I1

I
I SEC. 7-2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 153
use these principles, particularly the principle of virtual forces, to construct
i approximate formulations for a member.
i

7 I
I
7-2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS
The principle of virtual displacements is basically an alternate statement of
force equilibrium. We will establish its form by treating first a single particle
Variational Principles i.
and then extending the result to a system of particles interconnected with
internal restraints. The principle utilizes the concept of incremental work and,
for completeness, we review briefly the definition of work before starting with
for an Ideal Truss the derivation.
Let v be the displacement of the point of application of a force F in the
direction of F. The work done by F (see Fig. 7-1) is defined as
i
W= Wo+ Fdv= W(v) (7-1)
11
7-1. GENERAL I
where v0 is an arbitrary reference displacement. Since W is a function of v,
The formulation of the governing equations for an ideal truss described the increment in W due to an increment Av can be expressed in terms of the
in Chapter 6 involved three steps: differentials of W when F is a continuous function of v:
1. The elongation of a bar was related to the translations of the joints at AW= dW + d2W +
the end of the bar.
2. Next, the bar force was expressed in terms of the elongation and then in dW = dW Av
terms of the joint translations. d dF (7-2)
3. Finally, the equilibrium conditions for the joints were enforced, re­
sulting in equations relating the external joint loads and internal bar d2 W = (dW)= y(v)
(L)2
forces.
We refer to dW as the first-order work. Similarly, we call d2 W the second­
The system equations were obtained by generalizing the member force­ order work. If dF/dv is discontinuous, as in inelastic behavior, we must use
displacement and joint force equilibrium equations and required defining only the value of dF/dv corresponding to the sense of Av. This is illustrated in
two additional transformation matrices (, ,.). Later, in Chapter 10, we shall
follow essentially the same approach to establish the governing equations for F
an elastic solid.
In this chapter, we develop two variational principles and illustrate their
application to an ideal truss. The principle of virtual displacements is treated
I
first. This principle is just an alternate statement of force equilibrium. Next,
we discuss the principle of virtual forces and show that it is basically a geo­
metrical compatibility relation. Both principles are then identified as the sta­
tionary requirements for certain functions. For this step, we utilize the material I -
presented in Chapter 3, which treats relative extremas of a function. Finally, I I
we discuss the question of stability of an elastic system and develop the stability
criterion for an ideal truss.
Why bother with variational principles when the derivation of the governing Vo u
equations for an ideal truss is straightforward? Our objective in discussing
them at this time is primarily to expose the reader to this point of view. Also, Fig. 7-1. Work integral for the one-dimensional force-displacement relation.
we can illustrate these principles quite easily with the truss. Later, we shall
t Differential notation is introduced in Sec. 3-1.

152
 154 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 SEC. 7-2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS
155
Fig. 7-2. We use dF/dv = k, for Auv > 0, and dF/dv corresponding virtual-displacement vector. If particle q is
= -k 2 for Au < 0. in equilibrium,
Note that W is not a single-valued function of v when there
is a reversal in the dW = 0 for arbitrary Aiq. It follows that the scalar force-equilibrium
F-v curve. equations
for the system are equivalent to the general requirement,
F S
dW = dW, = for arbitrary Aqd
=I'=
A~~/";dl~k (7-5)
q = 1,2,...,S
ir Equation (7-5) is the definition of the principle of virtual
of particles. work for a system

I In general, some of the forces acting on the particles will be due

to internal
i restraints. We define dE as the first-order work done by the
and dW, as the work done by the internal restraint forces acting external forces
II oni the particles.
I I i Substituting for dW, (7-5)becomes
I
dWE + dW = 0 for arbitrary Aq
I q = 1,2,... S (a)
I II ..
I
I
Vo o VUa Now, let dW be the work done by the internal restraint forces
the restraints. We use the subscript D for this term since acting on
Fig. 7-2. Work integral for direction-dependent force. it involves the
We consider first a single mass particle subjected to a system of forces (see
Fig. 7-3). Let R be the resultant force vector. By definition, A I
the particle is in k -- 112
equilibrium when R = 0. We visualize the particle experiencing
a displacement
increment A from the initial position. The first-order F, (Deformed)
work is t
dW = Aii (7-3) F'~1 ~~~~-~~~Ai~~~F
If the initial position is an equilibrium position, dW = 0 FXT
for arbitrary Au since - ..... L\/\/\ -( F
R = . Therefore, an alternate statement of the equilibrium
requirement is:
(Initial)
The first-order work is zero for an arbitrary displacement
of a particle from an equilibrium position. (7-4) 0* F0
The incremental displacement Aii is called a virtual displacement; (Deformed)
this state­
ment is the definition of the principle of virtual displacements.
F 'F
Au 1 Au 2
t __~~-
+ AR
Fig. 7-4. Work done on the mass particles and internal
restraints.

deformation of the restraints. The restraint force acting on a particle

is equal in
magnitude, but opposite in sense, to the reaction of the particle
on the restraint.
Since the points of application coincide, it follows that
Fig. 7-3. Virtual displacement of a single mass particle.
dWd = -dW,
(b)
One can readily generalize (7-4) for the case of S particles. As an illustration, consider the simple system shown in Fig.
Let dWq be the 7-4. For this
first-order work associated with the forces acting on particle case, we have
q and A the
t We consider the forces to be continuous functions of A. dWD = -F t At + F 1 AU2
dW = F1 Au - 1F Au2
156 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 SEC. 7-2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 157

Using (b), we can write (a) as: The assembled form follows from (6-25). We just have to replace 'y,with P,:
dWE = dWD for arbitrary Aiq de = _Vr AV (7-9)
(7-6) Substituting for de in (7-7),
T
y.T A/ = F- At
Also, the general principle of virtual displacements can be expressed as follows: (a)
The first-order work done by the external forces is equal to the and requiring (a) to be satisfied for arbitrary Aol results in the joint force
first-order work done by the internal forces acting on the restraints force equilibrium equations.
for any arbitrary virtual displacement of a system of particles from an For the geometrically linear case, e = c1W where a is constant and de =
equilibrium position. v/ Ati follows directly from e. We have treated the geometrically nonlinear
case here to show that the principle of virtual displacements leads to force­
We emphasize again that (7-6) is just an alternate statement of the force equilibrium equations which are consistent with the geometrical assumptions
equilibrium conditions for the system. Some authors refer to (7-6) as the associated with the deformation-displacement relations.
work equation.
To apply the principle of virtual displacements to an ideal truss, we con­ Example 7-1
sider the joints to be mass points and the bars to be internal restraints. We
have defined # and tl as the column matrices of external joint loads and We consider a rigid member subjected to a prescribed force, P, and reactions R1, R2 ,
as in the diagram. There is no internal work since the body is rigid. Introducing the virtual
corresponding joint displacements. Then,
dWE = MpT Al (a) Fig. E7-1
where At contains the virtual joint displacements. The first-order work done I- - I
by the restraint forces acting on bar n due to the virtual displacements is t-
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~I
(dW9) = F,, den (b) I I Au 2
Generalizing (b), we have All I
II atup I
I
dWD = FT de (c) ----------
i P
Finally, the work equation for an ideal truss has the form
l'7At- = FT de for arbitrary A0t (7-7)
The scalar force-equilibrium equations are obtained by substituting for de in
terms of Aa. displacements shown above, and evaluating the first-order work,
It is convenient to first establish the expression for the differential elongation dW = dW = R1 Aul + R2 Au 2 - P Au
of an individual bar and then assemble de. Operating on e,, (a)
Now, Aup is not independent:
-1-)
e. = a - (U,,+ ._) (U+
+ - u_)r(u.+ - U,_) Aup = Au, (1- ) + Au2 (L) (b)
and noting the definition of P,, (see (6-22)), we obtain Then,
1 dW = Au {R - P (1-) + Au 2 {R 0
den = [n + - (u + - Un )T] (AUn+ - Au,,_)
- ( (c)
Ln
= L(Au.n -+ AU,,_) (7-8) Requiring (c)to be satisfied for arbitrary Atr,, Au2 leads to
t Wd = Je, F,, de, = Wd(e.). We must use the rules for forming the differentials of a compound
function since en depends on the joint displacements. Using (3-17), we can write R= P (1-)

d (d)
dW = de,, = F,, de, R 2 = P-
den L
2 dF. 2 + 2 which are the force and moment equilibrium equations, in that order.
d Wd = d(F. de,,) =_ (de,) F, d e,,
den
 CHAP. 7 SEC. 7-3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES 159
158 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS
are
P = F, cos 0 +
-
_ _ _ . _ . e

Example 7-2
F2 cos 6 + ) = O (g)
We consider the outside bars to be rigid (see sketch). To obtain the force equilibrium
equation relating P and the internal bar forces F1 , F2 , we introduce a virtual displacement, and we recognize 2 as the force in bar 3.
Au,, of the point of application of P:
dWE = P Au
(a) 7-3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES
dW = F de + F2 de2
The principle of virtual forces is basically an alternate statement of geo­
The first-order increments in the elongations are
metrical compatibility. We develop it here by operating on the elongation­
de1 = Aut cos 0 de2 = -Au 2 cos 0 = -Aul cos 0 joint displacement relations. Later, in Chapter 10, we generalize the principle.
(b)
where 0 defines the initial position. Then, equating dW, and dW0 , for a three-dimensional solid and describe an alternate derivation.
We restrict this discussion to geometric linearity. The governing equations
dWE = dWD for arbitrary Au1 are
(c)
= . F (a)
P = (F - F2) cos
e = t/ = l"/ (b)
The force in bar 3 does not appear explicitly in the equilibrium equation, (c). It is possible
Now, we visualize a set of bar forces AF, and joint loads, A.t, which satisfy
Fig. E7-2 the force-equilibrium equations:
Ad = ,@ AF (c)
A force system which satisfies the equations of static equilibrium is said to be
staticallypermissible. Equation (b) relates the actual elongations and joint dis­
placements. If we multiply the equation for ek by AFk, sum over the bars, and
note (c), we obtain the result
I
AFTe = AFT(,!TI)
(d)
=A re/T
which is the definition of the principle of virtual forces:
The actual elongations and joint displacements satisfy the condition
Bars 3, 4, 5, 6 are rigid
AFTe - A?)Tq = 0 (7-10)
to include F3 even though bar 3 is rigid by treating it as a Lagrange multiplier.t We for any statically permissible system of bar forces and joint loads.
consider Au2 as independent in the work equation:
(d) The principle of virtual forces is independent of material behavior but is
P Au - (F1 cos 0)Aul + (F2 cos 0)Au 2 = 0
restricted to the geometrically linear case. The statically permissible system
Now, (AF, A.S) is called a virtual-force system.
Au, - A 2 = 0 (e)
To illustrate the application of this principle, we express q/ and Ad in
Multiplying the constraint relation by - , adding the result to (d), and collecting terms, we partitioned form,
obtain
Au(P - F1 cos 0 - 2) + Au 2 (F2 cos 0 + A) = 0 (f) II =:> = U &9 - P = A, (a)

Finally, we require (f) to be satisfied for arbitrary Aut and Au 2 . The equilibrium equations where U2 contains the prescribed support movements. Using (a), (7-10) takes
the form:
t See Sec. 3-3. AFTe - AP2 2 =-- AP UI (b)
160 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 9 SEC. 7-3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES 161
If the elongations are known, we can determine the unknown displacements To determine the translation, u, we select a statically determinate force system consisting
by specializing AP1. To determine a particular displacement component, say ofa unit force in the direction ofu and a set ofbar forces and reactions required to equilibrate
Uki, we generate a force system consisting of a unit value of Pkj and a set of bar the force. One possible choice is shown in Fig. E7-3B. Evaluating (7-12) leads to
forces and reactions which equilibrate Pkj = 1. i

u= + 7, - tan 0(d - 72)

AF = F pkj=1 ., cos 0
(7-11)
AP2 = P2 IPk = 1 This truss is statically indeterminate to the first degree. A convenient choice of force
redundant is one of the diagonal bar forces, say F2. The equation which determines F2 is
The internal bar forces and reactions are obtain from an equilibrium analysis
of a statically determinate structure. Since only one element of AP1 is finite,
0 I Fig. E7-3B
APT U1 (1)Ukj (c)
and (b) reduces to
Ukj = eTFpkj = - U2 TP 2 Ipj = (7-12)
The principle of virtual forces is also used to establish geometric compati­
bility relations required in the force method which is discussed in Chapters
9 and 17. We outline the approach here for completeness. One works with
self-equilibrating virtual-force systems, i.e., statically permissible force systems
which involve only bar forces and reactions.
By definition, a self-equilibrating force system F*, P* satisfies
B1F* = P = 0
(7-13)
P = B2F* derived from the geometric compatibility relation, which, in turn, is obtained by taking
For this case, (b) reduces to a self-equilibrating force system consisting of F2 = + I and a set of bar forces and reactions
required for equilibrium. The forces are shown in Fig. E7-3C.
eC AF - U 2 AP 2 = 0 (7-14)
Equation (7-14) represents a restriction on the elongations and is called a Fig. E7-3C
- cos 0
geometric compatibility equation.
X1 +1
Example 7-3
--sin 0 -sin 0
The truss shown (Fig. E7-3A) has support movements (, 32, 3,)and is subjected to a
loading which results in elongations (el, e2) in the diagonal bars. We are considering the
outside bars to be rigid.
O--· -- eS 0
Fig. E7-3A
I t!,P .. ,
0 0
Evaluating (7-14), we obtain
el + e2 = 0 (a)
To show that (a) represents a geometrical compatibility requirement, we note that the
elongation-displacement relations for the diagonal bars are
el - u cos 0 e2 = -u cos 0 (b)
Specifying e determines uland also e2. We could have arrived at Equation (a) starting
from Equation (b) rather than (7-14). However, (7-14) is more convenient since it does
not involve any algebraic manipulation. We discuss this topic in depth later in Chapter 9.
Bars 3, 4, 5, 6 are rigid
162 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 SEC. 7-4. STRAIN ENERGY 163

7-4. STRAIN ENERGY; PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY POTENTIAL total potential energy. It follows that the actual displacements, i.e., the dis-
ENERGY placements which satisfy the equilibrium equations, correspond to a stationary
value of IeI.
In this section, we specialize the principle of virtual displacements for elastic It remains to discuss how one generates the strain-energy function. By
behavior and establish from it a variational principle for the joint displacements. definition,
We start with the general form developed in Sec. 7-2, dVT S dV (a)
FT de = AT Aq
and
for arbitrary AW (a)
dVj = F, dej (b)
If we consider all the elements of ,') to be arbitrary, i.e., unrestrained, where Vj is the strain energy for barj. Since we are considering Vj to be a com­
de = XT AY (b) pound function of ej, Equation (b) is equivalent to
and (a) leads to the complete set of force-equilibrium equations in unpartitioned
form,
Ii Fj(ej) =
d
Vj
n__
(7-19)
t = F (c) That is, the strain energy function for a bar has the property that its derivative
with respect to the elongation is the bar force expressed in terms of the elonga­
We can obtain the equation for P 1 by rearranging (c) or by starting with the
tion. Finally, we can express Vj as
partitioned form of pTr AqW,
T "i V J eo, j dej (7-20)
TaA => PT'AU -= T AU 1 + PT A] 2 (d) eon

where e is the initial elongation, i.e., the elongation not associated with the
and noting that AU 2 = 0 since U 2 is prescribed. The reduced form is
force. Actually, the lower limit can be taken arbitrarily. This choice corresponds
FT de - PT AU 1 = 0 for arbitrary AU 1 (7-15) to taking Vj as the area between the F-e curve and the e axis, as shown in Fig.7-5.
where now
de = BT AU, + B A 2 => BR AU,
tl
In what follows, we will work with (7-15).
Our objective is to interpret (7-15) as the stationary requirement for a
function of U 1. We consider F to be a function of e, where e = e(U 1). The form
of F = F(e) depends on the material behavior. t We could express F in terms
of U1 but it is more convenient to consider F as a compound function of e. The
essential step involves defining a function, V = VT,(e), according to
FT de = F i dej _=d V (7-16) i

With this definition, and letting

ip = VT - PTU 1 = lI(U) (7-17) Fig. 7-5. Graphical representation of strain energy and complementary energy.
we can write (7-15) as
dFi = 0 for arbitrary AU (7-18) We consider the linearly elastic case. Using (6-30),
1
We call VT the total strain energy function and nIp the total potential energy. 5.1 Fj = cj(e - eo, j) (a)
One should note that VT exists only when F is a continuoussingle-valuedfunction Then
of e. This requirement is satisfied when the material is elastic. Vj = kj(ej - eo, j)2 (7-21)
Equation (7-18) states that the joint force-equilibrium equations (P1 = B1 F) The total strain energy is obtained by summing over the bars. We can express
expressed in terms of the unknown displacements are the Euler equations for the VT as

t See Sees. 6-4, 6-5. VT = X Vj-=(e - e) T k(e - eo) (7-22)

j=1
 TI
CHAP. 7
Ii SEC. 7-5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY 165
164 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS
energy is
Finally, we substitute for e in terms of U1 , U2 , using
e = AIU 1 + A 2U 2 (7-23) I VT = -(klel + k2 e2)
Substituting for the elongations in terms of the displacement,
(a)

When the geometry is linear, A1, A2 are constant and Vr is a quadratic function. e = cos 0 e2 = - 2 cos 0 = - cos 0 (b)
If the geometry is nonlinear, VT is a fourth degree function of the displacements.
1
results in
Up to this point, we have shown that the displacements defining an equilib­ VT =
2
+ k2)ul cos 0
½(k, (c)
rium position correspond to a stationary value of the potential energy function. and finally
2
To determine the character (relative maximum, relative minimum, indifferent, li = (k1 + k)tu cos 0 - P1 u1l (d)
neutral) of the stationary point, we must examine the behavior of the second The first differential of l, is
differential, d2 Jp, in the neighborhood of the stationary point. 2
Operating on dri,, and noting that AP 1 = 0 leads to dn , {[(k, + k2)cos 0111 - P}Au1 (e)
2 2
d Ip =
-d(d,) = d VT Requiring IIP to be stationary leads to the Euler equation,
(7-24) C OS 2 0]
2 P, = [(k, + k2) tlt (f)
d2 VT = (dFj dej + Fjd ej)
J which is just the force-equilibrium equation
2
The next step involves expressing d Va as a quadratic form in AU 1. We restrict P1 = (F - F2)cos0 (g)
this discussion to linear behavior (both physical and geometrical). The general with the bar forces expressed in terms of the displacement using
nonlinear case is discussed in Sec. 17.6 When the geometry is linear, we can
operate directly on (7-23) to generate the differentials of e, F1 =ke, = ku1 cos 0 F2 = k2 e 2 = -k 2 u1tcos 0 (h)
de = A 1 AU The second differential of l, is
(a) 2
2 2
d2e = d l = [(k1 + k,)cos 0](Aul) (i)
since A1 is constant. When the material is linear, and we see that the solution,
P1
dF = k de (b) U = 2 (j)
(Ik + k2 )Cos

where k is a diagonal matrix containing the stiffness factors (AE/L) for the bars. corresponds to an absolute minimum value of lI, when 0 0. The truss is initially unstable
Then, d2 VT reduces to 2
when 0 = 0.
d VT = dF' de = de'k cle (7-25)
= AT(AIkA1 )AU1
2 7-5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY; PRINCIPLE OF
If de :- 0 for all nontrivial AU 1, d VT is positive definite and the stationary
STATIONARY COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY
point is a relative minimum. This criterion is satisfied when the system is
initially stable, since de = 0 for AU 1 # 0 would require that The principle of virtual forces can be transformed to a variational principle
A AU = 0 (m equations in nd unknowns) (a) for the force redundants. We describe in this section how one effects the trans­
1 1
formation and utilize the principle later in Chapter 9. This discussion is
have a nontrivial solution. But a nontrivial solution of (a) is possible only when restricted to linear geometry.
r
r(A 1) < nd. However, A1 = B for the geometrically linear case and r(BI) = nd We start with Equations (7-13) and (7-14), which we list below for con­
when the system is initially stable. Therefore, it follows that the displacements venience:
defining the equilibrium position for a stable linear system correspond to an eT AF - U2AP2 = 0 (a)
absolute minimum value of the potential energy.
where AF, AP 2 represent a self-equilibrating force- system, i.e., they satisfy the
the following constraint relations:
Example 7-4
B 1 AF = 0 (b)
We establish the total potential energy function for the truss considered in Example 7-2.
For convenience, we assume no initial elongation or support movement. The strain AP 2 = B 2 F (c)
166 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 SEC. 7-5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY 167
Our objective is to establish a function of F, whose Euler equations are (a) and tions for HI'treating F and a as independent variables are
(b). We cannot work only with (a) since F is not arbitrary but is constrained dH = 0 for AF, At arbitrary
by the force-equilibrium equations,
P = B 1F (nd equations in m variables) (d) e(F) = Bfa + BTU f2 (7-33)
We interpret eT AF as the first differential of a function V = V(F), B 1F = P
We recognize the first equation in (7-33) as the member force-displacement
dV = eT AF = Y dV (7-26)
relation, and it follows that a = U.
and call V* the complementary energy function for bar j. By definition, An alternate approach involves first solving the force-equilibrium equation,
",Ix ,-1· . ..
ta(). I nere are nd equations in m variables. Since B1 is of rank nd when the system
ejFj)= d Vj (7-27) is initially stable, we can solve for nd bar forces in terms of P1 and the remaining
dFi (m - ld) bar forces. One can also work with a combination of bar forces and
That is, the complementary energy function for a bar has the property that its reactions as force unknowns. We let
derivative with respect to the bar force is the elongation expressed in terms of
the force. We express Vj* as q = m - n = number of redundant forces
X = {X 1, X2,..., Xq} = matrix of force redundants (7-34)
VJ* A= eJ dF (7-28)
and write the solution of the force-equilibrium equations as
This definition corresponds to taking VJ* as the area bounded by the F-e curve
and the F axis as shown in Fig. 7-5. Also, the strain and complementary F = F + FX
(7-35)
energy functions are related by P 2 = P2, 0 + P 2,.,X
V + V = Fje (7-29) The force system corresponding to X is self-equilibrating, i.e.,

When the material is linear elastic, (B1Fx)X = 0 for arbitrary X (7-36)

We substitute for F in (7-31) and transform Hl(F) to fl,(X). Then,
e. = eo,j +.fjFj
1 2
V = ejFj + ½ifjF (7-30) dIl(X) = eT AF - U2
r
AP 2
.r =erF + FTfF = (eF,, - U2P 2, x)AX (g)
Next, we define Il, as: and the Euler equations are
Ic = V-
V UrP 2
(7-31) eTF - P 2,x = 0 (7--37)
= V - UTB2 F
Note that (7-37) is just a reduced form of (7-33). Also, we could have obtained
We call HII(F) the total complementary energy function. With these definitions, this result by substituting directly in (a).
Equations (a), (b), and (c) can be interpreted as Up to this point, we have shown that the force redundants which satisfy
the geometric compatibility equations correspond to a stationary value of the
dr = 0 (e) total complementary energy. To investigate the character of the stationary
subject to the constraint condition point, we evaluate the second differential. Operating on (g),
d(P 1 - B1F) = 0 (f) d2 f, = deTFx AX = d2 V. (h)
We can combine (e) and (f) into a single equation by introducing Lagrange 2
If d V7' is positive definite with regard to AX, the stationary point is a relative
multipliers. Following the procedure described in Sec. 3-3, we add to (7-31) minimum. This requirement is satisfied for the linear elastic case. To show
the joint force equilibrium equations and write the result as: this, we note that
n1 = Il + (P - BF)Ta (7-32) de = f AF = fFx AX
2
where a = {, 2,., ,d contains the Lagrange multipliers. The Euler equa- d V = Efj(AFj)2 AX T(FfF)AX (
 SEC. 7-6. STABILITY CRITERIA 169
168 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7

Since f contains only positive elements, dV* is positive definite with regard to 1.
'.
The Euler equation follows from (f):

AX provided that there does not exist a nontrivial solution of : P

e0, 1 - e. 2 +f (.f + f2)X = 0 (h)
cos 0
F, AX = AF = O (j)
Comparing (h) with (a) of Example 7-3, we see that the Euler equation for HII(X) is the
For (j) to have a nontrivial solution, there must be at least one relation between geometric compatibility equation expressed in terms of the force redundant.
the columns of Fx. But this would correspond to taking force redundants which
are not independent, and the solution scheme would degenerate. Therefore,
we can state that the actual force redundants correspond to an absolute mini- 7-6. STABILITY CRITERIA
mum value of FcLfor the linear elastic case. i
Section 6-9 dealt with initial stability, i.e., stability of a system under in­
finitesimal load. We showed there that initial stability is related to rigid body
Example 7-5
motion. A system is said to be initially unstable when the displacement restraints
We consider the truss treated in Example 7-3. It is statically indeterminate to the first are insufficient to prevent rigid body motion. In this section, we develop criteria
degree with respect to the bars (statically determinate with respect to the reactions) and we for stability of a system under finite loading. If a linear system is initially
take stable, it is also stable under a finite loading. However, a nonlinear (either
X =F (a)
2 physical or geometrical) system can become unstable under a finite load.
The force influence matrices defined by (7-35) follow from the force results listed on the We consider first a single mass particle subjected to a system of forces which
sketches: are in equilibrium. Let be the displacement vector defining the equilibrium
F0 = P{1/cos 0; 0; 0; 0; -tan 0; 0} position. We introduce a differential displacement A, and let AW be the
F = {+1; +1; -cos 0; -sin 0; -sin 0; -cos 0} work done by the forces during the displacement A. If AW > 0, the particle
(b) energy is increased and motion would ensue. It follows that the equilibrium
P2, 0 = PI-1; -tan 0; +tan 0}
position () is stable only when AW < 0 for arbitrary ALi.
P2. = 0 We consider next a system of particles interconnected by internal restraints.
Assuming a bar is rigid is equivalent to setting .f = 0 for the bar. Then, the comple- Let AWE be the incremental work done by the external forces and AW, the
mentary energy is due only to the diagonal bars: incremental work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the particles.
The total work, A W, is given by
vT = v* + V'*
(c) AW AWE + AW (a)
1 + eo. 2 F2 + (fiF + f 2 F)
= eo,F
The system is stable when AW < 0 for all arbitrary permissible displacement
We convert V*. to a function of X by substituting
increments, that is, for arbitrary increments of the variabledisplacements. Now,
F, = + X we let AWt be the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the
cos 0 restraints. Since AWD = -AW,, we can express the stability requirement as
1;2= +X
(d)
AWo - AWE > o (7-38)
Finally, f1(X) has the form
One can interpret AW D as the work requiredto deform the system to the alternate
I/l(X) = e0, t Co
P
+ (Al + 72 tan 0 - h3 tan O)P + fi f
~
p O2
P 0) position and AWE as the actual work done on the system.
(e) When the behavior is continuous, we can express AWD and AWE as Taylor
+ (eo,, + eo ) X +
+ f2 )X2 series expansions in terms of the displacement increments (see (7-2)):
AWE = d WE + d WE +...
Differentiating (e) leads to (b)
AW = dW f 2 D
WD +

(f We have shown that the first-order work is zero at an equilibrium position:

dIl, = {Veo I + e. 2 + f cS (J + 2)X} Ax
dWD - dW = (c)
d2 lC = (fl + f)(AX) 2 (g)
170 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 SEC. 7-6. STABILITY CRITERIA 171
If we retain only the first two terms in (b), the general stability condit ion re- and the stability criterion reduces to
duces to
stable d2W > 0 for arbitrary nontrivial AU1
d2 WD - d2 WE > 0 for all arbitrary permissible displacement incri ements neutral 2
d WD = O for a particular nontrivial AU1 (7-42)
unstable d2 W D < 0
(7-39)
Equation (7-39) is called the "classical stability criterion." Retaining only
the first two differentials corresponds to considering only infinitesimal displace-
1; for a particular nontrivial AU1
where d2WD is a quadratic form in AU,. We postpone discussing how one
transforms (7-41) to a quadratic form in AU1 until the next chapter.
ment increments. If (7-39) is satisfied, the equilibrium position is stable with When the material is elastic, we can identify (7-39) as the requirement that
respect to an infinitesimal disturbance. In order to determine whether it is Ipbe a relative minimum. By definition,
stable with respect to a finite disturbance, one must use (7--38). dHI = dVT- dWE
If For elastic behavior, (a)
d2 WD = d2 W (7-40) dV = dWD
and it follows that
for a particular set of displacement increments, the equilibrium position is said
to be neutral, and there exists an alternate equilibrium position infinitesimally
displaced from the first position. One can interpret (7-40) as the necessary Finally, we can state:
d Fn,-
.
d ",
. ,
= d -- __
Up -43) [7.
,

condition for a bifurcation of equilibrium positions. An equilibrium position for an elastic system is stable (neutral, un­
To show this, suppose U and J represent the displacement components stable) if it corresponds to a relative minimum (neutral, indifferent)
for the two possible equilibrium positions of a system where stationary point of the total potential energy.

^ = U + AU Example 7-6
(a)
Also, let R and P represent the resultant forces corresponding to U and I. The system shown in Fig. E7-6A consists of a rigid bar restrained by a linear elastic
spring which can translate freely in the x2 direction. Points A and A' denote the initial and
We can express as deformed positions. We will first employ the principle of virtual displacements to establish
R = R + dR + 2½d R +- (b) the equilibrium relations and then investigate the stability of the system.
Now, the second-order work for the initial equilibrium position is given by
Fig. E7-6A
d2 W = d2 W - d2 WD = AUT dR (c)
If d2 W = 0 for some finite AU, it follows that rXX
dR = R AU = 0 (d)
The condition U2
X2
IRI =0 (e) P2
is equivalent to (7-40). Finally, if we consider AU to be infinitesimal, A'
R = R + dR (f)
and (7-40) implies R1= 0.
To apply the classical stability criterion to an ideal truss, we note that the
first-order work terms have the form
dWE = P AU 1
(a)
dW = ,Fj dej

where U2, P1 are prescribed. Operating on (a) yields

The first-order work terms are
d2 WE = 0
(7-41) dWD = F de
d2WD = [it;Fjd2 ej + dFjde]
dWE = P2 du 2 (a)
172 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 REFERENCES 173

where F,e are the spring force and extension. Since the bar is rigid, the system has only one stable Cos 3 0* > -P
degree of freedom, i.e., only one displacement measure is required to define the configura- kL
tion. It is convenient to take 0as the displacement measure. The deformation-displacement
relations follow from the sketch: neutral cos3 0* = P (n)
kL
e = t = L(sin 0 - sin 0,)
(b) unstable cos 3 0* < -
-t2 = L(cos 00 - cos 0) ?, kL
Then,
F = ke = kL(sin 0 - sin 00) One can show that (n) is equivalent to
(C) .
and dP2
de = (cos O)L AO stable -- >0O
dO
du2 = (sin O)L AO (d)
dP 2
-
neutral (o)
Using (a) and (d), the principle of virtual displacements takes the form dO

dWD - dWE = {F cos 0 - P2 sin 0) (L A0) = 0 for arbitrary A0 (e) dP

unstable -<02
dO
Finally, (e)leads to the equilibrium relation,
A transition from stable to unstable equilibrium occurs at point A, the peak of the load-
F cos 0 = P2 sinl 0 (f) deflection curve. The solution for 00 = 0 is different in that its stable segment is the linear
solution and the neutral equilibrium point (P2 = kL) corresponds to a branch point.
which is just the moment equilibrium condition with respect to point 0. We transform Both the linear and nonlinear branches are unstable.
(f) to an equation for 0 by substituting for F using (c). The result is
Fig. E7-6B
sin 0 - kL) tan 0 = sin 0o (g) P2
kL
Since the system is elastic,
dW, - dWE -=drlp 1.0
(h)
and (e)is equivalent to
dnp = 0 for arbitrary A0
(i)
The potential energy function for this system has the form
2
Ip = 2ke - P 2

= -kL 2 (sin 0 - sin 0,)2 - P2L(cos 0o - cos 0) (j)

and (g) can be interpreted as 0o
0
dn,
= 0 => Eq. (g) (k)
dO
Curves of (P2/kL) vs. 0 for various values of 00 are plotted in Fig. E7-6B. The result
for 00 = 0 consists of two curves, defined by REFERENCES
0 = 0 for arbitrary P2 /kL 1. WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
cos 0 = P2 /kl for (P2/kL) 1 (1) 2. LANGHAAR, H. L.: Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1962.
3. REISSNER, E.: "On a Variational Theorem in Elasticity," J. Math. Phys., Vol. 29,
To investigate the stability of an equilibrium position, we have to evaluate the second- pages 90-95, 1950.
order work at the position. After some algebraic manipulation, we obtain 4. ARGYRIS, J. H., and S. KELSEY: Energy Theorems and StructuralAnalysis, Butter­
2 2 2
d TTP = d WD - d WE = k(L AO)2 [COSs 0_-P
3
cos 0
/kLl2 (m) 5.
worths, London, 1960.
CHARLTON, T. M.: Energy Principles in Applied Statics, Blackie, London, 1959.
6. HOFF, N. J.: The Analysis of Structures,Wiley, & New York, 1956.
Let 0* represent a solution of(g). Applying (m) to 0*results in the following classification: 7. WASItZU, K.: VariationalMethods inElasticity and Plasticity, Pergamon Press, 1968.
174 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 PROBLEMS 175

Deduce that the requirement,

PROBLEMS
iT de = for arbitrary AV (c)
7-1. Consider the two-dimensional symmetrical truss shown. Assume
U2 = U3 = 0.
is equivalent to (a). Compare this principle with the principle of virtual dis­
(a) Determine the first two differentials of e, and e 2 by operating on the placements for an ideal truss.
expanded expression (equation 6-19) for e. 7-5. Consider the two-dimensional truss shown. Assume u 2 = = 0
(b) When a << b, we can neglect the nonlinear term involving u1 2 in the (a) Using (7-14), obtain a relation between the elongations and U32. Take
expressions for e and p. Specialize (a) for this case. the virtual-force system as AF2 and the necessary bar forces and re­
(c) When a >> b, we can neglect the nonlinear · term involving u in the actions required to equilibrate AF2.
__~~~~~~ _ _ · _ . _ , x__ _ _ :1_
im
·1: (b) Using (7-12), express ul1, u 2 in terms of el, e3. Note that bar 2 is
expressions or e and p. pecialize (a) or tills case.
not needed. One should always work with a statically determinate
system when applying (7-12).
Prob. 7-1
1
Prob. 7-5
X2

b
X2
3
_XI

H-a
-·i _a L~Xl

7-2. Refer to the figure of Prob. 7-1. Assume 112 = U3 = 0 and a >> b.
Using the principle of virtual displacements, determine the scalar force-equili-
brium equations for joint 1.
7-3. Suppose a force F is expressed in terms of e,
F = Cle + C 2e3 (a)
where e is related to the independent variable u by 7-6. Refer to Prob. 6-23. One can develop a variational principle similar
to the principle of virtual forces by operating on the branch potential differ-
e = tuJr+l t2 (b) ence-node potential relations. Show that
(a) Determine the first two differentials of the work function, W = W(u), AiTe = 0 (a)
defined by
for any permissibleset of current increments. Note that the currents must satisfy
W = F deI the node equations
ATi =
(b) Suppose (a) applies for increasing e and
Deduce Kirchhoff's law (the sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop
F = C(e - e*) (c) must equal zero) by suitably specializing Ai in (a). Illustrate for the circuit
for e decreasing from e*. Determine d2 W at e = e*. shown in Prob. 6-6, using branches 1, 2, 4, and 6.
7-4. Refer to Prob. 6-23. The n - 1 independent node equations relating 7-7. By definition, the first differential of the strain-energy function due to
the branch currents are represented by an increment in U1 has the form
m
ATi = 0 (a) dVT= X dV, = E F, de (a)
n=1 1=
Now, the branch potential differences, e, are related to the n - 1 independent
node potentials, V, by We work with VT expressed as a compound function of e = e(U) since it is
e= AV (b) more convenient than expressing V directly in terms of U. One can also
 I
::

176 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7 PROBLEMS 177

write dVr as W = W(V) are the node current equilibrium equations expressed in
dVT = V, u, AU 1 (b) terms of the node potentials.
(c) Suppose we define a function W.(ij), which has the property that
(a) Using (b), show that the system of ij joint force-equilibrium equations
expressed in terms of the joint displacements can be written as: dW; )
= e(i (d)
dij
-Ptk (c)
auCk k = 1, 2, ... ,i Determine Wj*corresponding to (a).
b
Equation c is called Castigliano's principle, part I. (d) Let W* = Z W. Show that the Euler equations for
(b) Show that an alternate form of (c) is j=1

I = ie - W* = i (AV) - W* = l(i,v) (e)

Ptk = F,, Oe (d)
n= (lttfk are the governing equations for a d-c network.
Note that (d) is just the expansion of (c). Rework Prob. 7-2, using (d). (e) Show that the actual currents correspond to a stationary value of W*.
7-8. Determine V(e), dV, and d2 V for the case where the stress-strain One can either introduce the constraint condition, ATi = 0, in (e) or
relation has the form (see Prob. 6-10) use the result of Prob. 7-6.
7-12. Investigate the stability of the system shown below. Take k,= aL2 ks
a E(E - be3 )
P
7-9. Determine V*(F), dV*, and d2 V* for the case where the stress-strain Prob. 7-12
relation has the form
cE ((a + Ca3)
i IA
//{"/VVr
E
7-10. Show that (7-12) can be written as
Linear
translational
]
restraint
ukj Pkj Rigid rod
where lkc = [Ic(P,) is defined by (7-31). This result specialized for U 2 = 0 is
called Castigliano's principle, part II. Apply it to Prob. 7-5, part b. Assume
linear elastic material and = 2f = f2 = f-
7-11. The current and potential drop for a linear resistance are related by
ej = e, j + Rjij (a)
Inverting (a), we can express ij as a function of ej.
/747I ;A ir (Linear rotational restraint)

(a)
ij = R- '(ej - e, j)

Suppose we define a function, Wj(ej), which has the property that

(b)
- . . V11V
171'��7
and consider a to range from 0 to 6.
dWj
de = ij(ej) (c)
Determine
to
corresponding
W (b).j
Determine W' corresponding to (b).
b
(b) Let W = Wj where b = total number of branches. Considering
j=1
the branch potential drops to be functions of the node potentials,
deduce that the actual node potentials V correspond to a stationary
value of W. Use the results of Prob. 7-4. The Euler equations for