E3S Web of Conferences 391, 01083 (2023) https://doi.org/10.

1051/e3sconf/202339101083
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A Brief Study into Renewable Energy

Technologies
Omolayo M. Ikumapayi1,3,5*, Temitayo S. Ogedengbe2, Opeyeolu T. Laseinde3, Rasaq A.
Kazeem,4, Sunday A. Afolalu1, Stephen A. Akinlabi6, Esther T. Akinlabi6
1Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering Department, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti,
Nigeria
2Nile University of Nigeria, Mechanical Engineering Department, FCT Abuja, Nigeria
3Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg,

South Africa.
4Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200281, Nigeria.
5Department of Mechanical Engineering, INTI International University, Malaysia
6Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Northumbria University, Newcastle, NE7

7XA, United Kingdom

Abstract. The massive increase in energy consumption, especially over the

past several years, has raised fears that the world's fuel and other resource
reserves would be drained in the coming years. Over the years, low-cost,
long-term energy has been viewed as the foundation of any country's social
and economic success. Nonetheless, in recent decades, a bigger section of
the population of developing economies has had limited access to
inexpensive and sustainable energy, contributing greatly to these countries'
poor economic and social growth. This study was therefore a review of the
various sources of energy and their applications.

1 Introduction
This can be performed either naturally
(using chemical processes) or by employing
Energy can be seen as the amount of power man-made energy equipment (for example,
or strength that, when applied, may propel hydropower plants). Further energy
anything from one location to another, or it transformations convert a naturally existing
might represent a system's ability to perform source of energy, (such as electricity or heat)
labour. Potential, electromagnetic, light, into the desired form [1-2].
kinetic, sound, nuclear or photo-energy, and
gravitational energy are all types of energy. Global growth has risen significantly since
The ability to convert one type of energy to the Industrial Revolution, notably after the
some other types is the most important second world war, fueling the rise in energy
attribute of energy. demand. As a result, worldwide energy use
has risen consistently over the previous 50
years. Oil has the largest share, followed

*
Corresponding author : [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 391, 01083 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202339101083
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closely by gas and coal, all of which have 2 Energy Sources

climbed by over 280%. At the same time,
hydroelectric energy increased by 500% [3].
Yet, its percentage remains significantly The earth is endowed with huge energy
smaller than those of fossil fuels. Nuclear resources that can be used to address the
energy has also grown dramatically, but has energy shortages that both the commercial
plateaued recently, owing to increased and public sectors are currently
public understanding of the hazards experiencing. These resources are roughly
associated with this technology in the wake classified as renewable energy, which
of nuclear electricity plant mishaps such as includes energy from sun, wind, biomass,
the one that occurred in Fukushima in 2011 and hydro, and nonrenewable energy, which
[3]. It is commonly acknowledged that a includes energy from crude oil, natural gas,
region's economic and industrial progress is and coal [6-7]. The next subsection discusses
focused on its ability to construct clean, energy resources.
efficient, and long-term energy systems.
Adequate access to alternative fuels can 2.1 Renewable energy sources
improve not just the financial and cultural
well-being of people, but also allow towns
and human settlements to evolve and operate Renewable energy (RE) supplies are many
in more open, secure, adaptable, lesser types of energies received naturally from the
polluted, and more lasting ways [4]. The earth, notably geothermal energy. There are
availability of a safe, reliable, and cost different types of renewable resources
effective energy supply, particularly in accessible, comprising hydrothermal,
emerging economies like Nigeria, has shown thermal, sunlight, wind power, aquatic and
to be a tremendous job across the corporate biogenic energy, which provide the ability to
and energy industries. Not only does it have create constant power. North Africa's
an impact on people's living standards and topography and climatic characteristics
reduces industrial production capacity, but it allow it to generate a substantial measure of
is also a major contributor to developing 0.25 TWh/km2 [8]. Furthermore, a vast
countries' slow GDP growth. In light of this, amount of clean water may be created and
the UN agreed in 2016 on a common distributed to nearby regions in need of
framework to solve 17 major global water with the correct technologies. Wind
challenges by 2030, with access to an energy is another important asset in the
affordable and efficient energy system (Fig territory, with Egypt exhibiting the highest
1) recognized as SDG 7 [5]. production level, followed by Morocco
[1,8].

Nigeria is endowed with an abundance of

renewable energy resources, giving her
enormous capacity to build an effective
national energy plan. The incorporation of
sources of clean energy into reservoir of the
country's energy mix can significantly
impact on the budget of the country on
energy [8]. Unfortunately, over the years, the
tremendous promise of renewable energy,
particularly solar energy, wind energy, and
geothermal, remains unrealized [9].
Fig 1. Energy (power) supply and clean cooking According to Ezugwu [10], Nigeria is a
gas availability per zone in Africa [5]. country endowed with big rivers and a few
natural falls, as well as tiny rivers and
streams in each of the country's eight

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hydrological basins. A number of these to the National grid. [7]. Table 1 show the
rivers sustain minimum discharges all year, top 15 nations in terms of overall wind
and hydropower potential currently power gadget installations. The worldwide
contributes for around 29% of total electrical expansion of 17.2% in 2015 is clearly
power supply. Approximately 20 percent of noteworthy, and it represents a substantial
the the nation's technically accessible pattern toward the use of clean energy
hydropower potential, estimated to be [1,11].
11,000 MW, is already being tapped and fed

Table 1. Largest Nations in terms of total wind energy installations [11]

Place Nation 2015 Cumulative Improved Rate of Growth

Capacity Capacity (%)
(MegaWatts) (MegaWatts)
1 Germany 45, 192 4919 11.7
2 China 148,000 32,970 29.0
3 Canada 11,205 1511 15.6
4 Spain 22,987 0 0.0
5 India 24,759 2294 10.2
6 USA 74,347 8598 13.1
7 UK 13,614 1174 9.4
8 Sweden 6025 615 11.1
9 Italy 8958 295 3.4
10 France 10,293 997 10.7
11 Brazil 8715 2754 46.2
12 Portugal 5079 126 2.5
13 Poland 5100 1266 33.0
14 Turkey 4718 955 25.4
15 Denmark 5064 217 3.7
Other Nations 40,800 5000 14.0
Cummulative: Average Value
434,856 63,690 17.2

of coal. According to Osueke and Ezugwu

[12], after full privatization and
rehabilitation, the production abilities of
2.2 Renewable energy sources
significant mining sites in Nigeria can be
Nigeria has an abundance of various energy increased to the extent that Onyeama and
resources. Nonrenewable energy is derived Okpara can achieve 150,000-400,000
from petroleum and petroleum products such tonnes/year, Owukpa (2500 tonnes/year),
as crude oil, coal, nuclear powerpropane, . and Okaba (15,000-300,000 tonnes/year).
As of 2011, Nigeria's estimated coal Nigeria also has the world's sixth biggest
resource was 27 billion tons [9], with the crude oil reserve, with an estimated 36.2
vast majority of the coal deposit lying in the billion barrels of oil and a petroleum product
cretaceous Anambra region and expanding deposit of roughly 187 trillion cubic feet [5].
to Dekina in the basin's northern part [12]. Oil and gas deposits are concentrated in the
Coal mining areas are scattered unevenly Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea, and Bight of
throughout countries, with each having a Bonny [5]. Other energy production that is
varied production capacity, kind, and depth buried underground in reservoirs is natural

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gas. It is largely methane-based and cheaper gas reserves [13]. Current crude oil and
than crude oil. As of January 2006, Nigeria's natural reserve estimations are 35 billion
gas reserves were projected to be 182 TCF barrels and 185 trillion cubic feet,
(trillion cubic feet), with a pace of growth of accordingly. These fossil fuel reserves have
more than 70% expected by 2025 [6]. The the potential to supply Sub-Saharan Africa's
capacity places the country seventh in the energy demands for several decades [14]
world and first in Africa in terms of natural (Fig. 2).

Fig 2. Energy technologies that are generic. (a) Non-renewable (b) Renewable [1]

relies significantly on natural gas and oil,

South Africa depends on coal, while all other
African nations mostly depend on biomass
2.3 Energy generation and its
[15]. Statistics for Eastern and Southern
challenges
African countries show that biomass energy
accounts for a significant share of overall
2.3.1 Africa’s generation capacity national energy supply (Fig. 3) [15].

The African energy sector is better divided

into three distinct regions. North Africa

Fig. 3. Percentage Biomass Energy from total energy for some selected African countries [15]

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Even oil-rich countries in sub-Saharan Kenya, and Nairobi [15-16]. Sub-Saharan

Africa rely on biomass energy to meet the Africa (excluding South Africa) uses almost
vast majority of their family's electricity no modern energy. East and southern
requirements: in Nigeria, biomass is Africa's per capita usage of modern energy
projected to supply 97% of domestic energy remained low and stagnant between 1980
needs [15]. Conventional biomass energy and 2000, dropping from 317kgoe
has major environmental consequences. (kilograms of oil equivalent) on average to
Indoor air pollution from enclosed biofuel 292kgoe [17]. When power utilization is
burners is an important factor contributing to analyzed, it becomes clear that Sub-Saharan
respiratory ailments in Sub-Saharan Africa's Africa has very low levels of contemporary
highlands. Biomass usage (particularly energy use. Without South Africa, per capita
charcoal use) contributes to land power consumption reduces from 431kWh
degradation. In certain locations, the demand to 112kWh [17]. Sub-Saharan Africa's
for charcoal appears to be adding to the overall energy demand is roughly 267 Mtoe,
deterioration of neighboring woods and includes 54% classic energy (80% without
forests, notably around urban centers such as South Africa), 14% solid fuel, 27% oil, 3%
Lusaka, Tanzania, Zambia, Dar-es-Salaam, hydroelectric power, and 2% gas (Fig. 4a).

Fig 4. (a) Africa's cumulatives energy need in 1999 (b) Indicator for Electricity Shortage [14-15]

nature of the power supply's poor

performance [15].
The Nigerian power system, like other
power systems, is divided into three
hierarchical subsystems: generation, 2.4 Solving energy generation
transmission, and distribution. The state- challenges
controlled Power Holding Corporation of
Nigeria (PHCN), formerly named as the
2.4.1 Enhancing energy effectiveness
National Electrical Power Authority
and lowering energy intensity
(NEPA), has proven unable to meet
minimum acceptable international standards
of power service reliability, accessibility, It is possible to reduce energy usage through
and availability over the past thirty years. boosting energy efficiency. This can be
The pattern of transmission and distribution realized through properly developing
losses depicted in Figure 4b illustrates the equipment, motors, and, in particular,
buildings, where energy consumption is high
[18]. Reducing the use of electricity in
lighting and heating and cooling systems,
using more recycled materials, collecting
local water and energy for self-consumption,
and other measures are all feasible ways to

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enhance energy effectiveness and move renewable sources with renewable ones,
toward near zero-energy buildings (NZEB) reducing the total negative environmental
or even zero energy buildings (ZEB).The consequences of commodities over their
phrase "smart city" refers to the place where entire life cycle. Furthermore, the
a person lives [3]. The term "smart city" prospective uses of RES may be expanded,
relates to an area in which an individual boosting their efficiency, durability, and
lives. The term "smart city" relates to the city economic potential in comparison to current
in which a person lives. Merchandise energy sources, particularly fossil fuels [22].
creation must be properly connected, with a
reduction in the distance between production
2.5 Sustainable energy generation
and consumption, resulting in less energy for
techniques
movement and more efficient manufacturing
processes [3]. This drop in power use will be
reflected in lower energy inclusion in goods, Natural resources utilized to create energy
i.e. lower energy intensity. In order to boost and power for nations worldwide are finite
energy efficiency and minimize energy and may run out before they can meet
intensity, efficient waste management [19], demand. At the same time, global renewable
as well as resource and energy retrieval, are energy output climbed by 2.9% between
required [3]. 2013 and 2014 [1]. As a consequence, if the
total global energy supply is 13.700 Mtoe
2.4.2 Improving the long-term viability (Figure 2), clean energy contributes for
of energy systems 13.8% of total primary energy supply (1.894
Mtoe) [23]. This is a considerable quantity
given that global energy demand is expected
The development of biorefineries, which are to reach 599 Exajoule20 (EJ) by 2020 and
equivalent to petrochemical compounds but 657 EJ by 2025 [1]. Since the 1990s,
rely on recyclable energy and raw materials, renewable energy output has expanded at a
is now considered as more realistic in the rate of roughly 2.2% per year, exceeding the
medium to long term [20-21]. They are an total supply of primary energy growth of
excellent alternative for sustainability since 1.9% (Fig. 5).
they allow for the substitution of non-

Fig 5. Total Basic Energy Supply for 2014 Fuel Sharing Across the Globe [1]

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Notwithstanding the above, photovoltaic Development (OECD) area and China. At
solar and wind energy have grown at a rate the same time, hydro and solid biofuels
of 46.2% and 24.3%, respectively, in the remain the most popular kinds of renewable

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energy, with yearly growth rates of 2.5% and energies account for over 50% of total
1.5%, respectively. As seen in Figs. 5–7, energy consumption in Africa, but just a
non-OECD regions utilize about 75% of all quarter of total energy consumption in Asia
sustainable energy when bioenergy is used. (excluding China) and the Non-OECD
Materials such as wood are used by the Americas [24-25].
general people. Similarly, renewable

Fig 6. Annual growth rates of worldwide renewable energy output from 1990 to 2014. [1,11].
growing. Renewable energy contributed for
around 19% of total electricity generation in
2014. Global renewable power output
increased by 3.6% per year after the 1990s,
slightly faster than the overall increase in
power generation of 2.9% [1].
Africa, as seen in Fig. 8, has a particularly
rapid pace of development when contrasted
with the rest of the globe. In contrast, it
appears that the Middle East has witnessed
the least amount of renewables deployment
and increase throughout the years. This
might be owing to an excess of natural
Fig 7. Fuel Shares in World Energy resources like oil and gas, an absence of
Production in 2014 [1]. technological advances, or governments'
unwillingness to invest in such areas. As
Almost 73% of renewable electricity is shown in Fig. 7, renewable energy is the
supplied by hydroelectricity, accounting for second biggest source of worldwide
more than 16% of global electricity electricity generation, contributing to more
generation. Furthermore, alternative than 22% of global output in 2014, following
resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, only coal (more than 40%) and slightly
and tidal power, that collectively account for ahead of has (more than 21%), followed by
over 4 percent of total, are continually nuclear (more than 10%) and oil (more than
4%) [1,3].

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Fig 8. OCED countries: (a) Annual Power Generation Growth Rates from 1990 to 2015; (b)
Renewable Electricity Generation Proportion from 1990 to 2015 [1].
and generating power in agrarian regions, all
To counteract last year's decline in progress, with the goal of revolutionizing the
the African progress Bank established strong Continent's Renewable Energy evolution
international and regional ties with all key [26-27]. A new beginning at the Paris
stakeholders, with the objective of resolving Climate Conference, the African Renewable
the continent's major energy issue and Energy Initiative was formed with the
eliminating energy poverty by 2025 [1]. purpose of deploying at least 10 GW of extra
renewable energy potential by 2020, with the
As a result, a new, collaborative, and ultimate goal of generating at least 300 GW
coordinated set of critical primary actions by 2030 [28-29].
emerged. For the 2017 agenda, Morocco, the
nation of the Congo Republic (DRC),
Kenya, South Africa, Algeria, Ethiopia, 3 Conclusion
Tanzania and Egypt plan significant growth The various energy sources, prospects and
in terms of renewable energy impact, challenges as well as possible solutions to
developed power production in remote these highlighted challenges have been
communities, and assistance in connecting

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