Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders

Common examples of pressurized cylinders

 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders

Tangential stress,

Radial stress,

Cylinder with inside radius ri , outside radius ro ,

internal pressure pi, and external pressure po
 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders
• Special case of zero outside
pressure, po = 0

• If ends are closed, then longitudinal

stresses also exist
 Thin-Walled Vessels
• Cylindrical pressure vessel with wall
thickness less than or equal to 1/10 of
the radius, Ri/t > 10
• Radial stress is quite small compared
to tangential stress
• Average tangential stress

• Maximum tangential stress

Example of thin walled pressure vessel

• Longitudinal stress (if ends are closed)
 Contact Stress
• Two bodies with curved surfaces
pressed together
• Point or line contact changes to area
contact
• Stresses developed are three-
dimensional
• Called contact stresses or Hertzian
stresses
• Common examples
◦ Wheel rolling on rail
◦ Mating gear teeth
◦ Rolling bearings
 Spherical Contact Stress
• Two solid spheres of diameters d1 and d2
are pressed together with force F
• Circular area of contact of radius a

• For sphere-plane surface contact, use d= ∞

• Pressure distribution is hemispherical
• Maximum pressure at the center of
contact area
 Spherical Contact Stress
• The maximum stresses occur on the z axis
• Principal stresses

• From Mohr’s circle, maximum shear stress is

 Spherical Contact Stress
• Plot of three principal stress and maximum
shear stress as a function of distance below
the contact surface
• τmax peaks below the contact surface
• a crack originates at the point of maximum
shear stress below the surface and
progresses to the surface and the pressure
of the lubricant wedges the chip loose
• Fatigue failure below the surface leads to
pitting and spalling
• For poisson ratio of 0.30,
τmax = 0.3 pmax
at depth of z = 0.48a
 Cylindrical Contact Stress
• Two right circular cylinders with length l
and diameters d1 and d2 are pressed
together with force F
• Area of contact is a narrow rectangle of
width 2b and length l

• Pressure distribution is elliptical

• Maximum pressure,
 Cylindrical Contact Stress
• Maximum stresses on z axis
 Cylindrical Contact Stress
• Plot of stress components and maximum
shear stress as a function of distance below
the contact surface
• Note that all normal stresses are
compressive stresses
• For poisson ratio of 0.30,
τmax = 0.3 pmax
at depth of z = 0.786b
FATIGUE FAILURE
S-N Curve

- Low-cycle fatigue
- Finite Life
- Endurance limit

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FATIGUE FAILURE
S-N Curve

Non-Ferrous Metal
(Al)

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Fatigue Failure Models

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Combined Load

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Combined Load

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Torsional Fatigue Strength

𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑚 1
+ =
𝑆𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑠𝑢 𝑛 [Mod. Goodman]

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Stress-Strain hysteresis loop

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Stress-Strain hysteresis loop

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Stress-Strain hysteresis loop

Coffin-Manson Relationship

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FATIGUE FAILURE
High Cycle Fatigue (Design for Finite Life)

Defining the specimen fatigue strength at a specific number of

cycles as

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FATIGUE FAILURE
High Cycle Fatigue (Design for Finite Life)

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FATIGUE FAILURE
High Cycle Fatigue (Design for Finite Life)

If this true-stress–true-strain equation is not known, the SAE approximation for

steels with HB ≤ 500 may be used

To find b, substitute the endurance strength and corresponding cycles, Se and

Ne, respectively into Eq. (6–9) and solving for b

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FATIGUE FAILURE
High Cycle Fatigue (Design for Finite Life)

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FATIGUE FAILURE
High Cycle Fatigue (Design for Finite Life)

For the actual mechanical parts, let the equation be of the form

where

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FATIGUE FAILURE
High Cycle Fatigue (Design for Finite Life)

If a completely reversed stress σrev is given, setting Sf = σrev in

Eq. (6–13), the number of cycles-to-failure can be expressed
as

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FATIGUE FAILURE
Low Cycle Fatigue

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 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

• The main load is transferred through elements in rolling contact rather than in
sliding contact.
• Also known as rolling-contact bearing, antifriction bearing or rolling bearing.
• Manufactured to take pure radial loads, pure thrust loads, or a combination
of the two kinds of loads.
Bearing Types:

Figure: Various types

of ball bearings.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Figure: Various types of roller bearings.

(a) Straight roller;

(b) Spherical roller, thrust;
(c) Tapered roller, thrust;
(d) Needle;
(e) Tapered roller;
(f) Steep-angle tapered
roller.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

• Instrument bearings, which are high-precision and are available in stainless

steel and high-temperature materials
• Nonprecision bearings, usually made with no separator and sometimes having
split or stamped sheet-metal races
• Ball bushings, which permit either rotation or sliding motion or both
• Bearings with flexible rollers

Figure:
Nomenclature of a ball bearing.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Bearing Life
Common life measures are
• Number of revolutions of the inner ring (outer ring stationary) until the first
tangible evidence of fatigue
• Number of hours of use at a standard angular speed until the first tangible
evidence of fatigue
• The ABMA standard states that the failure criterion is the first evidence of
fatigue. The fatigue criterion used by the Timken Company laboratories is the
spalling or pitting of an area of 0.01 in2.
• The rating life of a group of nominally identical ball or roller bearings is
defined as the number of revolutions (or hours at a constant speed) that 90
percent of a group of bearings will achieve or exceed before the failure criterion
develops. The terms minimum life, L10 life, and B10 life are also used as
synonyms for rating life.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING
Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability

The result of many tests for various kinds of bearings result in

• a = 3 for ball bearings
• a = 10/3 for roller bearings (cylindrical and tapered roller)

Catalog load rating:

It is sometimes convenient to define as a

dimensionless multiple of rating life
Typical bearing load-life log-log curve.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Bearing Survival: Reliability versus Life:

E
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Combined Radial and Thrust Loading:

A rotation factor V is defined such that

V = 1 when the inner ring rotates and
V = 1.2 when the outer ring rotates.

Fa and Fr to be the axial thrust and radial

loads, respectively, and
Fe to be the equivalent radial load
The relationship of dimensionless group
Fe/(VFr) and Fa/(VFr) and the straight
line segments representing the data.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING
Equivalent Radial Load Factors for Ball Bearings

Table lists representative values of X1, Y1, X2, and Y2 as a function of e, which in turn is a
function of Fa/Co, where Co is the basic static load rating. The basic static load rating is
the load that will produce a total permanent deformation in the raceway and rolling
element at any contact point of 0.0001 times the diameter of the rolling element.
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING
Dimensions and Load Ratings for Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove and Angular-
Contact Ball Bearings:
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING
 For Self-aligning bearings use V = 1 for rotation of either ring.
 Straight or cylindrical roller bearings will take no axial load, or very little, the
Y factor is always zero.
ABMA dimension-series code:

Steps of selection procedure:

 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING
Dimensions and Basic Load Ratings for Cylindrical Roller Bearings
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Bearing-Life
Recommendations
for Various Classes
of Machinery

Load-Application Factors

*
 BEARING ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Variable Loading
Bearing loads are frequently variable and occur in some identifiable patterns:
• Piecewise constant loading in a cyclic pattern
• Continuously variable loading in a repeatable cyclic pattern
• Random variation

A three-part piecewise continuous

periodic loading cycle involving
loads Fe1, Fe2, and Fe3.
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
In a sleeve bearing, a shaft, or journal, rotates or oscillates within a sleeve, or
bushing, and the relative motion is sliding. In an antifriction bearing, the main
relative motion is rolling.
Applications and materials of journal bearing:
 In the crankshaft and connecting-rod bearings of an automotive engine
 In the steam turbines of power-generating stations
 Also used where loads are light and the service relatively unimportant;
a simple, easily installed bearing is required, using little or no lubrication.
BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

Fig. Nomenclature of a
partial journal bearing.
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
Hydrodynamic Theory:
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
Hydrodynamic Theory:
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
Hydrodynamic Theory:

With side leakage the governing equation becomes

Sommerfeld finds the following form of solution

Sommerfeld Number
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

Petroff’s Equation:

Where,
f , the coefficient of friction
μ, the absolute viscosity
N , the shaft rotation, rev/s
P ,the pressure = W/2rl
W, force on the bearing
r, radius of the shaft
c, radial clearance
Bearing characteristic number, or the Sommerfeld number

The Sommerfeld number is very important in lubrication analysis because it

contains many of the parameters that are specified by the designer.
BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

Fig. How the significant speed varies. (a) Common bearing case. (b) Load vector moves at the
same speed as the journal. (c) Load vector moves at half journal speed, no load can be
carried. (d) Journal and bushing move at same speed, load vector stationary, capacity halved.
The angular speed N that is significant to hydrodynamic film bearing performance is

where Nj = journal angular speed, rev/s

Nb = bearing angular speed, rev/s
Nf = load vector angular speed, rev/s
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
Trumpler’s Design Criteria for Journal Bearings:
 Minimum film thickness should be,
 Trumpler limits the maximum film temperature Tmax to
 The starting load divided by the projected area is limited to
 Trumpler used a design factor of 2 or more on the running
load, but not on the starting load,
The Relations of the Variables:
1. Lubricant Temperature Rise

where T1 is the inlet temperature

and T is the temperature rise of
the lubricant from inlet to outlet.
Of course, the viscosity used in
the analysis must correspond to
Tav.
BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

2. Viscosity Charts
 Viscosity should be
determined at temp Tav
 Similar charts are available
for multi-viscous fluids
 Same chart is also available
in US customary units

Viscosity–temperature chart in SI units.

 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
3. Minimum Film Thickness

Fig. Polar diagram of the Fig. Chart for minimum film thickness
film–pressure distribution variable and eccentricity ratio.
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
4. Coefficient of Friction

Chart for coefficient-

of-friction variable
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
5. Lubricant Flow

Chart for flow variable

 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
6. Lubricant Side Flow

Chart for determining

the ratio of side flow
to total flow
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
7. Film Pressure

Chart for finding the terminating position of the lubricant film

and the position of maximum film pressure
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
8. Heat Loss
The heat given up by the bearing housing may be estimated from the equation

The overall coefficient, hCR depends on the material, surface coating,

geometry, even the roughness, the temperature difference between the
housing and surrounding objects, and air velocity. Some representative
values are
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
Pressure Fed Bearings

Laminar flow is assumed,

 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

The equilibrium equation in x-direction :

BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

can be assumed constant

Applying the boundary condition:

 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

Pressure can be assumed as

h=
BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
 BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS

The characteristics pressure,

BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
BEARING JOURNAL BEARINGS
 Flexible Mechanical Elements

Flexible mechanical elements include belts, ropes, chains, and other similar machine elements.
These are used in conveying systems and in the transmission of power over comparatively long
distances.
 Used as a replacement of gears, shafts, bearings, and other relatively rigid power transmission
devices.
In many cases, their use simplifies the design of machine and substantially reduces the cost
In addition, they absorb shock loads, and damp out and isolate the effects of vibration. This is
an important advantage as far as machine life is concerned

Most flexible elements do not have infinite life.

Thus, it is important to establish an inspection schedule to guard against wear, aging, and loss
of elasticity.
They should be replaced at the first sign deterioration.
 Belts
Types
There are four principal types of belts: (1) Flat belts, (2) V belts, (3) Round belts, (4) Timing belts.
The mating elements of these four types of belts are shown below.
Flat belts Crowned pulleys
V belts Grooved pulleys or sheaves
Round belts Grooved pulleys or sheaves
Timing belts Toothed wheels or sprockets
Characteristics

Flat belts may be used for long center distances.

Except for timing belts, there is some slip and creep. Thus, angular velocity ratio between the
driving and the driven shafts is neither constant nor exactly equal to the ratio of the pulley
diameter.
In some cases, an idler or tension pulley can be used to avoid adjustments in center distance that
are ordinarily needed by age or installation of new belts.
 Belts
Characteristics
Other characteristics of belts are shown in the following table.
 Belts
Geometry of Flat Belts
Figure 17-1 shows two geometries of flat belt: (a) Open flat belt and (b) Crossed flat belt.

Dd
 d    2sin 1 Dd
2C     2sin 1
Dd 2C
 D    2sin 1 1
2c L  4C 2  ( D  d ) 2  ( D  d )
1 2
L  4C 2  ( D  d ) 2  ( D D  d d )
2
(a) (b)
Figure 17-1: Flat belt geometry (a) Open belt (b) Crossed belt.
 Belts
Geometry of Flat Belts

Flat belt drives can be further classified as

reversing and nonreversing.
Figure 17-2 (a) is the nonreversing open belt
drive, (b) is the reversing cross belt drive, and (c)
represents the reversing open belt drive.
For a flat belt, the belt tension is such that the
sag or droop is visible when the belt is running
as shown in Figure 17-2 (a).
Crossed belts must be separated to prevent
rubbing if high-friction materials are used.
The top is preferred for the loose side of the belt.
For crossed belt drives as shown in Figures 17-2
(b) and (c), both sides of the belt contact the
pulleys, so these drives cannot be used with V Figure 17-2: Nonreversing and reversing belt drives. (a)
belts or timing belts. Nonreversing open belt, (b) Reversing crossed belt, (c)
Reversing open-belt drive.
 Belts
Comparison of Belts

Flat Belts V Belts Timing Belts

Made of urethane, Made of fabric and cord, Made of rubberized fabric and steel
Rubber-impregnated usually cotton, rayon, or wire
fabric reinforced with nylon, and impregnated with Have teeth that fit into grooves cut
steel wire or nylon cords. rubber on the periphery of sprockets
One or both surfaces Used for shorter center Does not stretch or slip,
may have friction surface distances consequently transmits power at a
coating Less efficient than flat belts constant angular velocity ratio.
Quiet, efficient at high A number of V belts can be No initial tension is necessary, so
speeds. used on a single sheave, that fixed-center drives may be
Can transmit large thus can make a multiple used.
amounts of power over drive No restriction on speeds, the teeth
long center distances. No joints. make it possible to run at nearly
any speed, slow or fast.
 Belts
Design of Flat and Round Belt Drives

For an open belt drive, the contact angles and

length of belt are given by
Dd
 d    2sin 1
2C (17-1)
Dd
 D    2sin 1
2c
1 Open belt drive
L  4C 2  ( D  d ) 2  ( D D  d d ) (17-2)
2

where
D = diameter of larger pulley
d = diameter of smaller pulley
C = center distance
 = angle of contact
 Belts
Design of Flat and Round Belt Drives

For a crossed belt drive, the contact angles are

the same for both the pulleys. The contact
angle and length of the belt are given by

Dd (17-3)
    2sin 1
2C
1
L  4C 2  ( D  d ) 2  ( D  d ) (17-4)
2

Crossed belt drive

 Belts
Design of Flat and Round Belt Drives

Figure 17-6 shows a free body of a small

segment of the belt.
ds = differential force due to centrifugal force.
dN = normal force between the belt and pulley.
fdN = shearing traction due to friction at the point of slip.
b = belt width
t = belt thickness
m = mass of belt per unit length
F1 = belt tension at tight side of belt Figure 17-6: Free body diagram of an
F2 = belt tension at loose side of belt infinitesimal element of a flat belt in contact
V1 = velocity at tight side with a pulley.
V2 = velocity at loose side
f = coefficient of dynamic friction
It is assume that  starts at loose side where  = 0. And at the
end of the angle of wrap  = .
 Belts
Design of Flat and Round Belt Drives

The tension at any angle  is

F  ( F2  mr  ) exp( f  )  mr 
2 2 2 2
(17-5)
The tension at tight side is
F1  ( F2  mr  ) exp( f  )  mr 
2 2 2 2
(17-6)
Now it can be written as

F1  mr 2 2 F1  Fc
  exp( f  ) (17-7)
F2  mr 
2 2
F2  Fc
where centrifugal force Fc is given by Fc  mr 
2 2

Eq. (17-7) can be rewritten as

exp( f  )  1
F1  F2  ( F1  Fc ) (17-8)
exp( f  )
 Belts
Design of Flat and Round Belt Drives

Relation between torque T and belt tension is

2T T
F1  F2   (h)
D D/2
Relation between initial tension of belt and centrifugal force is

F1  F2
Fi   Fc (i)
2
Initial tension in terms of torque is
T exp( f  )  1
Fi  (17-9)
D exp( f  )  1
Eq. (17-9) tells that if Fi is zero, no torque is transmitted.
This means that for a satisfactory flat belt drive, initial tension must be (i) provided, (ii)
sustained, (iii) in proper amount, and (iv) maintained by routine inspection.
 Belts
Design of Flat and Round Belt Drives

The tensions at the tight and loose sides in terms of initial and centrifugal forces are given by
2exp( f  ) 2
F1  Fc  Fi (17-10) F2  Fc  Fi (17-11)
exp( f  )  1 exp( f  )  1
Eq. (17-7) is called the belting equation, but Eqs. (17-9) to (17-11) reveal how belting works.
The transmitted power is given by.

H  ( F1  F2 )V (j)
Some design factors
Various thicknesses
Fa = allowable tension specified by belt manufacturer
Cp = pulley correction factor, severity of flexing at pulley and
its effect (from Table 17-4)
The value of Cv is taken
Cv = velocity correction factor Figure 17-9: Velocity correction factor C for
from Figure (17-9) for leather belts for various thicknesses. v
= 1 for polyamide and urethane
leather belt
Some design factors Belts
Ks = service factor used for excursion of load from The effects of these factors are incorporated as
nominal ( F1 )a  bFaC pCv (17-12)
Hd = design power = Hnom Ks nd
f  = friction factor developed.
Hnom = nominal power
nd = design factor for exigencies f = friction available for a material.
For no slip, f < f
 Properties of Belt Materials Belts

Some belt materials and

their properties are listed
in Table 17-2.
Allowable belt tension in
Table 17-2 is for belt
speed 600 ft/min.
For higher speeds, use
Figure 17-9 to obtain Cv
for leather belts.
 Properties of Belt Materials Belts

The service factors Ks for V belt drives in Figure 17-15 are also recommended for Flat and Round belt
drives.
 Minimum Pulley Size Belts

The minimum pulley sizes for various belts are listed in Tables 17-2 and 17-3.
The pulley correction factor accounts for the amount of bending or flexing of the belt and how this
affects the life of the belt. Thus, it is dependent on the size and material of the belt used.
Use Cp = 1.0 for urethane belts.
 Belts
Crown Height of Pulley for Flat Belts Drives
Flat belt pulleys should be crowned to keep belts from running off the pulleys.
If only one pulley is crowned, it should be the larger one.
Both pulleys must be crowned whenever the pulley axes are not in a horizontal position.
Table 17-5 shows the crown height for flat belt pulleys.
 Belts
Steps for Analysis of Flat Belts
 Belts
A decision Set for a Flat Belt

Depending on the problem, some or all of the last four could be the design variables.
 V-Belts

The cross-sectional dimensions of V belts have been standardized by manufacturers.

Each section is designated by a letter of the alphabet for sizes in inch dimensions.
Matric sizes are designated by numbers.
Dimensions, minimum sheave diameters, and horsepower range for each section are listed in
Table 17-9.

A v belt is specified by belt-section letter followed by the belt inside circumferential length (Table
17-10).
For example, the belt section B75 denotes that the belt section is B and inside circumference is
75 inch.
 V-Belts

Calculations involving the belt length are usually based on the pitch length.
The pitch length is obtained by adding a quantity to the inside circumference (Table 17-10 and 17-11).
For example, a B75 belt has a pitch length of 76.8 inch.
Similarly, calculations of velocity ratios are made using the pitch diameters of the sheaves.
Thus, stated diameters are usually understood to be the pitch diameters.

Table 17-11
Length Conversion Dimensions (Add the
listed Quantity to the inside Circumference
to Obtain the Pitch Length in Inches)
 V-Belts

The standard angle for V belt cross section is 40; however the sheave angle is slightly smaller.
This causes the belt to wedge itself into the groove, thus increasing friction.
The minimum sheave diameters is listed in Table 17-9.
The operating speed for V belt needs to be high and the recommended speed range is 5 to 25 m/s
(1000 to 5000 ft/min). The best performance is obtained at speed of 20 m/s (4000 ft/min).
For V belt, the pitch length Lp and center to center distance C are found to be

 While there are no limitations on the center-to-center distance for flat belts, for V-belts the center-
to-center distance should not exceed “3(D+d)” because the excessive vibrations of the loose side
will shorten the belt life.
 Also the centers distance should not be less than D.
 V-Belts
Horsepower
Table 17-12 gives the horsepower ratings of standard V belts (according to sheave pitch diameter and
belt speed).
 V-Belts
Horsepower
The power ratings in Table 17-12 is based on the equal diameters of the two sheaves (180 wrap) and
moderate length (for 10^8 passes life)
Any deviation from this laboratory test conditions are adjusted by multiplying the Tabulated power by
wrap correction and length correction factors. Thus the allowable horsepower is given by

H a  K1K2 H tab (17-17)

where
From Table 17-12
Ha = allowable power, per belt
K1 = angle of wrap (contact angle) correction factor, Table 17-13
Note: the contact angles for V belts are found using the same equations used for flat belts.
K2 = belt length correction factor, Table 17-14
The design power is given by H d  H nom K s nd (17-19)
where
Hnom = nominal power (total power for the whole system)
Ks = service factor, Table 17-15
nd = design factor of safety.
 V-Belts
Horsepower
The number of belts needed to transmit the design power is found as
Hd
Nb  (17-20)
Ha
Nb is usually the next higher integer.
Belting Equation
The belting equation for V belts is the same equation used for flat belts. The effective coefficient of
friction for Gates Rubber Company belts is 0.5123. Thus,
F1  Fc
 e0.5123 (17-18)
F2  Fc
Where the centrifugal force Fc is given by
2
 V  Kc is taken from Table
Fc  K c   (17-21)
 1000  17-16.
 V-Belts

The transmitted power based on the force (F1 – F2)

is given by (per belt)

H d / Nb
F1  F2  F  (17-22)
n(d / 2)
Where n is in rad/sec and d is for driver pulley.

The largest tension F1 is given by

Fe( f  )
F1  Fc  ( f  ) (17-23)
e 1
The least tension F2 is given by

F2  F1  F (17-24)
 V-Belts

The initial tension is given by

F1  F2
Fi   Fc (17-25)
2
The factor of safety is given by
H a Nb
n fs  (17-26)
H nom K s
For flat belts, the tension from bending the belt
was ignored (since belt thickness is not that large).
However, for V belts, the effect of flexural stress is
significant and thus it affects the durability (life) of
belt. Figure 17-14 shows two peaks T1 and T2
resulting from belt flexure.
These values are given by
 V-Belts
Kb
Where (Fb )1 and (Fb )2 are the added T1  F1  ( Fb )1  F1 
components of tension due to the flexure of d
the belt on the smaller and larger sheaves. Kb
Kb is taken from Table 17-16.
T2  F1  ( Fb )2  F1 
D
The belt life is evaluated in terms of T Np  K
b b

either Time (hours) of number of passes.

The equation for the tension versus pass Table 17-17 Durability Parameters for
trade-off used by Gates Rubber Some V-Belts Sections
Company is given by
Np = number of passes and b is
approximately 11.
 K and b are taken from Table 17-17.
 1
V-Belts  K  K 
b b

The belt life in terms of number of passes is given by N p        (17-25)

 T1   T2  

In terms of hours, the lifetime is given by N p Lp (17-25)

t
720V
K and b values given in Table 17-17 are valid only for the indicated range.

Thus, if Np is found to be larger than 109 , it is reported as Np = 109 and the lifetime in hours
“t” is found using Np = 109 .
 V-Belts

Steps for Analyzing V-Belts

Wire Rope
• Made by winding metallic wires into strands and then by winding
strands into rope.
• Two types of winding arrangements
• Regular lay
• Lang lay

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Regular Lay Wire Rope
• Wire twisted in one direction to form
the strands; strands are twisted in
opposite direction to form the rope.
• Resistant to kink and untwist.
• Easy to handle.
• Accepted as standard
• Lays are available in either right or
left hand.
• The visible wires are approximately
parallel to the axis of the rope.

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Lang Lay Wire Rope
• The wires in the strand and the
strands in the rope twisted in the
same direction.
• The outer wires run diagonally
across the axis of the rope.
• Resistance to abrasive wear and
failure due to fatigue.
• They are more likely to kink and
untwist.
• Lays are available in either right or
left hand.
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Rope Designation
1
1 in 6 × 7
8
1
• 1 is rope diameter (d)
8
• 6 is number of strands
• 7 is number of wires in
each strand.

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Stress in one wire passing the sheave
𝜎𝐼 𝐸𝐼
We know, from solid mechanics, M = ,M=
𝑐 𝜌
𝜎𝐼 𝐸𝐼
So, =
𝑐 𝜌
𝐸𝑐
or, 𝜎 =
𝜌
Where, ρ: radius of curvature
Now, c = dw/2 , dw is the wire diameter. D/dw ratio: 800 to 1000
𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑤
So, 𝜎 = , D= Shave Diameter
𝐷
Where, 𝐸𝑟 is the modulus of elasticity of the rope,
𝜎 is the stress in the outer wires.

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Equivalent Bending Load
• A wire rope tension giving the same tensile stress as the
sheave bending is called the equivalent bending load, 𝐹𝑏 .

𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑤
• 𝐹𝑏 = 𝜎𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚
𝐷

• The area of the metal in standard hoisting and haulage

rope is
2
𝐴𝑚 = 0.38𝑑

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

The Static Load
 A wire rope may fail because the static load exceeds the
ultimate strength of the rope.
 Static load is composed of the following items:
V
• The known or dead weight
w
• Additional loads caused by sudden stops or starts
•w Shock loads
•W Sheave-bearing friction

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

The Static Load
Static Considerations
 First step is to determine the tension caused in the rope by the loads (this includes the dead
weight and tension caused by acceleration and shock loads, etc)
 The tension caused in a hoisting rope due to load and acceleration/deceleration is
Where
W = total weight of the load
W  a  m = number of ropes supporting the load
Ft    wl  1   (17-46)
w = weight per unit length of the rope
m  g 
l = suspended length of the rope
a = maximum acceleration/deceleration experienced
g = acceleration due to gravity

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

 Wire Ropes
Static Considerations
 The tension due to loads is then compared to the ultimate tensile load of the rope to find the static
factor of safety.
Maximum load that
Fu = strength of the rope × nominal area of the rope
can be supported
Fu
 Thus, the minimum static factor of safety is ns 
Ft
 However, the ultimate tensile load must be reduced due to the increased tension caused by flexing
the rope over the sheave and thus the factor of safety can be found as:
Fu  Fb
ns  (17-49)
Ft
 Table 17-25 gives the minimum rope factors of safety for different applications.
• For an average operation, n= 5
• For danger to human life and for very critical situations, n is up to 8 or 9
Design Consideration
• First select a rope based on static strength.
• Next consideration is to ensure that the wear life of the rope and the
sheave or sheaves meets certain requirements.
• When a loaded rope is bent over a sheave, the rope stretches like a
spring, rubs against the sheave, and causes wear of both the rope and
the sheave.
• The amount of wear that occurs depends on bearing pressure, p.
2𝐹
p=
𝑑𝐷
Where, F: tensile force on rope
d: Rope diameter
D: Sheave diameter
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Design Consideration
• S𝑢 is the ultimate strength of
the wire, not the rope.
𝑝
• For long life, ≤ 0.001
S𝑢

2000𝐹
S𝑢 =
𝑑𝐷

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Design Consideration
2𝐹
Again, 𝑝=
𝑑𝐷
𝑝 2𝐹
So, =
S𝑢 S𝑢 𝑑𝐷
(𝑝/S𝑢 )S𝑢 𝑑𝐷
Or, F𝑓 =
2

F𝑓 is the allowable fatigue tension as the wire is flexed a

number of times corresponding to 𝑝/S𝑢 for a particular rope
and life expectancy.

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

 Wire Ropes
Fatigue Considerations
 The amount of wear that occurs in ropes depends on the bearing pressure on the rope caused by
the sheave and by the number of bends (number of the passes of the rope over the sheave) of the
rope during operation.
 The allowable fatigue tension (fatigue strength) for a rope is found as:
( P / Su ) Su Dd
Ff  (17-47)
Where 2
P/Su = bearing pressure to ultimate strength ratio. It is found according to specified life from Fig. 17-21
Su = ultimate tensile strength of the wires Table17-24
D = sheave of winch drum diameter
d = nominal diameter of rope
a = maximum acceleration/deceleration experienced
g = acceleration due to gravity
 It should be noted that Su is the ultimate strength of the wires not the strength of the rope. (it usually
not listed in the tables but it can be determined from a hardness test).
Design Consideration
(𝑝/S𝑢 )S𝑢 𝑑𝐷
F𝑓 =
2
So, F𝑓 = F𝑡 + F𝑏

• F𝑓 is the rope tension strength under flexing and F𝑡 is the

tension at the place where the rope is flexing.
• F𝑏 is the rope tension that would induce the same outer-
wire stress.
• F𝑏 is added to F𝑡 to stay in conservative side.

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Design of rope wire
𝐹𝑓 = 𝑛𝑓 𝐹𝑡 + 𝐹𝑏
𝐹𝑓 −𝐹𝑏
or, 𝑛𝑓 =
𝐹𝑡
For a mine-hoist problem
𝑊 𝑎
𝐹𝑡 = + 𝑤𝑙 1 +
m g
Where, 𝑊 = weight at the end of the rope (cage and load), lbf
m = number of ropes
𝑤 = weight/foot of the wire rope, lbf/ft
𝑙 = suspended length of rope, ft
𝑎 = maximum acceleration/deceleration experienced, ft/s2
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/s2
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
 Roller Chain
General
 The chains are made up of number of rigid links which are hinged together by pin joints in order
to provide the necessary flexibility for wrapping round the driving and driven wheels.
 These wheels have projecting teeth of special profile and fit into the corresponding recesses in the
links of the chain as shown in the Figure below.
 The toothed wheels are known as sprocket wheels or simply sprockets.
 The sprockets and the chain are thus constrained to move together without slipping and ensures
perfect velocity ratio.

Figure: Sprockets and chain.

 Roller Chain

General

 The chains are mostly used to transmit motion and power from one shaft to another, when the
center distance between their shafts is short such as in bicycles, motor cycles, agricultural
machinery, conveyors, rolling mills, road rollers etc.
 The chains may also be used for long center distance of up to 8 meters.
 The chains are used for velocities up to 25 m / s and for power up to 110 kW.

Main Features

 Basic features of chain drives include a constant ratio, since no slippage or creep is involved; long
life; and the ability to drive a number of shafts from a single source of power.
 Roller Chain
Nomenclature

Figure 17–16 shows the nomenclature.

The pitch is the linear distance between
the centers of the rollers.
The width is the space between the inner
link plates.
These chains are manufactured in single,
double, triple, and quadruple strands.
Roller chains have been standardized as
to sizes by ANSI. The dimensions of
standard sizes are listed in Table 17–19.
Roller Chain
 Roller Chain
Formulations
Figure 17–17 shows a sprocket driving a
chain and rotating in a counterclockwise
direction.
Denoting the chain pitch by p, the pitch
angle by  , and the pitch diameter of the
sprocket by D, from the trigonometry of
the figure it can be written
 p/2 p
sin  D (a)
2 D/2 sin( / 2)
Relation between pitch angle and number
of sprocket teeth N is Figure 17-17: Engagement of a chain
  360 / N and sprockets.
 Roller Chain
Formulations

The angle  /2, through which the link swings as it enters contact, is called the
angle of articulation.
It can be seen that the magnitude of this angle is a function of the number of
teeth.
Rotation of the link through this angle causes impact between the rollers and
the sprocket teeth and also wear in the chain joint.
Since the life of a properly selected drive is a function of the wear and the
surface fatigue strength of the rollers, it is important to reduce the angle of
articulation as much as possible.
 Roller Chain
Formulations
p
Relation of sprocket pitch diameter D, D (17-29)
sin(180 / N )
pitch p, and number of sprocket teeth can
be given by Eq. (17-29).

Npn
V (17-30)
When the sprocket speed n is in rev/min, 12
the chain velocity in feet per minute is
 np
vmax  (b)
12sin( / 2)
The maximum and minimum exit
velocities of chain are  np cos( / 2)
vmin  (c)
12 sin( / 2)
 Roller Chain
Formulations
Thus, the speed variation of chain (known as chordal speed variation) is given by

V vmax  vmin   1 1 
    (17-31)
v V N  sin(180 / N ) tan(180 / N ) 

The chordal speed variation is shown in Figure 17-18.

Large number of teeth causes less variation of speed,
which is sometimes desirable.
Large variations can cause vibrations within the
system.
Figure 17-18
 Roller Chain

Nominal power H1, link plate limited is given by

1.08 . 3_0.07
𝐻1 = 0.003 𝑁1 𝑛10 9 𝑝 kW Defined as Pre-extreme power

Nominal power H2, roller limited is given by

. .
15 08
746 𝐾𝑟 𝑁1 𝑝
𝐻2 = .
15 kW Defined as Post-extreme power
𝑛1
H = min (H1, H2)

Conditions:
- 15000 h
- 100 pitch length
- 3% elongation
- 17-tooth sprocket

**Post-extreme power – limited by roller surface impact failure

 Roller Chain

Chain length and Center Distance are given by

For other life and pitch lengths estimates

Allowable power is given by are not available for pre-extreme power.
 Roller Chain

The design power is given by

 Roller Chain

Post extreme power: deviation from manufacturer’s conditions

h : life in hour
* Ignore N1 term if K1 is used
 Welding Symbols

⚫ Welding symbol standardized by American Welding Society

⚫ Specifies details of weld on machine drawings

Fig. 9–4
 Welding Symbol Examples

⚫ Weld leg size of 5 mm

⚫ Fillet weld
⚫ Both sides

⚫ Intermittent and
staggered 60 mm along
on 200 mm centers

⚫ Leg size of 5 mm
⚫ On one side only
(outside)
⚫ Circle indicates all the
way around
 Tensile Butt Joint

⚫ Simple butt joint loaded in tension or compression

⚫ Stress is normal stress

⚫ Throat h does not include extra reinforcement

⚫ Reinforcement adds some strength for static loaded joints
⚫ Reinforcement adds stress concentration and should be ground
off for fatigue loaded joints

Fig. 9–7a
 Shear Butt Joint

⚫ Simple butt joint loaded in shear

⚫ Average shear stress

Fig. 9–7b
 Transverse Fillet Weld

⚫ Joint loaded in tension

⚫ Weld loading is complex

Fig. 9–8

Fig. 9–9
 Transverse Fillet Weld

⚫ Summation of forces

⚫ Law of sines

⚫ Solving for throat thickness t

Fig. 9–9
 Transverse Fillet Weld
⚫ Nominal stresses at angle 

⚫ Von Mises Stress at angle 

Fig. 9–9
 Transverse Fillet Weld
⚫ Largest von Mises stress occurs at  = 62.5º with value of
' = 2.16F/(hl)
⚫ Maximum shear stress occurs at  = 67.5º with value of
max = 1.207F/(hl)

Fig. 9–9
 Transverse Fillet Weld Simplified Model

⚫ No analytical approach accurately predicts the experimentally

measured stresses.
⚫ Standard practice is to use a simple and conservative model
⚫ Assume the external load is carried entirely by shear forces on
the minimum throat area.

⚫ By ignoring normal stress on throat, the shearing stresses are

inflated sufficiently to render the model conservative.
⚫ By comparison with previous maximum shear stress model, this
inflates estimated shear stress by factor of 1.414/1.207 = 1.17.
 Parallel Fillet Welds

⚫ Same equation also applies for simpler case of simple shear

loading in fillet weld

Fig. 9–11
 Fillet Welds Loaded in Torsion
⚫ Fillet welds carrying both
direct shear V and moment
M
⚫ Primary shear

⚫ S econdary shear

⚫ A is the throat area of all

welds
⚫ r is distance from centroid of
weld group to point of Fig. 9–12
interest
⚫ J is second polar moment of
area of weld group about O
 Fillet Welds Loaded in Bending

⚫ Fillet welds carry both shear V and moment M

Fig. 9–17
 Strength of Welded Joints

⚫ Must check for failure in parent material and in weld

⚫ Weld strength is dependent on choice of electrode material
⚫ Weld material is often stronger than parent material
⚫ Parent material experiences heat treatment near weld
⚫ Cold drawn parent material may become more like hot rolled in
vicinity of weld
⚫ Often welded joints are designed by following codes rather than
designing by the conventional factor of safety method
 Fatigue Stress-Concentration Factors

⚫ Kfs appropriate for application to shear stresses

⚫ Use for parent metal and for weld metal
 V-Belts

The cross-sectional dimensions of V belts have been standardized by manufacturers.

Each section is designated by a letter of the alphabet for sizes in inch dimensions.
Matric sizes are designated by numbers.
Dimensions, minimum sheave diameters, and horsepower range for each section are listed in
Table 17-9.

A v belt is specified by belt-section letter followed by the belt inside circumferential length (Table
17-10).
For example, the belt section B75 denotes that the belt section is B and inside circumference is
75 inch.
 V-Belts

Calculations involving the belt length are usually based on the pitch length.
The pitch length is obtained by adding a quantity to the inside circumference (Table 17-10 and 17-11).
For example, a B75 belt has a pitch length of 76.8 inch.
Similarly, calculations of velocity ratios are made using the pitch diameters of the sheaves.
Thus, stated diameters are usually understood to be the pitch diameters.

Table 17-11
Length Conversion Dimensions (Add the
listed Quantity to the inside Circumference
to Obtain the Pitch Length in Inches)
 V-Belts

The standard angle for V belt cross section is 40; however the sheave angle is slightly smaller.
This causes the belt to wedge itself into the groove, thus increasing friction.
The minimum sheave diameters is listed in Table 17-9.
The operating speed for V belt needs to be high and the recommended speed range is 5 to 25 m/s
(1000 to 5000 ft/min). The best performance is obtained at speed of 20 m/s (4000 ft/min).
For V belt, the pitch length Lp and center to center distance C are found to be

 While there are no limitations on the center-to-center distance for flat belts, for V-belts the center-
to-center distance should not exceed “3(D+d)” because the excessive vibrations of the loose side
will shorten the belt life.
 Also the centers distance should not be less than D.
 V-Belts
Horsepower
Table 17-12 gives the horsepower ratings of standard V belts (according to sheave pitch diameter and
belt speed).
 V-Belts
Horsepower
The power ratings in Table 17-12 is based on the equal diameters of the two sheaves (180 wrap) and
moderate length (for 10^8 passes life)
Any deviation from this laboratory test conditions are adjusted by multiplying the Tabulated power by
wrap correction and length correction factors. Thus the allowable horsepower is given by

H a  K1K2 H tab (17-17)

where
From Table 17-12
Ha = allowable power, per belt
K1 = angle of wrap (contact angle) correction factor, Table 17-13
Note: the contact angles for V belts are found using the same equations used for flat belts.
K2 = belt length correction factor, Table 17-14
The design power is given by H d  H nom K s nd (17-19)
where
Hnom = nominal power (total power for the whole system)
Ks = service factor, Table 17-15
nd = design factor of safety.
 V-Belts
Horsepower
The number of belts needed to transmit the design power is found as
Hd
Nb  (17-20)
Ha
Nb is usually the next higher integer.
Belting Equation
The belting equation for V belts is the same equation used for flat belts. The effective coefficient of
friction for Gates Rubber Company belts is 0.5123. Thus,
F1  Fc
 e0.5123 (17-18)
F2  Fc
Where the centrifugal force Fc is given by
2
 V  Kc is taken from Table
Fc  K c   (17-21)
 1000  17-16.
 V-Belts

The transmitted power based on the force (F1 – F2)

is given by (per belt)

H d / Nb
F1  F2  F  (17-22)
n(d / 2)
Where n is in rad/sec and d is for driver pulley.

The largest tension F1 is given by

Fe( f  )
F1  Fc  ( f  ) (17-23)
e 1
The least tension F2 is given by

F2  F1  F (17-24)
 V-Belts

The initial tension is given by

F1  F2
Fi   Fc (17-25)
2
The factor of safety is given by
H a Nb
n fs  (17-26)
H nom K s
For flat belts, the tension from bending the belt
was ignored (since belt thickness is not that large).
However, for V belts, the effect of flexural stress is
significant and thus it affects the durability (life) of
belt. Figure 17-14 shows two peaks T1 and T2
resulting from belt flexure.
These values are given by
 V-Belts
Kb
Where (Fb )1 and (Fb )2 are the added T1  F1  ( Fb )1  F1 
components of tension due to the flexure of d
the belt on the smaller and larger sheaves. Kb
Kb is taken from Table 17-16.
T2  F1  ( Fb )2  F1 
D
The belt life is evaluated in terms of T Np  K
b b

either Time (hours) of number of passes.

The equation for the tension versus pass Table 17-17 Durability Parameters for
trade-off used by Gates Rubber Some V-Belts Sections
Company is given by
Np = number of passes and b is
approximately 11.
 K and b are taken from Table 17-17.
 1
V-Belts  K  K 
b b

The belt life in terms of number of passes is given by N p        (17-25)

 T1   T2  

In terms of hours, the lifetime is given by N p Lp (17-25)

t
720V
K and b values given in Table 17-17 are valid only for the indicated range.

Thus, if Np is found to be larger than 109 , it is reported as Np = 109 and the lifetime in hours
“t” is found using Np = 109 .
 V-Belts

Steps for Analyzing V-Belts