ANSWERS (OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW NOTES) AUTUMN 2023

Section 1.2

Example.
The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3 s–1. If Manning’s 𝑛 is 0.013 m–1/3 s
and the streamwise slope is 1 in 200, find the normal depth if:
(a) the channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);
(b) the channel is trapezoidal with side slopes 2H:1V.

𝑏 = 3 m (base width)
𝑄 = 12 m3 s −1
𝑛 = 0.013 m−1⁄3 s
𝑆 = 0.005

(a)
Discharge:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where, in normal flow,
1 2/3 1/2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ, 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 ℎ 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
Hence,
1 𝑏ℎ5/3
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2
𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/3
Rearranging as an iterative formula for ℎ:
3/5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5
𝑏√𝑆
Here, with lengths in metres,
ℎ = 0.8316 (1 + 2ℎ/3)2/5
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0.8316) gives
ℎ𝑛 = 1.024 m

Answer: 1.02 m.

(b) Geometry: trapezoidal cross-section with base width b, surface width 𝑏 + 2 × (2ℎ) and two
sloping side lengths √ℎ2 + (2ℎ)2 = ℎ√5.

Area and wetted perimeter:

1
𝐴 = 2 (𝑏 + 𝑏 + 4ℎ)ℎ = ℎ(𝑏 + 2ℎ) = ℎ𝑏(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)

𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ√5

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 1 Dr David Apsley

Hydraulic radius:
𝐴 ℎ(𝑏 + 2ℎ) 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
𝑅ℎ ≡ = =ℎ ( )
𝑃 𝑏 + 2ℎ√5 1 + 2√5ℎ/𝑏

Discharge:
1 2/3
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑛 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 1/2 𝐴
Hence,
2/3
1 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
𝑄 = ℎ2/3 ( ) 𝑆 1/2 ℎ𝑏(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)
𝑛 1 + 2√5ℎ/𝑏

𝑛𝑄 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)5/3
 = ℎ5/3
𝑏√𝑆 (1 + 2√5ℎ/𝑏)2/3
3/5
𝑛𝑄 (1 + 2√5ℎ/𝑏)2/5
 ℎ=( )
𝑏√𝑆 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏

Here, with lengths in metres,

(1 + 1.491ℎ)2/5
ℎ = 0.8316
1 + 2ℎ/3
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0.8316) gives
ℎ𝑛 = 0.7487 m

Answer: 0.749 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 2 Dr David Apsley

Section 1.4

Example.
The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 6 m with Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.012 m−1⁄3 s is
24 m3 s–1. If the streamwise slope is 1 in 200 find:
(a) the normal depth;
(b) the Froude number at the normal depth;
(c) the critical depth.

State whether the normal flow is subcritical or supercritical.

𝑏 =6m
𝑛 = 0.012 m−1⁄3 s
𝑄 = 24 m3 s −1
𝑆 = 0.005

(a)
Discharge:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where, in normal flow,
1 2/3 1/2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ, 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 ℎ 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
Hence,
1 𝑏ℎ5/3
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2
𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/3
or, rearranging as an iterative formula for h:
3/5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5
𝑏√𝑆
Here, with lengths in metres,
ℎ = 0.7926 (1 + ℎ/3)2/5
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0.7926) gives
ℎ𝑛 = 0.8783 m

Answer: 0.878 m.

(b) At the normal depth, ℎ = 0.8783 m:

𝑄 24
𝑉= = = 4.554 m s −1
𝐴 6 × 0.8783
𝑉 4.554
Fr ≡ = = 1.551
√𝑔ℎ √9.81 × 0.8783

Answer: 1.55.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 3 Dr David Apsley

(c) The critical depth is that depth (at the given flow rate) for which Fr = 1. It is not normal
flow, and does not depend on the slope 𝑆 or the roughness 𝑛.

𝑉
Fr =
√𝑔ℎ
where
𝑄
𝑉= (in general)
𝐴
𝑄 𝑞
or 𝑉= = (for a rectangular channel; 𝑞 is the flow per unit width)
𝑏ℎ ℎ

Hence, for a rectangular channel,

2
(𝑞/ℎ)2 𝑞2
Fr = = 3
𝑔ℎ 𝑔ℎ

For critical flow, Fr = 1 and so

1/3
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐 = ( )
𝑔

Here, the flow per unit width is 𝑞 = 24/6 = 4 m2 s −1, so that

1/3
42
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) = 1.177 m
9.81

Answer: 1.18 m.

The normal depth is supercritical because, when ℎ = ℎ𝑛 , then Fr > 1 (part (b)).

Alternatively (and often more conveniently), the normal depth here is supercritical because
ℎ𝑛 < ℎ𝑐 ; so speed 𝑉 is larger, and depth ℎ is smaller in normal flow than critical flow, so that
Fr ≡ 𝑉/√𝑔ℎ must be greater than 1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 4 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.2

Example.
A 3-m wide channel carries a total discharge of 12 m3 s–1. Calculate:
(a) the critical depth;
(b) the minimum specific energy;
(c) the alternate depths when 𝐸 = 4 m.

𝑏 =3m
𝑄 = 12 m3 s −1

(a)
Discharge per unit width:
𝑄 12
𝑞= = = 4 m2 s −1
𝑏 3
Then, for a rectangular channel:
1/3 1/3
𝑞2 42
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) =( ) = 1.177 m
𝑔 9.81

Answer: 1.18 m.

(b) For a rectangular channel,

3 3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ = × 1.177 = 1.766 m
2 𝑐 2

Answer: 1.77 m.

(c) As 𝐸 > 𝐸𝑐 , there are two possible depths for a given specific energy.
𝑉2 𝑄 𝑞
𝐸 ≡ℎ+ where 𝑉= = (for a rectangular channel)
2𝑔 𝐴 ℎ

𝑞2
 𝐸 ≡ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2
Substituting values in metre-second units:
0.8155
4≡ℎ+
ℎ2

For the subcritical (slow, deep) solution, the first term, associated with potential energy,
dominates, so rearrange as:
0.8155
ℎ =4−
ℎ2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 5 Dr David Apsley

Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ =4) gives ℎ = 3.948 m.

For the supercritical (fast, shallow) solution, the second term, associated with kinetic energy,
dominates, so rearrange as:

0.8155
ℎ=√
4−ℎ
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives ℎ = 0.4814 m.

Answer: 3.95 m and 0.481 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 6 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.3.1

Example. (Exam 2020)

(a) Define:
(i) specific energy
(ii) Froude number
for open-channel flow. What is special about these quantities in critical conditions?

A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:1000, a Manning’s 𝑛 of 0.015 m–1/3 s and a discharge of
3 m3 s–1 per metre width.
(b) Calculate the normal and critical depths.
(c) In a region of the channel the bed is raised by a height of 0.8 m over a length sufficient
for the flow to be parallel to the bed over this length. Determine the depths upstream,
downstream and over the raised bed, ignoring frictional losses. Sketch the key features
of the flow, indicating all hydraulic transitions caused by the bed rise.
(d) In the same channel, the bed is lowered by 0.8 m from its original level. Determine the
depths upstream, downstream and over the lowered bed, ignoring frictional losses.
Sketch the flow.

(a)
(i) Specific energy is the head relative to the local bed of the channel:
𝑉2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔

(ii) The Froude number is

𝑉
Fr =
√𝑔ℎ̅

In critical conditions Fr = 1 and the specific energy is the minimum for that discharge.

(b)
𝑆 = 0.001
𝑛 = 0.015 m–1⁄3 s
𝑞 = 3 m2 s–1

Normal depth:
Discharge per unit width:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 (Manning), 𝑅ℎ = ℎ (“wide” channel)
𝑛 ℎ
1 2/3 1/2
 𝑞= ℎ 𝑆 ℎ
𝑛

ℎ5/3 √𝑆
 𝑞=
𝑛

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 7 Dr David Apsley

 𝑛𝑞 3/5 0.015 × 3 3/5
 ℎ𝑛 = ( ) =( ) = 1.236 m
√𝑆 √0.001

Critical depth:
1/3 1/3
𝑞2 32
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) =( ) = 0.9717 m
𝑔 9.81

Answer: normal depth = 1.24 m; critical depth = 0.972 m.

(c) To determine the type of behaviour over the raised bed, compare the total head under critical
conditions (the minimum energy necessary to get over the weir at this flow rate) with that
available in the approach flow.

Critical
ℎ𝑐 = 0.9717 m
3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ = 1.458 m
2 𝑐
𝑧𝑏 = 0.8 m
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 = 2.258 m

Approach Flow
Because the channel is described as “long” it will have sufficient fetch to develop normal flow;
hence the approach-flow head is that for the normal depth (ℎ = 1.236 m):
𝑉𝑛2
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝑛 +
2𝑔
𝑞2
= ℎ𝑛 +
2𝑔ℎ𝑛2
32
= 1.236 +
2 × 9.81 × 1.2362
= 1.536 m

At the normal depth the available head (𝐻𝑎 ) is less than the minimum required to get over the
bed rise (𝐻𝑐 ). Hence the water depth must increase upstream (“back up”), to raise the head
immediately upstream. Thus:
• critical conditions do occur;
• the total head in the vicinity is the critical head (𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2.258 m).

Over the raised bed there is a hydraulic transition, so the depth over this is critical: ℎ = ℎ𝑐 =
0.9717 m.

Just up- or downstream,

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 8 Dr David Apsley

 𝑉2 𝑞
𝐻 =𝐸 =ℎ+ where 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ

𝑞2
 𝐻 =ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2

0.4587
 2.258 = ℎ +
ℎ2

Upstream, rearrange for the deep, subcritical, solution:

0.4587
ℎ = 2.258 −
ℎ2
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 2.258) gives ℎ = 2.160 m.

Downstream, rearrange for the shallow, supercritical solution:

0.4587
ℎ=√
2.258 − ℎ
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives ℎ = 0.5127 m.

normal GVF RVF

normal
hc
hn h1
h2 GVF hydraulic hn
jump

Since the preferred (i.e. normal) depth is subcritical, there must be a downstream hydraulic
jump. (A quick calculation shows that the upstream depth for this jump is greater than ℎ2 , so
there is indeed a length of GVF between the area of bed rise and the jump.)

Answer: depths upstream, over, downstream of the raised bed: 2.16 m, 0.972 m, 0.513 m.

(d) The flow does not require additional energy to pass a depressed section; hence, the total
head throughout is that supplied by the approach flow (𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 = 1.536 m) and the flow
remains subcritical. The depths just upstream and downstream of the lowered section are those
in the approach flow; i.e. normal depth.

As bed height 𝑧𝑏 decreases, specific energy 𝐸 must increase to maintain the same total head.
In the lowered section:
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸

 1.536 = −0.8 + 𝐸

 𝐸 = 2.336 m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 9 Dr David Apsley

Then
𝑉2 𝑞
𝐸 =ℎ+ where 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ

𝑞2
 𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2

0.4587
 2.336 = ℎ +
ℎ2

As we require the subcritical solution, rearrange as

0.4587
ℎ = 2.336 −
ℎ2
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 2.336) gives ℎ = 2.245 m.

(Note that this is the depth of the water column. The actual surface level here is
𝑧𝑠 = −0.8 + ℎ = 1.445 m
so the overall water level also rises in this section.)

normal RVF
normal
hn
hn

Answer: depths upstream, within, downstream of the lowered section: 1.24 m, 2.24 m, 1.24 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 10 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.3.1

Example.
A long channel of rectangular cross-section with width 3.5 m and streamwise slope 1 in 800
carries a discharge of 15 m3 s–1. Manning’s n may be taken as 0.016 m–1/3 s. A broad-crested
weir of height 0.7 m is constructed at the centre of the channel. Determine:
(a) the depth far upstream of the weir;
(b) the depth just upstream of the weir;
(c) whether or not a region of supercritical gradually-varied flow exists downstream of the
weir.

𝑏 = 3.5 m
𝑆 = 0.00125
𝑄 = 15 m3 s −1
𝑛 = 0.016 m−1⁄3 s
𝑧weir = 0.7 m

(a) The depth far upstream is normal since the channel is described as “long”. For normal flow
in a rectangular channel:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where:
1 2/3 1/2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 ℎ 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
Hence,
1 𝑏ℎ5/3
𝑄= 2/3
𝑆 1/2
𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)
or, rearranging as an iterative formula for ℎ:
3/5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5
𝑏√𝑆

Here, with lengths in metres,

ℎ = 1.488 (1 + 0.5714ℎ)2/5
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 1.488) gives
ℎ = 2.023 m

Answer: 2.02 m.

(b) To establish depths near the weir we need to know the flow behaviour at the weir. Compare
the energy in the approach flow with that under critical conditions.

Approach flow

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 11 Dr David Apsley

 ℎ = 2.023 m (from part (a))
𝑄 𝑄 15
𝑉= = = = 2.118 m s −1
𝐴 𝑏ℎ 3.5 × 2.023
Specific energy in the approach flow:
𝑉2 2.1182
𝐸𝑎 = ℎ + = 2.023 + = 2.252 m
2𝑔 2 × 9.81
Referring heads to the undisturbed bed near the weir:
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎 = 2.252 m

Critical conditions
1/3
𝑞2 𝑄 15
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) 𝑞= = = 4.286 m2 s−1
𝑔 𝑏 3.5
1/3
4.2862
 ℎ𝑐 = ( ) = 1.233 m
9.81
3 3
𝐸𝑐 = 2 ℎ𝑐 = 2 × 1.233 = 1.850 m
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧weir + 𝐸𝑐 = 0.7 + 1.850 = 2.550 m

Since the head required to flow over the weir (𝐻𝑐 = 2.550 m) exceeds that in the approach
flow (𝐻𝑎 = 2.252 m), the depth just upstream of the weir must increase and the flow back up.
The total head at any position in the vicinity of the weir is 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2.550 m.

Just upstream and downstream of the weir (i.e. at undisturbed bed level):
𝑉2 𝑄
𝐻=𝐸 =ℎ+ 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑏ℎ

𝑄2
 𝐻 =ℎ+
2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2

0.9362
 2.550 = ℎ + (*)
ℎ2

The depth just upstream is the deep, subcritical solution. Hence, rearrange as
0.9362
ℎ = 2.550 −
ℎ2
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 2.550) gives
ℎ = 2.385 m

Answer: 2.39 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 12 Dr David Apsley

(c) Since the normal flow is subcritical, the flow must return to it via a hydraulic jump on the
downstream side of the weir.

If the flow in the vicinity of the weir is unaffected by the hydraulic jump the flow goes smoothly
supercritical on the downstream side, with total head 𝐻 = 2.550 m (equation (*)). Rearranging
to get an iterative formula for the supercritical solution:

0.9362
ℎ=√
2.550 − ℎ

Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives

ℎ = 0.7141 m

Denote by subscripts A and B respectively the conditions upstream and downstream of the
hydraulic jump. On the downstream side conditions may be assumed normal, since the channel
is “long” and hence there is sufficient fetch to develop the preferred depth:
ℎ𝐵 = 2.023 m
𝑉𝐵 = 2.118 m s −1 (from part (b))
𝑉𝐵 2.118
Fr𝐵 = = = 0.4754
√𝑔ℎ𝐵 √9.81 × 2.023
Hence, from the hydraulic-jump relation for the sequent depths:
ℎ𝐵 2.023
ℎ𝐴 = (−1 + √1 + 8Fr𝐵2 ) = (−1 + √1 + 8 × 0.47542 ) = 0.6835 m
2 2

Any gradually-varied supercritical flow downstream of the weir would increase in depth until
a hydraulic jump occurred (see the lectures on GVF). Since the depth downstream of the weir
is already greater than any sequent depth upstream of the hydraulic jump, no such increasing-
depth GVF is possible and the hydraulic jump must actually occur at (or just before) the
downstream end of the weir.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 13 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.3.1

Example.
A reservoir discharge is controlled by a weir of width 8 m and discharge coefficient 0.9.
(a) Calculate the flow rate over the weir when the freeboard is 0.65 m.
(b) Assuming negligible inflow and a constant plan area of 1.5 km2 for the reservoir,
calculate the time in hours taken to reduce the level of the reservoir by 0.4 m.

(a) The weir controls the flow, so there must be critical flow over the weir and the freeboard
corresponds to critical head:
3
𝐻𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 = ℎ0
2
1/3
3 𝑞2
 ( ) = ℎ0
2 𝑔

3
2
 √
𝑞 = 𝑔 ( ℎ0 )
3
For the full width 𝑏 = 8 m, and with a discharge coefficient 𝑐𝑑 = 0.9,
3
2 3/2
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑞𝑏 √
= 𝑐𝑑 𝑏 𝑔 ( ℎ0 ) = 12.28ℎ0
3
When ℎ0 = 0.65 m,
𝑄 = 6.435 m3 s−1

Answer: 6.44 m3 s–1.

(b) By continuity:
d𝑉
= 𝑄in − 𝑄out
d𝑡
Here, d𝑉 = 𝐴𝑤𝑠 dℎ, 𝑄in = 0 and 𝑄out can be written as a function of ℎ (dropping subscript 0)
as above. Hence,
dℎ
𝐴𝑤𝑠 = −12.28 ℎ3/2
d𝑡
Writing 𝐴𝑤𝑠 = 1.5 km2 = 1.5 × 106 m2 and separating variables:
1.5 × 106 −3/2
− ℎ dℎ = d𝑡
12.28
Integrating between 𝑡 = 0 (where ℎ = 0.65 m) and 𝑡 = 𝑇 (where ℎ = 0.25 m):
0.25 𝑇
−3/2
−122100 ∫ ℎ dℎ = ∫ d𝑡
0.65 0

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 14 Dr David Apsley

 0.25
ℎ−1/2
 −122100 [ ] =𝑇
−1/2 0.65

1 1
 244200 ( − )=𝑇
√0.25 √0.65

 𝑇 = 185500 s = 51.53 hr

Answer: 51.5 hr.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 15 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.3.2

Example.

A venturi flume is placed near the middle of a long rectangular channel with Manning’s 𝑛 =
0.012 m−1⁄3 s. The channel has a width of 5 m, a discharge of 12.5 m3 s–1 and a slope of
1:2500.

(a) Determine the critical depth and the normal depth in the main channel.
(b) Determine the venturi flume width which will just make the flow critical at the
contraction.
(c) If the contraction width is 2 m find the depths just upstream, downstream and at the
throat of the venturi flume (neglecting friction in this short section).
(d) Sketch the surface profile.

𝑛 = 0.012 m−1⁄3 s
𝑏 = 5 m (main channel)
𝑄 = 12.5 m3 s−1
𝑆 = 4 × 10−4

(a)
In the main channel,
𝑄 12.5
𝑞= = = 2.5 m2 s −1
𝑏 5

Critical Depth
1/3 1/3
𝑞2 2. 52
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) =( ) = 0.8605 m
𝑔 9.81

Normal Depth
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where:
1 2/3 1/2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ, 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 ℎ 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
Hence,
1 𝑏ℎ5/3
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2
𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/3
or, rearranging as an iterative formula for ℎ:
3/5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5
𝑏√𝑆

Here, with lengths in metres,

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 16 Dr David Apsley

 ℎ = 1.275 (1 + 0.4ℎ)2/5
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 1.275) gives
ℎ𝑛 = 1.546 m

Answer: critical depth = 0.860 m; normal depth = 1.55 m.

(b) The flow will just go critical if the head in the throat (𝐻𝑐 ) is exactly equal to that in the
approach flow (𝐻𝑎 ). Measure heads relative to the bed of the channel in the vicinity of the
venturi.

Critical Head
1/3
3 2
3 𝑞𝑚 𝑄
𝐻𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 = ( ) , where 𝑞𝑚 =
2 2 𝑔 𝑏𝑚
(Note that the critical depth is different at the throat to that in the main channel, due to the
narrower width.)
1/3
3 𝑄2
 𝐻𝑐 = ( 2 )
2 𝑔𝑏𝑚

Approach Flow
The approach flow is normal, since the channel is “long”. Hence,
ℎ𝑎 = 1.546 m

𝑄 12.5
𝑉𝑎 = = = 1.617 m s−1
𝑏ℎ𝑎 5 × 1.546

𝑉𝑎2 1.6172
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝑎 + = 1.546 + = 1.679 m
2𝑔 2 × 9.81

For the flow just to go critical at the throat,

𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻𝑎
1/3
3 𝑄2
 ( 2) = 1.679
2 𝑔𝑏𝑚

12.5
𝑏𝑚 = = 3.370 m
 2 3/2
(3 × 1.679) √9.81

Answer: 3.37 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 17 Dr David Apsley

(c) If the throat width is reduced further, then the flow will back up and undergo a critical
transition at the throat.

At the throat,
𝑄 12.5
𝑞𝑚 = = = 6.25 m2 s −1
𝑏𝑚 2

2 1/3 1/3
3 𝑞𝑚 6.252
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) =( ) = 1.585 m
2 𝑔 9.81

3 3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ = × 1.585 = 2.378 m
2 𝑐 2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 = 0 + 2.378 = 2.378 m

The head throughout the venturi will be the critical head (𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2.378 m).

Anywhere in the flume,

𝑉2 𝑄
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + , where 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑏ℎ

𝑄2
 𝐻 =ℎ+
2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2

At the throat the depth will be the critical depth there; i.e. ℎ = ℎ𝑐 = 1.585 m.

Just upstream and downstream, 𝑏 = 5 m; hence,

0.3186
2.378 = ℎ +
ℎ2

Upstream
Rearrange for the deep, subcritical solution:
0.3186
ℎ = 2.378 −
ℎ2
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 2.378) gives ℎ = 2.319 m.

Downstream
Rearrange for the shallow, supercritical solution:

0.3186
ℎ=√
2.378 − ℎ

Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives ℎ = 0.4015 m.

Answer: depths upstream, in the throat, downstream = 2.32 m, 1.59 m, 0.401 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 18 Dr David Apsley

(d)
PLAN VIEW
bmin

WATER PROFILE
critical

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 19 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.3.3

Example.
The water depth upstream of a sluice gate is 0.8 m and the depth just downstream (at the vena
contracta) is 0.2 m. Calculate:
(a) the discharge per unit width;
(b) the Froude numbers upstream and downstream.

ℎ1 = 0.8 m
ℎ2 = 0.2 m

(a) Assuming total head the same on either side of the gate:
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
Substituting 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ and 𝑉 = 𝑞 ⁄ℎ:
𝑞2 𝑞2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔ℎ12 2𝑔ℎ22
From the given data, in metre-second units:
0.8 + 0.0796𝑞 2 = 0.2 + 1.2742𝑞 2

 0.6 = 1.1946𝑞 2

 𝑞 = 0.7087 m2 s−1

Answer: 0.709 m2 s–1.

(b) Use, on each side of the gate,

𝑞
𝑉=
ℎ
𝑉
Fr =
√𝑔ℎ
to get
𝑉1 = 0.8859 m s−1
𝑉2 = 3.544 m s −1
and then
Fr1 = 0.3162
Fr2 = 2.530

Answer: Froude numbers upstream, downstream = 0.316, 2.53.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 20 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.3.3

Example.
A sluice gate controls the flow in a channel of width 2 m. If the discharge is 0.5 m3 s–1 and the
upstream water depth is 1.5 m, calculate the downstream depth and velocity.

𝑏 =2m
𝑄 = 0.5 m3 s −1
ℎ1 = 1.5 m

Use upstream conditions to get total head. Then, assuming no losses, find the supercritical flow
with the same head.

Total head (either side):

𝑉2 𝑄
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + where 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ and 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑏ℎ

𝑄2 3.186 × 10−3
 𝐻 =ℎ+ =ℎ+
2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2 ℎ2

The upstream depth ℎ1 = 1.5 m gives

3.186 × 10−3
𝐻 = 1.5 + = 1.501 m (dominated by ℎ1 )
1. 52

Hence,
3.186 × 10−3
1.501 = ℎ +
ℎ2

Rearrange for the shallow, supercritical solution:

3.186 × 10−3
ℎ=√
1.501 − ℎ
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives
ℎ2 = 0.04681 m
𝑄 0.5
𝑉2 = = = 5.341 m s−1
𝑏ℎ2 2 × 0.04681

Answer: downstream depth = 0.0468 m; velocity = 5.34 m s–1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 21 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.4

Example. (Exam 2018)

Water flows at 0.8 m3 s–1 per metre width down a long, wide spillway of slope 1 in 30 onto a
wide apron of slope 1 in 1000. Manning’s roughness coefficient 𝑛 = 0.014 m−1⁄3 s on both
slopes.

(a) Find the normal depths in both sections and show that normal flow is supercritical on
the spillway and subcritical on the apron.

(b) Baffle blocks are placed a short distance downstream of the slope transition to provoke
a hydraulic jump. Assuming that flow is normal on both the spillway and downstream
of the hydraulic jump, calculate the force per metre width of channel that the blocks
must impart.

(c) Find the head loss across the blocks.

𝑆1 = 1⁄30; 𝑆2 = 1⁄1000
𝑞 = 0.8 m2 s −1
𝑛 = 0.014 m−1⁄3 s

(a) Normal flow:

1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 (Manning), 𝑅ℎ = ℎ (“wide” channel)
𝑛 ℎ
1 2/3 1/2
 𝑞= ℎ 𝑆 ℎ
𝑛

ℎ5/3 √𝑆
 𝑞=
𝑛
𝑛𝑞 3/5
 ℎ=( )
√𝑆
For the two slopes this gives
ℎ1 = 0.1874 m
ℎ2 = 0.5365 m

Answer: depth on spillway = 0.187 m; depth on apron = 0.536 m.

For subcritical/supercritical:
Method 1 (use critical depth)
The critical depth is
1/3 1/3
𝑞2 0. 82
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) =( ) = 0.4026 m
𝑔 9.81

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 22 Dr David Apsley

On the spillway, ℎ1 < ℎ𝑐 : this is shallower than critical flow (where Fr = 1) and hence faster;
both ensure Fr1 > 1, so supercritical.
On the apron, ℎ2 > ℎ𝑐 : this is deeper than critical flow and hence slower; both ensure Fr2 < 1,
so subcritical.

Method 2 (find Froude numbers)

𝑉 𝑞
Fr = =
√𝑔ℎ √𝑔ℎ3
Applying this for both depths we find Fr1 = 3.148 (supercritical) and Fr2 = 0.650
(subcritical).

(b)
The corresponding velocities are deduced from 𝑉 = 𝑞/ℎ, whence:
𝑉1 = 4.269 m s −1
𝑉2 = 1.491 m s −1

Let 𝑓 be the magnitude of the force per unit width exerted by the fluid on the blocks and, by
reaction, the blocks on the fluid, which is clearly acts in the upstream direction.

On each side of the blocks the hydrostatic pressure force is given by

average pressure × area

1
or ρ𝑔ℎ × ℎ (per unit width)
2

Hence, from the steady-state momentum principle:

force = rate of change of momentum (mass flux  change in velocity)
1 1
−𝑓 + ρ𝑔ℎ12 − ρ𝑔ℎ22 = ρ𝑞(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
2 2
Hence,
1
𝑓 = ρ𝑔(ℎ12 − ℎ22 ) + ρ𝑞(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
2
= −1240 + 2222
= 982 N m−1

Answer: 982 N m–1.

(c) Where hydrostatic, head in open-channel flow is given by

𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 +
2𝑔
Here, relative to the bed of the apron, 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ. Hence,

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 23 Dr David Apsley

 𝑉12 − 𝑉22
head loss = ℎ1 − ℎ2 +
2𝑔
= −0.3491 + 0.8156
= 0.4665 m

Answer: 0.467 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 24 Dr David Apsley

Section 2.4

Example.
A downward step of height 0.5 m causes a hydraulic
jump in a wide channel when the depth and velocity
of the flow upstream are 0.5 m and 10 m s–1,
respectively.
h2
(a) Find the downstream depth.
h1

(b) Find the head lost in the jump.

(a) The downstream depth can be deduced from the momentum principle if the reaction force
from the step is known. The approximation is that this is the same as would occur if it were in
equilibrium with a hydrostatic pressure distribution here.

Flow rate per unit width:

𝑞 = 𝑉1 ℎ1 = 10 × 0.5 = 5 m2 s−1

Steady-state momentum principle

force = rate of change of momentum (mass flux  change in velocity)
Per unit width:
1 1
ρ𝑔(ℎ1 + Δ)2 − ρ𝑔ℎ22 = ρ𝑞(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
2 2
Since
𝑞 5
𝑉2 = =
ℎ2 ℎ2
this gives, in metre-second units,
5
4905(1 − ℎ22 ) = 5000( − 10)
ℎ2

5
 1 − ℎ22 = 1.019( − 10)
ℎ2

5.095
 11.19 = ℎ22 +
ℎ2
Rearrange for the deep, subcritical solution:

5.095
ℎ2 = √11.19 −
ℎ2

Iterating (from, e.g., ℎ2 = √11.19) gives ℎ2 = 3.089 m.

Answer: 3.09 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 25 Dr David Apsley

(b) Head either side is given by:
𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 +
2𝑔
The datum is not important as it is only the difference in head that is required. For convenience,
measure 𝑧 relative to the bed of the expanded part. Then,
𝑧𝑠1 = 1 m (note: water surface level, not depth), 𝑉1 = 10 m s −1  𝐻1 = 6.097 m
𝑧𝑠2 = 3.089 m, 𝑉2 = 𝑞/ℎ2 = 1.619 m s−1  𝐻2 = 3.223 m
Hence,
head lost = 6.097 − 3.223 = 2.874 m

Answer: 2.87 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 26 Dr David Apsley

Section 3.6.2

Example.

A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:2747 with a Manning’s n of 0.015 m–1/3 s. It carries a
discharge of 2.5 m3 s–1 per metre width, and there is a free overfall at the downstream end. An
undershot sluice is placed a certain distance upstream of the free overfall which determines the
nature of the flow between sluice and overfall. The depth just downstream of the sluice is 0.5 m.

(a) Determine the critical depth and normal depth.

(b) Sketch, with explanation, the two possible gradually-varied flows between sluice and
overfall.

(c) Calculate the particular distance between sluice and overfall which determines the
boundary between these two flows. Use one step in the gradually-varied-flow equation.

𝑆0 = 1⁄2747 = 3.640 × 10−4

𝑛 = 0.015 m−1⁄3 s
𝑞 = 2.5 m2 s −1

(a)
Critical Depth
1/3 1/3
𝑞2 2. 52
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) =( ) = 0.8605 m
𝑔 9.81

Normal Depth
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , (Manning), 𝑅ℎ = ℎ (“wide” channel)
𝑛 ℎ 0
1 2/3 1/2
 𝑞= ℎ 𝑆0 ℎ
𝑛

ℎ5/3 √𝑆0
 𝑞=
𝑛
3/5 3/5
𝑛𝑞 0.015 × 2.5
 ℎ=( ) =( ) = 1.500 m
√𝑆0 √1/2747

Answer: critical depth = 0.860 m; normal depth = 1.50 m.

(b) The depth just downstream of the sluice is supercritical (0.5 m < ℎ𝑐 ). However, the
preferred depth is subcritical (ℎ𝑛 > ℎ𝑐 ). Hence, if the channel is long enough then there will
be a downstream hydraulic jump, with the flow depth then decreasing to pass through critical
again near the overfall.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 27 Dr David Apsley

If the channel is too short, however, the region of supercritical flow from the sluice will extend
to the overfall.

hydraulic jump
normal
supercritical critical

normal
supercritical critical

(c) As the channel shortens, the depth change across the hydraulic jump diminishes. The
boundary between the two possible flow behaviours occurs when the supercritical GVF just
reaches critical depth at the overfall (i.e. the limiting depth change across the hydraulic jump
is zero).

As the flow is supercritical, integrate the GVF equation forward from the downstream side of
the sluice gate (where ℎ = 0.5 m) to the overfall (where ℎ = ℎ𝑐 = 0.8605 m). Use 1 step.

GVF equation:
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
For the direct-step method invert the GVF equation:
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 d𝑥
= and Δ𝑥 ≈ ( ) Δℎ
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 dℎ

For the working, write the derivative as a function of h; (all lengths in metres).
𝑉 𝑞 𝑞2 0.6371
Fr = =  Fr 2 = =
√𝑔ℎ √𝑔ℎ3 𝑔ℎ3 ℎ3

𝑛𝑞 2 1.406 × 10−3
𝑆𝑓 = ( ) =
ℎ5/3 ℎ10/3
Δℎ = 0.8605 − 0.5 = 0.3605

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 28 Dr David Apsley

 Working formulae:
d𝑥
Δ𝑥 = ( ) Δℎ
dℎ mid
where
0.6371
d𝑥 1−
= ℎ3 , Δℎ = 0.3605
dℎ 1.406 × 10−3
3.640 × 10−4 −
ℎ10/3

d𝑥
𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎmid ( ) Δ𝑥
dℎ mid
0 0.5 0
0.6803 217.1 78.26
1 0.8605 78.26

Answer: 78 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 29 Dr David Apsley

Example. (Exam 2022)
A long rectangular channel of width 2.5 m, slope 0.004 and Manning’s roughness coefficient
𝑛 = 0.022 m−1/3 s carries water at 4 m3 s−1 . Temporary works narrow the channel at one
location to 1.1 m for a short distance.

(a) Find the normal depth in the main channel and show that the slope is hydraulically mild.

(b) Show that a hydraulic transition takes place at the narrow point and find the depth just
downstream of the narrowed section, confirming that supercritical flow is possible here.

(c) Use two steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation to estimate the distance from the
end of the narrow section to the downstream hydraulic jump.

(a)
𝑏 = 2.5 m (𝑏𝑚 = 1.1 m in the narrow section)
𝑆0 = 0.004
𝑛 = 0.022 m−1⁄3 s
𝑄 = 4 m3 s −1

Discharge:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where, in normal flow:
1 2/3 1/2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ, 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 ℎ 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
Hence,
1 𝑏ℎ5/3
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2
𝑛 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/3
or, rearranging as an iterative formula for h:
3/5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5 (*)
𝑏√𝑆

When 𝑆 = 𝑆0 = 0.004, substitution of numerical values in (*) yields an iterative formula

ℎ = 0.7036(1 + 0.8ℎ)2/5
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0.7036) gives
ℎ𝑛 = 0.8690 m

At the normal depth the velocity is 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑄/(𝑏ℎ𝑛 ) = 1.841 m s−1 and the Froude number is
𝑉𝑛
Fr𝑛 ≡ = 0.6305
√𝑔ℎ𝑛
This is less than 1, i.e. subcritical. Hence, the slope is hydraulically mild.

Answer: 0.869 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 30 Dr David Apsley

(b) At the throat of the narrow section the critical depth is
2 1/3
𝑞𝑚
ℎ𝑐 = ( )
𝑔
where the flow rate per unit width 𝑞𝑚 = 𝑄/𝑏𝑚 = 3.636 m2 s−1 . Hence
ℎ𝑐 = 1.105 m
The critical head is
3
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 = 0 + ℎ𝑐 = 1.658 m
2

The approach flow head is based on normal flow (since the channel is long):
𝑉𝑛2
𝐻𝑎 = ℎ𝑛 + = 1.042 m
2𝑔
This is less than the critical head (the minimum energy required to pass this flow through the
constricted section). Hence, upstream of the narrow section the flow must back up, increasing
in depth to provide the required energy, and so a hydraulic transition takes place. The total head
in the vicinity of the narrowed section is
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 1.658 m

Downstream of the constricted section we require supercritical flow at the same head:
𝑄2
𝐻 =ℎ+
2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2
i.e., in m-s units,
0.1305
1.658 = ℎ +
ℎ2
Rearranging for the supercritical (shallow) solution:

0.1305
ℎ=√
1.658 − ℎ
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives
ℎ2 = 0.3113 m

To show that this supercritical flow actually occurs we must show that it is less than the depth
upstream of the hydraulic jump (since supercritical GVF on a mild slope increases in depth
with distance). As the channel is “long”, the hydraulic jump must cause a return to the normal
depth and the depth on the upstream side of the jump is the sequent depth. With Fr𝑛 = 0.6305
as calculated in part (a),
ℎ𝑛
ℎJ = (−1 + √1 + 8Fr𝑛2 ) = 0.4539 m
2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 31 Dr David Apsley

Since ℎ2 < ℎJ a depth-increasing length of supercritical flow exists.

Answer: 0.311 m.

(c) GVF from just downstream of the narrow section (ℎstart = 0.3113 m) to the upstream side
of the hydraulic jump (ℎend = 0.4539 m). The flow is supercritical so work in the direction of
the flow. Using two steps the depth increment is
ℎend − ℎstart 0.4539 − 0.3113
Δℎ = = = 0.0713 m
𝑁steps 2

GVF equation:
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
For the direct-step method invert the GVF equation:
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 d𝑥
= and Δ𝑥 ≈ ( ) Δℎ
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 dℎ
For the working, write the derivative as a function of h.
𝑉 𝑄 𝑄2 0.2610
Fr = =  Fr 2 = =
√𝑔ℎ 𝑏ℎ√𝑔ℎ 𝑏 2 𝑔ℎ3 ℎ3

𝑛𝑄 2 4/3 −3
(1 + 0.8ℎ)4/3
𝑆𝑓 = ( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏) = 1.239 × 10
𝑏ℎ5/3 ℎ10/3

Working formulae:

d𝑥
Δ𝑥 = ( ) Δℎ
dℎ mid

where

0.2610
d𝑥 1−
= ℎ3 , Δℎ = 0.0713
dℎ (1 + 0.8ℎ)4/3 −3
[4 − 1.239 ] × 10
ℎ10/3

𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎmid (d𝑥/dℎ)mid Δ𝑥
0 0.3113 0
0.34695 96.27 6.864
1 0.3826 6.864
0.41825 87.70 6.253
2 0.4539 13.12

Answer: 13.1 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 32 Dr David Apsley

Example. (Exam 2021)
A long rectangular channel of width 2.2 m, streamwise slope 1:100 and Chézy coefficient
80 m1/2 s–1 carries a discharge of 4.5 m3 s–1.

(a) Find the normal depth and critical depth and show that the slope is steep at this
discharge.

(b) An undershot sluice gate causes a hydraulic transition in this flow. The depth of parallel
flow downstream of the gate is 0.35 m. Find the depth immediately upstream of the
gate and sketch the flow.

(c) Using 2 steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation, find the distance between the gate
and the hydraulic jump.

(a)
𝑏 = 2.2 m
𝑆0 = 0.01
𝐶 = 80 m1⁄2 s−1
𝑄 = 4.5 m3 s −1

For the normal depth,

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
where
1/2 1/2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑅ℎ 𝑆0 , 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ, 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
Hence,
1/2
ℎ 1/2
𝑄=𝐶 ( ) 𝑆0 𝑏ℎ
1 + 2ℎ/𝑏

𝑄 ℎ3/2
 =
𝐶𝑏√𝑆0 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)1/2
2/3
𝑄
 ℎ=( ) (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)1/3
𝐶𝑏√𝑆0
Here,
ℎ = 0.4028(1 + 0.9091ℎ)1/3
Iterate (from, e.g., ℎ = 0.4028) to get normal depth
ℎ𝑛 = 0.4518 m

For the critical depth,

𝑄
𝑞= = 2.045 m2 s −1
𝑏

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 33 Dr David Apsley

Then,
1/3
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐 = ( ) = 0.7526 m
𝑔

The normal depth is supercritical since ℎ𝑛 < ℎ𝑐 (i.e. shallower and faster than the case Fr = 1,
and hence its Froude number must be > 1). Hence, by definition, the slope is “steep” at this
discharge.

Answer: normal depth = 0.452 m; critical depth = 0.753 m.

(b) First find the depth just upstream of the sluice gate by requiring the same head on both
sides:
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑄2 𝑄2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ12 2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ22
With ℎ2 = 0.35 m:
0.2132
ℎ1 + = 2.090
ℎ12
Rearrange for iteration to the subcritical (deep) solution:
0.2132
ℎ1 = 2.090 −
ℎ12
Iterating from, e.g., ℎ1 = 2.090 gives ℎ1 = 2.039 m.

The depth far upstream is supercritical, that upstream of the sluice is subcritical. Hence, there
must be a hydraulic jump upstream, followed by GVF up to the gate.

S1
normal
hn
h1
h2 S3 normal

CP hn
Answer: 2.04 m.

(c) Upstream, since the channel is long, the jump goes from normal depth to the corresponding
sequent depth in the hydraulic jump:
ℎ𝑛 = 0.4518 m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 34 Dr David Apsley

 𝑄
𝑉𝑛 = = 4.527 m s −1
𝑏ℎ𝑛
𝑉𝑛
Fr𝑛 = = 2.150
√𝑔ℎ𝑛
ℎ𝑛
ℎ𝐽 = (−1 + √1 + 8Fr𝑛2 ) = 1.166 m
2

The GVF is subcritical, so work upstream from ℎ0 = 2.039 m just upstream of the sluice to
ℎ2 = 1.166 m just downstream of the jump, using 2 steps in the GVF equation. (Note the
renumbering of depths for this part.)
1.166 − 2.039
Δℎ = = −0.4365 m
2

With lengths in m throughout:

2
𝑉2 𝑄2 0.4263
Fr = = 2 3 =
𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑏 ℎ ℎ3
𝑄 2 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏) (1 + 0.9091ℎ)
𝑆𝑓 = ( ) = 6.537 × 10−4
𝐶𝑏 ℎ3 ℎ3

Hence,
0.4263
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 1−
= = ℎ3
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 1 + 0.9091ℎ
0.01 − 6.537 × 10−4
ℎ3
and
d𝑥
Δ𝑥 = ( ) Δℎ
dℎ mid

Working is set out in the following table.

𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎmid (d𝑥/dℎ)mid Δ𝑥
0 2.039 0
1.821 95.69 –41.77
1 1.6025 –41.77
1.384 88.87 –38.79
2 1.166 –80.56

Answer: distance to the (upstream) hydraulic jump = 80.6 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 35 Dr David Apsley

Section 4.2

Example. (From White, 2006)

A pencil point piercing the surface of a wide rectangular channel flow creates a wedgelike 25°
half-angle wave, as in the figure right. If the channel has a Manning’s n of 0.014 m–1/3 s and
the depth is 350 mm, determine: (a) the Froude number; (b) the critical depth; and (c) the
critical slope.

o
25

α = 25°
𝑛 = 0.014 m−1⁄3 s
ℎ = 0.35 m

(a)
1
sinα =
Fr
1 1
 Fr = = = 2.366
sinα sin25°

Answer: 2.37.

(b)
𝑉
Fr ≡
√𝑔ℎ

 𝑉 = Fr√𝑔ℎ = 2.366 × √9.81 × 0.35 = 4.384 m s−1

 𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ = 4.384 × 0.35 = 1.534 m2 s −1

1/3
𝑞2
 ℎ𝑐 = ( ) = 0.6213 m
𝑔

Answer: 0.621 m.

(c) The critical slope is that at which the normal depth is equal to the critical depth.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 36 Dr David Apsley

Normal flow:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 (Manning) 𝑅ℎ = ℎ (“wide” channel)
𝑛 ℎ
1 2/3 1/2
 𝑞= ℎ 𝑆 ℎ
𝑛
Rearranging, and setting a depth h equal to the critical depth (ℎ𝑐 = 0.6213 m),
(𝑛𝑞)2 (0.014 × 1.534)2
 𝑆 = 10/3 = = 2.254 × 10−3
ℎ 0.621310/3

Answer: 2.2510–3.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 37 Dr David Apsley

Sediment Transport; Section 2.1
Note: removed from the present curriculum because of the reduction in teaching hours.

Example.

An undershot sluice is placed in a channel with a horizontal bed covered by gravel with a
median diameter of 5 cm and density 2650 kg m–3. The flow rate is 4 m3 s–1 per metre width
∗
and initially the depth below the sluice is 0.5 m. Assuming a critical Shields parameter 𝜏crit of
0.06 and friction coefficient 𝑐𝑓 of 0.01:

(a) find the depth just upstream of the sluice and show that the bed there is stationary;

(b) show that the bed below the sluice will erode and determine the depth of scour.

𝑑 = 0.05 m
𝜌𝑠 = 2650 kg m−3 (𝑠 = 2.65)
𝑞 = 4 m2 s −1
∗
𝜏crit = 0.06
𝑐𝑓 = 0.01

(a) The bed is mobile if and only if the bed shear stress exceeds the critical shear stress for
incipient motion. (Alternatively, one could find the velocity at which incipent motion occurs.)

First find the critical shear stress for incipient motion. The local shear stress can be found by
finding velocities using open-channel flow theory and using the friction coefficient.

The critical shear stress for incipient motion is

∗
𝜏crit = 𝜏crit (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 = 0.06 × (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.05 = 48.56 Pa

In the accelerated flow just below the sluice gate,

ℎ = 0.5 m
𝑞 4
𝑉= = = 8 m s −1
ℎ 0.5
The total head relative to the undisturbed bed is thus (since 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ initially):
𝑉2 82
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + = 0.5 + = 3.762 m
2𝑔 2 × 9.81

Upstream of the sluice one must have the same total head:
𝑉2 𝑞2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + =ℎ+
2𝑔 2𝑔ℎ2
but now we look for the subcritical (deep) solution:
𝑞2
ℎ=𝐻−
2𝑔ℎ2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 38 Dr David Apsley

Substituting numerical values, in metre-second units:
0.8155
ℎ = 3.762 −
ℎ2
Iterating (from, e.g., ℎ = 3.762) gives
ℎ = 3.703 m

The velocity upstream of the sluice is

𝑞 4
𝑉= = = 1.080 m s−1
ℎ 3.703
and the bed shear stress upstream of the sluice is
1 1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) = 0.01 × × 1000 × 1.0802 = 5.832 N m−2
2 2
Since 𝜏𝑏 < 𝜏crit the bed here is stationary.

Answer: depth upstream of sluice = 3.70 m; as demonstrated, the bed here is stationary.

(b) Initially, beneath the sluice,

𝑉 = 8 m s −1
1 1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) = 0.01 × × 1000 × 82 = 320 N m−2
2 2
Since 𝜏𝑏 > 𝜏crit the bed here is initially mobile.

The bed will continue to erode, the flow depth ℎ increasing and velocity 𝑉 decreasing until
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜏crit
At this point,
1
𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) = 𝜏crit
2
whence

2 𝜏crit 2 48.56
𝑉=√ =√ × = 3.116 m s−1
𝑐𝑓 𝜌 0.01 1000

𝑞 4
ℎ= = = 1.284 m
𝑉 3.116
This is the depth of flow. Since the downstream water level is set (at 0.5 m above the
undisturbed bed) by the gate the depth of the scour hole is
1.284 − 0.5 = 0.784 m

Answer: 0.784 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Open-Channel Flow Notes) - 39 Dr David Apsley