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Applied Electronics Textbook for XII Standard Bifocal Vocational Electronics

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Fresh New Revised Textbook 2018-19

Applied Electronics
Special Textbook for XII Bifocal Electronics,
Useful for Diploma & Degree in Electronics Engineering

D. S. Vidyasagar
M.S. (Elect. & Comm.), A.M.I.E. (Telecom.), Dip: Ind. Elect., A.I., Robotics, Cyber Law,
Webdev & SSL; M.A. (Russian, French), Sanskrit Alankar, Sangeet Visharad

Chairman of Board of Studies

(P.G. Diploma in Animation,
Amravati University, Amravati)

Mentor of ATAL Innovation Mission for ATL

(Expert in Faculty Training in Robotics &
Visit our websites,, exclusively Robotics Laboratory Setup)
designed for the
he students of
electronics & robotics Technical Intelligence Consultant
(Practical Electronics, Robotics, Industrial automation,
www.vsagar.org
Medical Instrumentation, A.I., Cyber Law, Webdev,
www.vidyasagarsir.com Engineering & Research Projects)

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agazines
Electronics For You (New Delhi), Elektor (U.K.),
Wireless World (Australia), Science Today, etc.

Vidyasagar Academy, Akola

Phone: 99-60-991-991

Vidyasagar Sir’s XII std. Simple Notes on Applied Electronics (Paper

(Paper-1), www.vsagar.org
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Applied Electronics
Textbook for XII Standard Bifocal Vocational Electronics,
Also useful for Diploma & Degree Courses in Electronics Engineering
(The Textbook also useful with the syllabi of: Indonesian Electronics Technology HSC, NSW,
Nepal Diploma in Electronics Engineering (CTEVT) and Pakistan NISTE DAE Course)

First Edition: June 2000, Revised: 2001, 2002

2002-2008 (revised every year)
Second to Fifth Edition: August 2008 – December 2018 (revised every year)
Sixth Edition: July 2018 (Fully
Fully Revised
Revised)

Published By:
Vidyasagar Academy,
Mrs. C.D. Vidyasagar
42/3A, 772, Renuka, Ranpise Nagar,
agar, Akola
99-60-06-45-64
This is the part of complete book, available for
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Copyright © 1990-2018, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, copied in a
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without the prior permission of the author and the copyrig
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Acknowledgements:
The author extends his thanks and profound appreciation for all those who helped him directly or indirectly in
bringing this Textbook in present stature.
The author welcomes any suggestions, both from the teachers and the sstudents,
tudents, for further improvement of this
book, at [email protected].. Visit his profile on www.vsagar.org to know more about him.

Price: Rs. 1000/- (In India only)

ISBN: 978-81-924365-5-5
ASIN: B00F7OD9HA

Overseas Prices: $19.99 or £19.77, € 323.51, ¥7340

When ordering this title online, use: ISBN: 978-81-924365-5-5 or ASIN: B00F7OD9HA
Vidyasagar Sir’s XII std. Simple Notes on Applied Electronics (Paper
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CONTENTS
1. Instruments ................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 7

1.2 Cathode Ray Tube .................................................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Deflection Systems in CRT ........................................................................................................................ 8

1.4 Properties of CRT screen .......................................................................................................................... 9

1.5 Front panel controls of CRO ..................................................................................................................... 9

1.6 Block diagram of CRO ............................................................................................................................. 10

1.7 Internal circuit of TBG ............................................................................................................................ 11

1.8 Applications of CRO ................................................................................................................................ 12

1.9 Function Generator ................................................................................................................................ 16

1.10 Digital Multimeter .................................................................................................................................. 17

2 DC Power Supplies ..................................................................................................... 23

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Block diagram of power supply .............................................................................................................. 25

2.3 Rectifier circuits...................................................................................................................................... 26

2.4 Filter Circuits .......................................................................................................................................... 29

2.5 Concepts of Voltage Regulator (Conceptual Topic) ............................................................................... 32

2.6 Shunt Zener Regulator ........................................................................................................................... 34

2.7 3-terminal voltage regulator .................................................................................................................. 38

2.8 Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) ....................................................................................................... 41

3 Transducers ............................................................................................................... 47
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 49

3.2 Active & Passive Transducers ................................................................................................................. 49

3.3 Selection of transducer .......................................................................................................................... 49

3.4 Thermister .............................................................................................................................................. 50

3.5 Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) ............................................................................................................. 51

3.6 Capacitive Transducer ............................................................................................................................ 52

3.7 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) ..................................................................................... 53

3.8 Piezo Crystal Transducer ........................................................................................................................ 54

3.9 Loudspeaker (Speaker) ........................................................................................................................... 55

3.10 OptoCoupler (Opto Isolator) .................................................................................................................. 56

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3.11 Gas sensor .............................................................................................................................................. 57

4 Operational Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 61

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 63

4.2 Fundamentals of amplifier ..................................................................................................................... 63

4.3 Differential amplifier .............................................................................................................................. 64

4.4 Operational Amplifier............................................................................................................................. 66

4.5 Linear Applications of Opamp ................................................................................................................ 68

5 Modern Electronics Communication .......................................................................... 81

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 83

5.2 Elements of communication system ...................................................................................................... 83

5.3 Classification of communication system ................................................................................................ 84

5.4 Concept of modulation .......................................................................................................................... 85

5.5 The process of Amplitude modulation (AM) .......................................................................................... 86

5.6 Frequency modulation (FM)................................................................................................................... 88

5.7 Satellite communication ........................................................................................................................ 90

5.8 Digital Data communication ................................................................................................................... 92

5.9 Networks in Communication.................................................................................................................. 94

5.10 Optical fiber communication ................................................................................................................. 96

5.11 Facsimile (Fax) ........................................................................................................................................ 98

5.12 Cellular mobile radio system .................................................................................................................. 99

5.13 Concept of RADAR ................................................................................................................................ 101

6 Study of Integrated Circuits.......................................................................................109

6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 111

6.2 Types of timer ...................................................................................................................................... 111

6.3 IC 555 Timer ......................................................................................................................................... 111

6.4 Applications of IC 555 .......................................................................................................................... 113

6.5 IC 741 operational amplifier................................................................................................................. 117

6.6 Applications of IC741 opamp ............................................................................................................... 118

6.7 3-terminal voltage regulator ................................................................................................................ 119

Subject: XII Standard Applied Electronics, Paper I .............................................................................125

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1. Instruments

Instruments

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers basic laboratory instruments like cathode ray oscilloscope, function generator and
digital multimeter. To understand the topics in this chapter, student must prepare fundamentals of
electricity, semiconductor amplifiers, UJT, etc.
The cathode ray oscilloscope is a versatile laboratory instrument. If a laboratory has only CRO in it,
other measuring instruments may not be required. Using CRO, we can very accurately measure, AC/DC
voltage, AC/DC current, resistance, phase and phase difference between two or more waveforms,
relative frequency of a waveform, observe the amount of noise present on a signal, etc. In addition,
CRO is also useful to observe the shape of waveform or signal and observe its real time progression on
time axis.

1.2 CATHODE RAY TUBE

CRT i.e. cathode ray tube is the most important part in CRO. It is made up of thick glass (with vacuum
inside) and it is shaped like a funnel. There are number different electrodes inside the CRT.
The working of each electrode is given below. The description of each electrode from left to right of the
CRT is given below –

Connecting pins: These pins are internally connected to different electrodes inside the CRT.
Sealing base: After fitting all electrodes in CRT, vacuum is created in it and then it is sealed.
Filament: The filament is used to heat up the cathode fitted on it indirectly. It is made up of resistive
material like tungsten. It is connected to 6.3V AC.
Cathode: It is used as the source of free electrons to produce electron beam. It is cylindrical in shape
and made up of thick copper, closed at one end. It is connected high negative voltage (>20kV DC).
Control grid: It covers the cathode. It is made up of thick copper. It is used to control the number of
electrons in electron beam. The cathode is connected to variable negative voltage. It has tiny hole at the
center. The electrons emitted from cathode come out from this hole. When electrons come out, they get
diverged due to mutual repulsion.
The three anodes: They are used to accelerate and focus the cathode electrons on screen. All the three
anodes are hollow cylinders and fitted coaxially. They are connected to high positive voltage in
decreasing order from left to right (approximately 80kV, 60kV and 40kV DC respectively).
Deflection plates: There are four deflection plates i.e. two pairs: vertical deflection plates to deflect
electron beam on screen, along y-axis and the horizontal deflection plates to deflect it along x-axis.

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Aquadag coating: It absorbs all the electrons bounced back from screen after striking on the screen. It is
a thin metallic coating applied on funnel shape of CRT from inside. It is internally connected to last
accelerating anode.
Screen: The screen displays waveforms and patterns drawn on it, by the electron beam. It is coated with
phosphor compound, from inside. When high speed electron beam strikes on it, the phosphor absorbs
K.E. of electrons and emits photons from that point, where the beam strikes.
Graticule: It is the measurement scale (or reference scale) of 1cm x 1cm printed on the screen from
front side. It is used to measure the displacement of electron beam on screen and to calculate different
parameters of waves and patterns. This scale is used with volt/div and time/div scale values.

1.3 DEFLECTION SYSTEMS IN CRT

The electron beam can be deflected using electric or magnetic field. As per the application of CRT,
there are two types of deflection systems used in CRT – the electrostatic deflection system and the
magnetic deflection system. They are explained as follows:

1.3.1 Electrostatic Deflection System

In this system, the electron beam is deflected with the help of electric field created between the pair
deflection plates. There are four deflection plates in CRT: one pair of horizontal deflection plates and
the other pair is of vertical deflection plates.
The plates are made up of copper or aluminium. The vertical deflection plates are fitted horizontally
and the horizontal deflection plates are fitted vertically.
The vertical deflection plates are connected to the input signal (i.e. y-input) which we want to observe
on the screen and the horizontal deflection plates are connected to internal sawtooth wave.
Due to this, strong electric field is produced between the plates. When electron beam enters in this field,
it is deflected towards the plate which is positive. So the path of beam becomes parabolic. Then the
beam comes out of this field in straight line and strikes on the screen at a particular point on the
screen. The setup of vertical deflection plates is shown in following diagram –

Definition: The deflection sensitivity of CRT is defined as the deflection on screen in meters per volt of
the deflection voltage.
D = deflection on screen in meters
= Ed = deflection voltage (Volts)

The more is the PD across the plates, the stronger is the field and so more will be the deflection angle 
of the electron beam.

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1.3.2 Magnetic deflection system
In this system, electron beam is deflected using external magnetic field. It is particularly used when we
want to deflect the electron beam over a considerable distance on the screen i.e. if the screen
dimensions are very large, for example, TV screen.
To create alternating magnetic field two pairs of deflection coils, known as yoke, are fitted on the neck
of CRT. The pair of vertical deflection coils is connected to y-input of CRO and the pair of horizontal
deflection coils is connected to internal sawtooth wave or external signal at x-input.
The setup of magnetic deflection system used in CRT is given in following diagram –

1.3.3 Applications
Electrostatic deflection is used in slow systems like in CRO, ECG monitors, EEG machines, etc.
The magnetic deflection system is extremely fast. It can deflect electron beam over a very large
distance on screen, in extremely short time. So it is used in fast systems like TV, computer monitors
(VDU), RADAR system, earthquake monitoring system, etc.

1.4 PROPERTIES OF CRT SCREEN

Fluorescence: It is defined as the property of phosphor coating, to emit light when electron beam
strikes on it. It is an instantaneous phenomenon i.e. the light is emitted till e-beam strikes.
Phosphorescence: It is the property of a particular phosphor coating, to continue light emission even
after the electron beam stops striking on it.
Persistence: It is defined as the length of time in which the phosphorescence phenomenon occurs. It is
different for different phosphor compounds. Maximum time length is 2-3 seconds.
Luminescence: It is defined as the intensity of light emitted from the CRT screen.

1.5 FRONT PANEL CONTROLS OF CRO

The instrument of CRO is fitted with number of controls on its front panel and the back panel along
with the screen of CRT. These are different types of rotating knobs which are actually variable resistors
to control voltages inside the CRO circuit.
ON/OFF Switch: It switches on/off the mains power supply of CRO. It has one LED indicator given on
the front panel.
Intensity (Brightness): It is a rotary variable resistor internally connected to control grid of CRT. When
we rotate it, it changes the negative voltage bias on control grid and thus controls the number of
electrons emitted from its center hole. In this way, the brightness of screen can be adjusted.

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Focus (Sharpness): It is a rotary variable resistor internally connected to focusing anode. It controls
high positive voltage bias on the anode. By proper adjustment, we can make the electron beam sharp in
a pin point dot on the screen.
Volt/div knob: With this knob, we can control the vertical displacement of electron beam on screen.
This knob adjusts the gain of vertical amplifier circuit i.e. the vertical deflection sensitivity.
Time/div knob: This knob controls the horizontal speed of electron beam. Internally it controls the
frequency of sawtooth wave connected to horizontal deflection plates of CRT. Thus when frequency of
sawtooth wave is low, the electron beam takes longer time to deflect from left to right of the screen. So
the waveform displayed on the screen gets compressed. And when its frequency is more, the displayed
waveform is elongated.
Vertical Position: With this knob we can adjust the position of lighted spot or wave, vertically i.e. along
with y-axis. Internally, this knob controls the voltage bias on vertical deflection plates.
Horizontal Position: With this knob we can adjust the position of lighted spot or wave, horizontally i.e.
along with x-axis. Internally, this knob controls the voltage bias on horizontal deflection plates.

1.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CRO

The working of CRO can be understood by dividing the complete circuit into two main parts: the
vertical section and the horizontal section.

1.6.1 Vertical Section

Y-input: This is main input of CRO. The signal, which we want to observe, is connected to this input.
Vertical attenuator: It consists of RC voltage divider. This circuit protects the CRO circuit from
dangerously high input voltage. However, if the input voltage is weak then attenuator does not reduce
it, but feeds it to the amplifier circuit.
Vertical amplifier: It is a set of preamplifier and power amplifier circuits. The gain of amplifier can be
controlled by adjusting Volt/div knob.

Important Note
The waveforms and
labels are very
important in this
diagram.

Delay line: The delay line creates a small amount of delay, so that the signal of y-input and the
sawtooth signal both will appear on vertical and horizontal deflection plates, simultaneously. This delay
is very small about 0.25sec.

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Long Answer Questions (4 Marks) – asked in HSC Board Exams
1. Explain with block diagram the working of CRO.

2. Why time base is required in CRO? Thus explain the process of displaying waves on the screen of CRO.

3. Draw neat diagram of CRT and explain the function of each block in it.

4. Explain the detailed functioning of intensity, focus and yy-pos, x-pos

pos controls on the front panel of CRO.

5. What are the types of deflection systems used in CRO? Explain with neat diagram.

6. Explain the working of function gen

generator
erator with its neat block diagram. Also explain the process of
converting square wave into triangular wave.

7. What are the applications of deflection systems? Give any two applications of each deflection system.

8. How a DMM works? Explain any three types of m

measurements
easurements using with the help of DMM.

9. Explain the working of UJT oscillator circuit to generate the sawtooth waves for deflecting the electron
beam horizontally.

10. How unknown frequency and phase are measured with the help of CRO? Explain with one example
each.

11. During what part of sawtooth wave the electron beam draws the wave on CRO screen? Thus explain the
use of sawtooth wave in the drawing process of wave on the CRT screen.

12. Define all the properties of CRT screen. Explain the use of aquadag coating applied on the CRT screen.

Refer our “Perfect Answers” book for neatly written HSC Board Paper Solutions.

Conceptual Study Questions – For Beyond Syllabus Study

1. What will happen if we do not use Aquadag coating in CRT?

2. Why there is a large potential difference between the anodes inside the CRT?

3. Why the electron beam is not absorbed by the anodes and deflection plates?

4. Why distortion is produced when we convert sine wave into triangular wave?

5. What will happen if we do not connect any signal to both ver

vertical
tical and horizontal
deflection plates of CRT?

6. Why the screen of CRT has longer horizontal length than vertical height? Why such
aspect ratio is maintained in TV also?

Refer HSC Board Question Paper Pattern at the end of this notes.

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2 DC Power Supplies

DC Power
Supplies

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2.1 INTRODUCTION
DC power supply is a very important instrument in laboratory. All electronic circuits work ONLY on
DC power supply. They cannot work on AC. DC supply can also be obtained from batteries. But the
batteries are costly and require maintenance. So a DC power supply is used, in which mains AC voltage
of 230V is converted into DC voltage of the required value.
In this chapter, we shall study the three types of power supply circuits which convert AC voltage into
DC voltage. They are HWR, FWR and BR. This chapter also covers the regulator circuits to keep the
DC voltage to a constant value, irrespective of changes in mains voltage.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

The block diagram of a DC power supply can be divided into four major sections: Transformer,
Rectifier circuit, Filter circuit and Regulator circuit.
Transformer: A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It consists of two
coils: primary coil and secondary coil. Primary coil is connected to AC supply of 230V and across
secondary we get reduced/increased AC voltage. The output voltage is given by –

There are two types of transformers: Step down transformer and step up transformer.

Rectifier Circuit: Rectifier is a circuit which converts AC into impure DC. It uses semiconductor diodes
for this conversion. There are three types of rectifier circuits: Half Wave Rectifier (1 diode), Full Wave
Rectifier (2 diodes) and Bridge Rectifier (4 diodes).
Properties of AC/DC
The polarities of AC voltage i.e. +ve & -ve signs change 50 times/second.
But the polarities of DC voltage remain always fixed and they don’t change with time.
The direction of AC current also changes 50 times/second,
But the direction of DC current remains fixed and does not change with time.

Filter Circuit: Filter circuit converts impure DC created by rectifier circuit into pure DC. There are
three types of filter circuits: Capacitor filter, Inductor filter and RC filter circuit.
Regulator Circuit: The regulator circuit keeps the pure DC voltage to a constant value irrespective of
change in input voltage. It uses semiconductor zener diode and transistors.

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HSC BOARD PATTERN QUESTIONS

Objective Questions – asked in HSC Board Exam
1. In RC coupled amplifier the ________ signal cannot be amplified. (Ans: DC signal)

2. The DC amplifier has high gain, but picks up ________ from outside. (Ans: noise)

3. Connecting fraction of output back to input of amplifier is called as _________. (Ans: feedback)

4. Due to two types of amplifier circuits, there are two types of feedbacks; they are ______ feedback and
______ feedback. (Ans: positive, negative)

5. The input and output of ________ amplifier are in-phase. (Ans: non-inverting amplifier)

6. The output of _________ amplifier is 180 out of phase with respect to its input. (Ans: inverting)
7. For an ideal operational amplifier, the input resistance is always _________. (Ans: infinite)

8. If input voltages of an inverting adder are 1V, 2V and –3V; and if its input resistance is equal to feedback
resistance, then its output voltage will be ________ volts. (Ans: zero Volts)

9. The output equation of a subtractor is given by _________. (Ans: Vo = V2 – V1)

10. The unit of slew rate of an opamp is __________. (Ans: Volt/µsec)

Short Answer Questions (3 Marks) – asked in HSC Board Exam

1. Derive the output equations of differential amplifier in differential and common mode connections of
the circuit.

2. What is differential amplifier? Explain in brief.

3. What do you mean by CMRR?

4. Define the terms: input offset voltage, output offset voltage and slew rate.

5. What is the gain of a differential amplifier in common mode and in differential mode? Give its equation.

6. What do you mean by bandwidth of an opamp?

7. What is the idea of voltage follower?

8. Why feedback is connected in an opamp circuit? Explain in brief.

9. Define the terms: closed loop gain, frequency response with diagram.

10. Enlist the characteristics of an opamp.

11. Draw a block diagram of opamp with three differential amplifier stages at the input section of the
opamp and explain the effect of intermediate stage in it.

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Long Answer Questions (4 Marks) – asked in HSC Board Exam
1. Explain the working of differential amplifier using the simple circuit and obtain its output equations.

2. Draw the block diagram of operational amplifier and explain the function of each block in it.

3. Derive the output equation of inverting amplifier using opamp. Draw the circuit diagram of inverting
amplifier also.

4. With a neat circuit diagram obtain the output equation of non-inverting

inverting amplifier circuit using opamp.

5. Describe the working of inverting adder using opamp, derive its output equation and draw its neat
circuit diagram.

6. What is the basic idea of buffer? How it is obtained? Explain with its neat circuit diagram.

7. What is the need for dual power supply in differential amplifier circuit? Explain with proper reasoning.

8. Explain the working of differentiator using opamp and derive its output equation with neat circuit
diagram.

9. How integrator circuit works? Der

Derive its output equation also.

10. How a differentiator circuit can be converted into passive differentiator? Explain.

11. Write a note on four types of comparator circuits. Compare them with each other.

12. What is a Schmitt trigger circuit? Explain with proper circui

circuit diagram.

Conceptual Study Questions – for Beyond Syllabus Study

1. What will happen if we connect two inverting amplifier circuits one after another i.e. the
output of first is connected to the input of next amplifier? Explain with diagram.

2. If we connect two inverting amplifier circuits, such that the output of first is connected
to the input of next and if = in both circuits, then will this circuit be equivalent to
the circuit of buffer? Explain with reasoning.

3. What will happen if the power suppl

supplyy voltage to an operational amplifier circuit is 12V
and the amplified output voltage is greater than 12V? Explain this condition with proper
reasons. Explain the exact value of output voltage.

4. If we connect a diode in forward biased condition in feedback path of an inverting

amplifier, then what will be the output condition? Explain with diagram and reasons.

5. Can we design a buffer circuit with inverted output such that magnitude of input and
output voltages is equal but signs are opposite? How? Explain wit
with diagram.

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5 Modern Electronics Communication

Modern
Electronics
Communication
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