wireless Communication
• Transmitting/ Receiving Voice and data using electromagnetic waves
in open space.
• The information from sender to receiver is carrier over a well
defined frequency band (Channel)
• Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and capacity ( bit
rate)
• Different channels can be used to transmit information in parallel
and independently.
Example
• Assume a spectrum of 120KHz is allocated over a base frequency for
communication between two stations A and B.
• 120/3= 40KHz – Each channel occupies 40KHz
History of Wireless Communication
• The first telegraph was invented (1600 – 1833)
• The invention of the radio from the telegraph (1867-1896)
• The birth of radio (1897 – 898)
• Transoceanic Communication (1901 –1909)
• Voice over Radio and the First Television Transmissions (1914 – 1940)
• Commercial Television and the Birth of Mobile Telephony (1946 – 1976)
• Cellular Mobile Telephony and Steps toward Wireless Internet (1979 –
1994)
• The Wireless Data Era (1997 – 2009)
• Personal Communication Services (1995-2008)
Evolution of Communication System
Cellular Generations
 Wireless Communication
• A wireless Communication system is classified into Simplex, Half Duplex & Full Duplex.

• The simple wireless communication system is one-way communication. In this type, the communication can
be done in one direction only. The best example is the radio broadcast system.

• The half Duplex communication system is two-way communication, however, it is not simultaneous. The
best example of this type of communication is walkie – talkie.

• The full Duplex communication system is also two-way communication & it is simultaneous. The best
example of this communication system is the mobile phone. In wireless communication, the devices which
are used for communication may change from one service to others because these are available in different
shape, size & data throughput. The region enclosed through this type of communication system is an essential
factor. Here, some of the most essential wireless communication systems are discussed like IR wireless
communication, satellite communication, broadcast radio, Microwave radio, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc.
Typical Frequencies
 Propagation Methods
• Ground Propagation - radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere following the curvature of the planet.
• Sky Propagation - high frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere where they are reflected back to the earth.
• Line-of-sight Propagation - very high frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
Wireless Systems : Range Comparison
Components of a Communication System
• The source is the originating point of the information that is to be conveyed. This
information could be voice, text, picture, packet data etc. Usually, this message is
encoded upon a carrier or a medium called the Baseband signal.
• The baseband signal carries no information on its own, but before reaching the
transmitter, the information to be sent is added to it.
• The transmitter then sends out the message into the communication channel.
• The channel is a medium through which the transmitter output is sent to the recipient.
This in the wired system could be a wire, a coaxial cable, or an optical fiber.
• In wireless systems these are generally waves like IR or radio.
• At the other end of the channel would be the receiver. It would extract the information
from the incoming signal received, by subtracting the baseband signal from it.
• The receiver output is the information that had come from the source, and this can be
directed to the recipient.
Basic Communication System
Wireless Communication System
Wireless - Advantages
•Cost effectiveness
• Wired communication entails the use of connection wires. In wireless networks,
communication does not require elaborate physical infrastructure or
maintenance practices. Hence the cost is reduced.
•Flexibility
• Wireless communication enables people to communicate regardless of their
location. It is not necessary to be in an office or some telephone booth in order
to pass and receive messages.
•Convenience
• Wireless communication devices like mobile phones are quite simple and
therefore allow anyone to use them, wherever they may be. There is no need
to physically connect anything in order to receive or pass messages.
 Wireless - Advantages
•Speed
• Improvements can also be seen in speed. The network connectivity
or the accessibility were much improved in accuracy and speed.
•Accessibility
• The wireless technology helps easy accessibility as the remote areas
where ground lines can’t be properly laid, are being easily connected
to the network.
•Constant connectivity
• Constant connectivity also ensures that people can respond to
emergencies relatively quickly.
Types of Wireless Communication Systems
• Television and Radio Broadcasting
• Satellite Communication
• Radar
• Mobile Telephone System (Cellular Communication)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Infrared Communication
• WLAN (Wi-Fi)
• Bluetooth
• Paging
• Cordless Phones
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
Satellite Communication
• Satellite communication is one type of self-contained wireless
communication technology, it is widely spread all over the world to
allow users to stay connected almost anywhere on the earth.
• When the signal (a beam of modulated microwave) is sent near the
satellite then, the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the
antenna receiver which is located on the surface of the earth.
• Satellite communication contains two main components like the space
segment and the ground segment.
• The ground segment consists of fixed or mobile transmission,
reception, and ancillary equipment and the space segment, which
mainly is the satellite itself.
Infrared Communication
• Infrared wireless communication communicates information in a
device or system through IR radiation.
• IR is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that is longer than that of
red light.
• It is used for security control, TV remote control, and short-range
communications.
• In the electromagnetic spectrum, IR radiation lies between
microwaves and visible light. So, they can be used as a source of
communication.
Television and Radio Broadcasting
• Radio is considered to be the first wireless service to be broadcast.
• It is an example of a Simplex Communication System where the
information is transmitted only in one direction and all the users
receiving the same data.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
• GPS is solely a subcategory of satellite communication.
• GPS provides different wireless services like navigation, positioning,
location, speed etc. with the help of dedicated GPS receivers and
satellites.
Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is another important low range wireless communication
system.
• It provides data, voice and audio transmission with a transmission
range of 10 meters.
• Almost all mobile phones, tablets and laptops are equipped with
Bluetooth devices. They can be connected to wireless Bluetooth
receivers, audio equipment, cameras etc.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Wireless Local Area Network or WLAN (Wi-Fi) is an internet related
wireless service.
• Using WLAN, different devices like laptops and mobile phones can
connect to an access point and access internet.
Noise and Signals
Noise
• Noise can be defined as any unwanted signals, random or deterministic, which
interfere with the faithful reproduction of the desired signal in a system.
• Stated another way, any interfering signal, which is usually noticed as random
fluctuations in voltage or current tending to obscure and mask the desired signals is
known as noise.
• These unwanted signals arise from a variety of sources and can be classified as
man-made or naturally occurring.
• Man-made types of interference (noise) can practically arise from any piece of
electrical or electronic equipment and include such things as electromagnetic
pick-up of other radiating signals, inadequate power supply filtering or alias terms.
Man-made sources of noise all have the common property that their effect can be
eliminated or at least minimised by careful engineering design and practice.
• Interference caused by naturally occurring noise are not controllable in such a
direct way and their characteristics can best be described statistically. Natural noise
comes from random thermal motion of electrons, atmospheric absorption and
cosmic sources.
Signals & Noise
• In every case we have a signal, which is used to carry useful
information; and in every case there is noise, which enters the system
from a variety of sources and degrades the signal, reducing the quality
of the communication.
• Keeping the ratio between signal and noise sufficiently high is the
basis for a great deal of the work that goes into the design of a
communication system.
• This signal-to-noise ratio, abbreviated S/N and almost always
expressed in decibels, is an important specification of virtually all
communication systems.
Modulated Signals
• Given the necessity for modulating a higher-frequency signal with a
lower-frequency baseband signal, it is useful to look at the equation for a
sine-wave carrier and consider what aspects of the signal can be varied. A
general equation for a sine wave is:
Modulated Signals
• It is common to use radians and radians per second, rather than degrees and hertz,
in the equations dealing with modulation, because it makes the mathematics
simpler.
• Of course, practical equipment uses hertz for frequency indications. The
conversion is easy. Just remember from basic ac theory that
Noise
• It is not sufficient to transmit a signal from transmitter to receiver if
the noise that accompanies it is strong enough to prevent it from being
understood.
• All electronic systems are affected by noise, which has many sources.
• The most important noise component is thermal noise, which is
created by the random motion of molecules that occurs in all materials
at any temperature above absolute zero (0 K or −273° C).
• The thermal noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over which
a system operates. The equation is very simple:

Here the bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies over which the noise is observed.
• kelvins are equal to degrees Celsius in size; only the zero point on the scale
is different.
• Therefore, converting between degrees Celsius and kelvins is easy:
Example Problem 1
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
SNR or signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio between the desired information or the power of a
signal and the undesired signal or the power of the background noise.
• Maintaining an adequate ratio of signal power to noise power is essential for any
communication system, though the exact definition of “adequate” varies greatly.
• Obviously there are two basic ways to improve S/N: increase the signal power or
reduce the noise power.
• Increasing signal power beyond a certain point can cause problems, particularly
where portable, battery powered devices are concerned.
• Reducing noise power requires limiting bandwidth and, if possible, reducing the
noise temperature of a system. The system bandwidth must be large enough to
accommodate the signal bandwidth, but should be no larger than that.
• Some modulation schemes are more efficient than others at transmitting information
with a given power and bandwidth.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Noise Figure and Noise Temperature
• All of the above are expressed as power ratios, not in decibels. When a device has multiple stages, each stage contributes
noise, but the first stage is the most important because noise inserted there is amplified by all other stages.

• The equation that expresses this is:

Example 2
Example 2
Types of Noise
1) External Noise
2) Internal Noise
 External Noise
• External noise is defined as the type of Noise which is general externally due
to communication system. External Noise are analysed qualitatively. Now,
External Noise may be classified as
a) Atmospheric Noise : Atmospheric Noise is also known as static noise
which is the natural source of disturbance caused by lightning, discharge in
thunderstorm and the natural disturbances occurring in the nature.
b) Industrial Noise : Sources of Industrial noise are auto-mobiles, aircraft,
ignition of electric motors and switching gear. The main cause of Industrial
noise is High voltage wires. These noises is generally produced by the
discharge present in the operations.
c) Extraterrestrial Noise : Extraterrestrial Noise exist on the basis of their
originating source. They are subdivided into
i) Solar Noise
ii) Cosmic Noise
Internal Noise
Internal Noise are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the Communication
System or in the receiver. They may be treated qualitatively and can also be reduced or minimized
by the proper designing of the system. Internal Noises are classified as
1) Shot Noise : These Noise are generally arises in the active devices due to the random behaviour
of Charge particles or carries. In case of electron tube, shot Noise is produces due to the random
emission of electron form cathodes.
2) Partition Noise : When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths then the noise
generated is known as Partition noise. The reason for the generation is random fluctuation in the
division.
3) Low- Frequency Noise : They are also known as FLICKER NOISE. These type of noise are
generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz. Power spectral density of these noise
increases with the decrease in frequency. That why the name is given Low- Frequency Noise.
4) High- Frequency Noise : These noises are also known TRANSIT- TIME Noise. They are
observed in the semi-conductor devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a
junction is compared with the time period of that signal.
5) Thermal Noise : Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White Noise or Johnson
Noise. Thermal noise are generally observed in the resistor or the sensitive resistive components of
a complex impedance due to the random and rapid movement of molecules or atoms or electrons.
Frequency for Radio Communication
• Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation, as are infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, and
gamma rays.
• The major difference is in the frequency of the waves.
• The portion of the frequency spectrum that is useful for radio communication at present extends from
roughly 100 kHz to about 50 GHz.
Typical Frequencies
Frequency for Radio Communication
• Conversion between frequency and wavelength is quite easy.
• The general equation that relates frequency to wavelength for any wave is
v = ƒλ
where v = velocity of propagation of the wave in meters per second
ƒ = frequency of the wave in hertz
λ = wavelength in meters

For radio waves in free space the velocity is the same as that of light: 300 × 106 m/s.

The usual symbol for this quantity is c.

c = ƒλ
Example 3
 Practice Question

1. If the signal power at a certain point in a system is 2 W and the noise

power is 50 mW, what is the signal-to-noise ratio, in dB?
Analog Modulation Schemes
• Modulation is necessary in order to transmit intelligence over a radio channel.
• A radio-frequency signal can be modulated by either analog or digital
information.
• the information signal must change one or more of three parameters: amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
Amplitude Modulation
• An amplitude-modulated signal can be produced by using the instantaneous
amplitude of the information signal (the baseband or modulating signal) to vary
the peak amplitude of a higher-frequency signal.
AM Envelope
AM Demodulator
Time Domain Analysis
• AM is created by using the instantaneous modulating signal voltage to vary the
amplitude of the modulated signal.
• The carrier is almost always a sine wave. The modulating signal can be a sine
wave, but is more often an arbitrary waveform, such as an audio signal.
Modulation Index
Envelopes for various values of m
Overmodulation
• When the modulation index is greater than one, the signal is said to be
overmodulated.
Modulation Index for Multiple Modulating Frequencies
• The information signal is more likely to be a voice signal, which contains many
frequencies.
• When there are two or more sine waves of different, uncorrelated frequencies
modulating a single carrier, m is calculated by using the equation
Measurement of Modulation Index
Bandwidth
• Signal bandwidth is one of the most important characteristics of any
modulation scheme. In general, a narrow bandwidth is desirable.
• In any situation where spectrum space is limited, a narrow bandwidth allows
more signals to be transmitted simultaneously than does a wider bandwidth. It
also allows a narrower bandwidth to be used in the receiver. The receiver must
have a wide enough bandwidth to pass the complete signal, including all the
sidebands, or distortion will result.
• If there is more than one modulating frequency, the bandwidth is twice the
highest modulating frequency. Mathematically, the relationship is:
Measuring Modulation Index in the Frequency Domain
• Since the ratio between sideband and carrier power is a simple function of m, it
is quite possible to measure modulation index by observing the spectrum of an
AM signal. The only complication is that spectrum analyzers generally display
power ratios in decibels. The power ratio between sideband and carrier power
can easily be found from the relation:
Suppressed-Carrier AM Systems
• It is possible to improve the efficiency and reduce the bandwidth of an AM signal by removing the carrier and/or
one of its sidebands.
• The presence of modulation has no effect on the carrier. Removing the carrier to create a double-sideband
suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) AM signal should therefore result in a power gain for the information-carrying part
of the signal of at least three (or about 4.8 dB), assuming that the power removed from the carrier could be put
into the sidebands.
• Removing one of these sidebands would reduce the signal bandwidth by half. Assuming that the receiver
bandwidth is also reduced by half, this should result in a reduction of the noise power by a factor of two (3 dB).
• Therefore, removing the carrier and one sideband should cause the resulting single-sideband
suppressed-carrier AM (SSBSC or just SSB) signal to have a signal-to-noise improvement of 7.8 dB or more,
compared with full-carrier double-sideband AM.
• It is quite practical to remove the carrier from an AM signal, provided it is re-inserted at the receiver.
• Removing one sideband is also effective, and there is no need to replace it.
• Single-sideband AM is quite popular for voice communication systems operating in the high-frequency range
(3–30 MHz) and has also been used for terrestrial point-to-point microwave links carrying telephone and
television signals. Figure 2.9 shows the idea.
• Figure 2.9(a) shows the baseband spectrum of a typical voice signal. In Figure 2.9(b) we have double-sideband
suppressedcarrier AM (DSBSC). The carrier frequency of 1 MHz is indicated but there is no carrier, just the
upper and lower sidebands. In Figure 2.9(c), the lower sideband has been removed and only the upper
sideband is transmitted.
DSB and SSB transmission
Two-tone modulation
Frequency and Phase Modulation
• Frequency modulation (FM) is probably the most commonly used analog
modulation technique, seeing application in everything from broadcasting to
cordless phones.
• Phase modulation (PM) is rarely used in analog systems but is very common in
digital communication.
• Obviously, frequency and phase are very closely related, so it makes sense to
discuss the two schemes together.
• They are often grouped under the heading of angle modulation.
• In amplitude modulation, we found that the amplitude of the modulated signal
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal. In FM it is the frequency, and in PM the phase of the modulated signal
that varies with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Frequency Modulation
The maximum amount by which the transmitted
frequency shifts in one direction from the carrier
frequency is defined as the deviation. The total
frequency swing is thus twice the deviation. A
frequency modulation index, mƒ, is also defined:
FM and Noise
• The original reason for developing FM was to give improved performance in
the presence of noise, and that is still one of its main advantages over AM.
• This improved noise performance can actually result in a better signal to- noise
ratio at the output of a receiver than is found at its input.
• One way to approach the problem of FM and noise is to think of the noise
voltage as a phasor having random amplitude and phase angle.
• The noise adds to the signal, causing random variations in both the amplitude
and phase angle of the signal as seen by the receiver.
• The amplitude component of noise is easily dealt with in a well-designed
• FM system. Since FM signals do not depend on an envelope for detection, the
receiver can employ limiting to remove any amplitude variations from the
signal. That is, it can use amplifiers whose output amplitude is the same for a
wide variety of input signal levels.
FM and Noise
 Unit-II
Cellular Concepts
 Cellular Concept
❑Cellular systems for mobile communications implement SDM.
❑Each transmitter, typically called a base station, covers a
certain area, a cell.
❑Cell radii can vary from tens of meters in buildings, and
hundreds of meters in cities, up to tens of kilometers in the
countryside.
Cellular Concept
❑The shape of cells are never perfect circles or hexagons as
shown in Figure 1, but depend on the environment (buildings,
mountains, valleys etc.), on weather conditions, and
sometimes even on system load.
❑Typical systems using this approach are mobile
telecommunication systems where a mobile station within
the cell around a base station communicates with this base
station and vice versa.
 Cellular Concept
❑In this context, the question arises as to why mobile network
providers install several thousands of base stations
throughout a country (which is quite expensive) and do not
use powerful transmitters with huge cells like, e.g., radio
stations, use.

Fig: 1 Cellular system with three and seven cell clusters

Advantages of cellular systems with small cells are the
following:
Higher capacity:
❑Implementing SDM allows frequency reuse.
❑If one transmitter is far away from another, i.e., outside the
interference range, it can reuse the same frequencies.
❑As most mobile phone systems assign frequencies to certain
users (or certain hopping patterns), this frequency is blocked
for other users. But frequencies are a scarce resource and, the
number of concurrent users per cell is very limited.
•Huge cells do not allow for more users.
•On the contrary, they are limited to less possible users
per km2. This is also the reason for using very small
cells in cities where many more people use mobile
phones.
Less transmission power: While power aspects are
not a big problem for base stations, they are indeed
problematic for mobile stations. A receiver far away
from a base station would need much more transmit
power than the current few Watts. But energy is a
serious problem for mobile handheld devices.
● Local interference only: Having long distances
between sender and receiver results in even more
interference problems. With small cells, mobile
stations and base stations only have to deal with ‘local’
interference.

● Robustness: Cellular systems are decentralized and

so, more robust against the failure of single
components. If one antenna fails, this only influences
communication within a small area.
Small cells also have some disadvantages:

Infrastructure needed: Cellular systems need a complex

infrastructure to connect all base stations. This includes many
antennas, switches for call forwarding, location registers to
find a mobile station etc, which makes the whole system quite
expensive.
Handover needed: The mobile station has to perform a
handover when changing from one cell to another. Depending
on the cell size and the speed of movement, this can happen
quite often.
Frequency planning: To avoid interference between
transmitters using the same frequencies, frequencies have to be
distributed carefully. On the one hand, interference should be
avoided, on the other, only a limited number of frequencies is
available.
•To avoid interference, different transmitters within each
other’s interference range use FDM.

•If FDM is combined with TDM (see Figure 2.19), the

hopping pattern has to be coordinated.

•The general goal is never to use the same frequency at the

same time within the interference range (if CDM is not
applied).

•Two possible models to create cell patterns with minimal

interference are shown in Figure 1.

•Cells are combined in clusters – on the left side three cells

form a cluster, on the right side seven cells form a cluster.
❑Figure 2 shows the use of three sectors per cell in a cluster
with three cells.
❑Typically, it makes sense to use sectorized antennas instead
of omni-directional antennas for larger cell radii.
❑The fixed assignment of frequencies to cell clusters and cells
respectively, is not very efficient if traffic load varies.

❑For instance, in the case of a heavy load in one cell and a light
load in a neighboring cell, it could make sense to ‘borrow’
frequencies.
❑Cells with more traffic are dynamically allotted more
frequencies.

❑This scheme is known as borrowing channel allocation

(BCA), while the first fixed scheme is called fixed channel
allocation (FCA).
▪FCA is used in the GSM system as it is much simpler to use, but
it requires careful traffic analysis before installation.
▪All cells within a cluster use disjointed sets of frequencies.
▪On the left side, one cell in the cluster uses set f1, another cell
f2, and the third cell f3. In real-life transmission, the pattern will
look somewhat different.
▪The hexagonal pattern is chosen as a simple way of illustrating
the model.
▪This pattern also shows the repetition of the same frequency
sets.
• The transmission power of a sender has to be limited to avoid
interference with the next cell using the same frequencies.

• A dynamic channel allocation (DCA) scheme has been

implemented in DECT (see section 4.2).

• In this scheme, frequencies can only be borrowed, but it is

also possible to freely assign frequencies to cells.

• With dynamic assignment of frequencies to cells, the danger

of interference with cells using the same frequency exists.
• The ‘borrowed’ frequency can be blocked in the surrounding

cells.

Fig:2 Cellular system with three cell clusters and three sectors per cell
❑Cellular systems using CDM instead of FDM do not need
such elaborate channel allocation schemes and complex
frequency planning.

❑Here, users are separated through the code they use, not
through the frequency.

❑Cell planning faces another problem – the cell size depends

on the current load.

❑Accordingly, CDM cells are commonly said to ‘breathe’.

While a cell can cover a larger area under a light load, it
shrinks if the load increases.
❑The reason for this is the growing noise level if more users are
in a cell. (Remember, if you do not know the code, other
signals appear as noise, i.e., more and more people join the
party.)
❑The higher the noise, the higher the path loss and the higher the
transmission errors.

❑Finally, mobile stations further away from the base station

drop out of the cell. (This is similar to trying to talk to
someone far away at a crowded party.)

❑Figure 3 illustrates this phenomenon with a user transmitting a

high bit rate stream within a CDM cell.
❑This additional user lets the cell shrink with the result that two
users drop out of the cell.

❑In a real-life scenario this additional user could request a video

stream (high bit rate) while the others use standard voice
communication (low bit rate).

Fig: 3 Cell breathing depending on the current load

Frequency Division Multiple
Access
❑ Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) comprises all
algorithms allocating frequencies to transmission channels
according to the frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
scheme as presented below.
❑Allocation can either be fixed (as for radio stations or the general
planning and regulation of frequencies) or dynamic (i.e., demand
driven).
❑Channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all times, i.e.,
pure FDMA, or change frequencies according to a certain pattern,
i.e., FDMA combined with TDMA.
❑ The latter example is the common practice for many wireless
systems to circumvent narrowband interference at certain
frequencies, known as frequency hopping.
❑ Sender and receiver have to agree on a hopping pattern,
otherwise the receiver could not tune to the right frequency.
❑ Hopping patterns are typically fixed, at least for a longer
period.
❑ The fact that it is not possible to arbitrarily jump in the
frequency space (i.e., the receiver must be able to tune to the
right frequency) is one of the main differences between FDM
schemes and TDM schemes.
❑ Furthermore, FDM is often used for simultaneous access to the
medium by base station and mobile station in cellular
networks.
❑ Here the two partners typically establish a duplex channel, i.e.,
a channel that allows for simultaneous transmission in both
directions.
❑ The two directions, mobile station to base station and vice
versa are now separated using different frequencies.
❑ This scheme is then called frequency division duplex (FDD).
Again, both partners have to know the frequencies in advance;
they cannot just listen into the medium.

Fig:3 Frequency division multiplexing for multiple access and duplex

❑ The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from
mobile station to base station or from ground control to
satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to mobile
station or from satellite to ground control.
❑ As for example FDM and FDD, Figure 3 shows the situation
in a mobile phone network based on the GSM standard for 900
MHz (see chapter 4).
❑ The basic frequency allocation scheme for GSM is fixed and
regulated by national authorities.
❑ All uplinks use the band between 890.2 and 915 MHz, all
downlinks use 935.2 to 960 MHz.
❑ According to FDMA, the base station, shown on the right side,
allocates a certain frequency for up- and downlink to establish
a duplex channel with a mobile phone.
❑Up- and downlink have a fixed relation.
❑If the uplink frequency is fu = 890 MHz + n·0.2 MHz, the
downlink frequency is fd = fu +45 MHz, i.e., fd = 935 MHz
+ n·0.2 MHz for a certain channel n.
❑The base station selects the channel. Each channel (uplink
and downlink) has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

❑This illustrates the use of FDM for multiple access (124

channels per direction are available at 900 MHz) and duplex
according to a predetermined scheme.

❑Similar FDM schemes for FDD are implemented in AMPS,

IS-54, IS-95, IS-136, PACS, and UMTS (FDD mode).
Time Division Multiple Access
❑ Compared to FDMA, time division multiple access (TDMA)
offers a much more flexible scheme, which comprises all
technologies that allocate certain time slots for
communication, i.e., controlling TDM.
❑ Now tuning in to a certain frequency is not necessary, i.e., the
receiver can stay at the same frequency the whole time.
❑ Using only one frequency, and thus very simple receivers and
transmitters, many different algorithms exist to control
medium access.
❑ As already mentioned, listening to different frequencies at the
same time is quite difficult, but listening to many channels
separated in time at the same frequency is simple.
❑ Almost all MAC schemes for wired networks work according
to this principle, e.g., Ethernet, Token Ring, ATM etc.
(Halsall, 1996), (Stallings, 1997)
❑ Now synchronization between sender and receiver has to be
achieved in the time domain.
❑ Again this can be done by using a fixed pattern similar to
FDMA techniques, i.e., allocating a certain time slot for a
channel, or by using a dynamic allocation scheme.
❑ Dynamic allocation schemes require an identification for each
transmission as this is the case for typical wired MAC schemes
(e.g., sender address) or the transmission has to be announced
beforehand. MAC addresses are quite often used as
identification.
❑ This enables a receiver in a broadcast medium to recognize if
it really is the intended receiver of a message.
❑ Fixed schemes do not need an identification, but are not as
flexible considering varying bandwidth requirements.
❑ The following sections present several examples for fixed and
dynamic schemes as used for wireless transmission.
❑ Typically, those schemes can be combined with FDMA to
achieve even greater flexibility and transmission capacity.
Fixed TDM
❑ The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots
for channels in a fixed pattern.
❑ This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical solution for
wireless phone systems.
❑ MAC is quite simple, as the only crucial factor is accessing the
reserved time slot at the right moment.
❑ If this synchronization is assured, each mobile station knows
its turn and no interference will happen.
❑ The fixed pattern can be assigned by the base station, where
competition between different mobile stations that want to
access the medium is solved.
❑ Fixed access patterns (at least fixed for some period in time) fit
perfectly well for connections with a fixed bandwidth.
Furthermore, these patterns guarantee a fixed delay – one can
transmit, e.g., every 10 ms as this is the case for standard
DECT systems. TDMA schemes with fixed access patterns are
used for many digital mobile phone systems like IS-54,
IS-136, GSM, DEC
❑ Figure 4 shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to
implement multiple access and a duplex channel between a
base station and mobile station. Assigning different slots for
uplink and downlink using the same frequency is called time
division duplex (TDD). T, PHS, and PACS.
❑ As shown in the figure, the base station uses one out of 12
slots for the downlink, whereas the mobile station uses one out
of 12 different slots for the uplink.
❑ Uplink and downlink are separated in time. Up to 12 different
mobile stations can use the same frequency without
interference using this scheme.
❑ Each connection is allotted its own up- and downlink pair. In
the example below, which is the standard case for the DECT
cordless phone system, the pattern is repeated every 10 ms,
i.e., each slot has a duration of 417 µs.
❑ This repetition guarantees access to the medium every 10 ms,
independent of any other connections. While the fixed access
patterns, as shown for DECT, are perfectly apt for connections
with a constant data rate (e.g., classical voice transmission
with 32 or 64 kbit/s duplex), they are very inefficient for
bursty data or asymmetric connections.
 If temporary bursts in data are sent from the base mobile
station often or vice versa (as in the case of web browsing,
where no data transmission occurs while reading a page,
whereas clicking on a hyperlink triggers a data transfer from
the mobile station, often to the base station, often followed by
huge amounts of data returned from the web server).
❑ While DECT can at least allocate asymmetric bandwidth (see
section 4.2), this general scheme still wastes a lot of
bandwidth.
❑ It is too static, too inflexible for data communication.
❑ In this case, connectionless, demand-oriented TDMA schemes
can be used, as the following sections show. station to the
mobile station often or vice versa (as in the case of web
browsing, where no data transmission occurs while reading a
page, whereas clicking on a hyperlink triggers a data transfer
from the mobile station, often to the base station, often
followed by huge amounts of data returned from the web
server).
❑ While DECT can at least allocate asymmetric bandwidth (see
section 4.2), this general scheme still wastes a lot of
bandwidth.
❑ It is too static, too inflexible for data communication. In this
case, connectionless, demand-oriented TDMA schemes can be
used, as the following sections show
Fixed Aloha
Classical Aloha

❑ TDMA comprises all mechanisms controlling medium access

according to TDM. But what happens if TDM is applied
without controlling access? This is exactly what the classical
Aloha scheme does, a scheme which was invented at the
University of Hawaii and was used in the ALOHANET for
wireless connection of several stations.
❑ Aloha neither coordinates medium access nor does it resolve
contention on the MAC layer. Instead, each station can access
the medium at any time as shown in Figure 5.
❑ This is a random access scheme, without a central arbiter
controlling access and without coordination among the
stations.
❑ If two or more stations access the medium at the same time,
a collision occurs and the transmitted data is destroyed.
Resolving this problem is left to higher layers (e.g.,
retransmission of data).

❑ The simple Aloha works fine for a light load and does not
require any complicated access mechanisms. On the classical
assumption1 that data packet arrival follows a Poisson
distribution, maximum throughput is achieved for an 18 per
cent load (Abramson, 1977), (Halsall, 1996).
Fig:5 Classical Aloha multiple access
Slotted Aloha
Slotted Aloha
❑ The first refinement of the classical Aloha scheme is provided
by the introduction of time slots (slotted Aloha).
❑ In this case, all senders have to be synchronized, transmission
can only start at the beginning of a time slot as shown in
Figure 3.6. Still, access is not coordinated.
❑ Under the assumption stated above, the introduction of slots
raises the throughput from 18 per cent to 36 per cent, i.e.,
slotting doubles the throughput.

Slotted Aloha Multiple Access

❑ As we will see in the following sections, both basic Aloha
principles occur in many systems that implement distributed
access to a medium.
❑ Aloha systems work perfectly well under a light load (as most
schemes do), but they cannot give any hard transmission
guarantees, such as maximum delay before accessing the
medium, or minimum throughput.
❑ Here one needs additional mechanisms, e.g., combining fixed
schemes and Aloha schemes.
❑ However, even new mobile communication systems like
UMTS have to rely on slotted Aloha for medium access in
certain situations (random access for initial connection set-up).
Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance
❑ Multiple access with collision avoidance (MACA) presents a
simple scheme that solves the hidden terminal problem, does
not need a base station, and is still a random access Aloha
scheme – but with dynamic reservation.
❑ Remember, A and C both want to send to B. A has already
started the transmission, but is hidden for C, C also starts with
its transmission, thereby causing a collision at B.

MACA can avoid hidden terminals

❑ With MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but
sends a request to send (RTS) first. B receives the RTS that
contains the name of sender and receiver, as well as the length
of the future transmission.
❑ This RTS is not heard by C, but triggers an acknowledgement
from B, called clear to send (CTS). The CTS again contains
the names of sender (A) and receiver (B) of the user data, and
the length of the future transmission.
❑ This CTS is now heard by C and the medium for future use by
A is now reserved for the duration of the transmission. After
receiving a CTS, C is not allowed to send anything for the
duration indicated in the CTS toward B.
❑ A collision cannot occur at B during data transmission, and the
hidden terminal problem is solved – provided that the
transmission conditions remain the same.
❑ (Another station could move into the transmission range of B
after the transmission of CTS.) Still, collisions can occur
during the sending of an RTS. Both A and C could send an
RTS that collides at B.
❑ RTS is very small compared to the data transmission, so the
probability of a collision is much lower. B resolves this
contention and acknowledges only one station in the CTS (if it
was able to recover the RTS at all).
❑ No transmission is allowed without an appropriate CTS. This
is one of the medium access schemes that is optionally used in
the standard IEEE 802.11
❑ Can MACA also help to solve the ‘exposed terminal’
problem? Remember, B wants to send data to A, C to someone
else.
❑ But C is polite enough to sense the medium before
transmitting, sensing a busy medium caused by the
transmission from B. C defers, although C could never cause a
collision at A.
❑ With MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first (as shown in
Figure 3.11) containing the name of the receiver (A) and the
sender (B).
❑ C does not react to this message as it is not the receiver, but A
acknowledges using a CTS which identifies B as the sender
and A as the receiver of the following data transmission.
❑ C does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside
the detection range. C can start its transmission assuming it
will not cause a collision at A.
❑ The problem with exposed terminals is solved without fixed
access patterns or a base station.
❑ One problem of MACA is clearly the overheads associated
with the RTS and CTS transmissions – for short and
time-critical data packets, this is not negligible.

MACA can avoid exposed terminals

❑ MACA also assumes symmetrical transmission and reception
conditions. Otherwise, a strong sender, directed antennas etc.
could counteract the above scheme.
❑ The above figure shows simplified state machines for a sender
and receiver. The sender is idle until a user requests the
transmission of a data packet. The sender then issues an RTS
and waits for the right to send.
❑ If the receiver gets an RTS and is in an idle state, it sends back
a CTS and waits for data. The sender receives the CTS and
sends the data. Otherwise, the sender would send an RTS
again after a time-out.
❑ After transmission of the data, the sender waits for a positive
acknowledgement to return into an idle state. The receiver
sends back a positive acknowledgement if the received data
was correct.
❑ If not, or if the waiting time for data is too long, the receiver
returns into idle state. If the sender does not receive any
acknowledgement or a negative acknowledgement, it sends an
RTS and again waits for the right to send.
❑ Alternatively, a receiver could indicate that it is currently busy
via a separate RxBusy.
❑ Real implementations have to add more states and transitions,
e.g., to limit the number of retries.

Protocol machines for multiple access with collision avoidance

Space Division Multiple Access
❑ Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating
a separated space to users in wireless networks.
❑ A typical application involves assigning an optimal base
station to a mobile phone user. The mobile phone may receive
several base stations with different quality.
❑ A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is
best, taking into account which frequencies (FDM), time slots
(TDM) or code (CDM) are still available (depending on the
technology).
❑ Typically, SDMA is never used in isolation but always in
combination with one or more other schemes.
❑ The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and
sectorized antennas which constitute the infrastructure
implementing space division multiplexing (SDM) (see section
2.5.1).
❑ Single users are separated in space by individual beams. This
can improve the overall capacity of a cell (e.g., measured in
bit/s/m2 or voice calls/m2) tremendously.
Code Division Multiple Access
❑ Code division multiple access (CDMA) systems use exactly
these codes to separate different users in code space and to
enable access to a shared medium without interference.
❑ The main problem is how to find “good” codes and how to
separate the signal from noise generated by other signals and
the environment.
❑ The code directly controls the chipping sequence. lation2 and
should be orthogonal to other codes. Orthogonal in code space
has the same meaning as in standard space (i.e., the three
dimensional space).
❑ Think of a system of coordinates and vectors starting at the
origin, i.e., in (0, 0, 0).3 Two vectors are called orthogonal if
their inner product is 0, as is the case for the two vectors (2, 5,
0) and (0, 0, 17): (2, 5, 0)*(0, 0, 17) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
❑ But also vectors like (3, –2, 4) and (–2, 3, 3) are orthogonal:
(3, –2, 4)*(–2, 3, 3) = –6 – 6 + 12 = 0.
❑ By contrast, the vectors (1,2,3) and (4,2, –6) are not orthogonal
(the inner product is –10), and (1, 2, 3) and (4, 2, –3) are
“almost” orthogonal, with their inner product being –1 (which
is “close” to zero).
❑ This description is not precise in a mathematical sense.
❑ However, it is useful to remember these simplified definitions
when looking at the following examples where the original
code sequences may be distorted due to noise.
❑ Orthogonality cannot be guaranteed for initially orthogonal
codes.
❑ Now let us translate this into code space and explain what we
mean by a good autocorrelation.
❑ The Barker code (+1, –1, +1, +1, –1, +1, +1, +1, –1, –1, –1),
for example, has a good autocorrelation, i.e., the inner product
with itself is large, the result is 11.
❑ This code is used for ISDN and IEEE 802.11. But as soon as
this Barker code is shifted 1 chip further (think of shifting the
11 chip Barker code over itself concatenated several times),
the correlation drops to an absolute value of 1.
❑ It stays at this low value until the code matches itself again
perfectly. This helps, for example, to synchronize a receiver
with the incoming data stream.
❑ The peak in the matching process helps the receiver to
reconstruct the original data precisely, even if noise distorts
the original signal up to a certain level
 After this quick introduction to orthogonality and
autocorrelation, the following (theoretical) example explains
the basic function of CDMA before it is applied to signals:
1. Two senders, A and B, want to send data. CDMA assigns the
following unique and orthogonal key sequences: key Ak =
010011 for sender A, key BK = 110101 for sender B. Sender
A wants to send the bit A d = 1, sender B sends Bd = 0. To
illustrate this example, let us assume that we code a binary 0
as –1, a binary 1 as +1. We can then apply the standard
addition and multiplication rules.
2. Both senders spread their signal using their key as chipping
sequence (the term ‘spreading’ here refers to the simple
multiplication of the data bit with the whole chipping
sequence).
 In reality, parts of a much longer chipping sequence are
applied to single bits for spreading. Sender A then sends the
signal As = Ad*Ak = +1*(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) = (–1, +1, –1,
–1, +1, +1). Sender B does the same with its data to spread the
signal with the code: Bs = Bd*Bk = –1*(+1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1)
= (–1, –1, +1, –1, +1, –1).
3. Both signals are then transmitted at the same time using the
same frequency, so, the signals superimpose in space (analog
modulation is neglected in this example). Discounting
interference from other senders and environmental noise from
this simple example, and assuming that the signals have the
same strength at the receiver, the following signal C is
received at a receiver: C = As + Bs = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2, 0).
4. The receiver now wants to receive data from sender A and,
therefore, tunes in to the code of A, i.e., applies A’s code for
despreading: C*Ak = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2, 0)*(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1,
+1) = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6. As the result is much larger
than 0, the receiver detects a binary 1. Tuningin to sender B,
i.e., applying B’s code gives C*Bk = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2, 0)*
(+1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1) = –2 + 0 + 0 – 2 – 2 + 0 = –6. The
result is negative, so a 0 has been detected.
❑ This example involved several simplifications. The codes
were extremely simple, but at least orthogonal.
❑ More importantly, noise was neglected. Noise would add to
the transmitted signal C, the results would not be as even with
–6 and +6, but would maybe be close to 0, making it harder to
decide if this is still a valid 0 or 1.
❑ Additionally, both spread bits were precisely superimposed
and both signals are equally strong when they reach the
receiver.
❑ What would happen if, for example, B was much stronger?
Assume that B’s strength is five times A’s strength. Then, C' =
As + 5*Bs = (–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) + (–5, –5, +5, –5, +5, –5)
= (–6, –4, +4, –6, +6, –4).
❑ Again, a receiver wants to receive B: C'*Bk = –6 –4 – 4 – 6 – 6
– 4= –30. It is easy to detect the binary 0 sent by B. Now the
receiver wants to receive A: C'*A k = 6 – 4 – 4 + 6 + 6 – 4 = 6.
Clearly, the (absolute) value for the much stronger signal is
higher (30 compared to 6).
❑ While –30 might still be detected as 0, this is not so easy for
the 6 because compared to 30, 6 is quite close to zero and
could be interpreted as noise.
Remember the party example.
❑ If one person speaks in one language very loudly, it is of no
more use to have another language as orthogonal code – no
one can understand you, your voice will only add to the noise.
❑ Although simplified, this example shows that power control is
essential for CDMA systems. This is one of the biggest
problems CDMA systems face as the power has to be adjusted
over one thousand times per second in some systems-this
consumes a lot of energy.
❑ The following examples summarize the behaviour of CDMA
together with the DSSS spreading using orthogonal codes.
❑ The examples now use longer codes or key sequences (i.e.,
longer as a single bit).
❑ Code sequences in IS-95, for example, (a mobile phone system
that uses CDMA) are 242 – 1 chips long, the chipping rate is
1228800 chips/s (i.e., the code repeats after 41.425 days).
More details about CDMA can be found in Viterbi (1995).
❑ Figure 5 shows a sender A that wants to transmit the bits 101.
The key of A is shown as signal and binary key sequence Ak.
❑ In this example, the binary “0” is assigned a positive signal
value, the binary “1” a negative signal value. After spreading,
i.e., XORing Ad and Ak, the resulting signal is As.
Fig: 5 Coding and spreading of data from sender A
Fig:6 Coding and spreading of data from sender B
❑ The same happens with data from sender B, here the bits are
100. The result of spreading with the code is the signal Bs.
❑ As and Bs now superimpose during transmission (again
without noise and both signals having the same strength). The
resulting signal is simply the sum As + Bs as shown in the
above Figure.
❑ A receiver now tries to reconstruct the original data from A,
Ad.
❑ Therefore the receiver applies A’s key, Ak, to the received
signal and feeds the result into an integrator (see section 2.7.1).
The integrator adds the products (i.e., calculates the inner
product), a comparator then has to decide if the result is a 0 or
a 1 as shown in Figure 6.
❑ As we can see, although the original signal form is distorted by
B’s signal, the result is still quite clear.
❑ The same happens if a receiver wants to receive B’s data
above figure. The comparator can easily detect the original
data.
❑ Looking at (As + Bs)*Bk one can also imagine what could
happen if A’s signal was much stronger and noise distorted the
signal.
❑ The little peaks which are now caused by A’s signal would be
much higher, and the result of the integrator would be wrong.
❑ If Ak and Bk are perfectly orthogonal and no noise disturbs the
transmission, the method works (in theory) for arbitrarily
different signal strengths.
Reconstruction of A’s data
Reconstruction of B’s data
❑ Finally, Figure 8 shows what happens if a receiver has the
wrong key or is not synchronized with the chipping sequence
of the transmitter.
❑ The integrator still presents a value after each bit period, but
now it is not always possible for the comparator to decide for a
1 or a 0, as the signal rather resembles noise.
❑ Integrating over noise results in values close to zero.

Fig: 8 Receiving a signal with the wrong key

❑ Even if the comparator could detect a clear 1, this could
still not reconstruct the whole bit sequence transmitted by a
sender.
❑ A checksum on layer 2 would detect the erroneous packet.
This illustrates CDMA’s inherent protection against
tapping.
❑ It is also the reason for calling the spreading code a key, as
it is simultaneously used for encryption on the physical
layer.
Spread Aloha multiple Access
❑ As shown in the previous section, using different codes with
certain properties for spreading data results in a nice and
powerful multiple access scheme – namely CDMA.
❑ But CDMA senders and receivers are not really simple
devices.
❑ Communicating with n devices requires programming of the
receiver to be able to decode n different codes (and probably
sending with n codes, too).
❑ For mobile phone systems, a lot of the complexity needed for
CDMA is integrated in the base stations.
❑ The wireless and mobile devices communicate with the base
station only.
❑ However, if spontaneous, bursty traffic has to be supported
between an arbitrary number of devices, the CDMA technique
seems to pose too much overhead.
❑ No one wants to program many different spreading codes for,
e.g., ad-hoc networks.
❑ On the other hand, Aloha was a very simple scheme, but could
only provide.
❑ What happens if we combine the spreading of CDMA and the
medium access of Aloha or, in other words, what if we use
CDMA with only a single code, i.e., without CD? The
resulting scheme is called spread Aloha multiple access
(SAMA) and is a combination of CDMA and TDMA
(Abramson, 1996) a relatively low bandwidth due to
collisions.
❑ SAMA works as follows: each sender uses the same spreading
code (in the example shown in Figure 9 this is the code
110101).4
❑ The standard case for Aloha access is shown in the upper part
of the figure. Sender A and sender B access the medium at the
same time in their narrowband spectrum, so that all three bits
shown cause a collision.
❑ The same data could also be sent with higher power for a
shorter period as shown in the middle, but now spread
spectrum is used to spread the shorter signals, i.e., to increase
the bandwidth (spreading factor s = 6 in the example).
❑ Both signals are spread, but the chipping phase differs slightly.
Separation of the two signals is still possible if one receiver is
synchronized to sender A and another one to sender B.
❑ The signal of an unsynchronized sender appears as noise.
❑The probability of a ‘collision’ is quite low if the number of
simultaneous transmitters stays below 0.1–0.2s (Abramson,
1996). This also depends on the noise level of the
environment. The main problem in using this approach is
finding good chipping sequences.

Fig: 9 Spread Aloha multiple access

❑ The same data could also be sent with higher power for a
shorter period as shown in the middle, but now spread
spectrum is used to spread the shorter signals, i.e., to
increase the bandwidth (spreading factor s = 6 in the
example).
❑ Both signals are spread, but the chipping phase differs
slightly. Separation of the two signals is still possible if
one receiver is synchronized to sender A and another one
to sender B.
❑ The signal of an unsynchronized sender appears as noise.
❑ The probability of a ‘collision’ is quite low if the number
of simultaneous transmitters stays below 0.1–0.2s
(Abramson, 1996).
❑ This also depends on the noise level of the environment. The
main problem in using this approach is finding good chipping
sequences.
❑ Clearly, the code is not orthogonal to itself – it should have a
good autocorrelation but, at the same time, correlation should
be low if the phase differs slightly.
❑ The maximum throughput is about 18 per cent, which is very
similar to Aloha, but the approach benefits from the
advantages of spread spectrum techniques: robustness
against narrowband interference and simple coexistence with
other systems in the same frequency bands.
OFDM
❑ Special modulation schemes that stand somewhat apart from
the others are multi-carrier modulation (MCM), orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) or coded OFDM
(COFDM) that are used in the context of the European digital
radio system DAB (see section 6.3) and the WLAN standards
IEEE 802.11a and HiperLAN2 (see chapter 7).
❑ The main attraction of MCM is its good ISI mitigation
property.
❑ As explained in section 2.4.3, higher bit rates are more
vulnerable to ISI.
❑ MCM splits the high bit rate stream into many lower bit rate
streams (see Figure 2.30), each stream being sent using an
independent carrier frequency.
❑ If, for example, n symbols/s have to be transmitted, each
subcarrier transmits n/c symbols/s with c being the number of
subcarriers. One symbol could, for example represent 2 bit as
in QPSK.
❑ DAB, for example, uses between 192 and 1,536 of these
subcarriers.
❑ The physical layer of HiperLAN2 and IEEE 802.11a uses 48
subcarriers for data.

Fig: Parallel data transmission on several subcarriers with lower rate

❑ The figure shows the superposition of orthogonal frequencies.
The maximum of one subcarrier frequency appears exactly at a
frequency where all other subcarriers equal zero.

Fig: Superposition of orthogonal frequencies

❑ Using this scheme, frequency selective fading only influences
some subcarriers, and not the whole signal – an additional
benefit of MCM.
❑ Typically, MCM transmits symbols with guard spaces between
single symbols or groups of symbols.
❑ This helps the receiver to handle multi-path propagation.
❑ OFDM is a special method of implementing MCM using
orthogonal carriers.
❑ Computationally, this is a very efficient algorithm based on
fast Fourier transform (FFT) for modulation/demodulation.
❑ If additional error-control coding across the symbols in
different subcarriers is applied, the system is referred to as
COFDM.
Comparison of Multiple Access
Technique
❑ A comparison of the four basic multiple access
versions is given in Table below.
❑ The table shows the MAC schemes without
combination with other schemes.
❑ However, in real systems, the MAC schemes always
occur in combinations. A very typical combination is
constituted by SDMA/TDMA/FDMA as used in IS-54,
GSM, DECT, PHS, and PACS phone systems, or the
Iridium and ICO satellite systems.
❑ CDMA together with SDMA is used in the IS-95
mobile phone system and the Globalstar satellite
system.
❑ Although many network providers and manufacturers
have lowered their expectations regarding the
performance of CDMA compared to the early 1980s
CDMA is integrated into almost all third generation
mobile phone systems either as W-CDMA (FOMA,
UMTS) or cdma2000.
❑ CDMA can be used in combination with FDMA/TDMA
access schemes to increase the capacity of a cell.
❑ In contrast to other schemes, CDMA has the advantage
of a soft handover and soft capacity.
❑ Soft handover means that a mobile station can smoothly
switch cells.
❑ This is achieved by communicating with two base
stations at the same time.
❑ CDMA does this using the same code and the receiver
even benefits from both signals.
❑ TDMA/FDMA systems perform a hard handover, i.e., they
switch base station and hopping sequences
(time/frequency) precisely at the moment of handover.
❑ Handover decision is based on the signal strength, and
oscillations between base stations are possible.
❑ While mobile phone systems using SDMA/TDMA/FDMA
or SDMA/CDMA are centralized systems – a base station
controls many mobile stations – arbitrary wireless
communication systems need different MAC algorithms.
❑ Most distributed systems use some version of the basic
Aloha.
❑ Typically, Aloha is slotted and some reservation mechanisms
are applied to guarantee access delay and bandwidth.
❑ Each of the schemes has advantages and disadvantages.
Simple CSMA is very efficient at low load, MACA can
overcome the problem of hidden or exposed terminals, and
polling guarantees bandwidth.
❑ No single scheme combines all benefits, which is why, for
example, the wireless LAN standard IEEE 802.11 combines
all three schemes (see section 7.3).
❑ Polling is used to set up a time structure via a base station.
❑ A CSMA version is used to access the medium during
uncoordinated periods, and additionally, MACA can be used
to avoid hidden terminals or in cases where no base station
exists.
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea Segment space Segment sending Segment the Spread the
into cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into spectrum using
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands orthogonal codes
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals Only one All terminals are Every terminal has its All terminals can
terminal can be active for short own frequency, be active at the
active in one periods of time on uninterrupted same place at the
cell/one sector the same frequency same moment,
uninterrupted

Signal Cell structure Synchronization in Filtering in the Code plus special

Separation directed the time domain frequency domain receivers
antennas
Advantages Very simple, Established, fully Simple, Flexible, less
increases digital, very flexible establishment, planning needed,
capacity per km 2 ,robust soft handover
Disadvantages Inflexible, Guard space needed, Inflexible, frequencies Complex receivers,
antennas synchronization are a scarce resource needs more
typically fixed complicated power
control for senders
Comment Only in Standard in fixed Typically combined Used in many 3G
combination with networks, together with TDMA systems, higher
TDMA, FDMA or with FDMA/SDMA (frequency expectations;
CDMA useful used in many mobile complexity, integrated with
networks hopping lowered TDMA/FDMA
patterns) and SDMA
(frequency reuse)
 UNIT – 3
GSM - global system for mobile
communications

1
Mobile phone subscribers worldwide
1600

1400

1200
Subscribers [million]

GSM total
1000 TDMA
total
CDMA
total
PDC total
800
Analogue total
W-CDMA
600
Total
wireless
Prediction (1998)
400

200

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 year

2
Development of mobile telecommunication
systems
FDMA
CT0/1
AMPS
NMT CT2
IMT-FT LTE
LTE
IS-136 DECT advanced
TDMA
TDMA

EDGE IMT-SC
D-AMPS
IS-136HS
GSM GPRS
UWC-136
PDC
IMT-DS
UTRA FDD / W-CDMA
IMT-TC HSPA
UTRA TDD / TD-CDMA
CDMA

IMT-TC
TD-SCDMA
IS-95 IMT-MC
cdma2000 1X
cdmaOne cdma2000 1X EV-DO
1X EV-DV
1G 2G 2.5G 3G (3X) 3.9G 4G
GSM: Overview
• GSM
• formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)
• now: Global System for Mobile Communication
• Pan-European standard (ETSI, European Telecommunications Standardization Institute)
• simultaneous introduction of essential services in three phases (1991, 1994, 1996) by the European
telecommunication administrations (Germany: D1 and D2)
seamless roaming within Europe possible
• Today many providers all over the world use GSM
(>220 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America)
• more than 4,2 billion subscribers in more than 700 networks
• more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM
• over 29 billion SMS in Germany in 2008, (> 10% of the revenues for many operators) [be aware: these
are only rough numbers…]

4
Performance characteristics of GSM (wrt.
analog sys.)
• Communication
• mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services
• Total mobility
• international access, chip-card enables use of access points of different providers
• Worldwide connectivity
• one number, the network handles localization
• High capacity
• better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell
• High transmission quality
• high audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds
(e.g., from cars, trains)
• Security functions
• access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN

5
Disadvantages of GSM
• There is no perfect system!!
• no end-to-end encryption of user data
• no full ISDN bandwidth of 64 kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel
• reduced concentration while driving
• electromagnetic radiation
• abuse of private data possible
• roaming profiles accessible
• high complexity of the system
• several incompatibilities within the GSM standards
6
GSM: Mobile Services
• GSM offers
• several types of connections
• voice connections, data connections, short message service
• multi-service options (combination of basic services)
• Three service domains
• Bearer Services
• Telematic Services
• Supplementary Services

bearer services
MS
transit
source/
network
TE MT GSM-PLMN destination TE
(PSTN,
R, S Um network (U, S, R)
ISDN)

tele services

7
Bearer Services
• Telecommunication services to transfer data between
access points
• Specification of services up to the terminal interface (OSI
layers 1-3)
• Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
• Transparent bearer service (use only physical layer to transmit data
– Forward error correction (FEC) only
circuit switched – constant delay and throughput
• Non transparent bearer service (use protocols of layer 2 and 3 to
implement error correction and flow control)
data service (packet switched)
• Today: data rates of approx. 50 kbit/s possible – (even more
with new modulation)
8
Tele Services I
• Telecommunication services that enable voice communication via mobile
phones
• All these basic services have to obey cellular functions, security
measurements etc.
• Offered services
• mobile telephony
primary goal of GSM was to enable mobile telephony offering the traditional
bandwidth of 3.1 kHz
• Emergency number
common number throughout Europe (112); mandatory for all service providers;
free of charge; connection with the highest priority (preemption of other
connections possible)
• Multinumbering
several ISDN phone numbers per user possible

9
Tele Services II
• Additional services
• Non-Voice-Teleservices
• group 3 fax
• voice mailbox (implemented in the fixed network supporting the mobile terminals)
• electronic mail (MHS, Message Handling System, implemented in the fixed network)
• ...

• Short Message Service (SMS)

alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal (160 characters) using the
signaling channel, thus allowing simultaneous use of basic services and SMS
(almost ignored in the beginning now the most successful add-on! – but more and more
replaced by IP-based messaging)

10
Supplementary services
• Services in addition to the basic services, cannot be offered
stand-alone
• Similar to ISDN services besides lower bandwidth due to the radio link
• May differ between different service providers, countries and
protocol versions
• Important services
• identification: forwarding of caller number
• suppression of number forwarding
• automatic call-back
• conferencing with up to 7 participants
• locking of the mobile terminal (incoming or outgoing calls)
11
Architecture of the GSM system
• GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
• several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM standard within
each country
• components
• MS (mobile station)
• BS (base station)
• MSC (mobile switching center)
• LR (location register)
• subsystems
• RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
• NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover, switching
• OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network

12
GSM System Architecture
• Radio Subsystem (RSS)
• Mobile Station (MS)
• Mobile Equipment (ME)
• Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
• Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
• Base Station Controller (BSC)
• Network Switching Subsystem(NSS)
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
• Home Location Register (HLR)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Operation Subsystem (OSS)
• Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
• Authentication Center (AUC)
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
13
Ingredients 1: Mobile Phones, PDAs & Co.

The visible but smallest

part of the network!

14
Ingredients 2: Antennas

Still visible – cause many discussions…

Ingredients 3: Infrastructure 1
Base Stations

Cabling

Microwave links
Ingredients 3: Infrastructure 2
Not „visible“, but
comprise the major part
of the network (also
from an investment
point of view…)

Management

Data bases

Switching units

Monitoring

17
 GSM Architecture
MS: Mobile Station
BSS: Base Station Subsystem
BSC: Base Station Controller
BTS: Base Transceiver Station
TRX: Transceiver
MSC: Mobile Switching Centre

VLR: Visitor Location Register

HLR: Home Location Register
AuC: Authentication Centre
EIR: Equipment Identity Register
OMC: Operations and Maintenance Centre
PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network

• Three Subsystems:
– The Radio Subsystem
– The Network and Switching Sub-system (NSS) – comprising an MSC and associated registers
– The Operation Subsystem

18
GSM: elements and interfaces
radio cell
M M BSS
S S

Um radio cell

BT M
RSS S
S

BT
S
Abis
BS BS
C C
A

MS MS
C C

NSS VL VL signaling
R R
HL GM ISDN, PSTN
R SC
IW PDN
F
O

OSS AU OM
EIR
C C

19
GSM: system architecture
radio network and fixed
subsystem switching subsystem partner networks

MS MS
ISDN
PSTN
MS
Um C
BT Abis
S BS
BT C EIR
S

SS7
HL
R

BT VL
S R
BS
BT C MS ISDN
S A C IW PSTN
BSS F
PSPDN
CSPDN
20
System Architecture: Radio Subsystem
radio network and
subsystem switching
subsystem
• Components
MS MS
• MS (Mobile Station)
• BSS (Base Station Subsystem):
consisting of
Um • BTS (Base Transceiver Station):
sender and receiver
BT Abis
S BS • BSC (Base Station Controller):
BT C
MSC controlling several transceivers
S

• Interfaces
• Um : radio interface
• Abis : standardized, open interface with
BT A 16 kbit/s user channels
S BS MSC • A: standardized, open interface with
BT C 64 kbit/s user channels
S
BSS

21
Radio Subsystem
• The Radio Subsystem (RSS) comprises the cellular
mobile network up to the switching centers
• Components
• Mobile Stations (MS)

• Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): radio components including
sender, receiver, antenna - if directed antennas are used one
BTS can cover several cells
• Base Station Controller (BSC): switching between BTSs,
controlling BTSs, managing of network resources, mapping of
radio channels

• BSS = BSC + sum(BTS) + interconnection

22
RSS: The Mobile Station (MS)
• The mobile station consists of:
• Mobile Equipment (ME)
• Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
• The SIM stores all specific data that is relevant to GSM - permanent and
temporary data about the mobile, the subscriber and the network,
including:
• The International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
• MS ISDN number of subscriber (phone number)
• Authentication key and algorithms for authentication check
• Charging information, list of subscribed services
• Personal identity number (PIN), and PIN unblocking key (PUK)
• Temporary location information while logged onto GSM system
• Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI)
• Location area identification (LAI)

23
RSS: The Mobile Station (MS)
• The mobile equipment has a unique International Mobile Equipment
Identity (IMEI), which is used for theft protection
• Without the SIM, only emergency calls are possible
• For GSM 900, MS transmits power of up to 2W, for GSM 1800 1W
due to smaller cell-size
• MS can also have other components and services for the user
(display, loudspeaker, Bluetooth interface, IrDA,...etc). These are non
GSM features.

24
RSS: The Base Station Sub-System (BSS)
• A GSM network comprises many BSSs.
• The BSS performs all the functions necessary to
maintain radio connection to an MS
(coding/decoding of voice, rate adaptation,…)
• Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts
that communicate across the standardized Abis
interface allowing operation between components
made by different suppliers:
• Base Station Controller (BSC)
• One or more Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs)

• BTS contains:
• Radio Transmitter/Receiver (TRX)
• Signal processing and control equipment
• Antennas and feeder cables 25
RSS: The Base Station
• The purpose of the BTS is to:
Sub-System (BSS)
• Provide radio access to the mobile stations
• Manage the radio access aspects of the system
• Encode, encrypt, multiplex, modulate and feed the RF signals to the
antenna.
• Frequency hopping
• Communicates with Mobile station and BSC

• The BSC:
• Allocates a channel for the duration of a call
• Maintains the call:
• Monitoring quality
• Controlling the power transmitted by the BTS or MS
• Generating a handover to another cell when required
• BTSs can be linked to parent BSC by microwave, optical fiber or cable

26
Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
• NSS is the main component and the heart of the GSM
system
• Connects the wireless network with standard public networks
(manages communication between GSM and other networks)
• Performs handover between different BSSs
• Supports roaming of users between different providers in
different countries
• Performs functions for worldwide localization of users
• Charging and billing information, accounting information

In summary switching, mobility management,

interconnection to other networks, system control are the
main functions of NSS
27
NSS- components
• Components
• Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
• Gateway Mobile Switching Center
• Databases (important: scalability, high capacity, low delay)
• Home Location Register (HLR)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• All components connect using the SS7 signaling system

HLR fixed
GMSC
NSS network

VLR MSC MSC

VLR

BSC

BSC 28
NSS - Mobile Services Switching Center
• MSCs are high-performance digital ISDN switches
• They set-up and control connections to other
MSCs and to BSCs via the A-interface
• They form the backbone network of a GSM
system
• Typically, an MSC manages several BSCs in a
geographical region
• Controls all connections via a separated network
to/from a mobile terminal within the domain of
the MSC

29
NSS - Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)
• Functions of the MSC:
• Switching calls, controlling calls and logging calls
• specific functions for paging and call forwarding
• mobility specific signaling
• Mobility management over the radio network and other networks.
• Radio Resource management – handovers between BSCs
• Billing Information
• location registration and forwarding of location information
• provision of new services (fax, data calls)
• support of short message service (SMS)
• generation and forwarding of accounting and billing information
• Interface with PSTN, ISDN, PSPDN - interworking functions via Gateway
MSC (GMSC)

30
NSS - MSC- Gateway Mobile Switching Centre
(GMSC)

• A particular MSC can be assigned to act as a GMSC (Gateway Mobile

Switching Centre)
•
• A GMSC is a device which routes traffic entering a mobile network to
the correct destination

• The GMSC accesses the network’s HLR to find the location of the
required mobile subscriber

• The operator may decide to assign more than one GMSC

NSS- Home Location Register (HLR)
• Most important database in GSM system, stores all
user-relevant information permanent and
semi-permanent
• Static information such as mobile subscriber ISDN number,
subscribed services (e.g call forwarding, roaming restrictions),
and the International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI))
• Dynamic information such as the current location area (LA) of
the MS, the mobile subscriber roaming number (MSRN), the
current VLR and MSC.
As soon as an MS leaves its current LA, the information in the
HLR is updated. This information is necessary to localize a user
in the worldwide GSM network
• All these user-specific information elements only exist
once for each user in a single HLR which also supports
charging and accounting.
32
HLR Implementation
• There is logically one HLR in a Network, although it
may consist of several separate computers
• May be split regionally
• HLRs can manage data for several million customers
• Contain highly specialised databases to fulfill real-time
requirements and answer requests within certain time
bounds.
• Stand alone computer – no switching capabilities
• May be located anywhere on the SS7 network
• Combine with AuC

33
NSS- Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Each MSC has a VLR
• VLR is a dynamic local database which stores all important information
needed for MS users currently in the LA (location area) associated to the
MSC (the domain of the VLR)
• If a new MS comes into the LA of the VLR, it copies all relevant
information for this user from the HLR, and stores this data temporarily.
• Information stored includes:
– International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
– Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)
– Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
– Temporary Mobile Station Identity (TMSI)
• Local Mobile Station Identity
– The location area where the mobile station has been registered
– Supplementary service parameters
Operation Subsystem (OSS)
• The OSS (Operation Subsystem) enables centralized
operation, management, and maintenance of all GSM
subsystems. It accesses other components via SS7
signaling. It consists of the following three components:
• Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
• Authentication Center (AuC)
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

• Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)

• different control capabilities for the radio subsystem and the
network subsystem via the O-interface (SS7)
• Traffic monitoring, status reports of network entities, subscriber and
security management, or accounting and billing

35
OSS – Authentication Center (AuC)
• Authentication Center (AuC)
• A separate AuC is defined to protect user
identity and data transmission (wireless
part)
• authentication parameters used for
authentication of mobile terminals and
encryption of user data on the air
interface within the GSM system
• generates user specific authentication
parameters on request of a VLR
• Situated in a special protected part of the
HLR

36
OSS – Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• EIR is a database for all IMEI (International Mobile
Equipment Identity). It stores all device
identifications registered for this network
• The EIR controls access to the network by returning the status of a mobile
in response to an IMEI query

• Possible status levels are:

• White-listed - The terminal is allowed to connect to the
network
• Grey-listed - The terminal is under observation by the
network for possible problems
• Black-listed - The terminal has either been reported
stolen, or is not a type approved for a GSM network. The
terminal is not allowed to connect to the network.

37
The Radio Interface
• The most interesting interface in GSM is Um the radio interface.
• GSM implements SDMA using cells with BTS and assigns an MS to a BTS
• FDD is used to separate uplink and downlink
• TDM is also used and media access combines TDMA & FDMA
• In GSM 900, 124 channels uplink + 124 channels downlink, each 200KHz wide, are
used for FDMA
• Each of the 248 channels is further divided into frames that are repeated
continuously. The duration of the frame is 4.615 ms
• Each frame is subdivided into 8 GSM timeslots, where each slot represents a
physical channel and lasts for 577 µsec. Each TDM channel occupies the 200 KHz
carrier for 577 µsec every 4.615 ms
• Data is transmitted in small portions called bursts, the burst is only 546.5 µsec long
and contains 148 bits. The remaining 30.5 µsec are used as guard space to avoid
overlapping with other bursts.

38
GSM - TDMA/FDMA
935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink

y
nc
ue
890-915 MHz

eq
124 channels (200 kHz)
fr uplink
higher GSM frame structures
time

GSM TDMA frame

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.615 ms

GSM time-slot (normal burst)

guard guard
space tail user data S Training S user data tail space
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
546.5 µs
577 µs

39
Cellular Networks Terminology

• Operation
• Initialisation: when handset is turned on it selects a
channel and connects to the switch
• Paging: switch must locate a mobile by broadcasting
requests from base stations
• Handoff: switches must be able to move calls between
cells when mobile moves
• Blocking/Dropping: calls may be blocked or dropped if
conditions in a cell change
• Interworking: calls may be placed to other networks or
may allow users to roam into other networks

40
GSM- Logical channels
• GSM specifies two basic groups of logical channels:
• Traffic channels (TCH): to transmit user data (e.g., voice, fax,
SMS,..)
• Control Channel (CCH): many different CCHs are used in GSM
system to control medium access, allocation of traffic channels,
or mobility management. The following three groups of CCH
have been defined:
• Broadcast control channel (BCCH) : A BTS used this channel to signal
information to all MSs within a cell (e.g. Cell identifier)
• Common control channel (CCCH): All information regarding connection
setup between MS and BS is exchanged via the CCCH (e.g. paging
request) – random access scheme (ALOHA)
• Dedicated control channel (DCCH): Before establishing a TCH, an MS and
BTS uses this bidirectional channel for signalling (e.g. authentication)

41
GSM Operation: Localization & Calling
• One fundamental feature of GSM is the automatic worldwide
localization of users
• The system always know where a user currently is, and the same
phone number is valid worldwide.
• To provide this service, GSM performs periodic location updates even
if a user doesn’t use the MS (still logged in GSM and not switched
off).
• The HLR always contain information about the current location (the
LA, not the precise geographical location)
• The VLR responsible for the MS informs the HLR about location
changes.
• As soon as an MS moves into the range of a new VLR, the HLR sends
all user data needed to the new VLR
• Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability of all services is called
handover - roaming
Localization & Calling (cont)

• To locate the MS and to address it several numbers are needed:

• Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN). This number consists of the
country code, the address of network provider and the subscriber number
• International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). This number is used for internal
unique identification of a subscriber
• Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): to hide the IMSI which would give
away the exact identity of the user. TMSI is a four byte number selected by the
current VLR and is only valid temporarily within the location area of the VLR.
• Mobile station roaming number (MSRN). This is another temporary address that
hides the identity and location of a subscriber. The VLR generates this address on
request from the MSC. This address contains the current visitor country code, the
visitor network provider, identification of current MSC with the subscriber
number. This number is also saved in the HLR and helps the HLR to find a
subscriber for an incoming call.
Localization & Calling (cont)
• All these numbers are needed to find a subscriber
and to maintain the connection with a mobile
station

• To describe how the calling process works we will

consider two main cases for a call:
• Outgoing call – Mobile Originated Call (MOC)
• A GSM Mobile station calls a station outside the GSM
network
• Incoming Call - Mobile Terminating Call (MTC)
• A station outside the GSM network calls a GSM mobile
station.
Mobile Originated Call (MOC) - outgoing
call
• 1, 2: connection request
VLR
• MS sends dialled number to BSS
• BSS sends dialled number to MSC 3 4
6 5
PSTN GMS
MSC
• 3, 4: security check C
7 8
• MSC checks VLR if MS is allowed 2 9
the requested service. If so, MSC asks 1
MS BSS
BSS to allocate resources for call. 10

• 5-8: check resources (free circuit)

• MSC routes the call to GMSC
• GMSC routes the call to local exchange of called user

• 9-10: set up call

• Answer back(ring back) tone is routed from called user to MS via
GMSC,MSC,BSS
Mobile Terminated Call
• 1: calling a GSM subscriber
• 2: forwarding call to GMSC 4
HLR VLR
• 3: signal call setup to HLR 5
8 9
• 4, 5: request MSRN from VLR 3 6 14 15
• 6: forward responsible calling GMS 7
PSTN MSC
station 1 2 C
MSC to GMSC
10 10 13 10
• 7: forward call to 16
• current MSC BSS BSS BSS
11 11 11
• 8, 9: get current status of MS
• 10, 11: paging of MS 11 12
17
• 12, 13: MS answers MS
• 14, 15: security checks
• 16, 17: set up connection
MTC/MOC
MS MTC BTS MS MOC BTS
paging request
channel request channel request
immediate assignment immediate assignment
paging response service request
authentication request authentication request
authentication response authentication response
ciphering command ciphering command
ciphering complete ciphering complete
setup setup
call confirmed call confirmed
assignment command assignment command
assignment complete assignment complete
alerting alerting
connect connect
connect acknowledge connect acknowledge
data/speech exchange data/speech exchange
Handover
• Cellular systems require handover procedure as single
cells do not cover the whole service area
• Only up to 35 Km around each antenna on the countryside
and some hundred meters in cities

• The smaller the cell-size and the faster the movement

of a MS (up to 250 Km/h for GSM), the more
handovers are required

• A handover should not cause a cut-off (call-drop)

• GSM aims at maximum handover duration of 60ms

Handover Causes
• Handover can be initiated by either MS or MSC
• Two basic reasons for a handover:
• Mobile initiated handover: the MS moves out of the
range of a BTS or a certain antenna of a BTS.
• The received signal decreases continuously until it falls below
the minimal requirements for communication
• The error rate grow due to interference
• The quality of the radio link is not suitable for the near future
• Network Initiated handover: the wired infrastructure
(MSC, BSC) may decide that the traffic in one cell is too
high and shift some MS to other cells with a lower load;
i.e.; for load balancing
Handover Types
• There are four different types of handover in the
GSM system, which involve transferring a call
between:

• Internal:
• Channels (time slots) in the same cell
• Cells within the same BSS (same BSC)

• External:
• Cells in different BSSs (different BSCs) but
under the control of the same MSC
• Cells under the control of different MSCs
4 types of handover
1
2 3 4
M M M M
S S S S

BTS BTS BTS BTS

BSC BSC BSC

MSC MSC

1. Intra-cell handover (channels, time-slots within the same cell – e.g. because of
narrow band interference with some frequencies)
2. Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover (cells within the same BSS, BSC)
3. Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover (cells in different BSS but under control of same
MSC)
4. Inter MSC handover (cells under control of different MSCs)
Handover Decision
• Handover decision is based on the following
parameters (in priority order):
• Received signal quality (signal level + bit-error rate)
• Received signal strength
• Distance of MS from BTS
• Drops below power budget margin
• Each operator has a operator-defined threshold and
handover decisions can be based on one or a
combination of the parameters

• Handover metrics:
• Call blocking/dropping/completion probability
• Probability of successful handoff
• Handoff rate/delay
• Interruption duration
Handover decision
receive level receive level
BTSold BTSnew

HO_MARGIN

M M
S S
BTSold BTSnew

Too high HO_Margin cause a cut-off, too low cause too

many handover
Handover procedure
MS BTSold BSCold MSC BSCnew BTSnew
measurement measurement
report result

HO decision
HO required HO request
resource
allocation
ch. activation

HO command HO request ack ch. activation ack

HO command HO command
HO access
Link establishment

HO complete HO complete
clear command clear command
clear complete clear complete

Hard handover
Roaming
• Allows subscriber to travel to different network areas, different operator’s networks, different
countries – keeping the services and features they use at home

• Billing is done through home network operator, who pays any other serving operator involved

• Requires agreements between operators on charge rates, methods of payment, etc

• Clearing house companies carry out data validation on roamer data records, billing of home
network operations and allocation of payments
Roaming process
• Each mobile network has its own HLR and VLRs. When an MSC detects a
mobile user’s presence in the area covered by its network, it first checks
the HLR database to determine if the user is in his/her home area or is
roaming, i.e., the user is a visitor.
• User in Home Area: HLR has the necessary information for initiating,
terminating, or receiving a call.
• User is Roaming: VLR contacts the user’s HLR to get the necessary
information to set up a temporary user profile.

• When a user receives a call while roaming within another network MSC
• Home GMSC contacts the HLR to determine the appropriate switch in the
roaming area to handle the arriving call and then transfers the call to the
roaming area MSC.
Security in GSM
• Security services
• access control/authentication
• user SIM (Subscriber Identity Module): secret PIN (personal identification number)
• SIM network: challenge response method
• confidentiality
• voice and signaling encrypted on the wireless link (after successful authentication)
• anonymity
• temporary identity TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)
• newly assigned at each new location update
• encrypted transmission
“secret”:
• 3 algorithms specified in GSM • A3 and A8
available via the
• A3 for authentication (“secret”, open interface) Internet
• A5 for encryption (standardized) • network
providers can use
• A8 for cipher key generation used in A5(“secret”, stronger
open interface) mechanisms

• Algorithms A3, A8 are located on the SIM and the AuC and can be proprietary.
A5 is implemented in device and should be identical for all providers.
GSM - authentication
mobile network SIM

RAND
Ki RAND RAND Ki

AC 128 bit 128 bit 128 bit 128 bit

A3 A3
SIM
SRES* 32 bit SRES 32 bit

SRES* =? SRES
MSC SRES
SRES 32 bit

Ki: individual subscriber authentication key SRES: signed response

GSM - key generation and encryption
mobile network (BTS) MS with SIM

RAND
Ki RAND RAND Ki
AC 128 bit 128 bit 128 bit 128 bit SIM

A8 A8

cipher Kc
key 64 bit Kc
64 bit
data encrypted SRES
data
BSS
data MS
A5 A5
Authentication & Encryption

3
7

5 4

6
Evolution Of GSM
• 2nd Generation
• GSM -9.6 Kbps (data rate)

• 2.5 Generation
• HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data)
• Data rate : 76.8 Kbps (9.6 x 8 kbps)
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
• Data rate: 14.4 - 115.2 Kbps
• EDGE (Enhanced Data rate for GSM Evolution)
• Data rate: 547.2 Kbps (max)

• 3rd Generation
• UMTS - WCDMA(Wide band CDMA)
• Data rate : 0.348 – 2.0 Mbps
Data services in GSM
• Data transmission standardized with only 9.6 kbit/s.
Advanced coding allows 14.4 kbit/s
• not enough for Internet and multimedia applications
• GSM is circuit switching connected-oriented mechanism.
This is not suitable for data transmission which is bursty
in nature and requires higher bandwidth
• Web-browsing leaves the channel idle most of the time, so
allocation of channel permanently waste too much resources
• Billing is based upon time allocation of channels which is not
suitable for data services
• Two basic approaches have been proposed:
• HSCSD (High-Speed Circuit Switched Data)
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
HSCSD (High-Speed Circuit Switched
Data) – 2.5 Generation
• Higher data are achieved by bundling several TCHs
• An MS requests one or more TCHs from the GSM
network, i.e., it allocates several TDMA slots within a
TDMA frame– the allocation could be asymmetrical
(more slots on downlink than in uplink)
• Mainly software update in MS and MSC
• An MS can use up to 8 slots within the frame to
achieve up to115.2 Kbit/s
• advantage: ready to use, constant quality, simple
• disadvantage: Still circuit switching same problems,
high price and wasting of resources- channels blocked
for voice transmission – handover for all channels
General Packet Radio Service- GPRS (2.5
G)
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a new
bearer service for GSM that greatly improves and
simplifies wireless access to packet data networks,
• It uses the existing GSM network to transmit and
receive TCP/IP based data to and from GPRS
mobile devices.
• GPRS is a non-voice service added to existing
TDMA time division multiple
• access networks, one of the 2.5G technology
upgrades. TDMA is the underlying transport
mechanism used by GSM networks.
General Packet Radio Service- GPRS (2.5
G)
• Fully packet-oriented switching
• Standardization 1998, introduction 2001
• Using free slots only if data packets ready to send
(e.g., 50 kbit/s using 4 slots temporarily)
• Users are always ON – Charging on volume not on connection
time
• Advantage: one step towards UMTS, more flexible
• Disadvantage: more investment needed (new hardware)
• GPRS network elements
• GSN (GPRS Support Nodes): GGSN and SGSN (routers)
• GGSN (Gateway GSN)
• interworking unit between GPRS and PDN (Packet Data Network)
• SGSN (Serving GSN)
• supports the MS (location, billing, security)
• GR (GPRS Register)
• user addresses
General Packet Radio Service- GPRS (2.5
G)
• High Speed (Data Rate 14.4 – 115 kbps)
• Efficient use of radio bandwidth (Statistical Multiplexing)
• Circuit switching & Packet Switching can be used in
parallel
• Constant connectivity
GPRS Architecture and Interfaces SGS
N
Gn

M SGS GGS PDN

BSS
S N N

Um Gb Gn Gi

HLR
MSC /
GR

VLR EIR
Towards 3G: EDGE Technology
• EDGE improves the GPRS architecture by employing a new
modulation method and link quality control. 8-PSK is a high-level
linear modulation method that carries three times more information
through an extended signal constellation.
• The link quality control dynamically selects the modulation and
coding scheme for transmission of data over the air interface. Thus
the EDGE user bit-rates increase with better quality.
Towards 3G: CDMA
• Capacity is CDMA's biggest asset. It can accommodate more users per MHz of
bandwidth than any other technology ( 3 to 5 times more than GSM)
• CDMA has no built-in limit to the number of concurrent users.
• CDMA do not limit the distance a tower can cover.
• CDMA consumes less power and covers large areas so cell size in CDMA is larger.
• CDMA is able to produce a reasonable call with lower signal (cell phone reception)
levels.
• CDMA uses Soft Handoff, reducing the likelihood of dropped calls.
• CDMA's variable rate voice coders reduce the rate being transmitted when
speaker is not talking, which allows the channel to be packed more efficiently.
• Has a well-defined path to higher data rates.
ITU’s View of Third-Generation Capabilities
• Voice quality comparable to the public switched
telephone network
• 144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed
motor vehicles over large areas
• 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving
slowly over small areas
• Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
• Symmetrical / asymmetrical data transmission rates
• Support for both packet switched and circuit switched
data services
ITU’s View of Third-Generation Capabilities
• An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect efficiently the common
asymmetry between inbound and outbound traffic
• More efficient use of the available spectrum in general
• Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
• Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies
UMTS
• UMTS – Universal Mobile Telephone System
• Most popular 3G wireless standard.
• Combines the infrastructure of the GSM network with superior
technology of the CDMA air interface.
• UMTS was originally a European standard.
• Not just an improvement of 2G networks.
• Requires new equipment and new frequency bandwidths
UMTS Aims
• Broadband access around 2Mbit/s
• Mobile or fixed access
• Service transparency
• Mass market provision at low (?) cost
• Variety of tariffs in 2011

• Convergence of network types

• Global (getting easier!)
UMTS Evolution
• Evolution of GSM towards 3G systems
• Main requirement is for increased data rates
• Mobile access to: Internet, E-mail, Corporate networks

HSCSD: High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data

GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
EDGE: Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
UMTS Evolution
• How?
• GSM won’t completely evolve into UMTS
• Additional capabilities in GSM
• Introduce gradually in cities
• Dual UMTS/GSM terminals
UMTS Multimedia
• Applications
• Web browsing
• Push techniques (news etc.)
• Messaging & email
• Real-time audio & video
• E-commerce applications (banking, shopping)
• Office applications
IP over 3G/UMTS
• Key services in 3G
• Voice (of high quality)
• Non-Internet Multimedia, e.g. photo/video messaging
• Location-based Services (LBS)
• Internet Access – Internet Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
• IP will be a ‘service’ of 3G
• This means IP runs on top of existing layers in parallel to
other protocols for other services
• Some providers will specialize in IP access to customers,
possibly separately to existing providers
Internet Multimedia Subsystem

© www.ericsson.com
 UNIT 4
MOBILE IP-Part-I
Motivation for Mobile IP

Routing
• based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines
physical subnet
• change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological
correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables
Specific routes to end-systems?
• change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination
• does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the
location, security problems
Changing the IP-address?
• adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
• almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time
• TCP connections break, security problems
Requirements to Mobile IP (RFC 3344, was: 3220, was: 2002)

Transparency
• mobile end-systems keep their IP address
• continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
• point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
Compatibility
• support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
• no changes to current end-systems and routers required
• mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
Security
• authentication of all registration messages
Efficiency and scalability
• only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection
typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
• world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole
Internet
Terminology
Mobile Node (MN)
• system (node) that can change the point of connection
to the network without changing its IP address
Home Agent (HA)
• system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
• registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
Foreign Agent (FA)
• system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
• forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router
for the MN
Care-of Address (COA)
• address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
• actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
• can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
Correspondent Node (CN)
• communication partner
 Example network

HA
MN

router

home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router
Data transfer to the mobile system
HA
2
MN

home network 3 receiver

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN
by encapsulation
3. FA forwards the packet
sender to the MN
Data transfer from the mobile system
HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN
FA works as default router

receiver
Overview COA

home router router M

network HA FA N

foreign
Internet network

C
router
N

3.
home router router M
2. FA N
network HA 4.
foreign
Internet network

1.
C
router
N
Network integration
Agent Advertisement
• HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical
subnets
• MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign
network (standard case for home network)
• MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
Registration (always limited lifetime!)
• MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN
• these actions have to be secured by authentication
Advertisement
• HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard
routing information
• routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible
for a MN over a longer period of time)
• packets to the MN are sent to the HA,
• independent of changes in COA/FA
 Agent advertisement
0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type code checksum
#addresse
addr. size lifetime
s
router address 1
preference level 1
router address 2
preference level 2
...
type = 16
length = 6 + 4 * #COAs type = 16 length sequence number
R: registration required registration lifetime R B H F MG r T
reserved
B: busy, no more registrations COA 1
H: home agent COA 2
F: foreign agent ...
M: minimal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored (former Van Jacobson compression)
T: FA supports reverse tunneling
reserved: =0, ignored
Registration
MN r FA HA MN r HA
egis egis
requ tration requ tration
e st es t
regi
s
requ tration
est
on
g i s trati
re
y
n repl
i s tratio
reg
repl
y t
tion
stra
regi
y
repl

t
Mobile IP registration request
0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
T
type = 1 S B D MGr lifetime
x
home address
home agent
COA
identification

extensions . . .

S: simultaneous bindings
B: broadcast datagrams
D: decapsulation by MN
M mininal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored
T: reverse tunneling requested
x: =0, ignored
Mobile IP registration reply
0 7 8 15 16 31
type = 3 code lifetime
home address
home agent
identification
Example codes: extensions . . .
registration successful
0 registration accepted
1 registration accepted, but simultaneous mobility bindings unsupported
registration denied by FA
65 administratively prohibited
66 insufficient resources
67 mobile node failed authentication
68 home agent failed authentication
69 requested Lifetime too long
registration denied by HA
129 administratively prohibited
131 mobile node failed authentication
133 registration Identification mismatch
135 too many simultaneous mobility bindings
Encapsulation

original IP
original data
header

new IP header new data

outer header inner header original data

Encapsulation I
Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload
• e.g. IPv6 in IPv4 (6Bone), Multicast in Unicast (Mbone)
• here: e.g. IP-in-IP-encapsulation, minimal encapsulation or GRE (Generic
Record Encapsulation)
IP-in-IP-encapsulation (mandatory, RFC 2003)
• tunnel between HA and COA

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

flag
IP identification fragment offset
s
TTL IP-in-IP IP checksum
IP address of HA
Care-of address COA
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
flag
IP identification fragment offset
s
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN
TCP/UDP/ ... payload
Encapsulation II
Minimal encapsulation (optional)
• avoids repetition of identical fields
• e.g. TTL, IHL, version, DS (RFC 2474, old: TOS)
• only applicable for unfragmented packets, no space left for fragment
identification

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

flag
IP identification fragment offset
min. s
TTL IP checksum
encap.
IP address of HA
care-of address COA
lay. 4
S reserved IP checksum
protoc.
IP address of MN
original sender IP address (if S=1)
TCP/UDP/ ... payload
 Generic Routing Encapsulation original
original data
header

GRE original
outer header original data
header header

RFC 1701 new header new data

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

flag
IP identification fragment offset
s
TTL GRE IP checksum
IP address of HA RFC 2784
Care-of address COA
re ve ve
CRK S s rsv. protocol C reserved0 protocol
c. r. r.
checksum (optional) offset (optional) checksum (optional) reserved1 (=0)
key (optional)
sequence number (optional)
routing (optional)
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
flag
IP identification fragment offset
s
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN

TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Optimization of packet forwarding

Triangular Routing
• sender sends all packets via HA to MN
• higher latency and network load
“Solutions”
• sender learns the current location of MN
• direct tunneling to this location
• HA informs a sender about the location of MN
• big security problems!
Change of FA
• packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
• new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining
packets to new FA
• this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN
Change of foreign agent
CN HA FAold FAnew MN

Data Data Data

Update
ACK

Data Data
MN changes
location
Update Registration
ACK
Data
Data Data
Warning
Request
Update
ACK
Data
Data
t
Reverse tunneling (RFC 3024, was: 2344)
HA
2
MN

home network sender

1
Internet

FA foreign
network

1. MN sends to FA
3 2. FA tunnels packets to HA
CN by encapsulation
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
receiver
Mobile IP with reverse tunneling

Router accept often only “topological correct“ addresses (firewall!)

• a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct
• furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home network
correct, but MN is to far away from the receiver)
Reverse tunneling does not solve
• problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent
security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)
• optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel
via the HA to a sender (double triangular routing)
The standard is backwards compatible
• the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current
implementations without these extensions
• Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling
Mobile IP and IPv6

Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
• security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is
included
• COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every
node has address autoconfiguration
• no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement which
can be used instead of the special agent advertisement; addresses are always
co-located
• MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this
case (automatic path optimization)
• „soft“ hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is supported
• MN sends the new COA to its old router
• the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the
new COA
• authentication is always granted
Problems with mobile IP

Security
• authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another
organization
• no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized
in the Internet
• patent and export restrictions
Firewalls
• typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are
needed (such as reverse tunneling)
QoS
• many new reservations in case of RSVP
• tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed
for the QoS
Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of current research and
discussions!
Security in Mobile IP

Security requirements (Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol,

RFC 1825)
• Integrity
any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected by the
receiver
• Authentication
sender address is really the address of the sender and all data received is
really data sent by this sender
• Confidentiality
only sender and receiver can read the data
• Non-Repudiation
sender cannot deny sending of data
• Traffic Analysis
creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible
• Replay Protection
receivers can detect replay of messages
IP security architecture I

❑ Two or more partners have to negotiate security mechanisms to

setup a security association
• typically, all partners choose the same parameters and mechanisms
❑ Two headers have been defined for securing IP packets:
• Authentication-Header
• guarantees integrity and authenticity of IP packets
• if asymmetric encryption schemes are used, non-repudiation can also be guaranteed
UDP/TCP-Pake
IP-Header
IP header Authentification-Header
authentication header UDP/TCP data
t
• Encapsulation Security Payload
• protects confidentiality between communication partners

not encrypted encrypted

IP header ESP header encrypted data

 IP security architecture II
❑ Mobile Security Association for registrations
• parameters for the mobile host (MH), home agent (HA), and foreign agent
(FA)
❑ Extensions of the IP security architecture
• extended authentication of registration
MH-FA authentication FA-HA authentication
MH-HA authentication
registration request
registration request
MH FA registration reply HA
registration reply

• prevention of replays of registrations

• time stamps: 32 bit time stamps + 32 bit random number
• nonces: 32 bit random number (MH) + 32 bit random number (HA)
Key distribution

Home agent distributes session keys

FA MH

response:
EHA-FA {session key}
EHA-MH {session key}
HA

❑ foreign agent has a security association with the home agent

❑ mobile host registers a new binding at the home agent
❑ home agent answers with a new session key for foreign agent and mobile
node
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Application
• simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
• supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS
server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
• enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet,
can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP
Client/Server-Model
• the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be
via a DHCP relay) DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPDISCOVER
server client

client relay
DHCP - protocol mechanisms
server client server
(not selected) initialization (selected)
DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER
determine the determine the
configuration configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER
collection of replies
time

selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST
(reject) (options) confirmation of
configuration
DHCPACK
initialization completed

release
DHCPRELEASE delete context
DHCP characteristics

Server
• several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet
standardized (i.e., manual configuration)
Renewal of configurations
• IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
Options
• available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol) timeserver,
SLP (service location protocol) directory,
DNS (domain name system)

Big security problems!

• no authentication of DHCP information specified
 UNIT 5

•IEEE 802.11
•802.11 a and 802.11b
•HIPERLAN
•Bluetooth Architecture
•802.15
 Introduction
• IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area
network (LAN) technical standards, and specifies the set of medium
access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer
communication.
• IEEE 802.11 is used in most home and office networks to
allow laptops, printers, smartphones, and other devices to
communicate with each other and access the Internet without
connecting wires.

2
Two different basic transmission
technologies can be used to set up WLANs
• Infra red - at 900 nm wavelength
• radio transmission - in the GHz range

Types of WLAN
• Infrastructure Networks
• Ad-hoc Networks

3
Infrastructure networks

4
Ad-hoc networks

5
 IEEE 802.11 Features
• Need ways to share spectrum among multiple users and multiple LANs -
Spread Spectrum (CDMA)
• Supports Three different Physical layers:
• Direct Sequence (DS) spread spectrum using ISM band
• Frequency Hopping (FH) spread spectrum using ISM band
• Diffused Infrared (850-900 nm) bands
• Support multiple priorities
• Support time-critical and data traffic
• Power management allows a node to doze off

6
Architecture
• The architecture of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN is designed to support a
network where most decision making is distributed to mobile stations.
• Advantages. It is tolerant of faults in all of the WLAN equipment and
eliminates possible bottlenecks a centralized architecture would introduce.
• The architecture is flexible and can easily support both small, transient
networks and large, semipermanent or permanent networks.
• In addition, the architecture and protocols offer significant power saving
and prolong the battery life of mobile equipment without losing network
connectivity

7
Architecture(Contd..)
• Two network architectures are defined in the IEEE 802.11 standard:
• Infrastructure network: An infrastructure network is the network
architecture for providing communication between wireless clients and
wired network resources. The transition of data from the wireless to wired
medium occurs via an AP.
• Point-to-point (ad-hoc) network: An ad-hoc network is the architecture that
is used to support mutual communication between wireless clients.
Typically, an ad-hoc network is created spontaneously and does not
support access to wired networks. An ad-hoc network does not require an
AP.

8
Architecture(Contd..)

9
Architecture(Contd..)
• IEEE 802.11 supports three basic topologies for WLANs, the independent
basic service set (IBSS), the basic service set, and the extended service set
(ESS).
• The MAC layer supports implementations of IBSS, basic service set, and
ESS configuration.
• Independent basic service set: The IBSS configuration is referred to as an
independent configuration or an ad-hoc network. An IBSS configuration is
analogous to a peer-to-peer office network in which no single node is
required to act as a server.

10
Architecture(Contd..)
• Basic service set: The basic service set configuration relies on an AP that
acts as the logical server for a single WLAN cell or channel.
• Extended service set: The ESS configuration consists of multiple basic
service set cells that can be linked by either wired or wireless backbones
called a distributed system.

11
 Medium Access Control
The basic services provided by the MAC layer are the mandatory
asynchronous data service and an optional time-bounded service.
Functionality;
• Reliable data delivery
• Fairly control access
• Protection of data
Deals;
• Noisy and unreliable medium
• Frame exchange protocol - ACK
• Overhead to IEEE 802.3 -
• Hidden Node Problem – RTS/CTS
• Participation of all stations
• Reaction to every frame
MAC access mechanisms for IEEE 802.11
1. The mandatory basic method based on a version of CSMA/CA,
2. an optional method avoiding the hidden terminal problem, and
3. finally a contention-free polling method for time-bounded service.
1& 2 are summarized as distributed coordination function (DCF), DCF only
offers asynchronous service
3rd method is called point coordination function (PCF)., PCF offers both
asynchronous and time-bounded service but needs an access point to
control medium access and to avoid contention.
The MAC mechanisms are also called distributed foundation wireless
medium access control (DFWMAC).

13
MAC
• Retry Counters
• Short retry counter
• Long retry counter
• Lifetime timer
• Basic Access Mechanism
• CSMA/CA
• Binary exponential back-off
• NAV – Network Allocation Vector
• Timing Intervals: SIFS, Slot Time, PIFS, DIFS, EIFS
• DCF Operation
• PCF Operation
Short inter-frame spacing (SIFS):
PCF inter-frame spacing (PIFS):

DCF inter-frame spacing (DIFS):

15
DFWMAC-DCF using CSMA/CA

Contention window and waiting time

16
DFWMAC–DCF with several competing
senders

17
DCF Operation
PCF Operation
• Poll – eliminates contention
• PC – Point Coordinator
• Polling List
• Over DCF
• PIFS
• CFP – Contention Free Period
• Alternate with DCF
• Periodic Beacon – contains length of CFP
• CF-Poll – Contention Free Poll
• NAV prevents during CFP
• CF-End – resets NAV
 Frame Types
● NAV information
Or
● Short Id for Upper layer data
PS-Poll ● 2048 byte max
● 256 upper layer
header

Sequenc
Duration Address Address Address Address
FC e DATA FCS
/ID 1 2 3 4
Control
2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4 bytes

• Protocol Version ● IEEE 48 bit ● MSDU

address ● Sequence ● CCIT CRC-32
• Frame Type and Sub
Type ● Individual/Group Number Polynomial
● Universal/Local ● Fragment
• To DS and From DS
● 46 bit address Number
• More Fragments
• Retry ● BSSID –BSS
Identifier
• Power Management ● TA - Transmitter
• More Data ● RA - Receiver
• WEP ● SA - Source
● DA - Destination
• Order
Frame Subtypes

CONTROL DATA MANAGEMENT

• RTS ● Data ● Beacon
• CTS ● Data+CF-ACK ● Probe Request & Response
• ACK ● Data+CF-Poll ● Authentication
● Data+CF-ACK+CF-Pol ● Deauthentication
• PS-Poll l ● Association Request &
• CF-End & CF-End ACK ● Null Function Response
● CF-ACK (nodata) ● Reassociation Request &
● CF-Poll (nodata) Response
● CF-ACK+CF+Poll ● Disassociation
● Announcement Traffic
Indication Message (ATIM)
Other MAC Operations
• Fragmentation ● WEP Details
• Sequence control field ● Two mechanism
• In burst
● Default keys
• Medium is reserved
• NAV is updated by ACK ● Key mapping

● WEP header and trailer

● KEYID in header
● ICV in trailer
● Privacy ● dot11UndecryptableCount
● WEP bit set when encrypted. ● Indicates an attack.
● Only the frame body.
● dot11ICVErrorCount
● Medium is reserved
● Attack to determine a
● NAV is updated by ACK
● Symmetric variable key key is in progress.
MAC Management

• Interference by users that have no concept of data

communication. Ex: Microwave
• Interference by other WLANs
• Security of data
• Mobility
• Power Management
Authentication
• Authentication ● Security Problem
• Prove identity to another ● A rogue AP
station.
● SSID of ESS
• Open system authentication
● Announce its presence with
• Shared key authentication beaconing
• A sends ● A active rogue reach higher
• B responds with a text layer data if unencrypted.
• A encrypt and send back
• B decrypts and returns an
authentication
management frame.
• May authenticate any number
of station.
Association
• Association
• Transparent mobility
• After authentication
• Association request to an AP
• After established, forward data
• To BSS, if DA is in the BSS.
• To DS, if DA is outside the BSS.
• To AP, if DA is in another BSS.
• To “portal”, if DC is outside the ESS.
• Portal : transfer point : track mobility. (AP, bridge, or router) transfer
802.1h
• New AP after reassociation, communicates with the old AP.
Address Filtering
• More than one WLAN
• Three Addresses
• Receiver examine the DA, BSSID
Power Management
• Independent BSS
• Distributed Overhead
• Data frame handshake ● Sender
• Wake up every beacon. ● Announcement frame
● Buffer
• Awake a period of ATIM after each
● Power consumption in
beacon. ATIM
• Send ACK if receive ATIM frame & ● Receiver
awake until the end of next ATIM. ● Awake for every Beacon
• Estimate the power saving station, and and ATIM
delay until the next ATIM.
• Multicast frame : No ACK : optional
Power Management
• Infrastructure BSS
• Centralized in the AP.
• Greater power saving
• Mobile Station sleeps for a number of beacon periods.
• Awake for multicast indicated in DTIM in Beacon.
• AP buffer, indicate in TIM
• Mobile requests by PS-Poll
Synchronization
• Timer Synchronization in an Infrastructure BSS
• Beacon contains TSF
• Station updates its with the TSF in beacon.

• Timer Synchronization in an IBSS

• Distributed. Starter of the BSS send TSF zero and increments.
• Each Station sends a Beacon
• Station updates if the TSF is bigger.
• Small number of stations: the fastest timer value
• Large number of stations: slower timer value due to collision.

• Synchronization with Frequency Hopping PHY Layers

• Changes in a frequency hopping PHY layer occurs periodically.
• Change to new channel when the TSF timer value, modulo the dwell period,
is zero
Scanning & Joining
• Scanning
• Passive Scanning : only listens for Beacon and get
info of the BSS. Power is saved.
• Active Scanning: transmit and elicit response from
APs. If IBSS, last station that transmitted beacon
responds. Time is saved.
• Joining a BSS
• Synchronization in TSF and frequency : Adopt PHY
parameters : The BSSID : WEP : Beacon Period :
DTIM
Management Tools
• Combine Power Saving Periods with Scanning
• Instead of entering power saving mode, perform active
scanning.
• Gather information about its environments.

• Pre authentication
• Scans and initiate an authentication
• Reduces the time
802.11a and 802.11b
• 802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless
LANs and goes as fast as 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band.
• 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.
• 802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that
pertains to wireless LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps
transmission in the 2.4-GHz band.
• The 802.11b specification uses only DSSS.

32
33
 HIPERLAN:
HIgh PErformance Radio
Local Area Networks
▪ Two main standards families for Wireless Lan:
▪ IEEE 802.11 (802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g...)
▪ ETSI Hiperlan (Hiperlan Type 1, Type 2, HiperAccess, HiperLink...)
▪ HiperLAN Family

34
Hiperlan2 System Overview
▪ Features
▪ 5 GHz technology, up to 54 Mbit/s
▪ Generic architecture supporting:
Ethernet, IEEE 1394, ATM, 3G etc
▪ Connection-oriented with QoS per conn.
▪ Security - authentication & encryption
▪ Plug-and-play radio network using DFS
▪ Optimal throughput scheme
 Architecture

Control Plane User Plane

CL

MAC RRC ACF DCC EC

CAC RLC

PHY MAC
DLC
HiperLAN Type 1 Reference Model
PHY

HiperLAN Type 2 Reference Model

MAC: Medium Access Sublayer EC: Error Control
CAC: Channel Access Control Sublayer RLC: Radio Link Control
PHY: Physical Layer RRC: Radio Resource Control
DLC: Data Link Control Layer ACF: Association Control Function
CL: Convergence Layer DCC: DLC Connection Control
37
38
▪Modulation scheme: Orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM)
▪Robustness on highly dispersive channels of multipath
fading and inter symbol interference
▪Spectrally efficient
▪Admits great flexibility for different modulation alternatives
▪Facilitated by the efficiency of FFT and IFFT algorithms
and DSP chips
▪Hiperlan2: 19 channels (20MHz apart). Each channel divided
into 52 subcarriers
▪Encoding: Involves the serial sequencing of data, as well as FEC
▪Key feature: Flexible transmission modes
▪With different coding rates and modulation schemes
▪Modes are selected by link adaptation
▪BPSK, QPSK as well as 16QAM (64QAM) supported

Mode Modulation Code rate Physical layer bit

rate (Mbps)
1 BPSK ½ 6
2 BPSK ¾ 9
3 QPSK ½ 12
4 QPSK ¾ 18
5 16QAM 9/16 27
6 16QAM ¾ 36
7(optional) 64QAM ¾ 54
41
▪ Three main control functions
▪ Association control function (ACF): authentication, key
management, association, disassociation, encryption
▪ Radio resource control function (RRC): handover, dynamic
frequency selection, mobile terminal alive/absent, power
saving, power control
▪ DLC user connection control function (DCC): setup and
release of user connections, multicast and broadcast
▪ Connection-oriented
▪ After completing association, a mobile terminal may request
one or several DLC connections, with one unique DLC
address corresponding to each DLC connection, thus
providing different QoS for each connection
43
▪ BCH (broadcast channel): enables control of radio resources
▪ FCH (frequency channel): exact description of the allocation of
resources within the current MAC frame
▪ ACH (access feedback channel): conveys information on previous
attempts at random access
▪ Multibeam antennas (sectors) up to 8 beams supported
▪ A connection-oriented approach, QoS guaranteed
▪ Hiperlan implements QoS through time slots
▪ QoS parameters: bandwidth, bit error rate, latency, and jitter
▪ The original request by a MT to send data uses specific time
slots that are allocated for random access.
▪ AP grants access by allocating specific time slots for a
specific duration in transport channels. The MT then sends
data without interruption from other MT operating on that
frequency.
▪ A control channel provides feedback to the sender.
▪ DLC: Error Control
▪ Acknowledged mode: selective-repeat ARQ
▪ Repetition mode: typically used for broadcast
▪ Unacknowledged mode: unreliable, low latency
▪ DLC: other features
▪ Radio network functions: Dynamic frequency selection;
handover; link adaptation; multibeam antennas; power control
▪ QoS support: Appropriate error control mode selected;
Scheduling performed at MAC level; link adaptation; internal
functions (admission, congestion control, and dropping
mechanisms) for avoiding overload
Bluetooth
• It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for
exchanging data over smaller distances.
• It operates in the unlicensed, industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band at
2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
• Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth
ranges up to 10 meters.
• It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version.
• The spreading technique which it uses is FHSS (Frequency hopping spread
spectrum).
• A bluetooth network is called piconet and a collection of interconnected
piconets is called scatternet.

47
 Bluetooth Architecture
The architecture of bluetooth defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scatternet

48
Piconet
• Piconet is a type of bluetooth network that contains one primary
node called master node and seven active secondary nodes called
slave nodes.
• There are total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10
metres.
• The communication between the primary and secondary node can be
one-to-one or one-to-many.
• Possible communication is only between the master and slave;
Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also have 255 parked
nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation in
communication unless it get converted to the active state.
49
Scatternet
• It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one
piconet can be act as master.
• This kind of node can receive message from master in one piconet and
deliver the message to its slave into the other piconet where it is acting
as a slave. This type of node is refer as bridge node. A station cannot
be master in two piconets.

50
802.15

51
Thank you
 UNIT 5

•MANET characteristics Routing

•AoDV Routing
•VANET communication in
VANET
•Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
•RFID technology two tags of RFID
•Wi-Fi standards
•WiMax standards
•Femtocell network
Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)
• MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless
adhoc network or adhoc wireless network.
• Set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-configured,
self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure.
• MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology
changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as they forward
traffic to other specified nodes in the network.

2
MANET

• MANET may operate a standalone

fashion.
• Form a highly dynamic autonomous
topology with the presence of one or
multiple different transceivers between
nodes.
• MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer,
self-forming, self-healing network
MANET’s circa 2000-2015 typically
communicate at radio frequencies
(30MHz-5GHz).
• Used in road safety, ranging from sensors
for the environment, home, health, disaster
rescue operations, air/land/navy defense,
weapons, robots, etc.

3
Characteristics of MANET
• Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multi hop, may change randomly and rapidly with time, it can form
unidirectional or bi-directional links.

• Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:

Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a wired network
• Autonomous Behavior:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.

• Energy Constrained Operation:

As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile nodes are
characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight features.

• Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent due to its distributed nature of
the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.

• Less Human Intervention:

They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are dynamically autonomous in
nature.

4
MANET Routing Protocols

5
Pro-active routing protocols

• Each mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains the
information of the routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.
• Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables
are updated periodically as and when the network topology changes.
• Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):
It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol.
• Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks due to
count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination Sequenced Distance
Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture.
• Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table
maintained by each node.
• A node will include the new update in the table only if the entry consists of the new
updated route to the destination with higher sequence number.

6
Global State Routing (GSR)
• Global State Routing (GSR):
It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol.
• Link state routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks
because in it, each node floods the link state routing information directly into
the whole network i.e. Global flooding which may lead to the congestion of
control packets in the network.
• Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Routing Protocol (GSR) came into
the picture.
• Global state routing doesn’t flood the link state routing packets globally into
the network.
• In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains one list and three tables namely,
adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table.

7
Reactive routing protocols
• The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets
throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major phases namely, route
discovery and route maintenance.
1. Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR):
It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is
discovered only when it is required/needed.
It consists of two phases:
1. Route Discovery:
This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data
packets between the source and the destination mobile nodes.
2. Route Maintenance:
This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the topology in the
mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases
of link breakage resulting in the network failure between the mobile nodes.

8
Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing
protocol (AODV):
• Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV):
It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol.
• It is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove
the disadvantage of dynamic source routing protocol.
• In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the data packet
to the destination mobile node, it also contains the complete path in its header.
• Hence, as the network size increases, the length of the complete path also increases
and the data packet’s header size also increases which makes the whole network
slow.
• Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The
main difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the path in the
routing table whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s header itself.
• It also operates in two phases in the similar fashion: Route discovery and Route
maintenance.
9
Hybrid Routing protocol

• Hybrid Routing protocol:

It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active routing
protocols.
• These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone and
position of the source and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular
hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
• The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source
and destination mobile node is observed.
• If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone, then
proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them.
• If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different zones, then
reactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them.

10
AoDV Routing
• AODV enables “dynamic, self-starting, multi-hop routing between
mobile nodes wishing to establish and maintain an ad hoc network”.
• AODV allows for the construction of routes to specific destinations
and does not require that nodes keep these routes when they are not in
active communication.
• AODV avoids the “counting to infinity” problem by using destination
sequence numbers. This makes AODV loop free.

11
Routing Table
The routing table fields used by AODV are:
– Destination IP Address
– Destination Sequence Number
– Valid Destination Sequence number flag
– Other state and routing flags
– Network Interface
– Hop Count
– Next Hop
– List of Precursors
– Lifetime

12
VANET communication in VANET
• VANETs are a key part of the intelligent transportation systems (ITS) framework
Applications of VANETs
• Electronic brake lights, which allow a driver (or an autonomous car or truck) to react to vehicles
braking even though they might be obscured (e.g., by other vehicles).
• Platooning, which allows vehicles to closely (down to a few inches) follow a leading vehicle by
wirelessly receiving acceleration and steering information, thus forming electronically coupled
"road trains".
• Traffic information systems, which use VANET communication [8]
to provide up-to-the minute
obstacle reports to a vehicle's satellite navigation system
• Road Transportation Emergency Services– where VANET communications, VANET
networks, and road safety warning and status information dissemination are used to reduce delays
and speed up emergency rescue operations to save the lives of those injured.
• On-The-Road Services– it is also envisioned that the future transportation highway would be
"information-driven" or "wirelessly-enabled". VANETs can help advertise services (shops, gas
stations, restaurants, etc.) to the driver, and even send notifications of any sale going on at that
moment.

13
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
• Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless
network that is deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an
ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system, physical or
environmental conditions.
• Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that
manages and monitors the environment in a particular area.
• They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit
in the WSN System.
• Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to
share data.
14
WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining
of the data.
15
Components of WSN
1. Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is used
for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.
2. Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN
access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and
power source.
3. WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through
the internet.
4. Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called as
Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for further processing of
the data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the
data.
16
Applications of WSN
1. Internet of Things (IOT)
2. Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
3. Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
4. Noise Level of the surrounding
5. Medical applications like patient monitoring
6. Agriculture
7. Landslide Detection

17
RFID technology two tags of RFID
• RFID tags are a type of tracking system that uses smart barcodes in
order to identify items.
• RFID is short for “radio frequency identification,” and as such, RFID
tags utilize radio frequency technology.
• These radio waves transmit data from the tag to a reader,
• An RFID tag works by transmitting and receiving information via an
antenna and a microchip — also sometimes called an integrated circuit
or IC. which then transmits the information to an RFID computer
program.

18
Types
• There are two types of RFID tags:
• Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's
interrogating radio waves.
• Active tags are powered by a battery and thus can be read at a greater
range from the RFID reader, up to hundreds of meters.

19
Wi-Fi standards

20
WiMax standards

21
Femtocell network
• A Femtocell is the smallest type of small cell used to expand cellular
network connectivity within a targeted geographic area (typically a
small, single location).
• In addition to being the smallest in the family of small cell
technologies, Femtocells also use the lease amount of power.
• In fact, compared to other types of small cells, like picocells and
microcells, femtocells offer the least amount of additional bandwidth,
so they should only be deployed in specific situations.

22
Contd..
• Femtocell technology is integrated into cellular networks in nearly the
same way that all the other small cell systems are utilized, but its main
advantage is that it does not require a centralized hub.
• Typically, Femtocells are implemented in locations where there is
existing network backhaul, or within a location where backhaul can be
developed without too much difficulty or capital investment.

23
Push to talk technology for SMS
• Push to talk (PTT), is a means of instantaneous communication
commonly employed in wireless cellular phone services that uses a
button to switch a device from voice transmission mode to voice
reception mode.
• The operation of phones used in this way is similar to "walkie talkie"
use.
• PTT switches a phone from full duplex mode, where both parties can
hear each other simultaneously

24
Contd..
• These new versions of PTT, sometimes described as "Push To Talk
over Cellular" (PoC), are based on 2.5G or 3G packet-switched
networks using a form of VoIP based upon SIP and RTP protocols
instead of iDEN.

25
Thank you