Digital Modulation Techniques

Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier are varied

in accordance with a modulating signal. In digital communications, the modulating signals consists

of binary data or an M-ary encoded version of it. These data are used to modulate a carrier wave

(usually sinusoidal). In fact, the input data may represent the digital computer outputs or PCM

waves generated by digitizing voice or video signals. The channel may be a telephone channel,

microwave radio link, satellite channel or an optical fiber. In digital communication, the

modulation process involves switching or keying the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier

in accordance with the inputs data.

Thus, there are three basic modulation techniques for the transmission of digital data. They

are known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift

Keying (PSK) which can be viewed as special cases of amplitude modulation, frequency

modulation and phase modulation respectively.

The Figure 1 shows the waveforms for Amplitude Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying and

Frequency Shift Keying. In teach of hese waveforms, a single feature of the carrier (i.e. amplitude,

pahse or frequency) undergoes modulation.

1
Fig 1

In digital modulation, instead of transmitting a bit, we transmit two or more bits

simultaneously. This is known as M-ary transmission. This type of transmission results in reduced

channel bandwidth. However, sometimes, we use two quadrature carriers for modulation. This

process is known as Quadrature Modulation.

Thus, we see that there are a number of modulation schemes available to the designers of

a digital communication system required for data transmission over a bandpass channel. Every

scheme offers system trade-offs of its own. However, the final choice made by the designer is

determined by the way in which the available primary communication resources such as

transmitted power and channel bandwidth are best exploited. In particular, the choice is made of a

scheme which possess as many of the following design characteristics as possible.

(i) Maximum data rate

(ii) Minimum Probability of Symbol Error or Minimum Bit Error Rate (BER)

(iii) Minimum transmitted power

(iv) Maximum channel bandwidth

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 (v) Maximum resistance to interfering signals

(vi) Minimum circuit complexity

Classification of Digital Modulation Techniques

Basically, digital modulation techniques can be classified into Coherent or Non-coherent

techniques, depending on whether the receiver is equipped with a phase-recovery circuit or not.

The phase-recovery circuit ensures that the oscillator supplying the locally generated carrier wave

receiver is synchronized with the oscillator supplying the carrier wave used to originally modulate

incoming data stream in the transmitter.

(i) Coherent Digital Modulation Techniques

Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employed coherent

detection. In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the

carrier at the transmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and

locally generated carrier. The coherent detection is synchronous detection.

(ii) Non-coherent Digital Modulation Techniques

Non-coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques in which the detection

process does not need receiver carrier to be phase locked with transmitter carrier. The advantage

of this type of system is that the system becomes simple. But the drawback of the system is that

the error probability increases. In fact, the different digital modulation techniques are used for

various specific application areas.

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 Coherent Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or On-Off Keying (OOK)

Definition:

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or ON-OFF Keying (OOK) is the simplest digital modulation

technique. In this method, there is only one-unit energy carrier and it is switched on or off

depending upon the input binary sequence.

Expression and Waveforms:

The ASK waveform may be represented as

𝑠(𝑡) = √2𝑃𝑠 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) (to transmit ‘1’)

𝑠(𝑡) = 0 (to transmit bit ‘0’), that is no signal transmitted.

Fig 2

4
Signal 𝑠(𝑡) contains some complete cycles of carrier frequency ‘𝑓𝑖 ’. Hence, the ASK waveform

looks like an ON-OFF of the signal. Therefore, it is also known as the ON-OFF Keying (OOK).

Fig.2 shows the ASK waveform.

Generation of ASK signal

Description and working operation.

ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data (representing in

unipolar form) and the sinusoidal carrier to the two inputs of a product modulation (i.e. balanced

modulation). The resulting output will be the ASK waveform. This is shown below.

1 1
ASK Band pass Band limited ASK
Signal Filter (BPF)
0 0 0

T b

NRZ unipolar Carrier signal

Digital signal

Fig.3: ASK signal generation

Coherent Detection or Demodulation of Binary ASK signal

Working operation:

The demodulation of binary ASK waveform can be achieved with the help of coherent detector

shown in Fig.4. It consists of a product modulator which is followed by an integrator and a

decision-making device. The incoming ASK signal is applied to one input of the product

modulator. The other input is connected to sinusoidal carrier which is generated with the help of a

local oscillator. The output of the modulator goes to the input of the integrator. The integrator acts

5
on the output of the multiplier for successive bit intervals and essentially performs a Low Pass

Filtering action. The output of the integrator goes to the input of a decision making devcice.

 Symbol , 1 
Demodulated 
Tb 
 if threshold 
A output
 dt
Incoming Binary
Decision
ASK waveform device  exceed 
0  
 
 Symbol 0 , 
cos ( 2 f t)
 

c
 otherwise
Threshold

Fig.4: Demodulation of Binary ASK signal

The decision-making device compares the output of the integrator with a preset threshold. It makes

a decision in favour of bit ‘1’ when the threshold is exceeded and in favour of bit ‘0’ otherwise. In

this method, we have assumed that the local carrier is in perfect synchronization with the carrier

used in the transmitter. Synchronization requirements are phase synchronization and timing

synchronization.

Salient feature of BASK

(1) The advantages of using BASK is its simplicity.

(2) It is easy to generate and detect.

Drawback of BASK

(1) It is very sensitive to noise, therefore, finds limited application in data transmission.

(2) It is used at very low bit rates, up to 100 bit per sec.

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Bit Error Rate (BER) or Probability of Error (𝑷𝒆 )

This is given as:

1 𝐸
BER or 𝑃𝑒 = 2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐√4𝑁
𝑜

Where ‘erfc’ is the complementary error function

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Definition:

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is the most efficient scheme of all the basic digital

modulations i.e. ASK, FSK and PSK. BPSK is used for high bit rates. In this case, phase of the

sinusoidal carrier is changed according to the data bit to be transmitted. Also, a bipolar NRZ

signal is used to represent the digital data coming from the digital source.

Expression for BPSK:

In BPSK, the bits ‘1’and ‘0’ modulate the phase of the carrier. Let us assume that the carrier

is given as

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) (1)

Here ‘A’ = peak value of sinusoidal carrier. For the standard 1Ω load resistor, the power

dissipated would be
1
𝑃 = 2 𝐴2 (2)

or 𝐴 = √2𝑃

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Now, when the bit is changed, then the phase of the carrier will be changed by an amount of 180𝑜

(𝜋 radian).

For bit ‘1’, we have

𝑆1 (𝑡) = √2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) (3)

If next bit ‘0’, we have

𝑆2 (𝑡) = √2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋) (4)

Now, because cos(𝜃 + 𝜋) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, therefore, equation (4) can be written as

𝑆2 (𝑡) = −√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) (5)

With the above equation, we can define BPSK signal as 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

where, 𝑏(𝑡) = +1, when bit ‘1’ is to be transmitted

𝑏(𝑡) = −1, when bit ‘0’ is to be transmitted

Generation of BPSK signal

BPSK signal may be generated by applying carrier signal to a balanced modulator. The binary data

(0s and 1s) are converted into NRZ bipolar signal by a NRZ encoder. The binary signal b(t) is

applied as a modulating signal to the balanced modulator.

Fig.5 shows the block diagram of a BPSK signal generator.

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 Bipolar NRZ
Bipolar A product
Binary Signal b(t)
NRZ Modulator or BPSK
Data Level Balanced signal
sequence encoder modulator

Carrier signal

Carrier signal
generator

Reception of BPSK signal: Coherent Detection

Fig.6 shows the block diagram of the scheme to retrieve the BPSK signal. The transmitted BPSK

signal is given as

𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

cos ( 2f t )

2

cos ( 2 f
Incoming
t )
A 2 A Frequency
c
A Square law
BPSK Bandpass c Divider by
Device
Signal filter two

cos (2f t )

2
c

Reference
signal
Integrator
C
cos ( 2 f t )
2
Synchronous b (t ) 2 p
c s 2
Demodulator
(multiplier) s (k T )
0 b
s 1

cos (2f t )

2
b (t ) 2 p A Bit
c
synchronizer

Fig. 6; Block diagram of the scheme to retrieve the BPSK signal

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The signal undergoes the phase change depending on the time delay from the transmitter end to

receiver end. The phase change is, usually, a fixed phase shift in the transmitted signal. Let us

consider that the phase shift is 𝜃. As a result of this, the input of the receiver can be written as

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃)

Therefore, a carrier is separated because this is coherent detection. As depicted above, the received

signal is allowed to pass through a sequence law device. At the output of square law device, we

get a signal which is given as 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃)

Note that we have neglected the amplitude, since we are only interested in the carrier of the signal.

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
Therefore, 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 = 2

This implies that

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃) 1 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃) = = + cos 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃)
2 2 2
1
Where represents a DC level. This signal is allowed to pass through a BandPass Filter (BPF)
2

1
whose passband is centered around 2𝑓𝑐 . Bandpass filter removes the DC level of and at the
2

output, we obtain 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃).

This signal is having frequency equal to 2𝑓𝑐 . Therefore, it is passed through a frequency divider

by two. Thus, at the output of frequency divider. We get a carrier signal whose frequency is 𝑓𝑐 i.e.

𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃). The synchronous demodulator multiplies the input signal and recovered carrier.

Hence, at the output of multiplier, we get.

𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃) × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃) = 𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃)

1
= 𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 × [1 + cos 2(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃)]
2

𝑃
= 𝑏(𝑡)√2 [1 + cos 2(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃)]

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This signal is then applied to the bit synchronizer and integrator. The integrator integrates bit over

one-bit period. The bit synchronized takes care of starting and ending time of a bit. At the end of

bit duration 𝑇𝑏 , the bit synchronizer closes switch 𝑆2 temporarily. This connects the output of an

integrator to the decision device. The synchronizer then opens switch 𝑆2 and switch 𝑆1 is closed

temporarily. This resets the integrator voltage to zero. Then the integrator integrates next bit.

Bandwidth of BPSK signal

Bandwidth B of BPSK signal is BW= Highest frequency – Lower frequency

BW = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑏 )

BW = 2𝑓𝑏

The minimum BW of BPSK signal is equal to twice the highest frequency contained in baseband

signal.

Salient features of BPSK

(i) BPSK has a bandwidth which is lower than that of a BFSK signal.

(ii) BPSK has the best performance of all the three digital modulation techniques in the

presence of noise (i.e. minimum value of probability of error).

(iii) BPSK has a very good noise immunity.

Drawback of BPSK

(1) To regenerate the carrier in the receiver, we start by squaring 𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃).

If the received signal is −𝑏(𝑡)√2𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃), then the squared signal remains

same as before. Hence, the recovered carrier is unchanged even if the input signal has

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 changed its sign. Therefore, it is not possible to determine whether the received signal is

equal to 𝑏(𝑡) or −𝑏(𝑡).

(2) Intersymbol Interference distortion is associated with BPSK

(3) Interchannel Interference also occurs in BPSK

Bit Error Rate (BER) or Probability of Error (𝑷𝒆 ) for BPSK

BER or (𝑃𝑒 ) for BPSK is given as

1 𝐸
BER or 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 √
2 𝑁 𝑜

This indicates that 𝑃𝑒 or BER depends on the energy contents of the signal i.e. E. Also, as the

energy increases, the value of complementary error function (erfc) decreases and the value of 𝑃𝑒

reduces.

Coherent Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

In Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK), the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier is shifted

according to the binary symbol. In other words, the frequencies of a sinusoidal carrier are shifted

between two discreet values. However, the phase of the carrier is unaffected. This means that we

have two different frequencies according to binary symbols. Let there be a frequency shift by Ω.

Then we can write the following equations.

If 𝑏(𝑡) = ′1′, then 𝑠𝐻 (𝑡) = √2𝑃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + Ω)𝑡

If 𝑏(𝑡) = ′0′, then 𝑠𝐿 (𝑡) = √2𝑃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 − Ω)𝑡

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 Hence, there is increase or decrease in frequency by Ω. Let us use the following conversion

table to combine above two FSK equations:

𝑏(𝑡) 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑑(𝑡) 𝑃𝐻 (𝑡) 𝑃𝐿 (𝑡)

1 + 1V + 1V 0V

0 −1V 0V +1V

The equations above may be combined and written as

𝑠(𝑡) = √2𝑃𝑠 cos[(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 𝑑(𝑡) Ω)𝑡

Ω
Hence, if symbol ‘1’ is to be transmitted, the carrier frequency will be 𝑓𝑐 + (2𝜋) and is represented

Ω
by 𝑓𝐻 . If symbol ‘0’ is to be transmitted, then the carrier frequency will be 𝑓𝑐 − (2𝜋) and is

represented by 𝑓𝐿 . Therefore, we have

Ω
Thus, 𝑓𝐻 = 𝑓𝑐 + (2𝜋) for symbol ‘1’

Ω
𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓𝑐 − (2𝜋) for symbol ‘0’

Generation of BFSK

It may be observed from the table that 𝑃𝐻 (𝑡) is same as 𝑏 (𝑡) and also 𝑃𝐿 (𝑡) is inverted

version of 𝑏 (𝑡). The block diagram for BFSK generation is shown in Figure 7.

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  (t ) 
2
cos(2 f t)
1
T b
H

P (t)
H A Level PT P
s b H
(t )
shifter

b(t) BFSK
An input Signal
sequence s(t)

An P (t)
L A Level P T P (t)
s b L

Inverter shifter


2
(t )  cos( 2  f t)
2
T b
L

Figure 7: Block diagram for BFSK generation

We know that input sequence 𝑏 (𝑡) is the same as 𝑃𝐻 (𝑡). An inverter is added after 𝑏 (𝑡)

to get 𝑃𝐿 (𝑡). The level shifter 𝑃𝐻 (𝑡) and 𝑃𝐿 (𝑡) are unipolar signals. The level shifter converts the

‘+1’ level to √𝑃𝑠 𝑇𝑏 . Zero level is affected. Thus, the output of the level shifters will be either

√𝑃𝑠 𝑇𝑏 (if ‘+1’) or zero (if input is zero). In other words, when a binary ‘0’ is to be transmitted,

𝑃𝐿 (𝑡) = 1 and 𝑃𝐻 (𝑡) = 0, and for a binary ‘1’ to be transmitted, 𝑃𝐻 (𝑡) = 1 and 𝑃𝐿 (𝑡) = 0. Hence,

the transmitted signal will have frequency of either 𝑓𝐻 or 𝑓𝐿 . Furthermore, there are product

modulators after level shifter. The two carrier signals ∅1 (𝑡)and ∅2 (𝑡) are used . ∅1 (𝑡) and ∅2 (𝑡)

are orthogonal to each other. In one bit period of input signal (i.e. 𝑇𝑏 ), ∅1 (𝑡) or ∅2 (𝑡) have integral

number of cycles.

Thus, the modulated signal is having continuous phase. Figure 8 shows such type of BFSK

signal. The adder then adds the two signals.

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 1 0 1 1 0 1
T b T b

Figure 8: BFSK signal

Bandwidth of BFSK signal

Bandwidth of BFSK = 2𝑓𝑏 + 2𝑓𝑏

BW = 4𝑓𝑏

Now, let compare this bandwidth with that of BPSK, we note that,

BW (BFSK) = 2 × BW (BPSK)

BFSK Receiver: Coherent Detection of BFSK

Figure 9 shows the block diagram of a scheme for demodulation of BFSK wave using

coherent detection technique. The detector consists of two correlators that are individually turned

to two different carrier frequencies to represent symbols ‘1’ and ‘0’. A correlator consists of a

multiplier followed by an integrator. Then, the received binary FSK signal is applied to the

multiplier of both the correlators. To the other input of the multipliers, carriers with frequency 𝑓𝑐1

and 𝑓𝑐2 are applied as shown in Figure 9. The multiplied output of each multiplier is subsequently

passed through the integrators generating output 𝑙1and 𝑙2 in the two paths. The output of the two

integrators are then fed to the decision making device. The decision making device is essentially

a comparator which compares the output 𝑙1 (in the upper path) and output 𝑙2 (in the lower path). If

the output 𝑙1 produced in the upper path (associated with frequency 𝑓𝑐1 ) is greater than the output

15
𝑙2 produced in the lower path (associated with frequency 𝑓𝑐2 ), the detector makes a decision in

favour of symbol 1 (say). If the output 𝑙1 is less than 𝑙2 then the decision making device decides

in favour of symbol 0. This type of the digital communication receivers are also called correlation

receivers. As discussed earlier detector based upon coherent detection requires phase and timing

synchronization.


Correlator 1

T b

dt

Symbol 1,
0 l 1

Binary cos( 2 f t) Comparator

if l l
1 2
FSK c1
Correlator 2
wave
T b l 2
Symbol 0,
dt otherwise

0

cos(2 f t)
c2

Figure 9: Block diagram of a scheme for demodulation of BFSK

Salient Features of BFSK

(i) BFSK is relatively easy to implement

(ii) It has better noise immunity than ASK. Hence, the probability of error free reception

of data is high.

Drawback of BFSK

The major drawback is its high bandwidth requirement. Therefore, FSK is extensively

used in low speed modems having bit rates below 1200 bits/sec.

Bit Error Rate (BER) or Probability of Error (𝑷𝒆 ) for BFSK

BER or (𝑃𝑒 ) for BFSK is given as

16
 1 𝐸
BER or 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 √
2 2𝑁𝑜

Non- Coherent Binary Modulation Techniques

As discussed earlier, coherent detection exploits knowledge of the carrier wave’s phase

reference, and thus providing the optimum error performance attainable with a digital modulation

format of interest. However, when it is impractical to have knowledge of the carrier phase at the

receiver, we make use of non-coherent detection. Thus, in this section, we shall study non-coherent

binary modulation techniques i.e. we study non-coherent detection of ASK and FSK. In the case

of Phase Shift Keying (PSK), we cannot have “non-coherent PSK” since non-coherent means

doing without phase information. However, there is a “pseudo PSK” technique known as

Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) which can be viewed as the non-coherent form of PSK.

Non-Coherent Binary Amplitude Shift Keying

In the binary ASK case, the transmitted signal is defined as

𝑠(𝑡) = √2𝑃𝑠 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

Binary ASK signal can also be demodulated non-coherently using envelope detector. The

greatly simplifies the design consideration required in synchronous detection. Non-coherent

detection schemes do not require a phase-coherent local oscillator. This method involves some

forms of rectification and low pass filtering at the receiver. The block diagram of a non-coherent

receiver for ASK signal has been shown in Figure 10.

17
 A Low pass A
Incoming Rectifier Output
Bandpass Filter Decision
signal circuit signal
filter (LPF) Device

Envelope detctor
Threshold

Figure 10: Block diagram of a non-coherent receiver for ASK signal

Disturbing Influences: Electrical Noise

Noise may be defined as an extraneous form of energy with random frequency and amplitude with
tends to interfere with reception of a signal from a distant station. In general, noise may be picked
up by a signal during its transmission from a transmitter to a receiver. Such a type of noise is
commonly termed as external noise. Alternatively, noise may be produced within a receiving
equipment while it is receiving a signal. This type of noise is termed as internal noise.
Electrical noise is the most important disturbing influence that limits the performance of a
communication system. There are various types of noise depending on the type of transmission
medium.
(i) Thermal Noise exists on conducting wires, resulting from the statistical fluctuations of the
electrons in the wire. It increases with temperature and is prominent when the signal level
is low. Noise also occurs at the transmitter and receiver ends, but this can be reasonably
controlled by appropriate circuit sign.
(ii) In radio communication, noise introduced in the transmission channel can be grouped into
two broad categories; Man-made noise and Natural noise.
● Man-made Noise: This noise is from electric motors, switches, automobile
ignition, electric welding equipment or high-voltage power lines e.t.c.
● Natural Noise: This is from lighting discharges during thunderstorms, usually
referred to as static. Other sources of natural noise are Solar noise arising from the radiation of
the sun and disturbances occurring in the sun, and cosmic noise coming from distant stars in the
galaxy.

The effect of noise on the capacity of the channel when the bandwidth is known has been explained
using Shannon Hartley theorem

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