Chemical Process Equipment

Design and Rating (CEDR)

7th Semester,
B.Sc. Chemical Engineering

Delivered by:
Dr. Usman Ali

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
Corrosion
Material selection
❑ Chemical process plants are
operating at higher
temperatures and flow rates to
increase yields … intensifying
corrosive action…selection of
construction materials becomes
important.
❑ Final choice cannot be based
simply on corrosion resistance
but on a sound economic
analysis of competing materials.
 CORROSION
➢ Corrosion is a complex phenomenon that may
involve one or more forms.
➢ Metals…….. chemical or electrochemical attack
➢ plastics and other nonmetallic materials……..
physiochemical rather than electrochemical
attack……… results in swelling, crazing, cracking,
softening, and/or decomposition
➢ Affected by pH
➢ Rising temperature
➢ Structural corrosion
✓ Graphitic
✓ Dezincification
✓ Biological
 A form of galvanic corrosion that takes place in
wet or moist environments where water acts as

Graphitic an electrolyte and allows a weak electrical

current created by dissimilarities in the iron and
graphite to remove the iron from the more
cathodic graphite.
Dezincification Zinc is lost and copper is left behind.
 Deterioration of metal or non-metal materials

Biological caused by the influence of microorganisms

residing in water, wastewater or interior piping
walls.
 Modes of corrosion

Chemical Electrochemical Biochemical

• Dry gases • Water/moist

• Organic environment
Liquids • Melt
electrolytes
Attack of environment
on materials
❖ Metals get oxidized
❖ Polymers react with
oxygen and degrade
❖ Ceramic refractories
may dissolve in contact
with molten materials
❖ Materials may undergo
irradiation damage
Oxidation
➢ Oxide is the more stable form than the metal itself
(for most metals)
➢ Oxidation rate becomes significant usually only at
high temperatures
➢ The nature of the oxide determines the rate of
oxidation

Free energy of formation for some metal oxides at 25oC (KJ/mole)

Al2O3 Cr2O3 Ti2O Fe2O3 MgO NiO Cu2O Ag2O Au2O3
−1576 −1045 −853 −740 −568 −217 −145 −13 +163
 Oxidation
❑ If the metal is subjected to alternate
heating and cooling cycles → the relative
thermal expansion of the oxide vs metal
determines the stability of the oxide
layer
❑ Oxides are prone to thermal spalling
and can crack on rapid heating or
cooling
❑ If the oxide layer is volatile (e.g. Mo
and W at high temperatures)  no
protection
OXIDATION RESISTANT
MATERIALS
➢ As oxidation of most metals cannot be avoided
the key is to form a protective oxide layer on the
surface
➢ The oxide layer should offer a high resistance to
the diffusion of the species controlling the
oxidation
➢ The electrical conductivity of the oxide is a
measure of the diffusivity of the ions (a
stoichiometric oxide will have a low diffusivity)
➢ Alloying the base metal can improve the
oxidation resistance
➢ E.g. the oxidation resistance of Fe can be
improved by alloying with Cr, Al, Ni
➢ Al, Ti have a protective oxide film and usually do
not need any alloying
 OXIDATION RESISTANT
MATERIALS
Alloying of Fe with Cr
❑ A protective Cr2O3 layer forms on the surface of Fe
❑ Upto 10 % Cr alloyed steel is used in oil refinery
components
❑ Cr > 12% → stainless steels → oxidation resistance upto
1000oC
→ turbine blades, furnace
parts, valves for IC engines
❑ Cr > 17% → oxidation resistance above 1000oC
❑ 18-8 stainless steel (18%Cr, 8%Ni) → excellent corrosion
resistance
❑ Kanthal (24% Cr, 5.5%Al, 2%Co) → furnace windings
(1300oC)
Other oxidation resistant alloys
❑ Nichrome (80%Ni, 20%Cr) → excellent oxidation
resistance
❑ Inconel (76%Ni, 16%Cr, 7%Fe)
 Environment Corrosion rate of mild steel (mm / year)
Dry 0.001
Marine 0.02
Humid with other agents 0.2

❑ Metals and alloys are arranged in a qualitative scale which gives a

measure of the tendency to corrode >>>The Galvanic Series

Galvanic series in marine water

Noble More reactive Active
end end
18-8 SS Ni Cu Sn Brass 18-8 MS Al Zn Mg
Passive SS
Active
Galvanic Cell

e− flow

Anode Cathode
Zn Cu
(−0.76) (+0.34)

or
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu 2H+ + 2e− → H2
Oxidation Reduction or
O2 + 2H2O + 4e− → 4OH−

Zn will corrode at the expense of Cu

Prevention of Corrosion

Basic goal → • protect the metal • avoid localized corrosion

❑ When possible, chose a noble metal
❑ Avoid electrical / physical contact between metals with very different electrode
potentials (avoid formation of a galvanic couple)
❑ If dissimilar metals are in contact, make sure that the anodic metal has a larger surface
area / volume
❑ In case of microstructural level galvanic couple, try to use a course microstructure
(where possible) to reduce number of galvanic cells formed
❑ Modify the base metal by alloying
❑ Protect the surface by various means
❑ Modify the fluid in contact with the metal
✓ Remove a cathodic reactant (e.g., water)
✓ Add inhibitors which from a protective layer
❑ Cathodic protection
✓ Use a sacrificial anode (as a coating or in electrical contact)
✓ Use an external DC source in connection with a inert/expendable electrode
 Types of corrosion

Types of corrosion:
a – uniform a b c
b – nonuniform
c – selective
d – spotted
e – pitting
f – dotted
g – under surface
d e f
h – intercrystal
i - stress

g h i
a - ühtlane, b - ebaühtlane, c - valikuline, d - laiguline,
e - rõugeline, f - täpiline, g - pinnaalune, h - kristallidevaheline,
i - pinge korrosioon
 Oxygen

Reduction in temperature

Modification of pH

Elimination of moisture

COMBATING
Use of inhibitors as additives
CORROSION
Cathodic protection

Use of nonmetallic castings and lining materials

Cladding of steel
 Protective coatings

• Metallic (less active metals (Cu,

Ni, Sn, Ag)
• Coating must be undamage
• Paints, lubricants

Other
Protection
• Cathodic protection
• Protector protection
• Anodic protection
• Corrosion inhibitors (high
molecular matters)
 Wear

Abrasion

Erosion

Cavitation

Fatigue wear

Oxidizing wear

Fretting corrosive wear

 Hardening, thermo-chemical treatment

Overwelding

Method for
wear Surface alloying

protection
Coating (chemical, thermo-chemical,
thermally sprayed, PVD, CVD, mechanical)

Selection of pairs (by adhesion)

Material of construction
 Tensile Test
❑It is the most common test
for studying stress-strain
relationship, especially
metals
❑In the test, a force pulls
the material, elongating it
and reducing its diameter
Tensile Test Sequence

(1)No load
(2)Uniform elongation
and area reduction
(3)Maximum load
(4)Necking
(5)Fracture
 Ultimate
Stress vs Strain
tensile strength
3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength
y
5
2 Elastic region
slope=Young’s(elastic) modulus
Plastic yield strength
Region Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ =Eε Region 4
fracture
σ 1
E=
ε E=
σy Strain ( 
) (e/Lo)
ε 2 − ε1
Compression Test
Bending Test
Shear properties
Material Properties

• Strength
• Hardness
• Ductility
• Brittleness
• Toughness
 Hardness

• Resistance to permanent
indentation
• Good hardness generally
means material is
resistant to scratching
and wear
• Most tooling used in
manufacturing must be
hard for scratch and
wear resistance
Material Properties
Mechanical Properties:
quantities that characterizes the
behavior of a material in
response to external or applied
forces.
Physical Properties:
quantities that characterize the
behavior of a material in
response to physical
phenomena other than
mechanical forces such as heat,
electricity, radiation)
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
• Strength: measure of the amount of tensile force per
unit area that a material can withstand before it fails
• Yield strength: the tensile stress (i.e. force/area) at
which material yields
• Ultimate tensile strength: the largest tensile stress a
material can sustain
• Shear strength: the largest stress a material can
sustain under torsion before it yield or fractures
• Compressive strength: a measure of the amount of
compressive force per unit area that a material can
withstand before it fails
• Stiffness: the resistance to stretching, bending, or
twisting loads.
• Ductility: the ability of a material to plastically
deform
Toughness: ability of a material to plastically deform before
fracturing

Hardness: ability of a material to resist localized surface

indentation or deformation

Fatigue strength: ability of a material to undergo a number of

cyclic loads without fracturing

Creep resistance: ability of a material to resist stretching while

under loads over long time periods at elevated temperatures

Impact strength: ability of a material to absorb sudden

dynamic shocks or impacts without fracturing

Coefficient of friction: a relative measure of the amount of

friction force between two surfaces

Wear coefficient: measure of the amount of surface removal

due to rubbing and sliding.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Density : the amount of matter per unit volume
Coefficient of thermal expansion: a measure of the amount a
material elongates in response to a change in its temperature
Melting point: the temperature at which a solid changes to a
liquid
Specific heat: the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass 1 degree
Corrosion resistance: the ability of a material to resist
oxidation, direct chemical attack, or surface degradation by
galvanic currents
Thermal conductivity: measure of heat flow across a surface
Electrical conductivity: measure of the ability to conduct
electricity
 Fundamental properties
Characteristic Behavior Property Units
Strength strong, weak ultimate strength MPa (ksi)
Elastic strength elastic then plastic yield strength MPa (ksi)
Stiffness flexible, rigid modulus of elasticity MPa (Mpsi)
% elongation,
Ductility draws, forms easily dimensionless
% area reduction
Hardness resists surface Brinell No. MPa (ksi)
indentation
Corrosion resistance resists chemicals, galvanic series activity
oxidation number
 Fundamental properties
Characteristic Behavior Property Units
Fatigue resistance endures many load cycles endurance limit MPa (Mpsi)
thermal
Conductivity conductivity (Btu/hr) / (F-ft),
conducts, insulates
(heat, electric) electrical Mhos
conductivity
Creep resistance time dependent creep strength MPa (Mpsi)
stretching
Impact resistance shock, impact loads Charpy energy N-m, (ft-lbs)
Density (mass) mass density kg/m3, (slugs/ft3)
heavy, light
Density (weight) weight density N/m3, (lbs/ft3)
Temperature tolerance softens, or melts easily melting point degrees C, F
Economics involved in
Selection

Total equipment or materials costs

Installation costs

Maintenance costs, amount and timing

Service life

Replacement costs

Downtime costs

Cost of inhibitors, control facilities required to achieve estimated service

life
Depreciation and taxes

Time value of money

Inflation
 1. Preliminary selection
Experience, manufacturer’s data, special
literature, general literature, availability, safety
aspects, preliminary laboratory tests
2. Laboratory testing
Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials
Selection under process conditions
3. Interpretation of laboratory results and other
of data
Effect of possible impurities, excess temperature,
materials excess pressure, agitation, and presence of air in
equipment
✓ Avoidance of electrolysis
✓ Fabrication method

4. Economic comparison of apparently suitable

materials
Material and maintenance cost, probable life, cost
of product degradation, liability to special hazards
5. Final selection
 Fabrication of equipment
The exact methods used for fabrication depend on the complexity and
type of equipment being prepared. In general, however, the following
steps are involved in the complete fabrication of major pieces of
chemical equipment, such as tanks, autoclaves, reactors, towers, and
heat exchangers:
1) Layout of materials
2) Cutting to correct dimensions
3) Forming into desired shape
4) Fastening
5) Testing
6) Heat-treating
7) Finishing
Material families / sub-families

Materials

Metals Plastics Ceramics Composites Family

Ferrous Thermoplastics

Non-ferrous Thermosets Sub-family

Elastomers
Material sub-families / classes

Materials

Metals
Family

Ferrous
Sub-family

Cast iron
Carbon steel
Alloy steel Classes
Stainless steel
 Metals

Metals

Ferrous Non-ferrous
cast iron aluminum
carbon steel brass
alloy steel bronze
stainless steel copper
lead
magnesium
nickel
tin
titanium
tungsten
zinc
Polymer

Polymers

Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers

ABS alkyd butyl

acetal epoxy fluorocarbon
acrylic melamine neoprene
nylon phenolic nitrile
polycarbonate polyester polysulfide
polyethylene urethane rubber
polypropylene silicone
polystyrene
vinyl
Polymers
• Strong, flexible, electrically and thermally
insulating, not creep-resistant, impact-
resistant, lightweight, temperature-sensitive,
soft, corrosion-resistant
• Thermoplastic: polymers repeatedly softened
by heating and hardened by cooling
• Thermoset: polymers hardened by curing
• Elastomers : ‘elastic polymers’, can either be
thermoplastic or thermoset polymers
 Ceramics

Strong in compression, weak in tension, brittle, stiff,

electrically and thermally insulating, not impact-resistant,
medium weight, very temperature tolerant, very hard,
corrosion-resistant

Ceramics
alumina
beryllia
diamond
magnesia
silicon carbide
silicon nitride
zirconia
 Excellent corrosion resistant

Low density

Resistant to high temperatures

Silicon High electrical resistance

carbide High hardness

Low tensile strength

Low toughness difficult to shape

Products: electrical insulators, cutting tools,

grinding wheels
Composites
• Stiff, strong, light, non-conducting, moderately corrosion-resistant,
sensitive to temperature

Composites
carbon fiber
cermet
matrix
glass fiber
Kevlar fiber
Glass
• Transparent, or easily coloured
• High resistance to corrosion
• Easy to shape
• Low tensile strength
• Low toughness
• Costs a lot to make so more economical to
recycle
• Products : windows, bottles, ovenware, optical
fibres
Material groups

Metals
Cermets
MCM Ceramics
CCM
Glass-ceramics
Composites GCCM
PCM FRG
Polymers Glass

MCM Metal composite materials

CCM Ceramic composite material
PCM Polymeric composite material
GCCM Glass-ceramic composite material
FRG Fiber-reinforced glass
Property profiles by family
Materials selection charts
Materials selection charts
Materials and its properties
Iron and Steel
❑ Although many
materials have greater
corrosion resistance
than iron and steel, cost
aspects favor the use of
iron and steel.
❑ They are often used as
materials of
construction when it is
known that some
corrosion will occur.
❑ The presence of iron
salts and discoloration
in the product can be
expected, and periodic
replacement of the
equipment should be
anticipated.
❑ In general, cast iron
and carbon steel
exhibit about the
same corrosion
resistance.
❑ They are not suitable
for use with dilute
acids, but can be used
with many strong
acids, since a
protective coating
composed of
corrosion products
forms on the metal
surface.
 Stainless Steels
❑ There are more than 100 different types of
stainless steels.
❑ These materials are high chromium or high
nickel-chromium alloys of iron containing
small amounts of other essential
constituents.
❑ They have excellent corrosion-resistance and
heat-resistance properties.
❑ The most common stainless steels, such as
type 302 or type 304, contain approximately
18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel,
and are designated as 18-8 stainless steels.
The addition of molybdenum to the alloy, as in type
316, increases the corrosion resistance and high-
temperature strength.

If nickel is not included, the low-temperature

brittleness of the material is increased, and the
ductility and pit-type corrosion resistance are
reduced.
The presence of chromium in the alloy gives
resistance to oxidizing agents.

Thus, type 430, which contains chromium but no

nickel or molybdenum, exhibits excellent corrosion
resistance to nitric acid and other oxidizing agents.
Stainless steels exhibit the best resistance to
corrosion when the surface is oxidized to a passive
state.

This condition can be obtained, at least temporarily,

by a so-called “passivation” operation in which the
surface is treated with nitric acid and then rinsed with
water.
Localized corrosion can occur at places where foreign
material collects, such as in scratches, crevices, or
corners.

Stainless steels show great susceptibility to stress

corrosion cracking.

As one example, stress plus contact with small

concentrations of halides can result in failure of the
metal wall.
• The high temperatures involved in
welding stainless steel may cause
precipitation of chromium carbide
at the grain boundary, resulting in
decreased corrosion resistance
along the weld.
• The chances of this occurring can
be minimized by using low-carbon
stainless steels or by controlled
annealing.
Haste alloy
 Copper and its Alloys

Copper is relatively inexpensive, possesses fair

mechanical strength, and can be fabricated easily into
a wide variety of shapes. Although it shows little
tendency to dissolve in non oxidizing acids, it is readily
susceptible to oxidation.

Copper is resistant to atmospheric moisture or oxygen

because a protective coating composed primarily of
copper oxide is formed on the surface.

The oxide, however, is soluble in most acids, and thus

copper is not a suitable material of construction when
it must contact any acid in the presence of oxygen or
oxidizing agents.
❑ Copper exhibits good corrosion
resistance to strong alkalis, with the
exception of ammonium hydroxide.
❑ It resists most organic solvents and
aqueous solutions of organic acids.
❑ Copper alloys, such as brass, bronze,
admiralty, and Muntz metals, can
exhibit better corrosion resistance
and better mechanical properties
than pure copper.
❑ In general, high-zinc alloys should not
be used with acids or alkalies owing
to the possibility of dezincification.
❑ Most of the low-zinc alloys are
resistant to hot dilute alkalies.
 Nickel and its
Alloys
❑ Nickel exhibits high corrosion
resistance to most alkalies.
❑ The strength and hardness of nickel
is almost as great as that of carbon
steel, and the metal can be
fabricated easily. In general,
oxidizing conditions promote the
corrosion of nickel, and reducing
conditions retard it.
❑ Monel, an alloy of nickel containing
67 percent nickel and 30 percent
copper, is often used in the food
industries. This alloy is stronger
than nickel and has better
corrosion-resistance properties
than either copper or nickel.
❑ The presence of chromium in this
alloy increases its resistance to
oxidizing conditions.
 Aluminum
❑ The lightness and relative ease of
fabrication of aluminum and its alloys
are factors favoring the use of these
materials.
❑ Aluminum resists attack by acids
because a surface film of inert
hydrated aluminum oxide is formed.
❑ This film adheres to the surface and
offers good protection unless
materials which can remove the oxide,
such as halogen acids or alkalies, are
present.
 Lead
❑ Pure lead has low creep and fatigue resistance, but
its physical properties can be improved by the
addition of small amounts of silver, copper, antimony,
or tellurium.
❑ Lead-clad equipment is in common use in many
chemical plants.
❑ The excellent corrosion-resistance properties of lead
are caused by the formation of protective surface
coatings.
❑ If the coating is one of the highly insoluble lead salts,
such as sulfate, carbonate, or phosphate, good
corrosion resistance is obtained.
❑ Little protection is offered, however, if the coating is
a soluble salt, such as nitrate, acetate, or chloride.
 Tantalum
❑ The physical properties of tantalum are similar to
those of mild steel, with the exception that its
melting point (2996°C) is much higher.
❑ It is ordinarily used in the pure form, and it is
readily fabricated into many different shapes.
❑ The corrosion-resistance properties of tantalum
resemble those of glass.
❑ The metal is attacked by hydrofluoric acid, by hot
concentrated alkalies, and by materials containing
free sulfur trioxide.
❑ It is resistant to all other acids and is often used
for equipment involving contact with hydrochloric
acid.
 Silver
❑ Because of its low mechanical
strength and high cost, silver is
generally used only in the form of
linings.
❑ Silver is resistant to alkalies and
many hot organic acids.
❑ It also shows fair resistance to
aqueous solutions of the halogen
acids.
 NONMETALS

❑ Glass, carbon, stoneware, brick, rubber,

plastics, and wood are common examples
of nonmetals used as materials of
construction.
❑ Many of the nonmetals have low structural
strength.
❑ Consequently, they are often used in the
form of linings or coatings bonded to metal
supports
❑ For example, glass-lined or rubber-lined
equipment has many applications in the
chemical industries.
 Glass and Glassed
Steel
❑ Glass has excellent resistance and is
subject to attack only by hydrofluoric acid
and hot alkaline solutions.
❑ It is particularly suitable for processes
which have critical contamination levels.
❑ A chief drawback is its brittleness and
damage by thermal shock.
❑ Glassed steel is an organic product of
fusion that combines the corrosion
resistance of glass with the working
strength of steel.
Carbon and
Graphite

❑ Generally, impervious graphite is completely

inert to all but the most severe oxidizing
conditions. This property, combined with
excellent heat transfer, has made impervious
carbon and graphite very popular in heat
exchangers, as brick lining, and in pipe and
pumps.
❑ One limitation of these materials is low
tensile strength.
❑ Threshold oxidation temperatures are 350°C
for carbon and 400°C for graphite.
 Stoneware and
Porcelain
❑ Materials of stoneware and porcelain
are about as resistant to acids and
chemicals as glass, but with the
advantage of greater strength.
❑ This is offset somewhat by poor
thermal conductivity and susceptibility
to damage by thermal shock.
❑ Porcelain enamels are used to coat
steel, but the enamel has slightly
inferior chemical resistance.
 Brick and Cement
Materials
❑ Brick-lined construction can be used for many
severely corrosive conditions, where high alloys
would fail.
❑ Acid proof refractories can be used up to
900°C.
❑ A number of cement materials are used with
brick.
❑ Carbon-filled polyesters and furanes are good
against non oxidizing acids, salts, and solvents.
Silica-filled resins should not be used against
hydrofluoric or fluorosilicic acids.
❑ Sulfur-based cements are limited to 95°C
while resins can be used to about 175°C.
❑ The sodium silicate based cements are good
against acids to 400°C.
 ❑ Natural and synthetic rubbers are used as linings
or as structural components for equipment in the
chemical industries.
Rubber and ❑ By adding the proper ingredients, natural rubbers
Elastomers with varying degrees of hardness and chemical
resistance can be produced.
❑ Hard rubbers are chemically saturated with sulfur.
The vulcanized products (containing high S) are rigid and exhibit
excellent resistance to chemical attack by dilute sulfuric acid and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Natural rubber is resistant to dilute mineral acids, alkalies, and
salts, but oxidizing media, oils, benzene, and ketones will attack
it.
Chloroprene (2-Chlorobuta 1,3 diene) or neoprene rubber is
resistant to attack by ozone, sunlight, oils, gasoline, and aromatic
or halogenated solvents.
Styrene rubber has chemical resistance similar to natural.

Nitrile rubber is known for resistance to oils and solvents.

 Plastics
❑ In comparison with metallic materials, the use
of plastics is limited to relatively moderate
temperatures and pressures (230°C is
considered high for plastics).
❑ Plastics are also less resistant to mechanical
abuse and have high expansion rates, low
strengths (thermoplastics), and only fair
resistance to solvents.
❑ However, they are lightweight, are good
thermal and electrical insulators, are easy to
fabricate and install, and have low friction
factors.
Generally, plastics have excellent resistance to weak mineral acids and are
unaffected by inorganic salt solutions-areas where metals are not entirely
suitable.
Most metals are affected by slight changes in pH, or minor impurities, or
oxygen content, while plastics will remain resistant to these same
changes.
One of the most chemical-resistant plastics commercially available today is
tetrafluoroethylene or TFE (Teflon).

This thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all alkalies and acids except

fluorine and chlorine gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals.

It retains its properties up to 260°C.

 Polyethylene

❑ Polyethylene is the
lowest-cost plastic
commercially available.
❑ Mechanical properties
are generally poor,
particularly above 50°C
and pipe must be fully
supported.
❑ Carbon-filled grades are
resistant to sunlight and
weathering.
 Un plasticized
polyvinyl chlorides
❑ Un plasticized polyvinyl chlorides
(type I) have excellent resistance to
oxidizing acids other than
concentrated, and to most non
oxidizing acids.
❑ Resistance is good to weak and
strong alkaline materials.
❑ Resistance to chlorinated
hydrocarbons is not good.
 Acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS) polymers

❑ Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene polymers

(ABS) have good resistance to non
oxidizing and weak acids but are not
satisfactory with oxidizing acids. Upper
temperature limit is about 65°C.
❑ Resistance to weak alkaline solutions is
excellent.
❑ They are not satisfactory with aromatic or
chlorinated hydrocarbons but have good
resistance to aliphatic hydrocarbons.
Chlorinated polyether
❑ Chlorinated polyether can be used
continuously up to 125°C, intermittently up to
150°C.
❑ Chemical resistance is between polyvinyl
chloride and the fluorocarbons.
❑ Dilute acids, alkalies, and salts have no effect.
Hydro chloric, hydrofluoric, and phosphoric
acids can be handled at all concentrations up
to 105°C.
❑ Sulfuric acid over 60 percent and nitric over 25
percent cause degradation, as do aromatics
and ketones.
 Cellulose acetate
butyrate
❑ Cellulose acetate butyrate is not
affected by dilute acids and alkalies
or gasoline but chlorinated solvents
cause some swelling.
❑ Nylons resist many organic solvents
but are attacked by phenols, strong
oxidizing agents, and mineral acids.
 Polypropylene
❑ Polypropylene’s chemical resistance is
about the same as polyethylene, but it can
be used at 120°C.
❑ Polycarbonate is a relatively high-
temperature plastic.
❑ It can be used up to 150°C.
❑ Resistance to mineral acids is good.
❑ Strong alkalies slowly decompose it, but
mild alkalies do not.
❑ It is partially soluble in aromatic solvents
and soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons.
 Wood
• This material of construction, while
fairly inert chemically, is readily
dehydrated by concentrated
solutions and consequently shrinks
badly when subjected to the action
of such solutions.
• It also has a tendency to slowly
hydrolyze when in contact with hot
acids and alkalies.
LOW- AND HIGH-TEMPERATURE
MATERIALS

❑ The extremes of low and high

temperatures used in many recent
chemical processes has created some
unusual problems in fabrication of
equipment.
❑ For example, some metals lose their
ductility and impact strength at low
temperatures, although in many cases
yield and tensile strengths increase as the
temperature is decreased. It is important
in low temperature applications to choose
materials resistant to shock
❑ Among the most important properties of
materials at the other end of the temperature
spectrum are creep, rupture, and short-time
strengths.
❑ Stress rupture is another important
consideration at high temperatures since it
relates stress and time to produce rupture.
❑ Ferrite alloys are weaker than austenitic
compositions, and in both groups molybdenum
increases strength.
❑ Other properties which become important at
high temperatures include thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion, ductility, alloy
composition, and stability.
 GASKET MATERIALS
❑ Metallic and nonmetallic gaskets of many
different forms and compositions are used
in industrial equipment.
❑ The choice of a gasket material depends
on the corrosive action of the chemicals
that may contact the gasket, the location
of the gasket, and the type of gasket
construction.
❑ Other factors of importance are the cost
of the materials, pressure and
temperature involved, and frequency of
opening the joint.
Layout
The first step in the fabrication is to establish the layout of the various
components on the basis of detailed instructions prepared by the
fabricator.
Flat pieces of the metal or other constructional material involved are
marked to indicate where cutting and forming are required.

Allowances must be made for losses caused by cutting, shrinkage due

to welding, or deformation caused by the various forming operations.

After the equipment starts to take shape, the location of various

outlets and attachments will become necessary.
Cutting
Several methods can be used for cutting the laid-out materials to the correct
size.

Shearing is the cheapest method and is satisfactory for relatively thin sheets.

The edge resulting from a shearing operation may not be usable for welding,
and the sheared edges may require an additional grinding or machining
treatment.
Burning is often used for cutting metals.

This method can be employed to cut and, simultaneously, prepare a beveled

edge suitable for welding.

Carbon steel is easily cut by an oxyacetylene flame.

An oxyacetylene flame is used, and powdered iron is
introduced into the cut to increase the amount of heat and
improve the cutting characteristics.
The high temperatures involved may affect the materials,
resulting in the need for a final heat-treatment to restore
corrosion resistance or removal of the heat-affected edges.
Sawing can be used to cut metals that are in the form of flat
sheets.

However, sawing is expensive, and it is used only when the

heat effects from burning would be detrimental.
Forming
After the constructional materials have been cut, the next step is
to form them into the desired shape by various methods such as
rolling, bending, pressing, bumping or spinning on a die.

In some cases, heating may be necessary in order to carry out the

forming operation.

Because of work hardening of the material, annealing may be

required before forming and between stages during the forming.

When the shaping operations are finished, the different parts are
assembled and fitted for fastening.
 Fastening
❑ Riveting can be used for fastening operations, but electric
welding is far more common and gives superior results.
❑ The quality of a weld is very important, because the ability
of equipment to withstand pressure or corrosive conditions
is often limited by the conditions along the welds.
❑ Although good welds may be stronger than the metal that
is fastened together, design engineers usually assume a
weld is not perfect and employ weld efficiencies of 80 to 95
percent in the design of pressure vessels.
❑The most common type of welding is the
manual shielded-arc process in which an
electrode approximately 14 to 16 in. long is
used and an electric arc is maintained manually
between the electrode and the material being
welded.
❑The electrode melts and forms a filler metal,
while, at the same time, the work material
fuses together. .
❑ A submerged-arc process is
commonly used for welding
stainless steels and carbon
steels when an automatic
operation is acceptable.
❑ The electrode is a continuous
roll of wire fed at an
automatically controlled rate.
❑ The arc is submerged in a
granulated flux which serves
the same purpose as the
coating on the rods in the
shielded-arc process.
Hefiurc welding is used for stainless steels and most of the
nonferrous materials.

A stream of helium or argon gas is passed from a nozzle in

the electrode holder onto the weld, where the inert gas
acts as a shielding blanket to protect the molten metal.

As in the shielded-arc and submerged-arc processes, a filler

rod is fed into the weld, but the arc in the heliarc process is
formed between a tungsten electrode and the base metal.
In some cases, fastening can be accomplished by use of
various solders, such as brazing solder (mp, 840 to 905°C)
containing about 50 percent each of copper and zinc; silver
solders (mp, 650 to 870°C) containing silver, copper, and
zinc; or ordinary solder (mp, 220°C) containing 50 percent
each of tin and lead.
Screw threads, packings, gaskets, and other mechanical
methods are also used for fastening various parts of
equipment.
 Testing
❑ All welded joints can be tested for
concealed imperfections by X rays,
and code specifications usually
require X-ray examination of main
seams.
❑ Hydrostatic tests can be conducted
to locate leaks.
❑ Sometimes, delicate tests, such as
a helium probe test, are used to
check for very small leaks.
 Heat-treating
❑ After the preliminary testing and
necessary repairs are completed, it may
be necessary to heat-treat the equipment
to remove forming and welding stresses,
restore corrosion-resistance properties to
heat-affected materials, and prevent
stress-corrosion conditions.
❑ A low-temperature treatment may be
adequate, or the particular conditions may
require a full anneal followed by a rapid
quench.
 Finishing
❑ The finishing operation involves
preparing the equipment for
final shipment.
❑ Sandblasting, polishing, and
painting may be necessary.
❑ Final pressure tests at 1 to 2 or
more times the design pressure
are conducted together with
other tests as demanded by the
specified code or requested by
the inspector.
Summary
 Reference
✓ Peters, M. S.; Timmerhaus, K. D.; West, R. E., Plant Design
and Economics for Chemical Engineers. 5th Ed.; McGraw-Hill:
2003. [Chapters 10]
 Assignment
20YY-CPEDR-T10
Problems
• 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10
Reference:
• Peters, M. S.; Timmerhaus, K. D.; West, R. E., Plant Design and
Economics for Chemical Engineers. 5th Ed.; McGraw-Hill:
2003. [Chapters 10]
Instructions:
• Submit in either hard copy or scanned at
[email protected]
• Deadline: 18-09-2023 by 4.00 PM
• Subject name: 20YY-CPEDR-T10-XX (for both assignment file
and email subject) where XX is roll number and YY is your
session year.