Biology

Teacher Manual

to accompany Mader Biology, 14e AP Student Edition

Teacher Manual i
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CONTENTS
Using Your Teacher Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
1 Biology: The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

UNIT 1 The Cell

2 Basic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 The Chemistry of Organic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Cell Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Membrane Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6 Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7 Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8 Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

UNIT 2 Genetic Basis of Life

9 The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
11 Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Teacher Manual iii

 12 Molecular Biology of the Gene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
13 Regulation of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14 Biotechnology and Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

UNIT 3 Evolution
15 Darwin and Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
16 How Populations Evolve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17 Speciation and Macroevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18 Origin and History of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
19 Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

UNIT 4 Microbial Evolution

20 Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
21 Protist Evolution and Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
22 Fungi Evolution and Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116

UNIT 5 Plant Evolution and Biology

23 Plant Evolution and Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
iv C ontents
 24 Flowering Plants: Structure and Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
25 Flowering Plants: Nutrition and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
26 Flowering Plants: Control of Growth Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
27 Flowering Plants: Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

UNIT 6 Animal Evolution and Diversity

28 Invertebrate Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
29 Vertebrate Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
30 Human Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

UNIT 7 Comparative Animal Biology

31 Animal Organization and Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
32 Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
33 The Lymphatic and Immune Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
34 Digestive Systems and Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
35 Respiratory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Teacher Manual v
 36 Body Fluid Regulation and Excretory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
37 Neurons and Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
38 Sense Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
39 Locomotion and Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
40 Hormones and Endocrine Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
41 Reproductive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
42 Animal Development and Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
43 Behavioral Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

UNIT 8 Ecology
44 Population Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
45 Community and Ecosystem Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
46 Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
47 Conservation of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Teaching Strategy and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Suggested Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

vi C ontents
 USING YOUR TEACHER MANUAL
This Teacher Manual is intended to guide AP Biology teachers through the
process of using the print and digital resources available with Biology to
prepare students for AP success.

Chapter Opener
Each chapter opens with a summary and pacing chart. This chart indicates
the number of class periods that should be devoted to each section of the
chapter. It also highlights which AP Topics are covered in a given chapter
section. The Chapter Resources section identifies the test banks, practice
questions, and Unit Reviews applicable to each chapter. It also outlines any
Online Activities, available in your online course, which can be used
in class or assigned as homework.

CHAPTER 13
Regulation of Gene
Expression
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
4.2 Introduction to Signal Transduction

4.3 Signal Transduction

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction

13.1 Prokaryotic Regulation 1
Pathways

6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
Pathways
13.2 Eukaryotic Regulation 2
6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
13.3 Gene Mutations 1 Pathways

6.7 Mutation
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 13 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4
Unit Review: AP Unit 6

Online Activities
Operons
Gene Switches
Identical Twins, Identical Fates? An Introduction to Epigenetics
Lost in Translation

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Regulation of gene expression is an abstract concept and hard for many students to visualize.
Videos and models are a great way to help students connect with the material.
The reasons for gene regulation are multiple but should be pointed out to students. I always
like to remind them that the liver cell is oozing bile but that the skin cells on their face are not
oozing bile because of gene regulation. Cell specialization is one of the most important
reasons for gene regulation. Only certain parts of DNA are active in any cell so that the cell
has what it needs to function.
Class time: four 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on operons Teacher Manual vii
Activity 1: Operons—25 minutes
 Regulation of Gene
Expression
USING YOUR TEACHER MANUAL Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
4.2 Introduction to Signal Transduction

(CONTINUED) 13.1 Prokaryotic Regulation 1

4.3 Signal Transduction

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction

Pathways

6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

Teaching Strategy and Approach 6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization
4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
Pathways
The Teaching Strategy and Approach section provides helpful hints and
13.2 Eukaryotic Regulation 2
6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

guidance for teachers on how to teach the chapter, focusing on material that 6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization
4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
is key for AP success. Written by AP Biology teachers, it connects chapter
13.3 Gene Mutations 1 Pathways

content to the AP Curriculum Framework and provides strategies to

Chapter Resources
6.7 Mutation

integrate labs, activities, and lectures into classroom lessons. It includes a

Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 13 Test Bank
sample syllabus with lecture topics and suggested activities. Where
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4

applicable, Teaching Tips call out resources that may aid teachers.
Unit Review: AP Unit 6

Online Activities
Operons
Gene Switches
Identical Twins, Identical Fates? An Introduction to Epigenetics
Lost in Translation

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Regulation of gene expression is an abstract concept and hard for many students to visualize.
Videos and models are a great way to help students connect with the material.
The reasons for gene regulation are multiple but should be pointed out to students. I always
like to remind them that the liver cell is oozing bile but that the skin cells on their face are not
oozing bile because of gene regulation. Cell specialization is one of the most important
reasons for gene regulation. Only certain parts of DNA are active in any cell so that the cell
has what it needs to function.
Class time: four 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on operons Day 2: Lecture—20 minutes on eukaryotic gene regulation
Activity 1: Operons—25 minutes Activity 2: Gene Switches—25 minutes
Day 3: Lecture—10 minutes on epigenetics
Activity 3: Identical Twins, Identical Fates?—35 minutes
70 CHAPTER 13 | Regulation of Gene Expression
Day 4: Lecture—10 minutes on mutations in DNA
Activity 4: Lost in Translation—35 minutes
Teaching Tips: Case studies are a good way to get students involved and thinking deeply
mad432661_ch13_070-073_10732.indd 70 about content. The National Center For Case Study Teaching In Science
11/19/20 1:18 PM has a case study
on epigenetics that can be found on their website. You can print these materials and have
students work in groups to read and analyze the data and provide answers to the critical
thinking questions.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students tend to forget that all cells in a multicellular organism contain the same DNA.
Somehow they think that the DNA is divided according to function. This information should
make them realize the intricate regulation that must occur in a multicellular organism.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Operons: Students will construct a model of an operon (trp or lac). Full directions and
Day 2: Lecture—20 minutes on eukaryotic gene regulation
student worksheets available in your online course.
2. Gene Switches: Students watch an HHMI animation and navigate an interactive website to
Activity 2: Gene Switches—25 minutes
better understand how gene regulation works. Additional directions and a link to the activity

Student Misconceptions
Day 3: and Pitfalls are available in your online course.
Lecture—10 minutes on epigenetics
3. Identical Twins, Identical Fates? An Introduction to Epigenetics: Students read a case study
which features epigenetics prepared by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in
This section highlights areas where students frequently struggle. It Activity 3: Identical Twins, Identical Fates?—35
Science. Links minutes
and further directions are available in your online course.

provides suggestions, Day

additional
4: resources,
Lecture—10 andonways
minutes to to
mutations revisit
Differentiated Instruction: For students who are stronger visual learners, provide a link
in DNA
the Nova Science Now video on Epigenetics (available in your online course). This

previously taught material to helpActivity

students overcome roadblocks.
video provides an excellent animation of DNA methylation.
4: Lost in Translation—35 minutes
You can also review the discussion questions found in Supported Materials after
viewing.
Teaching Tips: Case studies are a good way to get students involved and thinking deeply
about content. The National Center For Case
4. Lost Study Teaching
in Translation: Students In Science
build a series of has a case
pipe cleaner study following amino acid
bumblebees
coding instructions to learn the effects of mutation.
on epigenetics that can be found on their website. You can print these materials and have
students work in groups to read and analyze the data and provide answers to the critical
EL Strategies
thinking questions. These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening – Beginning
Student Misconceptions Have
and Pitfalls
students log in to their ebook to hear pronunciations of chapter vocabulary terms.
They can also listen to a complete audio read of the text.
Students tend to forget that all cells in a multicellular organism contain the same DNA.
Oral Language Development – Intermediate
Somehow they think that the DNA is divided according to function. This information should
Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
make them realize the intricate regulation that must
understanding occur in a multicellular organism.
of vocabulary.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course. Teacher Manual 71

1. Operons: Students will construct a model of an operon (trp or lac). Full directions and
student worksheets available in your online course.
viii U sing Your Teacher Manual
2. Gene Switches: Students watch an HHMI animation and navigate an interactive website to
mad432661_ch13_070-073_10732.indd 71 11/19/20 1:18 PM

better understand how gene regulation works. Additional directions and a link to the activity
are available in your online course.
 Suggested Activities
Day 2: EachDay
Lecture—20 2: on of
chapter
minutes Lecture—20
eukaryotic minutes
the Biology
gene on eukaryotic
Teacher
regulation Manualgene regulation
contains several suggested
Activityactivities. TheseActivity
activities
2: Gene Switches—25 minutes include
2: Gene demonstrations,
Switches—25 minutes laboratory activities,
Day 3: group Daydiscussions,
3: inquiry
Lecture—10
Lecture—10 minutes on epigenetics activities,
minutes on and
epigeneticsresearch projects, all aimed
to help students master AP Topics
Activity 3:Fates?—35
Activity 3: Identical Twins, Identical
and
Identical Twins, Identical Fates?—35 minutesDemonstrations
minutes
Science Practices.
and group discussion activities appear in full in the print Teacher Manual.
Day 4: Lecture—10 Day 4: on mutations
minutes Lecture—10 minutes on mutations in DNA
in DNA
Activities which use internet links or student worksheets are summarized
Activityhere
4: Lost Activityminutes
in Translation—35 4: Lost in Translation—35 minutes
and are accessible through your online course.
Teaching
Teaching Tips: Case studies Tips:way
are a good Case studies
to get are a involved
students good way to thinking
and get students
deeplyinvolved and thinking deeply
about
about content. The National content.
Center TheStudy
For Case National CenterInFor
Teaching Case Study
Science Teaching
has a case studyIn Science has a case study
EL Strategies
on epigenetics that can beon epigenetics
found that can be
on their website. Youfound on their
can print website.
these Youand
materials canhave
print these materials and have
students work in groups tostudents
read andwork in groups
analyze to and
the data readprovide
and analyze the to
answers data
theand provide answers to the critical
critical
These activities
thinking are designed for students who need additional language
questions.
thinking questions.
support, but provide opportunities to encourage all students to practice
Student communicating
Student and
Misconceptions scientific information,
Misconceptions
Pitfalls andboth in written and verbal forms.
Pitfalls
Students tend to forget thatStudents
all cells tend to forget that
in a multicellular all cells in
organism a multicellular
contain the sameorganism
DNA. contain the same DNA.
Somehow they think that theSomehow they think
DNA is divided that theto
according DNA is divided
function. This according
informationtoshould
function. This information should
makeregulation
make them realize the intricate them realize
thatthe
mustintricate
occur regulation that must
in a multicellular occur in a multicellular organism.
organism.

Suggested Activities
Suggested Activities
These
These activities can be found activities
in the teachercan be foundsection
resources in the of
teacher resources
your online section of your online course.
course.
1. Operons:
1. Operons: Students will construct Students
a model of anwill construct
operon (trp ora lac).
modelFullofdirections
an operonand (trp or lac). Full directions and
student worksheets available student
in yourworksheets available in your online course.
online course.
2. Gene Switches: Students2.watch
Genean Switches: Studentsand
HHMI animation watch an HHMI
navigate animation and
an interactive navigate
website to an interactive website to
better understand how gene better understand
regulation works.how gene regulation
Additional directionsworks.
and a Additional directions and a link to the activity
link to the activity
are available in your online are available in your online course.
course.
3. Identical Twins, Identical3. Identical
Fates? Twins, Identical
An Introduction Fates? An Introduction
to Epigenetics: Students read to Epigenetics:
a case study Students read a case study
which features epigenetics which
preparedfeatures
by theepigenetics prepared
National Center by the
for Case National
Study Center
Teaching in for Case Study Teaching in
Science. Links
Science. Links and further directions and further
are available directions
in your online are available in your online course.
course.

Differentiated Instruction:Differentiated Instruction:

For students who For students
are stronger who are
visual learners, stronger
provide visual learners, provide a link
a link
to theon
to the Nova Science Now video Nova Science Now
Epigenetics videoinon
(available Epigenetics
your (available
online course). Thisin your online course). This
video provides an excellentvideo provides
animation an excellent
of DNA animation of DNA methylation.
methylation.
You can also
You can also review the discussion reviewfound
questions the discussion questions
in Supported found
Materials in Supported Materials after
after
viewing. viewing.

4. Lost
4. Lost in Translation: Students in aTranslation:
build Students
series of pipe build
cleaner a series offollowing
bumblebees pipe cleaner bumblebees
amino acid following amino acid
coding instructions to learn coding instructions
the effects to learn the effects of mutation.
of mutation.

EL Strategies EL Strategies
These
These activities are designed activities
for those are designed
students in need for those students
of language in need of language support.
support.

Listening – Beginning Listening – Beginning

Have
Have students log in to their students
ebook to hearlog in to their ebook
pronunciations to hear vocabulary
of chapter pronunciations of chapter vocabulary terms.
terms.
They canaudio
They can also listen to a complete also read
listenoftothe
a complete
text. audio read of the text.

Oral Language
Oral Language Development Development – Intermediate
– Intermediate
Have
Have partners make and use partnerstomake
flashcards and
check useother’s
each flashcards to check each
pronunciation and other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.
understanding of vocabulary.

Teacher Manual 71 Teacher Manual 71

Teacher Manual ix
USING YOUR TEACHER MANUAL
(CONTINUED)

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

The Teacher Manual contains answers to all of the questions in the student edition,
such as AP Check Your Progress questions and AP Assessments.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 13.1, Check Your Progress 2. Explain how a frameshift mutation may disrupt
1. Explain the difference between the roles of the a gene’s function.
promoter and operator of an operon. Frameshift mutations can disrupt a gene’s function because all
the codons downstream of the mutation get shifted through the
The promoter signals the start of the operon and the location
addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides. This results in a
where transcription begins, while the operator controls
completely new sequence of codons, yielding a nonfunctional
transcription of structural genes.
protein.
2. Summarize how gene expression differs in an
3. Discuss how a mutation in a tumor suppressor
inducible operon versus a repressible operon.
gene and in proto-oncogenes disrupts the cell
In an inducible operon, the enzymes only need to be active when cycle.
the specific nutrient is present, and are then turned on. In a
repressible operon, the enzymes instead can be turned off A mutation in a tumor suppressor gene and in proto-oncogenes
by a change in shape of the repressor. disrupts the cell cycle because it can allow the cell to continue
dividing unchecked. Tumor suppressor genes ordinarily act as
3. Describe the difference between positive control brakes on cell division, and proto-oncogenes are usually turned
and negative control of gene expression. off but when turned on stimulate cell division.
Positive control of gene expression is when a molecule that is
active (inducer) promotes the activity of the operon. Negative AP Assessment
control is when an active molecule (repressor) shuts down an 1. Regulatory proteins control the expression of
operon. genes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
4. Explain which operon discussed in this section is through transcriptional control. At what stage in
catabolic and which operon is anabolic. the gene expression process would regulatory
Inducible operons are usually catabolic and repressible operons
proteins have their effect?
are usually anabolic. A) They modulate the binding of RNA polymerase
to the DNA promoter.
Section 13.2, Check Your Progress B) They control RNA editing and processing.
1. List the five levels of genetic control C) They moderate the rate at which tRNAs assemble
in eukaryotes. at the ribosome.
chromatin structure, transcriptional control, posttranscriptional D) They interfere with the joining of amino acids to
control, translational control, posttranslational control tRNAs.
Answer: A; Regulatory proteins interact with the binding of RNA
2. Explain how chromatin structure influences gene polymerase. When they bind on, they either block transcription
expression. by literally blocking RNA polymerase, or they facilitate
Chromatin structure influences gene expression through transcription by making it easier for RNA polymerase to
chromatin packing: it is used as a way to keep genes turned off. bind to the promoter.
If genes are not accessible to RNA polymerase, they cannot be
transcribed. 2. Your classmate is lactose intolerant, and
therefore consumes no lactose-containing foods.
3. Discuss how small RNA molecules and Consider the population of E. coli living in your
proteasomes regulate gene expression. classmate’s gut. Which statement best describes
Small RNA molecules regulate gene expression through altering these bacteria?
DNA compaction, disabling the translation of mRNA in the A) Their lac operon must operate at high speed
cytoplasm, and joining with an enzyme to form an active to manufacture enough lactose.
silencing complex. Proteasomes regulate gene expression
B) Their lac operon will be deactivated and
because they help control the amount of protein product in
removed from the bacterial chromosome,
the cytoplasm.
due to the permanent lack of lactose.
C) Their lac operon is always turned on, utilizing
Section 13.3, Check Your Progress
other disaccharides to interact with their lac
1. List some common causes of spontaneous repressor.
and induced mutations. D) Their lac operon is always turned off, without
Spontaneous mutations are caused by any number of normal lactose to interact with their lac repressor.
biological processes, such as a transposon jumping or a Answer: C; The presence of lactose is necessary to interact with
chemical change in a DNA base. Induced mutations are caused the repressor. Without lactose, the repressor will always be
by environmental factors, such as exposure to toxic chemicals bound to the operator on the operon. Transcription by RNA
or radiation. polymerase will always be blocked, and the operon’s genes
cannot be read: the operon is always turned off.

72 CHAPTER 13 | Regulation of Gene Expression

x U sing Your Teacher Manual

mad432661_ch13_070-073_10732.indd 72 11/19/20 1:18 PM

CHAPTER 1
Biology: The Study of Life

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

1.1 Introduction to AP Biology — AP Big Ideas
1.2 Chemistry of Life ¼ Unit 1
1.3 Cells ¼ Unit 2, Unit 3, Unit 4
1.4 Genetics ¼ Unit 5, Unit 6
1.5 Natural Selection, Evolution, ¼ Unit 7
and the Classification of Life
1.6 Ecology ¼ Unit 8
1.7 AP Science Practices and the 1 AP Science Practices
Process of Science
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 1 Test Bank

Online Activities
AP Biology Outline
The Scientific Process in Action
Science Practice Command Terms

Teaching Strategy and Approach

There is little in the way of biology content in Chapter 1. Most of the concepts, such as
evolution, natural selection, taxonomy, and genetics, are mentioned in brief and more as
examples. Time will best be spent familiarizing students with the new AP framework and
Science Practices.
Class time: Two 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—15 minutes on the four Big Ideas, explaining the AP Units and Topics
Activity 1: Big Ideas research and presentation—30 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—15 minutes on the Science Practices
Activity 2: Science Practice Command Terms—15 minutes
Activity 3: The Scientific Process in Action—15 minutes
Teaching Tip: The importance of Chapter 1 is to introduce students to the AP Curriculum
Framework and its components: the Big Ideas, the Units and Topics, and the Science
Practices. Understanding the structure of AP Biology will enable students to maximize their
success.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

The AP Curriculum will be new for students. They may not realize that science practices are a
big portion of the AP Biology course. Encourage students to think about these practices as
they move through the contextual portion of the course.

Teacher Manual 1
Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. AP Biology Outline: Students will work in groups to outline the topics they’ll study in AP
Biology and how they relate to the Big Ideas and Science Practices. They’ll produce visual
outlines that can be used as references throughout the course.
2. Science Practice Command Terms: Students will focus their attention on the new AP Biology
Science Practices. They’ll work in groups to highlight the action words in each Science
Practice.
3. The Scientific Process In Action: Students will work in groups to read scientific publications
and identify paragraphs or sentences that show the Science Practices in action.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Word Origins: Beginning or Intermediate

The word evolution comes from the Latin word; ‘evolutio,’ which means unfolding or unrolling.
Have students find the word origins or cognates for new terms, which can help them
understand new vocabulary.

Oral Language Development: Advanced

After reading each paragraph of the lesson, use an Interactive Question-Response to discuss
its main idea and supporting details. Have students record the main idea and details of the
paragraphs in a two-column chart.
Main Idea Details
paragraph 1
paragraph 2
paragraph 3
paragraph 4

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 1.1, Check Your Progress 2. Why is homeostasis important for an
1. Name and describe the four Big Ideas of AP organism’s survival?
Biology. The reactions that make up metabolism only happen under
certain conditions. Thus it is important to maintain stable internal
Big Idea 1: Evolution, Big Idea 2: Energetics, Big Idea 3:
conditions.
Information Storage and Transmission, Big Idea 4: Systems
Interactions
Section 1.4, Check Your Progress
Section 1.2, Check Your Progress 1. What are the roles of DNA and RNA?
1. What properties of water are important to life? DNA contains the instructions for life, while RNA translates those
instructions into proteins.
Polarity, hydrogen bonds, surface tension, cohesion, and
adhesion. 2. How are genes expressed?
2. What are biomolecules? Genes are transcribed and then translated from a DNA template
to an RNA template and finally into a protein.
Biomolecules are the molecules that make up living things. They
include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.
Section 1.5, Check Your Progress
Section 1.3, Check Your Progress 1. How does natural selection lead to new
1. What is the difference between eukaryotic and adaptations within a species?
prokaryotic organisms? Natural selection selects for or against a new traits that appear
in a population through mutation.
Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles while
prokaryotes do not.

2 CHAPTER 1 | Biology: The Study of Life

 2. How is a phylogenic tree like a family tree? 3. Homeostatic mechanisms help organisms
A phylogenetic tree traces the common ancestor of related maintain constant cellular conditions. Which is
species, much like a family tree traces the ancestors of families. NOT an example of homeostasis?
A) A leaf becomes scorched by too much sunlight.
Section 1.6, Check Your Progress B) A single-celled organism pumps out excess water.
1. How does energy cycle through the ecosystem C) A human sweats on a hot day.
depicted in Figure 1.10? D) A sea bird uses salt glands to remove excess salt
Energy from the sun is captured by producers and converted to from its body.
chemical energy. Some of this energy is lost as heat, while some of Answer: A; The scorched leaf has not been able to maintain
it is captured by consumers. When consumers die, decomposers constant steady-state conditions, and has become damaged by
unlock the energy contained within the dead biomass. The sunlight.
nutrients locked in the biomass are released back into the system
and can fuel producers. 4. Every multicellular organism starts out in life as a
single cell. That cell has a set of DNA that will be
2. Why is biodiversity important?
copied into every new cell, so that all cells have
Ecosystems with greater biodiversity are more resilient to change. the same DNA. However, different cells of a
multicellular organism look different and perform
Section 1.7, Check Your Progress different functions. What is responsible for these
1. What is the role of the independent variable in an differences?
experiment? A) As cells divide, they mutate and develop new
The independent variable is also known as the experimental traits, different from their parent cells
variable, and is the factor the experiment is investigating. B) Cells destroy unnecessary DNA in different cells
2. What does it mean if the results of an experiment C) Different sections of DNA are turned on in
are “statistically significant?” different cells
It means they are unlikely to be due to chance. D) Differences in temperature change the
expression of DNA in different cells.
AP Assessment Answer: C; Cells carry their original DNA throughout their
lifetime. The process of regulation turns genes on and off to
1. In a single season, a large Virginia oyster make a red blood cell, for example, different from a muscle cell.
(Crassostrea virginica) can release 500 million
eggs. However, only a small fraction of those 5. Living things respond to the environment through
eggs will become adult oysters. Which statement a combination of activities referred to as behavior.
about Charles Darwin’s concept of natural Which items are examples of behavior?
selection best explains this observation? A) a leaf turning to follow the sun
A) Nature selects the biggest offspring to survive B) a prairie dog darting into its burrow when it hears
B) Nature selects the best-adapted offspring to survive warning calls
C) Most oyster eggs are heavily affected by rising C) a photosynthetic protist swims toward sunlight
ocean temperatures D) all of the above
D) Most oyster eggs are weak and likely to Answer: D; All of these activities describe responses to
disintegrate. environmental conditions which help ensure the survival of the
Answer: B; Oysters are an extreme example of how all organisms organism.
produce more offspring than can survive. The offspring that do 6. Chloroplasts in cells participate in complex
survive have the combination of traits best suited to the current
chemical reactions. But chloroplasts taken out of
conditions.
cells and placed in test tubes do very little. Which
2. Brewer’s yeast (Saccaromyces cerevisiae) is term best explains the phenomenon responsible
single-celled, eukaryotic, and makes a living by for the lack of chloroplast activity when isolated
absorbing food that has been digested extra- in test tubes?
cellularly. Into which kingdom should yeast be A) cooperation
classified? B) competitive inhibition
A) Kingdom Plantae C) emergent properties
B) Kingdom Eukarya D) homeostasis
C) Kingdom Bacteria Answer: C; Emergent properties relate to the saying “the whole
D) Kingdom Fungi. is greater than the sum of the parts.” As a part of a cell,
Answer: D; Although most Fungi are multi-cellular, yeast are still chloroplasts interact with a world of other organelles and
considered as Fungi due to their possession of traits described molecules. They can do more as a part of the cell then they can
in the stem of the question. when they are isolated and alone.

Teacher Manual 3
 7. Biologists have observed different levels of sunlight, and soil type constant between the two groups. With
organization within the hierarchy of life. Which those things constant, the scientist can be more confident that
description best summarizes the difference only the difference in fertilizer is responsible for differences in
between the level referred to as a population results.
and that of a community? 10. As a field biologist, you have observed that
A) Populations are larger than communities. populations of sparrows in the northern portion
B) Populations contain members of only one of the United States have larger bodies than the
species. populations of sparrows in the southern United
C) Communities are only found in terrestrial States. You hypothesize that these differences in
settings. body size relative to geography are the result of
D) Communities are long-lasting, while populations natural selection, because several hundred
are temporary. years ago all of the birds in this species were of
Answer: B; By definition, populations contain members of a
similar size. Describe an experimental design
single species. All the different populations in any ecosystem that would help you determine if colder weather
make up the community, whose composition may change as selects for the larger birds in this species.
populations come and go. Include in your description an explanation of
what type of data you would collect, describe
8. Using representations and models of how the data would be represented visually
biological processes is essential in trying to (graphically), and how you would evaluate the
understand complex phenomena that occur in data to investigate the role of natural selection in
living things. Which items are examples of the evolution of these birds.
representations or models?
Description of experimental design procedure may address the
A) a three-dimensional model of DNA following (1 point each):
B) a computer video depicting cell division • Background research—What have other scientists
C) a flow chart describing the steps of investigated about different characteristics in this species
photosynthesis in different locations? Do these birds migrate? Do the two
D) all of the above. different populations interact with one another? How
detailed are the records of sparrow observations over
Answer: D; All of these are different ways of helping us to
centuries?
understand biological phenomena.
• Hypothesis—Has natural selection has played a role in the
9. A researcher interested in the interaction of divergence of sparrow populations in the north and south of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and clover had observed the United States? Is cold weather in the north selecting for
that the clover plants growing alongside farm larger-bodied birds?
fields that were heavily fertilized had fewer • Experimental variable (temperature and/or other climate
bacterial nodules on their roots. He wondered if considerations) and responding variable (size of birds)
the presence of nitrogen fertilizers discouraged • Test and control groups; model system or model organism—Is
the growth of N-fixing bacteria. In an experiment there a way to test this without having to wait for generations
done in a greenhouse, he set up two groups of birds to hatch and reproduce?
of clover plants. One group grew in plain soil, • Graphing—What type of graph would be represent this data?
while the other grew in soil with nitrogen fertilizer. Is there a line graph to represent a potential relationship
Water, sunlight, and soil type were the same in between temperature and size of birds or to show rate of
both groups. Choose the item below that best change in bird size over generations?
describes the control in this experiment. • Data—What would make the data valid or invalid? Have they
A) The experiment was done in a greenhouse. accounted for small sampling or would they find a large
sample? How would they know if the data is invalid? How will
B) Water, sunlight and soil type were the same in
they know the relationship is strong enough to indicate that
both groups.
natural selection is playing a role in the evolution of these
C) The experiment was done by one researcher. sparrows?
D) The group that grew in nitrogen-fertilized soil. • Accounting for possible sources of error—Have they proposed
Answer: C; The scientist will compare the results in the unfertilized an explanation for them as well as a rationale for how they
soil to the results in the fertilized soil. This allows him to see if the should be dealt with?
fertilizer actually made a difference. Keeping the experiment in a
greenhouse makes it easier to hold conditions such as water,

4 CHAPTER 1 | Biology: The Study of Life

11. Animals use many mechanisms to communicate B) Compare the effect of temperature on pulse rate
with members of their same species. Intra- between species A and species B.
species communication is particularly important The rate of pulses increases by a ratio of about 2.5:1 with
for mating behaviors. In the grey tree frog, Hyla Species A and by a ratio of about 1:1 with Species B. For
versicolor, male frogs make calls that can easily example, Species B emits 22 pulses per second at 20° C;
be identified by females based on the rate of the Species A emits 47 pulses per second at 20° C.
sound pulses within the call. The graph above C) Infer why it might be important that the two frog
shows the call pulse rate at different species not have the same pulse rate in their
temperatures for two different frog species. calls at the same temperature.
A) Interpret the relationship between the rate of The calls of frogs should be specific to the species so the frogs
sound pulses and the temperature. can identify one another.
Call pulse rates increase with the rise of temperature.

Teacher Manual 5
CHAPTER 2
Basic Chemistry

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

2.1 Chemical Elements 1 1.2 Elements of Life
2.2 Molecules and Compounds
2.3 Chemistry of Water 2 1.1 Structure of Water and Hydrogen
Bonding
2.4 Acids and Bases
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 2 Test Bank

Online Activities
General Chemistry
Properties of Water
Investigating Chemical Reactions

Teaching Strategy and Approach

For most students, the information in this chapter is prior knowledge but mastery of basic
chemistry concepts is a must for all students. Allow just three days (45 minutes each day) to
review this material. One day for lecture and a brief activity, and one day for a brief lecture
and lab activity and one day for a longer lab based activity should be enough of a review.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—25 minutes of review atomic structure, bonding, molecules and
compounds.
Activity 1: Build Your Own Atom —20 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—35 minutes of review of the properties of water, hydrogen bonding,
pH, and buffers
Activity 2: Properties of Water—10 minutes
Day 3: Short introduction to lab activity with a safety reminder
Lab activity: Investigating Chemical Reactions
Teaching Tips: I always start by asking my students to select the elements that are found only
in organisms and that do not exist in non-living materials. Of course, there are none and this
helps to emphasize the unique way that elements are combined in order for life’s processes
to occur. I have students identify the major elements found in organisms and then we begin to
talk about what makes up atoms.
Identification of the main elements that make up all living organisms provide a basis for
knowing which atoms will need to be cycled through the environment. The foundation for
understanding organic molecules will be constructed during this unit
The properties of water can be internalized through several activities. It is important for
student to understand these properties because water plays such an important role in

6 CHAPTER 2 | Basic Chemistry

organism. Also, understanding hydrogen bonding between water molecules provides the
scaffolding for student understanding of hydrogen bonding in DNA between the two DNA
strands and hydrogen bonding in the secondary structure of proteins to produce a unique
protein shape.
While pH is an important concept and it should be reviewed here, there are no Learning
Objectives aimed solely at pH. Students are expected to understand the affect of pH on
enzymes, but not to do calculations using the pH equation.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One of the major misconceptions of students is that one element can change into another
element. While this happens rarely during radioactive decay, this is not the norm. It is essential
that students understand that sharing electrons or losing electrons does not cause an atom of
one element to change into an atom of a different element.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Build Your Own Atom: Students will create models showing the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons present in some of the more common elements. Student worksheet
available online.

Differentiated Instruction: If students are struggling create elements, you can provide
diagrams of pre-made atoms of each element alongside the periodic table. Students
can then work to identify which atom belongs to which element based on evidence.
For students who are beyond creating elements, have them undertake examinations
of ions and isotopes.

2. Properties of Water: Students will interpret a graph showing the phase changes of water,
and describe how the specific properties of water are important to life on Earth. Full
directions and student worksheets available online.
3. Investigating Chemical Reactions: A three-part laboratory exercise where students will
investigate chemical reactions. Full directions and student worksheets available online.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.
Using Visual and Contextual Support: Intermediate
Before reading, have students take a close look at the visual support. Have them use the image
as they work in pairs to form questions about the selection. After reading, have partners
compare their original predictions with questions they answered no. Have them discuss how
their ideas changed or stayed the same. Move around the room to monitor progress.

Comprehension Skill: Advanced

Ask questions about lesson content to elicit short answers: What types of subatomic particles
form atoms? Protons, Neutrons, Electrons. How are water molecules formed? Through
hydrogen bonds

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 2.1, Check Your Progress 2. Explain how two isotopes of an element vary with
1. Contrast atomic number and mass number. regard to their atomic structure.
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom, whereas Isotopes are atoms of the same element, therefore they have the
the mass number is the sum of the atom’s protons and neutrons. same number of protons but contain a different number of neutrons.

Teacher Manual 7
Section 2.2, Check Your Progress the legs are covered in tiny hairs. These hairs
1. Compare and contrast an ionic bond with a trap air and make the legs “superhydrophobic.”
covalent bond. Choose the best definition for the term
“superhydrophobic” in the context of the water
An ionic bond holds two ions together through an attraction of
negative and positive charges. A covalent bond results when
strider.
two atoms share electrons to complete an octet in the outer A) The legs contain nonpolar substances which
shell. greatly repel water.
2. Explain why methane is nonpolar but water is B) The legs contain polar substances which greatly
polar. attract water.
Methane is nonpolar because the electrons are shared equally C) The legs contain neutral substances which
among the atoms in the compound due to its symmetrical shape. dissolve in water.
Water is polar due to its ‘bent’ shape. The electrons spend more D) The legs contain absorptive substances which
time near the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atoms, causing take in lots of water.
the oxygen side to be partially negative, and the hydrogen sides Answer: a; The root “hydro” refers to water, and “phobic” refers
to be partially positive. to “fear of.” Hydrophobic materials are nonpolar and do not mix
with water. In this context, “superhydrophobic” refers to the fact
Section 2.3, Check Your Progress that the combination of air and hairs greatly repels water. This
1. Explain how water’s structure relates to the not only keeps the insect from sinking but also explains its ability
formation of hydrogen bonds. to move rapidly across the surface.
Water forms hydrogen bonds because the hydrogen atoms in a 2. In the fall of the year, aquatic frogs such as
water molecule are attracted to the oxygen atoms in other water bullfrogs will enter a state of estivation, during
molecules. This is because it is polar—partially negative towards which their metabolism slows, allowing them to
the oxygen and partially positive towards the hydrogens. survive the winter. Most spend this estivation
2. Explain how hydrogen bonds relate to the time on the floor of their pond, where they can
properties of water. be in contact with the oxygen-rich water. This
Hydrogen bonds are collectively quite strong, causing water strategy could not have evolved without the
molecules to cling together. This association gives water unique existence of which property of water?
properties, like cohesion, adhesion, a high heat capacity, high A) cohesion
heat of evaporation, and acts as a ‘universal solvent.’ B) adhesion
3. Explain how spraying water on your body helps C) high heat of vaporization
cool it off. D) buoyancy of ice
When water is sprayed on your body, your body heat vaporizes
Answer: d; As liquid water freezes, the molecules become
the water and cools you off.
locked into a crystal lattice. This solid lattice is less dense than
liquid water at 4C. Thus ice floats and does not sink. If ponds
Section 2.4, Check Your Progress froze from the ground up, hibernating bullfrogs would be frozen
1. Explain the difference in H+ concentration into a solid block of ice.
between an acid and a base. 3. The fluid portion of a cell contains a rich array of
Acidic solutions have a high concentration of H+ ions, whereas molecules dissolved in water. These molecules
basic solutions have a low concentration of H+ ions. move freely about the cell, and are thus available
2. Determine how much more acidic a pH of 2.0 is to various organelles as needed. Predict which
than a pH of 4.0. molecule type would move most freely through
A pH of 2.0 is 100 times more acidic than a pH of 4.0. the fluid portion of a cell.
3. Summarize how buffers play an important role in A) nonpolar molecules
the physiology of living organisms. B) polar molecules
Buffers help keep the pH within a narrow range in living C) hydrophobic molecules
organisms so molecules within the body can function properly. D) lipid-based molecules.
Answer: b; Water molecules will form hydrogen bonds with polar
AP Assessment
molecules. The slight negative or positive areas of the water
1. Scientists have long thought the ability of animals molecule will be attracted to the oppositely charged region of
like the water strider to walk on water could the polar molecule. Water thus forms a hydration shell about the
primarily be explained by the insect’s light polar molecule, separating out the molecule and allowing its free
weight, which does not break the surface tension diffusion.
of the water. Recently scientists discovered that

8 CHAPTER 2 | Basic Chemistry

4. The structure of the water molecule leads to Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each):
several important properties of water. Which • Polarity of the water molecule creates hydrogen bonding,
property is involved when two water molecules which in turn creates strong cohesion between water
are temporarily attracted to each other? molecules (and consequently, a high surface tension)
A) adhesion • Adhesion of water molecules to cell walls of plant and animal
B) cohesion cells
• High specific heat capacity and high heat of vaporization
C) capillarity
• Universal solvent supports reactions
D) universal solvent
Answer: b; Two water molecules are attracted to each other Explanations (1 point each)
when the slight negative charge on the oxygen of one molecule • Consistent with the definition of polar molecules, hydrogen
is attracted to the slight positive charge on the hydrogen of bonds, cohesion (water molecules clinging to one another) and
another water molecule. This brief attraction results in the surface tension. Living systems depend on properties of water
phenomenon of cohesion that result from its polarity and hydrogen bonding.
5. The restriction enzyme HaeIII works most • Consistent with the definition of adhesion (water can cling to
efficiently when it is in a solution with a pH of 7.5. other polar surfaces) that results from the polarity of water.
Given only the amount of hydrogen ions present • Consistent with the definitions of high specific heat capacity
in each buffer, determine which should be used (hydrogen bonds that link water molecules help water to
in the reaction. absorb and release heat without great change in temperature)
and high heat of vaporization (due to the fact that hydrogen
bonds must be broken before water boils).
Buffer Hydrogen ions in solution [H+] • Consistent with the definition of universal solvent (water
1 7.5 × 10−4 dissolves a great number of substances, particularly those that
2 2.2 × 10−4 are also polar).
3 3.1 × 10−8 7. Proteases are enzymes that break down protein.
Bacterial proteases are often used in commercial
Answer: 3; pH = -log[H+] -log[3.1 × 10-8] = 7.5 laundry detergents to help remove stains such as
6. Scientists have been searching outer space egg, grass, blood, and sweat. Like all enzymes,
for signs of water because it is the current bacterial proteases are only active under a
understanding of life is that it requires water to limited range of conditions. Enzymes are
sustain. They have detected conclusively that the themselves proteins, and thus can be denatured.
dwarf planet Ceres, found in the asteroid belt Common causes of denaturing include heat and
between Mars and Jupiter, not only contains a changes in pH.
thick mantle of ice that, if melted, would amount The graph on p. 34 shows how active a newly
to more fresh water than is present on Earth, but isolated bacterial protease is over a range of pH
also emits plumes of water vapor when it is values and temperatures.
located close to the sun. A) Summarize the information shown in the two
A) Describe TWO kinds of data that could be graphs.
collected by scientists to provide a direct Protease activity increases with increasing pH up to a point.
answer to the question, how can scientists When the pH exceeds 10, protease activity decreases. Protease
determine that a substance they sample on activity also increases with increasing temperature up to
Earth or elsewhere is water and not another 60 degrees Celsius, after which it decreases.
substance? B) Infer: If this protease was added to an alkaline
B) Explain how the data you suggested in part (a) laundry detergent and used in a hot-water-wash,
would provide a direct answer to the question. would it be effective?
Answer: (3 points max) Description of the appropriate kind of Yes, to a point. If the detergent has a very basic pH, this
data and the appropriately linked explanation of its selection protease would be a bad choice. It would work best at neutral to
may include: slightly basic pH, and in warm water.

Teacher Manual 9
CHAPTER 3
The Chemistry of
Organic Molecules
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
3.1 Organic Molecules 1 1.2 Elements of Life
1.3 Introduction to Biological
Macromolecules
3.2 Carbohydrates 1 1.4 Properties of Biological Macromolecules
1.5 Structure and Function of Biological
Molecules
3.3 Lipids 1 1.4 Properties of Biological Macromolecules
1.5 Structure and Function of Biological
Molecules
3.4 Proteins 1 1.4 Properties of Biological Macromolecules
1.5 Structure and Function of Biological
Molecules
3.5 Nucleic Acids 1 1.4 Properties of Biological Macromolecules
1.5 Structure and Function of Biological
Molecules
1.6 Nucleic Acids
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 3 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 1

Online Activities
Macromolecule Activity
Protein Construction

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Most students have never taken an organic chemistry course but have probably been
introduced to organic compounds in their first biology class. The focus for AP Biology is really
to be able to predict which elements are cycled from the environment into the four categories
of organic compounds that all organisms contain. AP Biology also wants student to be able to
predict what would be the result in function of a change to one of these molecules and to
understand what factors can cause changes in the molecules. Basic information about these
organic compounds will enable students to be able to recognize and predict functionality in
changes molecules.
Class Time: 5 days with 45 minute classes each day
Day 1: Lecture—25 minutes on the nature of the four organic compounds found
in all organisms.
Activity 1: Macromolecule Graphic Organizer—20 minutes.
Suggested reading before class: Section 3.1

10 CHAPTER 3 | The Chemistry of Organic Molecules

Day 2: Lecture—15 minutes on dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
Activity 2: Demonstration for dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis—10
minutes. Students write an explanation and evaluation of the
demonstration—20 minutes.
Day 3: Activity 3: Protein Folding. Students build proteins and fold the proteins in
to shape by determining the interactions of the amino acids that they
chose
Day 4 and Day 5: Students conduct an inquiry enzyme lab and discuss their results. See
College Board AP Lab Manual: Investigation 13: Enzyme Investigation. You
do not have to complete this particular lab but a similar enzyme lab that
provides an opportunity for students to conduct an open inquiry style of
investigation should be conducted.
Teaching Tip: There is an app called MacroMole that students can download for free. It
provides information about the four categories of organic compounds and their monomers.
Students may enjoy having this study aid of their phone.
I have provided the activities that provide hands on learning experiences for you students.
This approach facilitates the internalization of the organic chemistry concepts. In addition, the
command terms from the learning objectives and science practices have be utilized by your
students.
The suggested daily activities provide a daily concept lecture followed by an activity. This
should dispel a common student misconception that organic molecules are versatile enough
that they can switch functions so that if one organic compound is destroyed, then another
category of organic compound can take its place.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Macromolecule Graphic Organizer: students should work in small groups. Provide students
with an example of a concept map or other type of graphic organizer. Students will organize
information about the four biomolecule groups in a manner which they feel most
appropriate. The student worksheet that accompanies this activity can be found online.
2. Dehydration/hydration reaction demonstration: students will participate in a teacher-led
demonstration of how dehydration and hydration reactions work in proteins.
3. Protein folding activity: students will model how amino acid groups influence protein folding.
Several variations of the activity are included. Full directions below, or find more through
The Center for BioMolecular Modeling at http://cbm.msoe.edu/.
The purpose of this activity is to explore the forces that drive protein folding with 15 tacks
and a 4-foot toober or pipe cleaner. The color-coded tacks represent the sidechains of the
following amino acids.

Tack color Tack number Symbolizing:

Blue 2 basic amino acids (+ charge)
Red 2 acidic amino acids (- charge)
Yellow 6 hydrophobic amino acids
White 3 polar amino acids
Green 2 cysteine amino acids

Instructions
1. Distribute the 15 tacks randomly but evenly along the toober. By doing this, the “tacked
toober” represents a protein made of 15 amino acids.
2. Instruct students to fold their protein, following the laws of chemistry that drive protein
folding.

Teacher Manual 11
Basic Laws of Chemistry that Drive Protein Folding
Stably folded proteins simultaneously satisfy several basic laws of chemistry including:
1. Hydrophobic sidechains (yellow tacks) will be buried on the inside of the globular protein,
where they are hidden from polar water molecules.
2. Charged sidechains (blue and red tacks) will be on the surface of proteins where they often
neutralize each other and form salt bridges.
3. Polar sidechains (white tacks) will be on the surface of the protein where they can hydrogen
bond with water.
4. Cysteine sidechains (green tacks) often interact with each other to form covalent disulfide
bonds that stabilize protein structure.

Teaching Tips
Students should have no trouble folding their toober so that all of the yellow, hydrophobic
tacks are clustered together in the central core of the folded structure. However, it may be
difficult to maintain this structure while simultaneously:
• pairing up blue and red tacks (positive and negative charges that neutralize each other)
• and pairing up green tacks that form disulfide bonds,
• and keeping all of the polar white tacks on the surface of the protein.
After everyone has folded their toober, the teacher can point out:
• Every toober had a different random sequence of tacks (amino acids) and therefore each
toober (protein) folded into a different structure.
• Some sequences of tacks were more easily folded into a reasonable structure than others.
In fact, the 30,000 proteins encoded by the human genome have been selected from
an enormous number of possible amino acid sequences based on their ability to
spontaneously fold into a stable structure that simultaneously satisfies these basic laws
of chemistry.
Pipe cleaners can be used instead of Toobers.
Variations
There are many variations to the basic Toober folding exercise. Each one can be used to
emphasize a different point related to molecular structure. Examples of variations are
described below.
Reversible Denaturation: Many proteins undergo reversible denaturation, by re-folding
into their original shape (native structure) following their complete unfolding (denaturation)
by heating.
1. Have students document the native shape of their folded protein with a digital photo.
2. Ask the students to unfold their protein and then re-fold it.
3. Check the refolded protein against the photo of the native structure.

Reverse Engineering: Some students will randomly generate a sequence of tacks that is
very difficult to fold into a shape that simultaneously satisfies all 3 (or 4) laws of chemistry.
This is a good “teaching moment” in that the teacher can use these examples to
emphasize that such “proteins” would not be selected from the enormous pool of
possible protein sequences.
How can students arrive at a perfectly optimized sequence of tacks that have been
selected over evolutionary time to always fold into the same globular shape?
1. Have each group of students fold their toober into a compact globular shape without
any tacks.

12 CHAPTER 3 | The Chemistry of Organic Molecules

 2. Have each group of students then add the tacks to the pre-folded toober, positioning
them such that all of the “laws of chemistry” are satisfied in the folded structure.
3. Unfold the toober and document the sequence of tacks.
4. Have the students then re-fold the sequence into the original shape (see reversible
denaturation, above).

To conduct the demonstration: Cut up sponges and generously wet them. Students
form a circle around the room. Every student receives a wet sponge which they hold
in their right hand. Each student represents a monomer. They are told to join hands to
form a strong covalent bond with each student beside them. When they squeeze
each other’s hands to form the bond, water drips on the floor which symbolizes the
dehydration synthesis reaction.
While they are still holding hands, toss a small amount of water at the students and the
drop their held hands in order to avoid getting wet. This symbolizes the hydrolysis
reaction.
Ask each of them to write an explanation of how this simulation is like the actual
dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions. Ask each student to write an evaluation
of how this simulation is different from the actual dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis
reaction.
In addition to learning about the reactions, the writing provides students with practice
using two of the command terms that are frequently found in the Learning Objectives
and Science Practices.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Activate Prior Knowledge: Beginning

Before reading, say key terms from the paragraph aloud, one at a time. Have students raise
their hands if they have heard the term before. Have them use a word or phrase to tell
something about the term. Use yes/no questions and prompts to help students complete a
KWL Chart.

Subject (ex. Proteins)

K—What I Already Know
From experience From previewing
I need to eat it to grow. It’s in things like meat.
If I don’t eat it I feel weak. It’s different than fat or carbs.
W—What I Want to Learn
What is proteins made out of?
What makes it different than other things?
Why is it important?
L—What I Learned
Protein is made out of amino acids. Proteins are folded into different shapes.
Proteins is involved in lots of cellular functions.
What I Want to Know More About How will I Learn More
What makes proteins fold incorrecty? Read articles
Ask an expert

Oral Language Development: Intermediate

Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.

Teacher Manual 13
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 3.1, Check Your Progress Saturated fatty acids lack double bonds between the carbon
atoms and contain as many hydrogens as they can hold.
1. Describe the properties of a carbon atom that
Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds in the carbon chain,
make it ideally suited to produce varied carbon which reduces the number of bonded hydrogen atoms.
skeletons
Carbon is small and has four electrons in its outer shell. The four 3. Explain why phospholipids form a bilayer in
electrons mean it is very stable, and allows for it to form single, water.
double, and triple bonds as well as ring structures and highly Phospholipids form a bilayer in water because they have a polar
branched chains. (hydrophilic) head and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails. In living
organisms, which are mostly water, the nonpolar tails associate
2. Explain why the substitution of a carboxyl group together and stay away from the water, while the polar heads
for a hydroxyl group in a biomolecule would interact with the water, forming a bilayer.
change the molecule’s function.
Carboxyl groups are highly polar, and tend to ionize and release Section 3.4, Check Your Progress
hydrogen in solution, making them acidic. Hydroxyl groups are
1. List the roles of proteins in living organisms.
also acidic, forming hydrogen bonds. However, these two groups
undergo different reactions: alcohols react with carboxyl groups Proteins are important for metabolism, support, transport,
when fat forms, and carboxyl groups react with amino groups defense, regulation, and motion.
during protein formation.
2. Describe how two amino acids are combined to
3. Explain why water is needed for the breakdown form a polypeptide.
of a biomolecule. Two amino acids combine to form a polypeptide through
Water supplies both an –OH group and an –H needed for dehydration reactions that connect the carboxyl group of one
hydrolysis to take place. amino acid with the amino group of another amino acid. The
resulting covalent bond is called a peptide bond.
Section 3.2, Check Your Progress 3. Summarize the differences among primary,
1. Summarize the general characteristics of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.
carbohydrates and their roles in living organisms. Proteins have up to four levels of structure: primary (linear
Carbohydrates are an immediate energy source and sometimes sequence of amino acids), secondary (particular folding or
provide structural function. Most have a carbon-to-hydrogen-to- coiling of a polypeptide), tertiary (the folding that results in the
oxygen ratio of 1: 2: 1, and carbohydrates can be either single final three-dimensional shape), and quaternary (more than one
molecules (monosaccharides) or chains (polysaccharides). polypeptide).

2. Describe how monosaccharides are combined to 4. Describe the consequences of incorrect protein
form disaccharides. folding.
Monosaccharides combine during a dehydration reaction to form The three-dimensional folding directly affects a protein’s
disaccharides. A dehydration reaction occurs when a bond forms function. Minor changes include eye color changes, and
between two sugar molecules and water is removed. detrimental changes include diseases like cystic fibrosis.

3. Explain why humans cannot utilize the glucose in Section 3.5, Check Your Progress
cellulose as a nutrient source.
1. Examine how a nucleic acid stores information.
Humans cannot break down the criss-cross bonds between
glucose molecules in cellulose. A nucleic acid contains combinations of four nucleotides that
store information on how a cell should behave, respond to the
environment, and divide to make new cells. DNA and RNA are
Section 3.3, Check Your Progress types of nucleic acids.
1. List the functions of triglycerides, phospholipids,
steroids, and waxes. 2. List the three components of a nucleotide.
Triglycerides: long-term energy storage and insulation in animals Nucleotides are comprised of a pentose sugar, a phosphate, and
a nitrogen-containing base. In DNA the pentose sugar is
Phospholipids: component of plasma membranes deoxyribose, and in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose.
Steroids: component of plasma membranes, hormones
3. Evaluate the properties of ATP that make it an
Waxes: protection, prevention of water loss, beeswax, earwax
ideal carrier of energy.
2. Contrast the structure of a saturated fatty acid ATP is an ideal carrier of energy because the last two phosphate
with that of an unsaturated fatty acid. bonds in ATP are unstable and easily broken, making it a high-
energy molecule. The energy released by ATP hydrolysis is used
to power many cellular processes.

14 CHAPTER 3 | The Chemistry of Organic Molecules

AP Assessment 4. In solution, glucose forms either α glucose or
1. All major macromolecules are assembled by β glucose. Both cellulose and starch consist
assembling chains of subunits called monomers. of long chains of glucose molecules bonded
Dehydration synthesis is the reaction type that together. However, the chains in cellulose are
joins the monomers. Which statement best based on β glucose, while those of starch
describes a result of dehydration synthesis are based on α glucose. Predict a likely
reaction? consequence of this structural difference
between starch and cellulose.
A) When monomer A is joined to monomer B, a
molecule of water is released. A) Both cellulose and starch are energy storage
molecules
B) When monomer A is joined to monomer B, a
molecule of water is added between the two B) Both cellulose and starch form tough fibrous
monomers. material in cells
C) When monomer A is joined to monomer B, a C) Cellulose works well as structural material
chain of water molecules holds them together. because few organisms can break bonds
between β glucoses
D) When monomer A is joined to monomer B, a
hydration shell is formed around them. D) Starch works well as energy storage material
because few organisms can break bond between
Answer: a; In dehydration synthesis, a bond is formed between
α glucoses.
two monomers. In order to make this bond available, an OH
group is removed from one monomer, and a H is removed from Answer: c; Starch is produced as an energy storage compound in
the other. The H and the OH join together to form one water plants, but also serves as an energy source for animals who eat
molecule. Thus one molecule of water is produced each time those plants. Both plants and animals can break it down. But
two monomers are joined together. very few organisms (mostly bacteria and protists) actually have
the enzymes that can break the β linkages found in cellulose.
2. Each type of macromolecule contains a particular Cellulose therefore forms tough, durable cell walls in plants.
monomer. Which macromolecule below is
INCORRECTLY matched with its monomer? 5. Proteins consist of polymers formed by linking
amino acids together. These amino acids are
A) protein . . . amino acid
linked together through peptide bonds. Select
B) nucleic acid . . . nucleotide the best description of a peptide bond.
C) carbohydrate . . . monosaccharide A) A covalent bond between the hydroxyl group
D) lipid . . . glycogen of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
Answer: d; Lipids, in most cases, are formed by linking another
together fatty acids and glycerol molecules. Glycogen is a B) A covalent bond between the amino group
polysaccharide. of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
another
3. Multicellular organisms need to be able to
C) An ionic bond between the NH3+ end of one
transport sugars throughout the organism.
amino acid and the COO− end of another
Disaccharides often act as such trans-port
molecules. Suggest a reason why a disaccharide D) An ionic bond between the peptide group of one
amino acid and the peptide group of another
such as sucrose would be used for transport
rather than a monosaccharide such as glucose. Answer: b; The bonds between amino acids are covalent and
occur when dehydration synthesis removes the OH from the
A) Sucrose is less temperature-sensitive than
carboxyl group of one amino acid and removes an H from the
glucose, which makes it more likely to survive
amino group of the other amino acid. The resulting bond does
temperature variation in the organism.
not allow rotation around the N-C linkage, and helps determine
B) Sucrose is more likely to disintegrate after the structural character of the resulting peptide chains.
24 hours.
C) Most organisms lack enzymes to digest sucrose.
6. In the disease cystic fibrosis (CF), a protein
known as Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane
D) Enzymes that break down glucose cannot break
Conductance Regulator (CFTR) is defective. This
the bond in sucrose, so glucose can be safely
“hidden” within the disaccharide.
protein normally functions as part of the plasma
membrane. Most cases of CF seem to result from
Answer: d; Sucrose will remain intact until reaching its
a deletion of one particular amino acid in the
destination. At this point, it will encounter enzymes that may
form it into larger carbohydrates such as starch for long-term
CFTR protein, which causes the misfolding of the
energy storage, or which may break it back down into subunits, protein. However, recent research has implicated
which can be harvested for energy. the role of chaperone proteins in determining the
severity of the disease. Identify a possible reason

Teacher Manual 15
 why defective chaperone proteins could result in Explanations (1 point each)
more severe versions of the disease. • The R group of an amino acid can be categorized by chemical
A) chaperone proteins move proteins from the properties (hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and ionic). The order of
ribosome to the plasma membrane amino acids (determined by DNA) constitutes the primary
structure of the protein. The secondary structure of the protein
B) chaperone proteins hide defective proteins from
is determined by the backbone of the polypeptide chain, not
hydrolytic enzymes in the cell
the R groups.
C) chaperone proteins can interact with and correct
• The interactions of these R groups, including hydrogen and
misfolded proteins
ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, and hydrophobic and van der
D) chaperone proteins are responsible for Waals interactions, determine structure and function of that
maintaining homeostatic temperatures in cells local region of the protein. The overall shape of the
Answer: c; Chaperone proteins not only help proteins take on polypeptide is known as tertiary structure.
their original correct 3-D shape, but they can also play a role in • Quaternary structure is the association of multiple
correcting proteins that are misfolded. None of the functions polypeptides to form a functional protein. Changes in the
listed in A, B, or D are performed by these proteins. earlier structures of the protein can cause expected
7. A scientist had a test tube of carbohydrates, a aggregations to not occur, or cause unexpected aggregations
of other types.
test tube of amino acids, and a test tube of
nucleotides but the labels have faded off. To • In proteins, the specific order of amino acids in a polypeptide
figure out which one was which, the scientist (primary structure) interacts with the environment to determine
the overall shape of the protein, which also involves secondary
used NMR spectral analysis to identify the types
tertiary and quaternary structure and, thus, its function.
of molecules present in each tube, and found
• The β subunit of the tertiary structure is misfolded, creating
that test tube 2 contained C, H, O, P, and N.
sickle-cell hemoglobin, which still aggregates with the α
Identify if this tube contained amino acids or
subunit, but now interacts with other β subunits in a new
nucleotides and justify your identification.
way. The capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced and the
deformed red blood cells can impede blood flow through
Test Tube Molecules present small vessels
1 C, H, O, N
9. There is evidence that high concentrations of
2 C, H, O, P, N the steroid cholesterol in the blood may be
3 C, H, O associated with heart disease. There is also
evidence that soluble fiber may remove
Answer: Test Tube 2. This tube likely contains nucleotides cholesterol from the blood if it is incorporated
because they have nitrogenous bases and phosphate bonds. into a person’s diet.
8. One particular inherited blood disorder is caused Researchers evaluated the effects of three
by the substitution of valine (an amino acid with a different soluble fibers on cholesterol
nonpolar, hydrophobic side chain) for glutamic concentrations in the blood. The three fibers
acid (an amino acid with a negatively charged, were: pectin (PE), guar gum (GG), and psyllium
hydrophilic side chain). (PSY). Their experiment also contained a control
A) Predict how this substitution impacts the group (CNT). The results from this experiment are
structure and function of the globular proteins shown in the graph above.
found in the blood of patients with this disorder. A) Calculate the percent difference in the
B) Explain why your predictions for part (a) are cholesterol concentrations seen in the control
justified. group and each of the experimental groups.
Answer (four points maximum): Description of predictions and Pectin: 50% decrease in men, 33% in women; guar gum: 75%
corresponding justifications may include: decrease in men, 50% in women; psyllium: 50% decrease in men
and women
Predictions (1 point each)
B) Describe the effect that soluble fiber seems to
• Same length of chain with substitution, so secondary structure have on the cholesterol levels in the blood
may not be affected.
Soluble fiber appears to lower cholesterol levels.
• Substituting a hydrophobic side chain for a hydrophobic one
might cause misfolding and exposing a hydrophobic region. C) Identify additional factors that may have
impacted the results of this experiment.
• It may no longer aggregate with other molecules due to new
tertiary structure, or it might aggregate in a different formation. Answers will vary, and may include: age of participants, ethnicity
of participants, lifestyle of participants.
• May no longer be able to perform its function as before, such
as interacting with other molecules.
• This is the case with sickle-cell disease.

16 CHAPTER 3 | The Chemistry of Organic Molecules

CHAPTER 4
Cell Structure and Function

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

4.1 Cellular Level of Organization ½ 2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.3 Cell Size
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells ½ 2.11 Origins of Cell
Compartmentalization
4.3 Introduction to Eukaryotic Cells ½ 2.1 Cell Structure: Subcellular
Components
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.3 Cell Size
2.10 Cell Compartmentalization
2.11 Origins of Cell
Compartmentalization
4.4 The Nucleus and Ribosomes ½ 2.1 Cell Structure: Subcellular
Components
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.10 Cell Compartmentalization
2.11 Origins of Cell
Compartmentalization
4.5 The Endomembrane System ½ 2.1 Cell Structure: Subcellular
Components
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.10 Cell Compartmentalization
2.11 Origins of Cell
Compartmentalization
4.6 Microbodies and Vacuoles ½ 2.1 Cell Structure: Subcellular
Components
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.10 Cell Compartmentalization
4.7 The Energy-Related Organelles ½ 2.1 Cell Structure: Subcellular
Components
2.2 Cell Structure and Function
2.10 Cell Compartmentalization
2.11 Origins of Cell
Compartmentalization
4.8 The Cytoskeleton ½
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 4 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 2

Online Activities
Review of Cellular Organelles
Build-A-Cell
Limits to Cell Size: A Worksheet to Accompany Procedure 1 of Investigation 4

Teacher Manual 17
Teaching Strategy and Approach
This will probably not be the first time that your students have heard about organelles. The
evolutionary connection between the first cells on Earth, the prokaryotes, and the theory of
endosymbiosis will probably be new to them. I would start with organelles and the differences
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes and then move to endosymbiosis.
This chapter also contains information about the restrictions on cell size. Chapter 5
concentrates on cell membranes and transport, but Procedure 1 in Investigation 4 of the
College Board Manual involves a cell size activity. I would have students conduct this
investigation now.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minute on prokaryotes, eukaryotes and endosymbiosis.
Activity 1: Endosymbiosis demonstration
Day 2: Activity 2: Review of Cellular Organelles. Have students work in groups to
review cellular organelles by developing and playing a drawing board game.
Day 3: Have students conduct Procedure 1 in Investigation 4 of the College Board
Manual. Complete Activity 4, which accompanies the lab.
Teaching Tip: One alternative approach to cells is to assign a cell project like the one
detailed in Activity 3 below. The project is intended for group work and involves cell
communication which is described in Chapter 5.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One common misconception about cells that many students have is that ribosomes have a
double membrane because they are organelles. Ribosomes do not have a membrane. Most
students get the function of the nucleolus, production of rRNA, confused with the function of
the nucleus, housing DNA and site of mRNA production.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Endosymbiosis demonstration: Students will watch how it is thought one prokaryote
became trapped inside another.
Allow five minutes for a short demonstration on endosymbiosis. Prior to class, place a
small balloon inside of a larger balloon. Blow both balloons up together to represent one
prokaryote becoming trapped inside of another cell. Explain that the trapped cell evolved
into the mitochondria and ask students to provide evidence that this occurred. They
should be able to tell you that the mitochondrion today has its own DNA, its own
ribosomes, is about the same size as a prokaryotic cell and has an inner membrane
structure similar to the enfolding of a prokaryotic cell membrane.
2. Review of Cellular Organelles: Students will review the structure and function of organelles
in a group quiz game. Provide students with a list of organelles and/or key words relating to
organelle function. You may also choose to develop this list as a class. Divide the class into
three or four groups. Show one student from each group a word from the list without the
other students in the group seeing. Set a timer of 30 seconds to one minute. The student
must then draw the structure or function they were shown, while the rest of the their group
guesses. The first group to get the right answer gets a point. Play until each member of
each group has had a turn to draw.

Differentiated Instruction: Reviewing structure and function of organelles may be

easier for non-visual learners through creating a table or developing flashcards.
Students may work in pairs to create a table and/or quiz one another with the flashcards.

18 CHAPTER 4 | Cell Structure and Function

 3. Build-A-Cell: Students will build a model of a cell out of edible materials. The full student
facing worksheet can be found online.
4. Limits to Cell Size: This worksheet accompanies Procedure 1 of Investigation 4. The full
activity is more applicable to Chapter 5, but Procedure 1 is relevant here. This student-facing
worksheet is available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Using Visual and Contextual Support: Intermediate

Before reading, have students take a close look at the visual support. Have them use the
image as they work in pairs to form questions about the selection. After reading, have
partners compare their original predictions with questions they answered no. Have them
discuss how their ideas changed or stayed the same. Move around the room to monitor
progress.

Comprehension Skill: Advanced High

Ask questions about lesson content to elicit complete sentences:
What is the cell theory? The cell theory states that all organisms consist of one or more cells
and that cells come from existing cells. What purpose do vacuoles and microbodies serve in a
cell? Vacuoles and microbodies can store material for use or export and in some cases
contain enzymatic reactions.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 4.1, Check Your Progress entrance and exit of substances, allows for attachment, and
provides protection against immune systems and desiccation.
1. Explain why cells are alive but macromolecules
are not. Section 4.3, Check Your Progress
Cells are the smallest structure capable of performing all of the
1. Summarize the benefits of compartmentalization
functions necessary for life, thus they are alive. Macromolecules
found in cells.
are not alive because, for example, they cannot self-reproduce.
Compartmentalization, in the form of organelles, allows for a cell
2. State the components of the cell theory. to be more efficient, since certain structures specialize in one
i. All organisms are composed of cells. particular function.
ii. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in 2. Examine why organelles increase cell efficiency
organisms. and function.
iii. Cells come only from preexisting cells because cells are self- Many organelles have enzymes that make products specific
reproducing. to that organelle, but that benefit the whole cell. This
3. Explain why a large surface-area-to-volume ratio specialization frees up cellular resources for other work. Cells
is needed for the proper functioning of cells. with organelles have a selective advantage over those without
A large surface-area-to-volume ratio is needed for the proper them.
functioning of cells because it increases the efficiency of 3. Explain the origins of the nucleus, chloroplast,
transporting materials into and out of the cell. and mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
Evidence suggests that eukaryotic cells evolved from
Section 4.2, Check Your Progress prokaryotic cells in stages, likely from engulfing smaller cells.
1. Explain the major differences between a This is known as the endosymbiotic theory. It is likely that
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell. mitochondria (possibly originally aerobic heterotrophic bacteria)
Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus, whereas and chloroplasts (possibly cyanobacteria) are derived from
eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus. prokaryotes that were taken up by larger cells. It is also likely
that the nucleus of eukaryotes formed by the plasma membrane
2. Describe the functions of the bacterial cell invaginating and surrounding the DNA with a double
envelope, cytoplasm, and external structures. membrane.
The bacterial cell envelope consists of the plasma membrane,
cell wall, and glycocalyx. It maintains cell shape, regulates the

Teacher Manual 19
Section 4.4, Check Your Progress process called cellular respiration. Chloroplasts are found
in cyanobacteria, algae, and plants and capture energy
1. Identify the subunits of a ribosome.
from the sun to synthesize carbohydrates through
Ribosomes have large and small ribosomal subunits, each photosynthesis.
comprised of a mix of proteins and rRNA.
2. Discuss the evidence that chloroplasts
2. Describe the sequence of events that transfers and mitochondria are derived from ancient
information from a gene to a functional protein. bacteria.
Genetic information, or DNA, gets transcribed into mRNA, which Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have a double membrane,
specifies the sequence of amino acids in a protein. tRNA supporting the theory that they were originally smaller cells that
participates in the assembly of amino acids into a polypeptide were engulfed by larger cells. They also have their own
by recognizing both mRNA and amino acids during protein prokaryotic-type chromosome and ribosomes, and chloroplasts
synthesis. The polypeptide then folds into a functional protein. produce some of their own enzymes.

Section 4.5, Check Your Progress 3. Explain why chloroplasts and mitochondria
contain complex internal membrane
1. Contrast the structure and functions of rough and
structures.
smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Chloroplasts and mitochondria contain complex internal
Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the exterior side of the
membrane structures to increase the surface area for
membrane that faces the cytoplasm, giving it the capacity to
reactions—photosynthesis and cellular respiration—to occur.
produce proteins. Rough ER can also add carbohydrate chains to
proteins. Smooth ER does not have attached ribosomes, and Section 4.8, Check Your Progress
helps produce lipids and detoxify drugs.
1. Differentiate between the components of the
2. Describe the relationship between the
cytoskeleton and how they provide support to
components of the endomembrane system.
the cell.
The endomembrane system consists of the nuclear envelope,
The cytoskeleton contains actin filaments (a dense, complex web
the membranes of the ER, the Golgi apparatus, and several types
under the plasma membrane), intermediate filaments (ropelike
of vesicles. This system compartmentalizes the cells so particular
assembly of polypeptides), and microtubules (small, hollow
enzymatic reactions are restricted to specific regions, increasing
cylinders acting as a track along which organelles can move).
cell efficiency. The vesicles transport molecules from one part of
the system to another. 2. Explain how ATP is used to produce movement
3. Examine how cellular function would be in a cell.
affected if the Golgi apparatus ceased to ATP is used by motor molecules to pull actin filaments, causing
function. the filaments to move.
If the Golgi apparatus ceased to function, molecules would 3. Describe the role of motor molecules and
not be modified to their final states, and would not be microtubules in cilia and flagella.
sorted and transported properly to other locations within the Cilia and flagella are membrane-bound cylinders enclosed in a
cell. Newly created proteins would not be able to carry out their matrix area of 9 + 2 microtubule arrangements. Cilia and
purposes. flagella move when the pairs of microtubules slide past one
another using motor molecules.
Section 4.6, Check Your Progress
1. Compare the structure and functions of a AP Assessment
peroxisome with those of a lysosome. 1. Cells tend to be small, with sizes ranging
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles with a very low pH. between 1 and 100 mm. These small sizes help to
They assist in digesting material taken into the cell, and can ensure that cells have a favorable surface-area-
destroy nonfunctional organelles as well. Peroxisomes are to-volume ratio. Choose the statement that
membrane-bound vesicles that contain enzymes used to break explains why a favorable surface-area-to-volume
down fatty acids. ratio is advantageous.
2. Distinguish between where peroxisome and A) higher surface-area-to-volume ratios improve the
lysosome proteins are produced. efficiency of transporting materials in and out of
Lysosome enzymes are loaded into the vesicle by the Golgi cells
apparatus. The enzymes in peroxisomes are synthesized B) lower surface-area-to-volume ratios improve the
by free ribosomes and transported into peroxisome from the efficiency of transporting materials in and out of
cytoplasm. cells
C) higher surface-area-to-volume ratios speed up
Section 4.7, Check Your Progress the flow of cytoplasm within cells
1. Summarize the roles of mitochondria and D) higher surface-area-to-volume ratios slow down
chloroplasts in the cell. the flow of cytoplasm within cells
Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, and Answer: a; Having a high surface-area-to-volume ratio means
produce most of the ATP utilized by the cell through a that a cell has a lot of plasma membrane (“surface area”)

20 CHAPTER 4 | Cell Structure and Function

 compared to its interior contents (“volume”). That is, there are have their own DNA. Before a cell divides,
enough entrances and exits to allow the exchange of sufficient mitochondria divide in two, doubling the number
materials with the world outside the cell. of mitochondria in the parent cell. Mitochondria
2. The Endosymbiotic Theory suggests that cannot be grown in cell-free cultures in the lab.
eukaryotic cells evolved when an ancient cell From the answers below, choose the best
engulfed another, forming a permanent symbiotic conclusion based on the observations about
relationship. Choose the evidence that best mitochondria.
justifies this claim. A) Mitochondria are not essential to cells.
A) both mitochondria and chloroplasts perform B) Cellular respiration is not essential to cells.
energy functions
C) Mitochondria are self-sustaining, independent of
B) eukaryotic cells have many mitochondria a host cell.
C) eukaryotic cells have traits in common with archaea D) Mitochondria are not self-sustaining and require
D) mitochondria and chloroplasts contain circular nuclear DNA.
loops of unique DNA Answer: d; Though mitochondria contain DNA, which codes for
Answer: d; Prokaryotic cells have DNA in the form of circular some essential respiratory proteins, they also require other
loops; the fact that their DNA is different from nuclear DNA proteins coded for by nuclear DNA. Similarly, in order to divide,
suggests that mitochondria were once independent organisms. they require additional proteins, again coded for by nuclear
DNA. Thus they cannot be grown separately, outside the cell.
3. The evolutionary history of prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells has been intensely studied. 6. The liver is an organ with many functions. For
Which statement would best justify the claim that example, it plays a major role in the breakdown
ribosomes are one of the most ancient of all of fats in the body. Choose the organelle that
cellular organelles? would most likely be abundant in liver cells that
A) Ribosomes are directly involved in vital energy break down fats.
processes. A) lysosome
B) Some ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic B) endoplasmic reticulum
reticulum. C) peroxisome
C) Ribosomes are found in all cell types in D) ribosomes
organisms from all three domains.
Answer: c; peroxisomes
D) Ribosomes in eukaryotes are made of r-RNA, but
7. Actin is a globular protein that forms filaments in
in prokaryotes they are made of t-RNA.
many different cells. A disorder that disabled
Answer: c; The observation that ribosomes are present in all 3
actin filaments would most likely reduce what
domains of life implies that they would have been present in the
type of cellular activity?
earliest cells, from which modern cells have evolved. Answers A
and D are not true. A) glucose synthesis
4. Eukaryotic cells possess an extensive B) movement
endomembrane system. The extensive use of C) protein synthesis
internal membranes gives eukaryotic cells certain D) digestion of waste material
useful advantages not seen in prokaryotic cells. Answer: b; Actin is involved in many types of movement in
Choose the example that correctly describes one eukaryotic cells, including cell crawling, muscle contraction,
of these advantages. and cell division.
A) Nucleic acids can freely mingle with cytoplasmic 8. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi
enzymes. apparatus are prominent components of the
B) Lysosomes can maintain a much lower pH than endomembrane system. While the two structures
the surrounding cytosol. have similarities in appearance, they have slightly
C) Endoplasmic reticulum is prevented from forming different functions. Select an example that
vesicles. describes a difference between ER and Golgi:
D) Surface area available for chemical reactions is A) the ER may add sugars to proteins to make
greatly decreased. glycoproteins, while the Golgi may modify that
Answer: b; Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that work best glycoprotein
at lower pH. By being wrapped in a membrane, these enzymes B) the ER contains ribosomes and is never smooth,
can operate in an acidic environment. The protective membrane while the Golgi is always smooth
allows the lysosome to do its job of breaking down and recycling C) the ER consists of channels, while the Golgi
old organelles without damaging other cell structures. consists of saccules
5. Mitochondria are organelles specialized to D) the ER is found in animal cells, while the Golgi is
perform cellular respiration. Mitochondria found in plant cells

Teacher Manual 21
 Answer: a; Rough ER produces proteins, but also contains Lysosomes are produced by the Golgi and contain digestive
enzymes that allow it to add sugar chains to those proteins. enzymes.
Once in the Golgi, the glycoproteins may have their sugar chains • Cellular respiration: Mitochondria specialize in energy capture
modified to a different sugar. and transformation. Liver cells need a great concentration of
9. The subcellular components of eukaryotic cells mitochondria due to their high metabolic needs.
increase cell efficiency. • These interactions provide cell structure, support, internal
A) Describe two scenarios where scientists have transport, interactions between cells (such as forming tissues),
found subcellular structures interact. and mediate the occurrence of cell division.
B) Explain how these interactions provide essential • These interactions are involved in protein synthesis from DNA
functions for the cell.
10. The green alga Volvox forms spherical colonies
Answer: (four points total) Description of the subcellular of individual cells.
structures and the appropriately linked explanation their
A) If a Volvox colony is composed of 10 cells, each
contributions to essential functions may include:
with a radius of 2mm, what is the surface area of
Descriptions of interactions (1 point each) each cell? What is the volume? Calculate the
• Ribosomal RNA and protein interact to form ribosomes. surface-area-to-volume ratio of the colony.
• Membrane-bound ribosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum 12.6/4.2
work together as the rough ER. A = 4 π r2 V = 4/3 π r3
• The endomembrane system includes the ER, the Golgi A = 4 π (1)2 = 12.6, V = 4/3 π (1)3 = 4.2
apparatus, the lysosomes, and transport vesicles.
A:V = 12.6/4.2
• Mitochondria have a double membrane that allows
compartmentalization within the mitochondria. The outer B) Explain why a colony of Volvox cells would be
membrane is smooth, but the inner is highly convoluted, more efficient at exchanging material with the
forming folds call cristae. Cristae contain enzymes important to environment than a single cell of equivalent size.
ATP production; cristae also increase the surface area for ATP Surface-area-to-volume ratio is important to efficiently moving
production. The matrix contains DNA and ribosomes. For materials in and out of cells.
cellular respiration, the cytoplasm of the cell is also involved.
11. Some proteins are synthesized by ribosomes on
• The cytoskeleton interacts with many organelles. Intermediate the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The proteins are
filaments support the nuclear and plasma membranes and processed in the ER, and vesicles containing
interact with other cells. Microtubules radiate out from the
these proteins pinch off and migrate to the Golgi
centrosome and are the system along which vesicles and other
apparatus. Scientists currently are studying the
organelles move.
molecules that are involved in fusing these
• Ribosomes and the nucleus with its structures (and possibly
vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.
cytoplasm and rough ER) function together in protein
synthesis. A) Interpret the diagram by naming two complexes
on the Golgi apparatus that might be involved in
Explanation of functions (1 point each) vesicle fusion.
• Ribosomal RNA and protein interact to become the site of The two complexes are targeting complex and unknown
protein synthesis where the translation of genetic instructions targeting complex.
yields specific polypeptides.
B) Hypothesize an explanation for vesicle transport
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum provides site-specific protein based on what you have read about cytoplasm
synthesis and plays a role in intracellular transport. and the cytoskeleton.
• Through their interactions, newly produced proteins and lipids Vesicle transport might be directed through the cytoplasm by
are modified, packaged and transported throughout the cell. microtubules.

22 CHAPTER 4 | Cell Structure and Function

CHAPTER 5
Membrane Structure
and Function
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure 1 2.4 Plasma Membranes
and Function
2.5 Membrane Permeability

4.1 Cell Communication

5.2 Passive Transport Across a 1 2.5 Membrane Permeability
Membrane
2.6 Membrane Transport

2.8 Tonicity and Osmoregulation

2.9 Mechanisms of Transport

5.3 Active Transport Across a 1 2.5 Membrane Permeability
Membrane
2.6 Membrane Transport

2.7 Facilitated Diffusion

5.4 Modification of Cell Surface 1 2.5 Membrane Permeability

2.7 Facilitated Diffusion

2.9 Mechanisms of Transport

4.1 Cell Communication

Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 5 Test Bank

Online Activities
Plasma Membrane Model
Membrane Function Lab
Pathways with Friends

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The College Board AP Investigative Labs suggests 4-5 lab periods for Investigation 4:
Diffusion and Osmosis. It was previously suggested that Procedure 1 be completed while
studying Chapter 4. I suggest only 2 ½ days for Investigation 4 and will give suggestions for
modifications to this lab to still maintain the inquiry nature of the lab and to reduce class time
allocated to this investigation.
Class time: Four 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—20 minutes about the nature of the plasma membrane, active and
L
passive transport, and hypertonic vs. hypotonic solutions.
 ctivity 1: Modeling Membrane Structure and Function or Activity 2: Membrane
A
Functions
Day 2:  ecture—25 minutes on cell communication. Learn Genetics, a project through
L
the University of Utah, has a simple explanation about cell signaling.
Activity 3: Pathways with Friends—30 minutes

Teacher Manual 23
Day 3 and 4: F
 ull periods should be used to conduct Investigation 4 of the College Board
Investigation Labs. Start the lab activity on day three, with students performing
set up, and complete the activity on day 4.
Teaching Tips: For Investigation 4: this an inquiry-based lab by preparing sucrose solutions of
0.0, 0 .2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 molar concentrations. Color code each molarity differently and
keep the color key to yourself. Tell the students that they need to find the molarity of each
solution. Have dialysis tubing and distilled water for their use in this investigation. Allow them
time to set up dialysis tubing that contains distilled water in each of their own cups with each
unknown solution. The dialysis tubing cells should be weighed prior to insertion into the
unknown solutions and after 30 minutes in the solution. Make sure that any excess liquid is
removed from the bags.
Day 4 will be used to complete the lab by using a vegetable like carrots, sweet potatoes,
white potatoes to determine the molarity of the chosen vegetable. Students must graph their
results in order to determine this. Where a best fit line crosses the zero y-value indicates the
correct molarity of their chosen vegetable.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One of the major points of student confusion concerning cell transport is the usage of the
terms hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic. These are relative terms that describe the
concentration of solutes in a solution. Water moves from a hypotonic solution (where solutes
are in low concentration and water is in high concentration) to a hypertonic solution.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Modeling Membrane Structure and Function: Students will create and manipulate bubbles
to draw parallels to cell membrane structure and function. Paper models of a cell
membrane, showing the phospholipid bilayer and a variety of surface proteins
2. Membrane Functions: Students will use sandwich bags and eggs to demonstrate the
function of membranes.
3. Pathways with Friends: Students will model cell communication by acting as different parts
of a cell signaling pathway.

Differentiated Instruction: For less abstract learners, provide students with an

unlabeled drawing of a signaling pathway. Ask the students to label different parts
of the pathway.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening: Beginning
Have students log in to their ebook to hear pronunciations of chapter vocabulary terms. They
can also listen to a complete audio read of the text.

Listening and Speaking: Intermediate

Slowly read aloud a paragraph. After each sentence or two, pause and ask volunteers to
identify an important idea in the text. Have students write the important idea in the left column
of their notebook and write a phrase or short sentence restating what they heard about the
ideas in the right column.

24 CHAPTER 5 | Membrane Structure and Function

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 5.1, Check Your Progress Section 5.4, Check Your Progress
1. Explain why phospholipids play such an important 1. Describe the composition of the extracellular
role in the structure of the cell membrane. matrix of an animal cell.
Phospholipids are the main components of the bilayer due to The extracellular matrix in animal cells is a meshwork of proteins
their amphipathic nature. This bilayer is similar across cells, like collagen and elastin, and polysaccharides like amino sugars,
which makes them interchangeable and allows them to fuse in close association with the cell that produced them.
together fairly easily. 2. Explain why a cell would be connected by a
2. Describe the role of proteins in the fluid-mosaic tight junction, rather than a gap junction or an
model. adhesion junction.
The different types of proteins within the cell membrane include: A tight junction would be useful if a tight connection is needed,
channel and carrier proteins, cell recognition proteins, receptor like in cells that need to form a barrier. For example the intestine
proteins, enzymatic proteins, and junction proteins. has tight junctions to contain and keep the digestive juices away
3. Compare how cells transport polar and nonpolar from the rest of the body.
molecules across a membrane. 3. Explain the role of the plasmodesmata in plant
Nonpolar molecules can passively move across a membrane, cells.
whereas polar molecule require an expenditure of energy to Plasmodesmata are numerous narrow, membrane-lined
drive their transport, since they are chemically incompatible with channels that pass through the cell wall of plant cells. They
the center of the membrane. allow for direct exchange of some materials and connect the
cytoplasm of living cells.
Section 5.2, Check Your Progress
1. Explain why both osmosis and diffusion are AP Assessment
passive processes. 1. Cell membranes are organized according to
Osmosis and diffusion are both passive transport because they the Fluid-Mosaic Model, which describes the
are moving from a higher to a lower concentration gradient membrane as a combination of proteins and
(water or other molecules) without the input of energy. phospholipids. These two components may be
2. Describe how a cell would react to a hypertonic further modified into more complex molecules.
or hypotonic solution. Identify the modification that would produce
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
A cell in a hypertonic solution would shrink or shrivel due to loss
of water. A cell in a hypotonic solution would swell or burst by A) existing proteins and lipids are reduced in size by
taking on water. removal of monomers
3. Contrast diffusion with facilitated transport. B) existing proteins and lipids are joined to each
other via disulfide bridges
Facilitated transport uses specific carrier proteins to move
molecules down a concentration gradient through the plasma C) chains of sugars are added to existing proteins
membrane, while diffusion is the free movement of molecules and lipids in the ER
down a concentration gradient through the plasma membrane D) chains of water molecules surround the existing
until equilibrium is reached. proteins and lipids to produce a hydration shell
Answer: c; Membrane sections originate in the ER. While there,
Section 5.3, Check Your Progress proteins and lipids may have chains of sugars added to them.
1. Compare facilitated transport with active These glycoproteins and glycolipids vary from cell type to cell type.
transport.
2. The phospholipid bilayers surrounding cells
Facilitated transport and active transport both use carrier perform many functions. One function is to act as a
proteins to cross the plasma membrane, but facilitated barrier to water-soluble substance. Which property
transport moves molecules down a concentration gradient,
of the bilayer provides this barrier function?
whereas active transport moves molecules against a
concentration gradient. A) A layer of non-soluble proteins coats the
phospholipids on the outside of the cell.
2. Explain why active transport requires energy.
B) Phospholipid components of the membrane are
Active transport requires energy because it is working against a packed so tightly together that no substances
concentration gradient. can pass through.
3. Summarize why a cell would use bulk transport C) The head ends of the phospholipids are
rather than active transport. hydrophilic.
A cell might use bulk transport if the molecules it needs to D) The tail ends of the phospholipids are hydrophobic.
move across a cell are very large. In this case, exocytosis or
Answer: d; The nonpolar hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids
endocytosis would be more effective than active transport.
inhibit the passage of water-soluble substances through the bilayer.

Teacher Manual 25
3. Materials diffuse in and out of cells across the A) passive transport
plasma membrane. Such materials typically diffuse B) active transport
from high to low concentration until equilibrium is C) facilitated diffusion
reached. In red blood cells (RBCs), facilitated
D) coupled transport
diffusion is utilized to move glucose into the cell.
Answer: b; The cell seems to be using an energy source (ATP) to
Once inside the cell, a phosphate group is
take up potassium and move it into the cell (where potassium is
immediately added to the glucose molecule,
already in high concentration).
creating glucose phosphate, which can no longer
interact with the glucose transporter. Select the 6. Cell-to-cell communication is a vital function
most likely benefit to the cell from this action. in multicellular organisms. Identify the
A) equilibrium can be achieved much more quickly communicating junction that allows for
due to the build-up of glucose in the RBC cytoplasmic connections in plant cells.
B) the interior of the RBC never reaches equilibrium A) plasmodesmata
with the outside, encouraging constant input of B) gap junction
glucose C) desmosome
C) as glucoses are converted to glucose phosphate, D) tight junction
other monosaccharides are encouraged to
diffuse into the RBC Answer: a; Plasmodesmata allow material to pass from the
cytoplasm of one plant cell and the cytoplasm of an adjacent
D) glucose phosphate is a precursor of the amino plant cell. The remaining answer choices are all found in animal
acids needed to construct the glucose cells.
transporter protein
Answer: b; Glucose phosphate will not pass back across the 7. Cardiac muscle cells have electrical connections
membrane. This chemical trick maintains a constant diffusion that allow ions to flow quickly from one cell to the
gradient for glucose, encouraging its entry into the RBC. other. Identify the communicating junction that
is most likely to be used for this type of
4. A student places a slide of red onion tissue
communication.
under the microscope, and adds a salt solution
A) plasmodesmata
to the slide. The cell rapidly loses water, and
the contents shrink and gather in the middle. B) gap junction
Because of their polar nature, water molecules C) desmosome
would not be expected to move easily across the D) tight junction
plasma membrane. What accounts for the rapid Answer: b; Gap junctions are formed by the joining of channels
water movement observed by the student? of two adjacent animal cells. These channel allow small
A) The red color of the onion is due to a soluble molecules and ions to flow directly from one cell to the next.
pigment called anthocyanin that carries water
across the membrane.
8. The human body transfers oxygen from the alveoli
to the blood continuously. The rate varies with a
B) Onions grow underground, and have thus
person’s activity rate level. Use the table below to
adapted to adjust rapidly to changing water
conditions.
calculate the median rate of oxygen transfer.
C) Phospholipids group together in rafts, leaving Rate of Oxygen Transfer Activity Rate
spaces in the membrane that are free of lipids, 0.3 L min -1
Resting
and where water moves easily. -1
4 L min High
D) Plasma membranes contain proteins called
0.8 L min-1 Low
aquaporins, which form polar channels allowing
-1
the passage of water. 2 L min Medium
Answer: d; Various types of aquaporins have been found. 1.4
Some allow not only water but also other small hydrophilic 0.3, 0.8, 2, 4
molecules to pass across the membrane. Lipid rafts (C) where
phospholipids are more tightly packed do exist, but do not relate 0.8 + 2/ 2 = 1.4
to water movement. The anthocyanin pigments (A) in the onion 9. Flexible plasma membranes consist of a variety
are water soluble, but remain confined within the vacuole, not in of molecules whose interactions allow for cells to
the membrane. function.
5. A certain cell has the ability to concentrate A) Describe the structure of the plasma membrane
potassium within itself. If the cell is deprived of of cells.
ATP, potassium levels then go to equilibrium, with B) Explain how structures of the components of the
amounts roughly equal inside and outside the plasma membrane connect to its function as a
cell. These observations justify the suggestion selectively permeable barrier between the cell
that which type of transport is present? and its exterior and within the cell itself.

26 CHAPTER 5 | Membrane Structure and Function

Description of the appropriate membrane components and the 10. Cells communicate with each other through
appropriately linked explanation of its connection to membrane direct contact with other cells from a distance or
function may include: via chemical signaling. In a paragraph, explain
Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each) this phenomena based on the evidence found in
• Phospholipids/Phospholipid bilayer—amphipathic molecules plant cells.
due to hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails A) Describe what plasmodesmata are and how they
• Cholesterol—lipid found in the plasma membranes of animal function.
cells (similar steroid is found in plants) B) Explain how plasmodesmata offer evidence of
• Proteins cell communication.
• Peripheral proteins (partially embedded in the bilayer) Answers (4 points total)
• Integral proteins (wholly embedded in the bilayer) Descriptions of plasmodesmata (1 point)
• Glycoproteins (protein + carbohydrate chain on the outside • Plasmodesmata are narrow channels between plant cells
surface) that act as intercellular cytoplasmic bridges to facility
• Cytoskeleton (internal) and extracellular matrix (external in communication through the transport of materials such as
animal cells) water and small solutes.. Their ribosomes resemble those of
prokaryotes.
Explanations (1 point each)
• Due to the amphipathic nature of the molecules, a bilayer Explanations (1 point each)
is formed. The heads on the phospholipids are exposed • Because they eventually connect all cells within a plant,
to polar water on the outside and inside surfaces of the important materials, such as water, can be shared with the
membrane, while the tails associate with one another and entire organism.
make up the interior of the membrane. These membranes • Because the current understanding is that only water and small
allow for multiple chemical processes to occur simultaneously solutes pass through plasmodesmata, plant cells are able to
within the same cell, and thereby can respond more quickly maintain their own concentrations of larger substances and
to changing environmental conditions. Because most differentiate into particular cells with particular functions.
membranes are made up of similar molecules, they are • These channels allow direct exchange of some materials,
interchangeable and fuse together easily. Lipids are
including signaling molecules, between adjacent plant cells,
responsible for the fluid nature of membranes, allowing
thereby allowing signals to be passed efficiently.
cells to be flexible.
• Because cholesterol lies stiffly between phospholipid tails, it 11. A stroke occurs when a blood clot blocks the
helps to modify the fluidity of the membrane over a range in flow of oxygen-containing blood in a portion of
temperatures—prevents it from becoming too fluid at higher the brain. Nerve cells in the brain that release
temperatures and too solid at lower temperatures. glutamate are sensitive to the lack of oxygen and
• Protein number and type can differ between membranes of release a flood of glutamate when oxygen is low.
cells and organelles. During the glutamate flood, the calcium pump is
• Proteins can function as channels, carriers, receptors, destroyed. This affects the movement of calcium
enzymes, and can form junctions or aid in cell recognition. ions into and out of nerve cells. When cells
They are what make the bilayer semi-permeable. contain excess calcium, homeostasis is disrupted.
• Hydrophobic cores with hydrophobic ends (tertiary structure of A) Interpret how the glutamate flood destroys the
the proteins, determined by secondary and primary structure), calcium pump.
as well as attachment to ECM or cytoskeleton hold the Causes excess calcium to flow into cells, which stimulates the
proteins’ locations. release of an enzyme that destroys the calcium pump.
• Chains can vary in number and sequence and branching B) Predict what would happen if calcium levels were
of sugars, giving each cell its own fingerprint for cell lowered in the nerve cell during a stroke.
identification.
Lowering calcium levels in the cell when a stroke is occurring
• Cytoskeleton lends itself to cell structure stability, and ECM would prevent an excess of calcium from building up in the cell
contributes to cell-cell communication. and would therefore prevent cell death.

Teacher Manual 27
CHAPTER 6
Metabolism: Energy
and Enzymes
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy 1 3.4 Cellular Energy
3.7 Fitness
6.2 Metabolic Reactions and 2 3.3 Environmental Impacts on Enzyme
Energy Transformations Function
3.4 Cellular Energy
3.7 Fitness
6.3 Metabolic Pathways and 2 3.1 Enzyme Structure
Enzymes 3.2 Enzyme Catalysts
3.3 Environmental Impacts on Enzyme
Function
3.4 Cellular Energy
3.7 Fitness
6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 1 3.7 Fitness
and Metabolism
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 6 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 3

Online Activities
Modeling Enzymes
Toothpickase

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The AP Biology Investigation Lab Manual contains a lab about enzymes, Investigation 13:
Enzyme Activity. This is a great activity to develop students’ conceptual understanding about
enzymes and engage them in inquiry-based learning experiences. Between three and four lab
periods should be dedicated to this lab. Prior to completing this lab, students must understand
the structure of proteins and how enzymes function. This lab calls for an indicator of
enzymatic activity called guaiacol. You may substitute another enzyme lab but review the
learning objectives and curriculum that is covered in this lab.
It is important that students understand reaction indicators, particularly guaiacol, which is
used in the laboratory activity. Cells using molecular oxygen in their metabolism generate
small amounts of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) which is very toxic. Peroxidase (and other
enzymes) speeds up the conversion of H2O2 to water so that the cell is not damaged. Some
peroxidase activity can be seen by the generation of O2 gas but the peroxidase that is
extracted from turnips does not generation oxygen gas.
Students are going to use a substance called guaiacol as the hydrogen donor (it can also be
called a reducing agent) in the lab because it changes color after it loses hydrogens. This is a
redox reaction in which H2O2 is reduced and guaiacol is oxidized. Guaiacol turns brown as it
loses hydrogens.

28 CHAPTER 6 | Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes

Class time: six 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—20 minutes on energy, laws of thermodynamics, exergonic
L
(exothermic) vs. endergonic (endothermic) reactions, oxidation-reduction
reactions, ATP cycle
Activity 1: ATP Cycle or Demonstration of an Endergonic Reaction—25 minutes
 ee your online course for a website with a great demonstration of an
S
endergonic reaction that is spontaneous.
Day 2: Lecture—20 minute on energy and enzymes
Activity 2: Modeling Enzymes or Activity 3: Toothpickase
 ecture—10 minutes on the specific reaction of peroxidase extracted from
L
turnips and the color indicator guaiacol, in preparation for Investigation 13.
Day 3: Lab safety introduction, and a review of baseline and rate of reactions.
Lab activity: Procedure 1 of Investigation 13.
Day 4:  rocedure 2 of Investigation 13. Students should prepare procedures for
P
completion of the open investigation part of this lab- Designing and
Conducting Your Investigation. It is strongly suggested that you approve their
design and determine the availability of materials.
Day 5:  tudents complete their own investigation on enzymes (continuation of
S
Investigation 13).
Day 6: Summative assessment
Teaching Tips: Lab work will be crucial to the understanding of enzyme and the effect that
the environment can have on enzymatic activity.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One of the main student misconceptions about enzymes is that they are living. While enzymes
are found in living organisms they are not themselves alive. An enzyme can be denatured not
killed since it never was alive in the first place. Modeling an enzyme using pool noodles may
help dispel the idea that enzymes are alive.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. ATP Cycle: Students build an obstacle-style course to model the ATP cycle.
The ATP Cycle is a reoccurring cycle that students will see throughout the AP Biology
Course. It is important that they develop a deep understanding of what it is and how it works.
For this activity, divide students into three or four groups. Provide each group with a figure
of the ATP cycle. Students must then use items in the classroom (this can be chairs,
books, backpacks, pencils, boxes, etc) to recreate the cycle on a large scale. You may
have them draw their diagram or “perform” it for the rest of the class.
Provide students with a list of questions to challenge their understanding of the cycle,
such as:
(1) What is the structural difference between ATP and ADP?
(2) Which molecule is more stable?
(3) Which molecule has higher potential energy?
(4) What is the source of energy which drives the cycle?
(5) Where does the energy go?
(6) Which part of the cycle is Exergonic? Endergonic?

Teacher Manual 29
 This activity is also good lead into a discussion on coupled reactions. You may challenge
your students having them develop a coupled reaction with their life-sized ATP model.
2. Modeling Enzymes: Students will use cut outs to model how enzymes work. The full
worksheet with printable templates is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: If students are having trouble piecing together the

sequence of how an enzyme works, provide the students with the unlabeled diagrams.
The students can then label the parts and try to identify the type of reactions based
on their definitions.
 tudents who have a deeper understanding of how enzymes work may find it more
S
interesting to research an enzymatic pathway in the literature. They can then explain
to you what the enzyme, the type of enzymatic pathway it follows, and what are the
substrate and products. Depending on their level of knowledge, they might also include
what factors affect the activity of the enzyme.

3. Toothpickase: Students will use toothpicks to model the efficiency of enzyme reactions.
The Toothpickase lab was developed to simulate how enzymes work most efficiently. It uses
only flat toothpicks, a small paper plate, and a timer of some sort. Students time each other
breaking toothpicks under different conditions and then calculate reaction rates (the
number of toothpicks broken during each time interval).
The activity can be found on the Purdue Extension website, a link to which is in your
online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching: Beginning

Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the terms
out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in their
interactive notebooks.

Comprehension Skill: Intermediate

Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 6.1, Check Your Progress Section 6.2, Check Your Progress
1. Summarize how the first and second laws of 1. Explain why ATP is an effective short-term energy
thermodynamics relate to cells. storage molecule.
The first law relates to how energy from the sun is converted ATP is an effective short-term energy molecule because it can be
into energy used by cells, and is not created or destroyed. used in many different types of reactions, and is sufficient to
This could be in the process of converting solar energy into power most biological functions. It can also be coupled to
carbohydrates during photosynthesis, or converting potential endergonic reactions to minimize energy loss.
energy stored in carbohydrates into kinetic energy for
movement. The second law relates to how each energy 2. Summarize the ATP cycle.
exchange within cells produces some heat, which dissipates into ATP carries energy between exergonic reactions and endergonic
the environment. This is a loss of usable energy. reactions. ATP is created from ADP and (P), which requires
energy input (endergonic). When a phosphate group is removed
2. Explain the importance of entropy to a living by hydrolysis, ATP releases the appropriate amount of energy for
system. most metabolic processes (exergonic).
Every process that takes place within a living cell increases the
3. Examine how transferring a phosphate from ATP
total entropy of the universe, and each process makes less
energy available to do useful work in the future. changes a molecule’s structure and function.
ATP breakdown is coupled to the energy-requiring reaction.
Because the cleavage of ATP’s phosphate groups releases more

30 CHAPTER 6 | Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes

 energy than the amount consumed by the energy-requiring D) According to the second law of thermodynamics,
reaction, both reactions proceed. There are two main ways to energy is always being lost.
couple the reaction: by energizing a reactant, or changing the Answer: c; No organism can “make” energy, which makes A and
shape of a reactant. Both are achieved by transferring a B wrong. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms convert the
phosphate group to the reactant. radiant energy of the sun to chemical bond energy. D is a correct
statement but not relevant.
Section 6.3, Check Your Progress
2. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is widely used
1. Explain how enzymes are involved in metabolic in cells to deliver energy where needed. Many
pathways. other molecules, such as glucose or fats, also
Enzymes are involved in metabolic pathways by increasing the store energy. What feature of ATP makes it
speed of a chemical reaction without itself being affected by the preferable for quick delivery of energy?
reaction. Each step of the pathway is catalyzed by an enzyme.
A) The conversion of ATP to ADP is endergonic
One reaction leads to the next in an organized, highly regulated
manner. B) Overall, ATP is much smaller than glucose or fat
molecules
2. Describe how an enzyme interacts with a
C) The covalent bonds holding the phosphate
substrate to reduce the energy of activation. groups together are unstable
The active site of an enzyme associates directly with the D) The ribose component of ATP releases energy
substrate. The active site undergoes a slight change in shape to easily
accommodate the substrate, which facilitates the reaction that
now occurs. Enzymes reduce the energy of activation, which Answer: c; The phosphate groups on ATP strongly repel each
increases the rate at which the reaction may occur. other, making their connecting bonds unstable. This gives the
bonds a low activation energy, so they are easily broken by
3. List the environmental conditions that may hydrolysis. The energy released is sufficient to power most
influence enzyme activity. endergonic reactions in cells.
The environmental conditions that may influence enzyme activity 3. Molecules called enzymes carry out most
include substrate concentration, pH, temperature, and the of the catalysis in cells. Enzymes lower the
availability of cofactors and coenzymes.
activation energy required for a reaction.
This lowering occurs when an enzyme and a
Section 6.4, Check Your Progress substrate fit closely together. Which answer
1. Compare the role of carbon dioxide in accurately describes the interaction of the
photosynthesis and cellular respiration. enzyme and the substrate?
In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are used to create A) The enzyme adjusts its shape to fit the enzyme
glucose and oxygen (creates energy). During cellular respiration,
B) The substrate adjusts its shape to fit the enzyme
carbon dioxide is produced through the breakdown of glucose
and water (requires energy). C) The substrate slides into the enzyme because
its shape exactly matches the active site of the
2. Distinguish how energy from electrons is used enzyme
to establish an electrochemical gradient in D) The enzyme can adjust its active site to fit a wide
chloroplasts and mitochondria. variety of substrates
The reduction of carbon dioxide to form glucose during Answer: a; The interaction of substrate and enzyme is referred to
photosynthesis, and the oxidation of carbohydrates during as an “induced fit.” The flexible enzyme adjusts slightly to match
cellular respiration, use electrons to establish an electrochemical the substrate, but the substrate must initially be a pretty close
gradient in chloroplasts and mitochondria, respectively. match to the active site.

AP Assessment 4 Until late in the 20th century, scientists assumed

that all enzymes were proteins. However,
1. A student is answering a question about increasing evidence justified the claim that an
photosynthesis in class. The student says, “plants unexpected type of molecule, RNA, could also
make energy from the sun.” The teacher frowns catalyze cellular reactions. In which of the
and asks the student to rephrase the answer. following situations does RNA act as an enzyme?
What was wrong with the student’s claim?
A) RNA catalyzes the formation of DNA in the
A) There are other organisms besides plants that nucleus
can make energy, such as bacteria.
B) RNA speeds up the formation of proteins in the
B) The energy that plants make does not come Golgi apparatus
directly from the sun.
C) RNA plays a key role in the formation of proteins
C) According to the first law of thermodynamics, within ribosomes
energy cannot be made, only converted from one
D) RNA is often engaged in the breakdown of
form to another.
materials in lysosomes

Teacher Manual 31
 Answer: C; Ribosomes consist of proteins and RNA. While it was DNA polymerase, an enzyme required for DNA
once thought that the RNA simply played a structural role in replication.
giving the ribosome a particular shape, it is now understood that
In a paragraph, describe how enzyme inhibitors
RNA actually catalyzes the joining together of amino acids to
make proteins. function and explain why this method of cancer
treatment is a viable option.
5. In cells, many chemical reactions are coupled,
Description of how enzyme inhibitors function (1 point each):
occurring in the same place at the same time.
What is the common pattern shown by coupled • Enzyme inhibition occurs when a molecule (the inhibitor) binds
reactions? to an enzyme and decreases the activity.
A) Low temperature reactions are coupled with high • Enzyme inhibition can occur through noncompetitive inhibition
temperature reactions where the inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location (allosteric
B) Enzyme-driven reactions are coupled to those site) other than the active site and changes the enzyme’s
that do not require enzymes shape, or through competitive inhibition where the inhibitor is
in the active site so that a substrate cannot bind.
C) Simple reactions are coupled to complex
reactions Explanation of why this method of cancer treatment is a viable
option (1 point each):
D) Energy-releasing reactions are coupled to
energy-requiring reactions • DNA polymerase is an enzyme required for DNA replication so
Answer: D; Reactions that are endergonic, and require energy, inhibiting this enzyme (students will not know necessarily if
occur in the near vicinity of those that release energy; thus this is competitive or noncompetitive) will inhibit replication.
the exergonic reaction supplies the energy needed for the • DNA replication ensures continuity of hereditary information,
endergonic reaction. so if there is no DNA replication, the growth and spread of
cancer would halt.
6. Cyanide (HCN) is a poison that acts by binding • Some DNA polymerase inhibitors can also be used to stop the
to the active site of an enzyme in the electron replication and spread of bacteria. Similarly, DNA interference
transport chain, thus shutting down cellular could also occur by limiting the availability of cofactors needed
respiration. Which type of inhibition is displayed by DNA polymerase, or by targeting other enzymes
by HCN?
9. Free energy is the amount of energy left to do
A) Allosteric
work after a reaction occurs and is determined
B) Competitive
by subtracting the free energy content of the
C) Non-competitive reactants from that of the products. Scientists
D) Interfering claim that free energy is required for living
Answer: B; An inhibitor sitting in the active site of an enzyme systems to maintain organization, to grow, or to
is competing with the normal substrate of that enzyme, thus reproduce, but multiple strategies for capturing,
preventing the enzyme from functioning. storing and using it exist in different living
systems.
7. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are often
described as “complementary” processes. Which In a paragraph, being as specific and detailed as
answer describes complementary processes possible, justify this claim using at least THREE
found in the two processes? examples.
A) Oxygen is absorbed in photosynthesis, but Examples as evidence of strategies may include (1 point each):
released in respiration
• Energy capture: When leaf cells photosynthesize, they use
B) Energy is released from photosynthesis, but solar energy to form carbohydrate molecules from carbon
stored in respiration dioxide and water. Carbohydrates are energy-rich molecules
C) Carbon dioxide is reduced to form glucose in because they have many bonds that store energy; carbon
photosynthesis, but glucose is oxidized to form dioxide and water are energy-poor molecules, because of the
carbon dioxide in respiration relative lack of bonds. Not all of the captured solar energy
D) Carbon dioxide is oxidized to form glucose in becomes carbohydrates; some becomes heat (cells are
photosynthesis, but glucose is reduced to form capable of about 40% efficiency).
carbon dioxide in respiration • Energy storage: The reduction of carbon dioxide to form a
Answer: C; Carbon dioxide receives H atoms during mole of glucose stores 686 kcal in the chemical bonds of
photosynthesis, going from CO2 to C6H12O6. Thus it has been glucose. This is the energy that living organisms utilize to
reduced. support themselves only because carbohydrates (and other
nutrients) can be oxidized in mitochondria.
8. In targeted therapy used to treat cancer, • Energy storage: The complete oxidation of a mole of glucose
drugs target certain parts of the cell and the releases 686 kcal of energy, and some of this energy is used to
signals that are needed for cancer to develop synthesize ATP molecules. If the energy within glucose were
and grow. Some targeted therapies make use of released all at once, most would dissipate as heat. So, instead,
enzyme inhibitors that target enzymes such as

32 CHAPTER 6 | Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes

 cells oxidize glucose step by step so the energy is gradually should the data points from the prompt be reflected in the
stored and then converted to that of ATP molecules. illustrations, but graphs should reflect a positive relationship
• Energy use in coupled reactions (exergonic + endergonic) with between the independent and dependent variables
ATP in chemical work: ATP (ATP → ADP) supplies the energy (concentration of ATP being independent and on the x-axis, and
needed to synthesize macromolecules (anabolism) that make beat frequency or percent of cells active each responding as
up the cell. dependent variables). Labels and units are important for
accurate depiction and full credit. Line graphs are most
• Energy use in coupled reactions (exergonic + endergonic) with
appropriate for indicating rates of change and correlations
ATP in transport work: ATP (ATP → ADP) supplies the energy
between the variable in this situation.
needed to pump substances across the plasma membrane,
particularly important in nerve conduction. B) Explain what is happening to the flagella as the
• Energy use in coupled reactions (exergonic + endergonic) with ATP concentration increases.
ATP in mechanical work: ATP (ATP → ADP) supplies the energy This data supports the claim that ATP concentration does impact
needed to permit muscles to contract, cilia and flagella to beat, cell motility in that with a greater concentration of ATP, more
chromosomes to move, and so forth. In most cases, ATP is the flagella became active, and not only that, but their beat
immediate source of energy for these processes frequency increased (and therefore how active they were
increased). This would indicate that ATP does play a role in
10. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is one of the providing energy for cells. It is particularly obvious that nothing
main energy-carrying molecules inside a cell. else was providing energy when it is noted that in the absence
Knowing this, researchers investigated the of ATP, no movement at all was observed. ATP needed to reach a
effects of increased concentration of ATP on the particular concentration for the cells to become motile, and then
beat frequency of cellular flagella. The figure an increase in ATP meant increases in cell motility.
above shows how ATP is used to transfer energy C) What would happen if other nucleotides, such as
within a cell. Isolated flagella were placed in UTP or GTP were substituted for ATP? Design a
solutions with varying concentrations of ATP. The follow-up investigation that would test this
researchers observed that no movement of the question.
flagella was evident at ATP concentrations of 0 to This follow-up question would discern if the nucleotide ATP is
4 µM. When the concentration of ATP was raised the only energy unit for the cell or if other nucleotides could also
to 8 µM, about 20–30% of the flagella beat at a give the cell energy. A similar lab set up to the first would suffice
frequency of one beat every two seconds. In the in answering this prompt, although students may select a more
solution with 12 µM ATP, they were 95–100% creative way to assess cell motility. Cells would need to be in
motile with a beat frequency of one beat per a solution void of nucleotides, including ATP. Then another
second. nucleotide could be added, slowly increasing the concentration
from 0 µM until about 100% of the cells in the sample are motile.
A) Construct a table and a graph depicting the
Beat frequency of flagella may, again, also be measured. It
findings described above.
should be noted that only one nucleotide should be tested for
Student graphs may reflect the increase in cells active with an at a time, in order to control variables. If cells do not show
increase in concentration of ATP, or they may reflect the increase increased motility with increasing concentration of the new
in flagella beat frequency as concentration of ATP increases. nucleotide, then results would further support the idea that
These may also be shown together on the same graph. Not only ATP is the energy unit of the cell with regard to motility.

Teacher Manual 33
CHAPTER 7
Photosynthesis

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

7.1 Photosynthetic Organisms
7.2 The Process of Photosynthesis 2 3.5 Photosynthesis
3.7 Fitness
7.3 Plants Convert Solar Energy 2 3.5 Photosynthesis
7.4 Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide 1 3.5 Photosynthesis
7.5 Other Types of Photosynthesis 1 3.7 Fitness
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 7 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 3

Online Activities
The Floating Leaf Disk
A Molecular Workbench Review
The Importance of Membrane
Systems in Photosynthesis
Stomata Number and Structure

Teaching Strategy and Approach

It is easiest to start with something that the students are familiar with, such as heterotrophs
and autotrophs, including a discussion about chemosynthesizers. You will want to explain both
the light and dark reactions, emphasizing the importance of the light reaction as the energy
source for the dark reaction. The structure of the chloroplast needs to be fully appreciated
because of the role of membranes in the function of the light reaction.
Lab Investigation 5 focuses on photosynthesis. In addition to learning about the connection
between light and photosynthesis, this lab provides the opportunity to work on the following
quantitative skills: calculating rate, preparing solutions, preparing serial dilutions, measuring
light intensity, developing and applying indices to represent the relationship between two
quantitative values, using reciprocals to modify graphical representations, utilizing medians,
graphing.
Class time: six 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—25 minutes on energy use and the light and dark reaction of
L
photosynthesis.
Activity 1: A Molecular Workbench Review—20 min.
Day 2:  ctivity 2: The Importance of Membranes OR Activity 3: The Floating Disk
A
Leaf—10 minutes for set up, 30 minutes to let it run, 10 minutes to observe/
discuss results.
While Activity 2 runs:

34 CHAPTER 7 | Photosynthesis
  ecture—15 minutes on light and photosynthesis, the cross-section of a leaf,
L
the structure of chlorophyll, and factors that can affect photosynthesis.
 ctivity 4: students develop a metaphor for a portion of photosynthesis—
A
15 minutes
Day 3:  ecture—15 minutes on evolutionary responses to environmental conditions
L
in photosynthesis and the wavelengths of light used in photosynthesis.
Class discussion—5 minutes to review of tissues in at leaf cross section.
Activity 5: Stomata Number and Structure—25 minutes.
Day 4:  ecture—25 minutes on data analysis and ET50 ; inverse relationships vs. direct
L
relationships.
Investigation 5 of the AP Biology Laboratory Manual—20 minutes to divide
students into lab groups of three or four. Have students choose their IVs and
design their own experiment, with teacher approval.
Day 5: Complete Investigation 5, Part 2—45 minutes
Day 6: Lab group presentation and analysis of Investigation 5—45 minutes
Teaching Tips: One of the hardest concepts for students to grasp is that the function of
chlorophyll is to donate electrons after solar energy has been absorbed. These initial
electrons start the whole process of photosynthesis and without the initial electrons, there
would not be carbon fixation. A simple demonstration can focus student awareness on these
electrons. The teacher can make a solution from ethanol (250 mL) and spinach leaves (50 g)
that will provide the evidence of excited electrons to students. Put spinach in a mortar and
add alcohol, and mash the spinach until you form a green solution, then strain it through
cheesecloth. Avoid a blender because of the possibility of sparks close to the alcohol. Decant
the solution into a jar or test tube that can be tightly sealed to prevent vaporization of the
alcohol while students observe the florescence. Turn off the lights in your room and shine a
UV light onto the solution and it will glow red. This is impressive and students’ interest is
captured. You can be as dramatic as you want with this and may even want to stage a crime
scene and let the students use pocket UV light to find clues.
For more information on data analysis techniques before assigning students Investigation 5,
see the teacher information in Investigation 5 and the AP Quantitative Skills Guide that can be
downloaded from the College Board website.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

When talking about the evolution of C4 and CAM plants, students will want to view these
adaptations as something that plants changed in order to survive in a dry, hot climate. It is
hard for students to remember that plants with a possible mutation that would give them a
different structure actually were the plants that survived in the dry, hot climates. Several
changes that were probably caused by mutations led to the different enzymes and structures
that constitute today’s C4 and CAM plants. Plants did not choose to change but they changed
due to mutations that gave them an advantage in their environment and enabled them to live
and pass on their genes.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. A Molecular Workbench Review: Students will navigate a website in order to review
photosynthesis.
This website is a great location to review the process of photosynthesis and the
interaction of light. It will require downloading their free, open-source software.
A link is available in your online course.

Teacher Manual 35
2. The Importance of Membrane Systems: Students will observe the color change of an
electron acceptor in the presence of a chloroplast solution. This is a teacher-lead
demonstration, outlined below.
This activity will drive home the importance of the chloroplast membrane to the process of
photosynthesis. It can be done as a demonstration in front of the class. The chemicals
listed below (phosphate buffer, DPIP) can be ordered from a chemical supply company.
The chemical DPIP can be used to take the place of NADP in photosynthesis. DPIP is an
electron acceptor and receives electrons from chlorophyll and hydrogen ions to become
DPIPH. It will change from blue to clear as it accepts electrons. The membranes in the
chloroplast are required for the light reaction to occur. If we only chlorophyll, DPIP will not
change to clear. Without the membranes there’s no hydrogen ion gradient and the
reaction will not occur.

Supplies:
Spinach leaves (100 g)
Ethanol (250 mL)
0.5 M cold sucrose (250 mL)
0.1 M phosphate buffer (at least 2 mL)
DPIP (at least 2 mL)
Distilled water (at least 6 mL)
1. Make a solution of just chlorophyll by mashing spinach leaves (50 g) and ethanol
(250 mL), and then straining the solution through cheesecloth. Make a second solution
of chloroplast using 50 g spinach and 250 mL of cold sucrose (0.5 M). Do not strain the
second solution!
2. Set two test tubes up in a rack where students can see them. To each test tube,
add 1 mL phosphate buffer, 1 mL DPIP, and 3 mL distilled water.
3. Add seven drops of chlorophyll solution (strained) to one test tube, and seven
drops of chloroplast solution to the other.
4. Place both tubes in front of a light source and check for color change after 30 minutes.
Note to Teachers: The DPIP will not change color (be reduced) in the presence of
only chlorophyll. This is because there is no membrane system to build up the H+
concentration. The DPIP will change color in the presence of the chloroplast because
there is still an intact membrane system that allows for the movement of the H+ ions.
3. The Floating Leaf Disk: Students will indirectly measure the rate of photosynthesis using
leaf disks. Full directions and a link to a video of the procedure can be found in your online
course.
4. Photosynthesis Metaphor: Students will develop a metaphor to explain a portion of the
process of photosynthesis.
It is important students develop a strong grasp on the light-dependent reactions and can
follow the flow of energy through PSII, the ETC, to PSI. Students should learn where the
reactions occur physically within the cells of the plant as well.
While students are not required to memorize the steps of the Calvin Cycle, the structures
of the molecules, or the names of the enzymes (with the exception of ATP synthase), they
should learn the steps within it and the final products.
For this activity, divide your classroom into pairs or groups of three. Assign each pair or
group either the light or dark cycle or a portion of each cycle (PSII, the ETC, etc). The
students must then develop a metaphor that describes the process of what is occurring
in the system. Examples include: a ball pit for the ETC or a factory floor for PSII.
After the students have developed their metaphor model, have them present it to the
rest of the class. What did they choose to represent the different portions of their cycle
and why?

36 CHAPTER 7 | Photosynthesis
 Differentiated Instructions: Students may choose to illustrate the process of
photosynthesis if they are stronger visual learners. Drawings could include a chloroplast
with its membrane structure, correct placement of the electron transport chain, and ATP
synthase. The drawings could include photosystem I and photosystem II, water, the
production of ATP, and the production NADPH. They should also include a description of
what is occurring in each system.

5. Stomata Number and Structure: Students will investigate guard cells. Full directions for
this activity can be found in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Using Visual and Contextual Support: Advanced

Have student pairs take turns reading the text to one another. Remind that they are reading
for an audience, and that they need to maintain the audience’s interest with their voices.
Move around the room, correcting pronunciation as necessary. Ask students what information
they learn from the title and how the title makes them approach the text. Have pairs discuss
their opinions. Then have them share their thoughts with the class. Record their contributions
on the board.

Activate Prior Knowledge: Advanced High

Have students use the information on the KWL chart to give a short oral presentation about
the passage.
Subject (ex. Photosynthesis)
K—What I Already Know
From experience From previewing
Happens in plants Is Green
Needs light
W—What I Want to Learn
What does photosynthesis do?
How does photosynthesis happen?
L—What I Learned
Photosynthesis occurs when chlorophyll absorbs free energy from light and is transferred to PSII and PSI before
entering the ETC.
Photosynthesis transforms light energy into glucose and O2
What I Want to Know More About How will I Learn More
What happens during the ETC? Read an article
Find an animation

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 7.1, Check Your Progress 3. Describe the products autotrophs provide
1. Which process do autotrophs use to produce food? heterotrophs through photosynthesis.
Autotrophs produce food through photosynthesis Autotrophs provide heterotrophs with carbohydrates and
oxygen.
2. Distinguish the part of a chloroplast that absorbs
solar energy from the part that forms a Section 7.2, Check Your Progress
carbohydrate. 1. List the reactants and products of
Chloroplasts have grana and stroma. Grana are made up of photosynthesis.
thylakoids, which are membranous disks. Their membrane
The reactants are carbon dioxide and water (with solar energy),
absorbs solar energy. The stroma is a semifluid interior where
and the products are glucose, water, and oxygen
carbohydrates are formed.

Teacher Manual 37
 2. How is energy transformed during the light Answer: b; During the course of photosynthesis, H2O is oxidized,
reactions? losing hydrogens that are used to form glucose (C6H12O6). These
hydrogens contain energy that originally came from sunlight.
During light reactions, energy is transformed from solar energy
to chemical energy (ATP, NADPH) via the electron transport 2. Chemiosmosis occurs in both cellular respiration
chain. (in mitochondrion) and in photosynthesis (in
chloroplast). How does chemiosmosis differ
Section 7.3, Check Your Progress in the two processes?
1. Summarize the electron transport chain. A) in the electron sources
The electron transport chain is a series of carriers that pass B) in the final product
electrons from one to the other. As the electrons pass from one
C) water is made in photosynthesis, and split in
carrier to the next, energy is captured and stored in the form of a
respiration
hydrogen ion (H+) gradient. When these H+ ions flow down their
electrochemical gradient through ATP synthase complexes, ATP D) ETC occurs on membranes in photosynthesis, but
production occurs. occurs in the cytoplasm in respiration
Answer: a; The electron source in photosynthesis is water,
2. Describe the movement of electrons from water ultimately. Absorption of light energy excites electrons in
to NADP+ in the light reactions. pigments; when these pigments lose electrons, they are
Electrons move from water through sequential molecular replaced by splitting water. In aerobic respiration, the electrons
complexes within the thylakoid membrane, and the last one come from the glucose molecule, ferried by NADH and FADH2.
passes electrons to NADP+, after which it becomes NADPH. The final product in both cases is ATP.

3. The interior of the chloroplast is rich in membranes

Section 7.4, Check Your Progress called thylakoids. These membranes form a series
1. Describe the inputs and products of the Calvin of interconnected flattened sacs. How does this
cycle. structural arrangement benefit the photosynthetic
In the Calvin cycle, the inputs are carbon dioxide, ATP, and process?
NADPH, and the products are sugar (two G3P). A) Thylakoids prevent the products of the light
reactions from interacting with the Calvin cycle.
Section 7.5, Check Your Progress B) Thylakoids provide a protected location for the
1. Explain why different photosynthetic pathways formation of necessary proteins.
may have evolved. C) Thylakoid arrangement greatly increases the
Different photosynthetic pathways may have evolved in different surface area available for the photosynthetic
climates. For example, C4 and CAM plants have an advantage in reactions.
hot, dry climates because they can conserve water better than D) Thylakoid arrangement makes it easier for cell
C3 plants. C4 plants are adapted to areas of high light intensities, division to occur, producing more photosynthetic
high temperatures, and limited rainfall. CAM plants have an cells
advantage in extremely arid regions.
Answer: C; As the molecules making up the photosystems and
2. Explain why C4 photosynthesis is advantageous the electron transport chains are embedded in them, the more
in hot, dry conditions. membrane is present, the more of these systems are available to
perform the light reactions.
C4 photosynthesis is advantageous in hot, dry conditions
because PEPCase does not combine with O2, and 4. In simplified terms, we speak of photosynthesis
photorespiration does not occur. Even when stomata are closed, as a process that produces glucose. To be
CO2 is delivered to the Calvin cycle in the bundle sheath cells, more accurate, photosynthesis produces
allowing for photosynthesis to continue. glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) as a direct
result of the Calvin cycle. What carbohydrate(s)
AP Assessment can be made from G3P?
1. The events of photosynthesis can be summarized A) glucose
in this equation: B) sucrose
6CO2 + 12H2O + light ⟶ C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 C) starch
Which statement correctly describes something D) all of the above
that happens to a reactant in this reaction? Answer: d; Once made, G3P’s tend to leave the chloroplast and
A) CO2 is hydrolyzed to form glucose enter the cytoplasm. There, they can be combined to form
B) H2O is oxidized and loses energy glucose or sucrose (a transport molecule). In times of high G3P
production, reactions are encouraged which form the insoluble
C) light is converted into water
polymer, starch.
D) light splits CO2 to form O2

38 CHAPTER 7 | Photosynthesis
5. A group of plants known as CAM (crassulacean– Description of the mechanisms or structural features and their
acid-metabolism) plants separate the capture and explanation may include:
use of CO2 over time. CO2 is fixed at night, and Descriptions of mechanisms or feature (1 point each)
stored for use during the day. What advantage
• Conversion of ATP to ADP by the freeing of a phosphate
does this give CAM plants?
(mechanism)
A) Lower nighttime temperatures promote carbon
• Photosynthesis (mechanism) uses chlorophyll (feature) to
fixation.
capture energy using NADP+ as its electron acceptor.
B) More ATP is available at night, as it is not being
• The Calvin cycle (mechanism) occurs in the stroma of the
used for light reactions.
chloroplast (feature).
C) Stomata only open at night, allowing gas
• The electron transport chain (mechanism) occurs in
exchange but minimizing the loss of water from
the plant during hot daylight hours. chloroplasts (features) and prokaryotic plasma membranes.
• ATP synthase is an enzyme bound to the membrane.
D) During the day, stomata are fully occupied with
the release of oxygen from light reactions, Explanations (1 point each)
preventing the entry of CO2 at that time.
• Free energy becomes available for metabolism by this
Answer: C; CAM plants typically live in hot climates, so that
conversion, which is coupled to many steps in metabolic
opening stomata during the day would lead to the loss of
pathways.
tremendous amounts of water.
• In photosynthesis, chlorophylls absorb free energy from light,
6. A genetic mutation has caused the signaling boosting electrons to a higher energy level in Photosystems I
mechanism of the stoma in a leaf to no longer and II.
function. How would this mutation affect • This metabolic pathway uses the energy captured during the
photosynthesis? light reactions of photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates
A) Water and oxygen will be prevented from (sugar) from carbon dioxide.
entering the leaf, causing photosynthesis to stop. • The ETC captures free energy from electrons in a series of
B) The leaf will not lose as much water, increasing coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient
the rate of photosynthesis. across membranes
C) The carbon dioxide already in the leaves will • The flow of protons back through ATP synthase by
be used, and thus photosynthesis will not be chemiosmosis generates ATP from ADP and inorganic
affected. phosphate.
D) Carbon dioxide will not be able to enter the leaf, 9. Fitness describes an organism’s ability to
stopping photosynthesis. survive and reproduce in a given environment.
Answer: d; If a leaf’s stoma close, no gas exchange will occur, Construct an explanation for how variation in
preventing photosynthesis from taking place pigment molecules and the absorption of light by
7. A Belgian doctor, Jan Baptista van Helmont chloroplasts provide photosynthetic organisms
(1580–1644), planted a small willow tree in a pot with a higher degree of fitness.
of soil. He weighed the tree and the soil. The tree Explanation may include the following (1 point each):
was watered for five years and weighed 74.4 kg
• Evidence referred to by student might include classroom
more than when he began, and the soil lost 57 g
investigations where chlorophyll is removed from plant cells
of mass. Explain what accounts for the plant’s and observations under white light and black light are
increase in biomass. compared, or where pigments from a green plant are
Plants generate molecules to use in their biomass through separated using paper chromatography, or a graph might be
carbon fixation. By capturing and converting carbon dioxide into drawn to illustrate the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic
sugars through photosynthesis, plants can build the structural pigments where light ranges from 390 to 750 nm wavelengths
molecules they need to add biomass. While they remove water and the relative absorption of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and
and some ions from the soil, the bulk of the increase in biomass carotenoids are compared.
would come through carbon fixation. • Photosynthetic organisms differ in the types of chlorophyll
8. Construct an explanation of the mechanism they contain. In plants, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b play
prominent roles in photosynthesis. Carotenoids play an
and structural features of cells that allow
accessory role.
organisms to capture, store or use free energy.
• Pigment molecules absorb wavelengths of light. Most
A) Describe two mechanisms or structural features
pigments absorb only some wavelengths; they reflect or
of cells employed for use in photosynthesis.
transmit the other wavelengths. The pigments in chloroplasts
B) Explain how the two features you described in are capable of absorbing various portions of visible light. Both
part (a) function to allow organisms to capture, chlorophylls a and b absorb violet, blue and red light better
store or use free energy. than the light of other colors. The carotenoids are able to
absorb light in the violet-blue-green range.

Teacher Manual 39
 • Carotenoid pigments (yellow and orange) become noticeable A) Explain which crop would produce more biomass
in the fall when chlorophyll breaks down. If only chlorophyll with equal resources.
pigments were used by a plant, solar energy would not be Maize, as it uses all listed resources more efficiently.
captured by plants in fall and winter.
B) Identify which crop would make a physiologically
10. Climate change is predicted to have many better food source.
impacts on living things and their environments.
Maize is better than rice when it comes to water use efficiency,
One hypothesized outcome is that increasing
nitrogen use efficiency, and light use efficiency. Because it is
atmospheric CO2 levels might favor C4 plants more efficient than using resources, maize would physiologically
over C3 plants. Scientists have measured make a better food crop
increasing concentrations of CO2 in our
atmosphere. Increasing CO2 affects Earth’s C) Conclude which crop from the table will fare
climate, and it might also be affecting plant better with increased climate change.
growth. Higher levels of CO2 could accelerate Since maize is a C4 crop and better adapted to areas with high
photosynthesis. The table above compares three light and high humidity, it will thrive in areas that are getting
physiological factors related to growth in two warmer with climate change.
crop plants: rice (C3) and maize (C4).

40 CHAPTER 7 | Photosynthesis
CHAPTER 8
Cellular Respiration

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

8.1 Overview of Cellular 1 3.6 Cellular Respiration
Respiration
8.2 Outside the Mitochondria: 1 3.6 Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
8.3 Outside the Mitochondria: 2 3.6 Cellular Respiration
Fermentation
8.4 Inside the Mitochondria 2 3.6 Cellular Respiration
8.5 Metabolism
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 8 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 3

Online Activities
Modeling Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration Scramble

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The challenge here is to teach enough information for students to understand cellular
respiration without overloading them with too much detail.
Class time: six 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Activity 1: Introduction to Cellular Respiration—15 minutes
 ecture—30 minutes on structure of the mitochondria, glycolysis, and
L
fermentation.
Day 2:  ctivity 1, continued. Check on the reaction set up the previous day—10
A
minutes
 ecture—20 minutes on the preparatory reaction, citric acid cycle, and electron
L
transport chain.
Or either of the following:
Activity 2: Modeling Cellular Respiration
Activity 3: Cellular Respiration Scramble
Day 3:  ecture—20 minutes on proteins and lipids in cellular respiration, connecting
L
photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Investigation 6: Introduction and respirometer set-up—25 minutes
Day 4: Investigation 6, continued—students will conduct the first procedure and
determine their plan for independent investigation—45 minutes

Teacher Manual 41
Day 5: Investigation 6, continued—students will conduct independent investigations
into cellular respiration—45 minutes
Day 6: Summative assessment
Teaching Tips: One of the hardest concepts for students to grasp is that the function of
chlorophyll is to donate electrons after solar energy has been absorbed. These initial
electrons start the whole process of photosynthesis and without the initial electrons, there
would not be carbon fixation. A simple demonstration can focus student awareness on these
electrons. The teacher can make a solution from ethanol (250 mL) and spinach leaves (50 g)
that will provide the evidence of excited electrons to students. Put spinach in a mortar and
add alcohol, and mash the spinach until you form a green solution, then strain it through
cheesecloth. Avoid a blender because of the possibility of sparks close to the alcohol. Decant
the solution into a jar or test tube that can be tightly sealed to prevent vaporization of the
alcohol while students observe the florescence. Turn off the lights in your room and shine a
UV light onto the solution and it will glow red. This is impressive and students’ interest is
captured. You can be as dramatic as you want with this and may even want to stage a crime
scene and let the students use pocket UV light to find clues.
For more information on data analysis techniques before assigning students Investigation 5,
see the teacher information in Investigation 5 and the AP Quantitative Skills Guide that can be
downloaded from the College Board website.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One of the most difficult concepts for students to grasp is that all organisms must undergo
cellular respiration. A common misconception is that plants undergo photosynthesis and that
animals undergo cellular respiration. Using germinating seeds as the organism for Lab 6:
Cellular Respiration helps to dispel this misconception.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Introduction to Cellular Respiration: Students will observe that both plant and animal
organisms undergo cellular respiration.
This demonstration will show students that plants and animals undergo cellular
respiration. Explain to students that bromothymol blue (BTB) changes color from blue to
yellow in response to pH change, and that CO2 in water produces an acid. BTB can be
used as an indicator for carbon dioxide. Place a straw into a beaker with water and BTB.
Gently blow through the straw until the BTB changes from blue to yellow. Ask students to
explain this. They should understand that when you breathe out, you are releasing CO2,
on product of respiration.
Set up the test tubes as follows:
Test tube 1: water and BTB
Test tube 2: water, BTB, and water plant (Elodea)
Test tube 3: water, BTB, snail
Test tube 4: water, BTB, snail, water plant
Place all tubes in a dark location so that photosynthesis cannot take place. Have students
record their predictions on what they think will happen. During the following class period,
have students check the test tubes and record what actually happened. Have students
explain why the tubes look like they do.
2. Modeling Cellular Respiration: Students will use the board game Mouse Trap to model
cellular respiration.
As the process of cellular respiration has many steps that happen at the cellular level, it is
easy for students to not fully understand the purpose of each stage. This activity developed

42 CHAPTER 8 | Cellular Respiration

 by Bentley and Connaughton (2017) is a fun alternative for students to clearly see what
goes on during the stages of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and within the electron transport
chain. It uses the readily available game Mouse Trap™ by Hasbro. The board and pieces
are modified using markers or post-it notes/stickers/label tape to identify the three stages
of respiration. Students must assemble the model correctly and then “make” ATP. As there
is only one correct way to assemble this board, this game is ideal for this activity.
For complete directions, see: Bentley, M., and V. P. Connaughton. “A simple way for
students to visualize cellular respiration: Adapting the board game MousetrapTM to model
complexity. CourseSource.” (2017).
3. Cellular Respiration Scramble: Students select and place the events of cellular respiration
in the correct order.
After you have described the process of cellular respiration to your classroom, place your
students into pairs. You may also choose to have students do this activity while you
lecture.
Provide each pair with a paper plate, cut outs of the different phases of cellular respiration
(either key words or diagrams), and tokens to represent ATP, such a poker chips or
pennies.
Tell student that the paper plate will represent the mitochondria and the table is the
cytoplasm. Students will then arrange the correct order of phases and where they occur
(either in the mitochondria or in the cytoplasm).
After they have correctly arranged where the steps occur, have the students use their ATP
to show where ATP is use and where it is formed by placing their ATP tokens next on the
right and left of each phase. Students are not required to memorize the details of each
reaction or the specific enzymes within each phase, but they should understand that each
process beings with an energy-investment step and continues with energy-harvesting
step.
You may also challenge your students to explain the different between glycolysis and
fermentation.

Differentiated Instruction: If students are struggling putting the phases in the correct
order or seem overwhelmed with the number of different steps, you may find a labeled
diagram of the different phases for the students to work from while they perform this
activity.

Alternatively, you may provide students with an unlabeled diagram so that the students
can correctly identify the different phases and then write out in their own words what
happens during each phase.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Oral Language Development: Beginning

Before reading the lesson use images or realia to introduce each vocabulary word. Have
students repeat each word and point to the visual representation as you review vocabulary.

Practice Linguistic Patterns: Talking Stick: Beginning or Intermediate

Have students work in small groups. This strategy allows every student to have an opportunity
to speak several times. Ask a question or give a prompt about fermentation and then pass a
stick or other object to the student. The student speaks, everyone listens, and then passes
the object to the next person. The next student speaks, everyone listens then the student
passes the object on until everyone has had one or two turns.

Teacher Manual 43
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 8.1, Check Your Progress end products are either lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or ethyl
alcohol and CO2 (alcoholic fermentation).
1. Describe how the formula for cellular respiration
includes both oxidation and reduction reactions. 3. List the advantages and disadvantages of
Cellular respiration is an oxidation-reduction reaction that breaks fermentation.
down nutrients into energy. When hydrogen atoms are removed Advantages: food and alcohol production, chemicals of industrial
from glucose, so are electrons (oxidation). When hydrogen importance production, essential for animals and tissues for
atoms are added to oxygen, so are electrons reduction). rapid energy bursts. Disadvantages: low yield of ATP (low
efficiency).
2. Explain why NAD+ and FAD are needed during
cellular respiration.
Section 8.4, Check Your Progress
NAD+ is a coenzyme of oxidation-reduction (redox). When a
metabolite is oxidized, NAD+ accepts two electrons plus a 1. Explain when carbon is converted from glucose
hydrogen ion, and NADH results. FAD is another coenzyme of into carbon dioxide during cellular respiration.
redox reactions, accepting two electrons and two hydrogen ions Carbon is converted from glucose to carbon dioxide during
to become FADH2. glycolysis and the prep reaction and citric acid cycle.
3. Describe the four phases of complete glucose 2. Examine which processes during glucose
breakdown, including which release CO2 and breakdown produce the most ATP.
which produce H2O. The most ATP is produced during the electron transport chain
Glycolysis (1) in the cytoplasm produces pyruvate, which enters (32 or 34 ATP out of 36 to 38 per glucose).
mitochondria if oxygen is available. The preparatory reaction
(2) breaks pyruvate down and occurs twice per glucose molecule. 3. Compare the function of the mitochondrial inner
The citric acid cycle (3) forms two 6-carbon citrate molecules, membrane to a hydroelectric dam.
released CO2, and produces ATP. The electron transport chain Just as the walls of a dam hold back water, allowing it to collect,
(4) receives the electrons that were removed from glucose so do cristae hold back hydrogen electrons in the electron
breakdown products and produces energy and water. transport chain. Eventually, a strong electrochemical gradient
develops, just as energy builds up behind a dam.
Section 8.2, Check Your Progress
1. Explain where ATP is used and produced in Section 8.5, Check Your Progress
glycolysis. 1. Evaluate how catabolism and anabolism are
ATP is used to activate glucose by adding phosphate, and ATP is balanced within a cell.
produced through substrate-level ATP synthesis (converting BPG Degradative reactions (catabolism) must be dynamically
to 3PG and PEP to pyruvate). There is a net gain of two ATP from balanced with constructive reactions (anabolism) in order to
glycolysis. maintain a pool of particular substrates needed for optimal
cellular function.
2. Explain how ATP is produced from ADP and
phosphate during glycolysis. 2. Compare the structure and function of
ATP is produced from ADP and phosphate when an enzyme chloroplasts and mitochondria
passes a high-energy phosphate to ADP, creating ATP. This is Both chloroplasts and mitochondria use membranes (thylakoids
called substrate-level ATP synthesis. of the grana and cristae, respectively), the electron transport
chain, and enzymes. Chloroplasts use energy to produce
3. Summarize the location, inputs, and outputs of glucose through photosynthesis, while mitochondria use glucose
glycolysis. to produce energy through cellular respiration.
Glycolysis takes place within the cytoplasm outside the
mitochondria. The inputs are one glucose, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP, AP Assessment
and 4 ADP + 4 phosphates; and the outputs are two pyruvate
molecules, 2 NADH, 2 ADP, and 4 ATP.
1. The ultimate goal of cellular respiration is to
produce ATP. Cells use two different mechanisms
to do this: substrate-level phosphorylation
Section 8.3, Check Your Progress
and oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative
1. Explain fermentation’s role in NAD+ regeneration. phosphorylation produces the majority of ATP in
Fermentation is an anaerobic process that regenerates NAD+ to eukaryotes. Which process listed below does not
be used in the energy-harvesting phase of glycolysis. occur during oxidative phosphorylation?
2. Summarize the two forms of fermentation. A) a proton gradient is developed through
Lactic acid and alcoholic are the two types of fermentation. Both chemiosmosis
consist of glycolysis followed by a reduction of pyruvate, and B) a phosphate group is transferred from a substrate
produce a limited amount of ATP in the absence of oxygen. The to ADP

44 CHAPTER 8 | Cellular Respiration

 C) ATP synthase transfers a phosphate group electron acceptor, reducing it to the methane for
to ADP which they are named. In times past—3 billion
D) electrons are transferred between electron years ago—they were much more abundant.
acceptors in the mitochondrial membrane What is the most likely explanation for why
Answer: C; In substrate-level phosphorylation, a phosphate- methanogens were common then but restricted
bearing intermediate molecule transfers its phosphate to today?
another molecule. The phosphate being transferred conserves A) Methanogens were wiped out by the evolution of
the energy in its former bond, and that energy is transferred to multicellular organisms.
its new molecule.
B) Early humans actively destroyed the marshes
2. In the process of glycolysis, glucose is split where methanogens thrived.
and put through a series of reactions that C) The early Earth atmosphere was deficient in
ultimately produce two molecules of pyruvate. carbon dioxide.
This series of steps produces four molecules of D) As photosynthesis had not evolved 3 bya, oxygen
ATP. However, when totaling up the number of was not present to inhibit their anaerobic
ATP’s made in respiration, only two ATP’s are processes.
listed as coming from glycolysis. Why? Answer: D; The early Earth atmosphere was virtually devoid of
A) Four molecules of ATP are made, but two of them oxygen. Oxygen-producing bacteria became abundant enough
are unstable and break down. to enrich the atmosphere about 2.5 bya. This oxygen, released
B) Four molecules of ATP are made, but two of them by their photosynthetic activities, made it possible for the
are immediately released out of the cell. eventual evolution of aerobic respiration.

C) In order to begin the reaction, two molecules of 5. While we think of cellular respiration as
NADH consume two ATPs. starting with the breakdown of glucose, other
D) In order to begin the reaction, two molecules of monomers can also have energy extracted
ATP are split to provide activation energy. from them. For example, amino acids may be
Answer: D; Glucose is activated to begin the reaction when ATP deaminated and then enter the Krebs/citric acid
donates a phosphate by substrate-level phosphorylation. A cycle. What happens when amino acids are
second phosphorylation donates a second phosphate, preparing deaminated?
glucose to be cleaved into two phosphate-bearing molecules A) the molecule is killed
(BPG). The use of the initial two ATPs sets the BPGs up for further
B) the molecule is frozen in one shape
rearrangements that ultimately allow for the formation of 4 new
ATPs. C) an amino group is added to the molecule
D) an amino group is removed from the molecule
3. It is common knowledge that humans need
to breathe in oxygen, and that without it humans Answer: D; Once the amino group has been removed, the
remaining molecule is converted into something that can enter
die. What is the direct cause of death when
the Krebs cycle. High-energy electrons can then be removed and
deprived of oxygen? become part of the ATP-producing process.
A) Oxygen is required as the final electron acceptor
in the electron transport chain of oxidative 6. Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria
phosphorylation; without it, the process stops. of eukaryotes. Aerobic prokaryotes do not have
B) Oxygen molecules attract electrons from water mitochondria, but can perform aerobic respiration
molecules, releasing hydrogen; as hydrogen by utilizing infoldings of their plasma membranes.
builds up, cells become too acidic. What advantage is provided by both mitochondrial
C) Without oxygen, glycolysis will not occur, and no membranes and bacterial membranes?
pyruvate is created for the Krebs cycle. A) increased surface area, providing space for more
D) Without oxygen, coenzyme A cannot be oxidized reactions
and will not release the acetyl group into the B) increased protection for the substrates of
Krebs cycle. respiration
Answer: A; If oxygen is not present, electron acceptors in the C) both provide holding areas for all of the enzymes
ETC cannot pass along electrons. NADH cannot deliver electrons needed for Krebs cycle
to the beginning of the ETC, and no free NAD+ are available for D) both divide the cell into very dry areas suitable
other steps in the process of cellular respiration. The whole for hydrophobic molecules
process stops, and cells quickly run out of ATP.
Answer: A; The cristae of mitochondria are highly folded, as are
4. Members of the domain Archaea such as certain regions of bacterial plasma membranes. This increased
methanogens are currently found in anoxic surface area gives more places where electron transport chains
environments such as marsh soils and the can occur.
digestive systems of ruminants. There they
practice anaerobic respiration, using CO2 as an

Teacher Manual 45
 7. In complex metabolic processes such as aerobic Answer: A; Duck breast muscles support the activity of the
respiration, events must occur in a particular wings, and are rich in mitochondria for that reason.
order. Which series correctly displays the correct 10. Infection by viruses can significantly affect
order of events in aerobic respiration from cellular respiration and the ability of cells to
beginning to end? produce ATP. To test the effect of viral infection
A) glycolysis → electron transport chain → citric on the stages of cellular respiration, cells were
acid/Krebs cycle → chemiosmosis infected with a virus, and the amount of lactic
B) glycolysis → citric acid/Krebs cycle → electron acid and ATP produced were measured.
transport chain → chemiosmosis A) Analyze how the virus affected lactic acid
C) chemiosmosis → glycolysis → citric acid/Krebs production in the cells.
cycle → electron transport chain The virus increased lactic acid production after four hours.
D) chemiosmosis → electron transport chain →
glycolysis → citric acid/Krebs cycle B) After 8 hours, calculate the percent difference in
lactic acid levels in the virus and control groups.
Answer: B; Glucose is first split in glycolysis, resulting in 2 By what percentage was ATP production
molecules of pyruvate. This substrate is thoroughly broken down decreased?
in the citric acid cycle. The electrons conserved in the first two
processes are then put through the ETC, finishing with After 8 h, the virus increased lactic acid production by
chemiosmosis and the production of ATP approximately 75% and decreased ATP production by
approximately 28%.
8. The chemical 2, 4-Dinotrophenol (DNP) was used
C) Infer why having a virus such as the flu might
in the 1930s as a diet aid. It appeared to work by
make a person feel tired.
increasing metabolism, causing fat to be burned
because of decreased ATP synthesis
off. Its use was discontinued when it was
discovered that lethal side effects could occur. 11. Construct an explanation of the mechanism and
Today we know that DNP reduces the proton structural features of cells that allow organisms to
gradient across mitochondrial membranes. capture, store or use free energy.
Predict the likely outcome of that reduction. A) Describe TWO mechanisms or structural features
A) Protons that are lost from the proton gradient of cells employed for use in photosynthesis.
increase the acidity of the mitochondrion to B) Explain how the two features you described in
destructive levels. part (a) function to allow organisms to capture,
B) Protons that are lost from the proton gradient are store or use free energy.
picked up by NADH and enter the electron Description of the mechanisms or structural features and their
transport chain. explanation may include:
C) Proton motive force does not build up, and the
Descriptions of mechanisms or feature (1 point each)
energy of the proton gradient is dissipated as
heat energy. • Conversion of ATP to ADP by the freeing of a phosphate
D) Proton motive force builds up faster than it can (mechanism)
be used, producing excess heat energy. • The electron transport chain (mechanism) occurs in
Answer: C; Proton motive force depends on having an mitochondria (features) and prokaryotic plasma membranes.
appreciable difference from one side of the mitochondrial • ATP synthase is an enzyme bound to the membrane.
membrane to the other. It is this difference that leads protons to • Cellular respiration (mechanism—step-by-step enzymatic
follow the gradient through ATP synthase when its channel is processes of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle metabolize
opened, creating ATP. carbohydrates to water and CO2) occurs in the cytoplasm and
9. The presence of abundant mitochondria causes in mitochondria (features) using oxygen as its electron
muscle tissue to appear dark in color, as seen acceptor.
in the “dark meat” of chickens, for example. Explanations (1 point each)
Chickens are primarily walking ground dwellers.
• Free energy becomes available for metabolism by this
Predict the appearance of meat taken from
conversion, which is coupled to many steps in metabolic
ducks, which are known for long distance flying. pathways.
A) duck thighs will be light, while duck breasts will • The ETC captures free energy from electrons in a series of
be dark coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient
B) duck thighs will be dark, while duck breasts will across membranes. NAD and FAD ferry electrons and H+ ions
be light to the electron transport chain where they power ATP
C) duck thighs and breasts will have the same production by chemiosmosis.
intermediate color • The flow of protons back through ATP synthase by
D) duck thighs and breasts will both be dark chemiosmosis generates ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate.

46 CHAPTER 8 | Cellular Respiration

 • Energy is captured (ATP is formed from ADP and inorganic Explanations (1 point each)
phosphate) in the rearrangement of the bonds of glucose
• Location of the electron transport chain (ETC)—cristae contain
molecules in glycolysis. In the Krebs cycle in the
enzymes important to ATP production, and increase the
mitochondrion, more ATP is synthesized via substrate level
surface area for ATP production. A maximum ideal of 32 to
phosphorylation and electrons are captured by coenzymes.
34 ATP molecules may be produced by the ETC.
12. During cellular respiration, nutrient molecules • Location of the prep reaction and the Krebs cycle (citric acid
produced by autotrophs are broken down to cycle). The prep reaction is important because it converts the
acquire energy for cells. products from glycolysis into products that enter the citric acid
A) Draw a model of a mitochondrion and label at cycle—yields 4 ATP molecules. Also the location of
least TWO important features. mitochondrial DNA, RNA’s and proteins.
B) Explain how TWO of the features you labeled in • The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is
part (a) provide essential functions for the cell. highly convoluted, forming folds called cristae. This double-
membrane structure provides increased surface area and
Description of the mechanisms or structural features and their allows compartmentalization of Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
explanation may include: enzymes and electron transport chain functions. Disruption of
Labeled component (3 required; 1 point each) the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane
space to leak into the cytosol, leading to cell death. The inner
• Cristae (folds of inner membrane that jut out into the matrix) membrane contains the proteins for oxidative phosphorylation
• Matrix (the innermost compartment which is filled with a and ATP synthase.
gel-like fluid)
• Double membrane—phospholipid bilayers
• inner membrane—less permeable
• outer membrane—more permeable
• intermembrane space

Teacher Manual 47
CHAPTER 9
The Cell Cycle and
Cellular Reproduction
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
9.1 The Cell Cycle 2 4.6 Cell Cycle
4.7 Regulation of Cell Cycle
9.2 The Eukaryotic Chromosome
9.3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 2 4.6 Cell Cycle
9.4 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 1 4.7 Regulation of Cell Cycle
9.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 9 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4

Online Activities
Modeling Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration Scramble

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Students know about mitosis and all the associated stages. The new material will be how DNA
is packed around the histones and how cancer forms. Students probably will have never
heard about the control and checkpoints in the cell cycle. The signals that control cell division
is a great example of cell communication. When the cell signaling mechanism is not normal
cancer can result.
The scientific assessment on this material should be combined with the material in chapter 10.
One way to prepare high school students for college is to combined material and preparing a
unit test.
Class time: five 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—15 minutes about mitosis, the control points, and functions of signal
molecules
and/or Activity 1: Cell Cycle Refresher
Part 1 of Investigation 7—Modelling mitosis—15 minutes
Have students meet in lab groups of 3 or 4 to decide on the treatment (IV) for
their onion root tips, in preparation for Part 2 of Investigation 7—15 min.
Day 2: Part 2 of Investigation 7—45 minutes
Day 3: Lecture—20 minutes about cancer and the cell cycle
Activity 2: Understanding Cancer—10 minutes
Part 3 of Investigation 7—15 minutes

48 CHAPTER 9 | The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction

Day 4: Complete Part 2 of Investigation 7—45 minutes
Day 5: Lecture—10 minutes on explanation of Chi-square
Activity 3: Chi-square modelling with M&Ms—20 minutes
Activity 4: Chi-square practice problems—10 minutes
Discussion on how to model Investigation 7 data with chi-square—5 minutes
Teaching Tips: The College Board AP Investigative Labs Manual Investigation 7 (Cell Division:
Mitosis and Meiosis) Part 1, Part 2, and Part 3 should be completed alongside Chapter 9.
The parts of Investigation 7 on meiosis and sexual reproduction, modeling meiosis (Part 4) and
crossing over in (Part 5) should be completed with chapter 10.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Most students do not realize that the cell cycle is a continuous process. Because we have
divided in mitosis into four stages, students envision cells stopping at the end of each stage.
It is important for students to see a video clip of an actual cell undergoing mitosis to see that it
is a continuous process and that the stages are artificial steps humans have developed for our
own understanding of the process.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Cell Cycle Refresher: Students use index cards to describe the series of events in the cell
cycle.
Provide students index cards before you begin your lecture. Instruct your students to write
the name of the stage one side of the card and the key event that occurs during that
stage on the back as you describe the cell cycle.
Examples: G1/Growth, S/Growth and DNA synthesis, etc.
After you are done speaking, have your students work individually or in pairs to arrange
the steps the correct order of the cell cycle.
After students have the cycles in front of them, describe where check points occur and
how cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases control the cell cycle.
You may choose to also do this type of activity while you describe the steps of mitosis.
2. Understanding Cancer: Students will complete the online tutorial through HHMI
BioInteractive on cancer and the p53 gene. A link to the activity and associated worksheet
can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Have your students research a specific type of cancer that is
of interest to them using primary literature. Students must describe in a presentation or
paper what is known about how this cancer is caused via a disruption to the cell cycle or
apoptosis. Students may work independently, in pairs, or small groups for this project.

While specific cyclin-CdK pairs and growth factors are not required knowledge by the AP
Exam, having students research a specific one will illustrate the importance of internal
controls on cellular regulation.
3. Chi-square Modeling: Students colored candies to understand and model Chi-square.
A worksheet and full directions are available in your online course.
4. Chi-square practice problems: Students complete a worksheet to practice applying
chi-square analysis to real-world data. The worksheet is available in your online course.

Teacher Manual 49
EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening—Beginning
Have students log in to their ebook to hear pronunciations of chapter vocabulary terms. They
can also listen to a complete audio read of the text.

Information in Pictures—Intermediate
Instruct a small group of students to write a paragraph describing what is happening in Figure
9.8 (Progression of cancer). Their paragraphs should describe all parts of the diagram in their
own words. Ask for volunteers to read their paragraphs. Have students ask for clarification as
needed.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 9.1, Check Your Progress Section 9.3, Check Your Progress
1. List, in order, the stages of the cell cycle and 1. Describe the major events that occur during each
briefly summarize what is happening at each phase of mitosis.
stage. Mitosis consists of prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
Interphase: usual cell function. Includes G1 (growth), S (DNA anaphase, and telophase. In prophase, the nucleolus disappears
synthesis), and G2 stages (protein synthesis). and the nuclear envelope fragments. The spindle begins to
assemble. In prometaphase, preparations for sister chromatid
Mitotic stage: mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (division separation occur. During metaphase, the centromeres of
of the cytoplasm). Mitosis can be further divided into prophase, chromosomes are in alignment on a single plane at the cell
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. center. During anaphase, the sister chromatids separate at the
2. Explain what conditions might cause a cell to centromere, giving rise to two daughter chromosomes that move
halt the cell cycle and state briefly where in the away from each other. During telophase, the spindle disappears
and new nuclear envelopes form around the daughter
cycle this would occur.
chromosomes.
The cell cycle might halt if specific cyclins are not present for the
cell to proceed past three checkpoints: at G1 (makes sure DNA is 2. Summarize the differences between cytokinesis
not damaged), G2 (make sure DNA replicated properly), and the in animal and plant cells and explain why the
M checkpoint (makes sure chromosomes are aligned properly). differences are necessary.
3. Discuss how apoptosis represents a Cells are structured differently in plant and animal cells, so
regulatory event of the cell cycle. cytokinesis proceeds differently. In animal cells, a cleavage
furrow and contractile ring separates the cells. In plant cells, the
Apoptosis is programmed cell death, which is necessary to rigid cell walls do not permit furrowing. Instead, new cells walls
maintain balance and homeostasis within a living system. are built between daughter cells using the Golgi apparatus’s
Without this regulation, organisms would continue to grow, vesicles to move microtubules to form a cell plate (new plasma
and damaged cells would not be removed. membrane), which fuses with the old plasma membrane. The
new membrane releases molecules to form new plant cell walls.
Section 9.2, Check Your Progress
3. Discuss the importance of stem cells in the
1. Summarize the differences between euchromatin
human body.
and heterochromatin.
Unlike most adult cells, stem cells retain the ability to divide. This
Euchromatin is loosely coiled DNA representing the active is important to repair injuries or produce red blood cells. They
chromatin containing genes that are being transcribed. are also important for the potential to cure illnesses through
Heterochromatin is a highly compacted form of the chromosome therapeutic cloning.
and is considered inactive chromatin since the genes on it are
rarely if ever transcribed.
Section 9.4, Check Your Progress
2. List the stages of chromosome compacting, 1. List the major characteristics of cancer cells that
starting with a single DNA strand. distinguish them from normal cells.
Single DNA strand > double helix > nucleosomes > euchromatin Cancer cells are different from normal cells in that they are
> heterochromatin > metaphase chromosome. nondifferentiated, have abnormal nuclei, do not undergo
apoptosis, do not exhibit contact inhibition, are disorganized and
multilayered, and undergo metastasis.

50 CHAPTER 9 | The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction

2. Distinguish between a malignant and benign D) The G1 checkpoint stops the cycle if DNA has not
tumor. finished replicating or needs repair from physical
damage.
Benign tumors are not cancerous, and usually do not grow
larger. Malignant tumors are cancerous and possess the ability Answer: C; the G1 checkpoint is the main cell cycle checkpoint.
to spread. If DNA is damaged, it triggers apoptosis. Otherwise, the cell is
committed to divide when growth signals are present and
3. Compare and contrast the effect on the cell nutrients are available.
cycle of (a) a mutation in a proto-oncogene and
(b) a mutation in a tumor suppressor gene. 3. Many different types of proteins are required
for successful cell division. For example, cohesin
A mutation in a proto-oncogene could affect the speed of the
proteins hold together the sister chromatids that
cell cycle, and become oncogenes (cancer-causing genes).
Oncogenes are under constant stimulation and keep promoting are formed after DNA replication. Separase is an
the cell cycle regardless of circumstances. A mutation in a tumor enzyme that destroys cohesin. Predict at which
suppressor gene would no longer inhibit the cell cycle, and point separase will be activated.
could allow for cells to divide uncontrollably. A) late prophase
B) prometaphase
Section 9.5, Check Your Progress C) metaphase
1. Explain how binary fission in prokaryotes differs D) late anaphase
from mitosis and cytokinesis in eukaryotes.
Answer: A; Cohesins at the centromeres are dissolved at the
Binary fission is different from mitosis and cytokinesis in beginning of anaphase. This separates the sister chromatids so
eukaryotes because no spindle is involved, and the chromosome that microtubules can pull them to opposite poles.
consists largely of DNA and few proteins (compared to many
proteins in eukaryotic cells). Binary fission’s function is asexual 4. In order for cells to proceed through the cell
reproduction, whereas mitosis and cytokinesis are important for cycle, they must pass through three checkpoints.
development, growth, and repair in eukaryotes. If certain conditions are met, the cell proceeds.
Which answer is NOT a condition that must be
2. Describe the structure of a prokaryotic and a
met to pass a checkpoint?
eukaryotic chromosome.
A) DNA replication completed correctly
Prokaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA and a limited
number of associated proteins. It is an irregularly shaped region B) chromosomes properly attached to microtubules
of the prokaryote called the nucleoid, which is not enclosed C) chromatin has released histones and is no longer
by a membrane. It is a tightly compacted loop. Eukaryotic highly condensed
chromosomes are composed of DNA, are surrounded by a D) cell has reached appropriate size
nuclear envelope, and are associated with many proteins.
Answer: C; DNA must be highly condensed into compact
chromosomes in order to be efficiently moved around by the
AP Assessment microtubules. The G2/M checkpoint checks for DNA replication,
1. Cell division is the result of a tightly regulated the Spindle checkpoint looks at spindle attachment to
series of events. The cell cycle prepares cells for chromosomes, and the G1/S checkpoint considers cell size.
division by passing them through a number of 5. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CdKs)
stages and checkpoints. If a cell no longer needs are said to drive the cell cycle. As their name
to divide, in which stage of the cell cycle will it implies, CdKs can phosphorylate substrates that
most likely be arrested? are needed for various cell cycle events. CdKs
A) G0 are essentially always present but not always
B) G1 active. How is the activity of Cdks regulated?
C) G2 A) Cyclins promote ATP hydrolysis, releasing
D) M phosphates to activate CdKs.
Answer: A; G0 is the preparatory phase, and where a cell will B) CdKs are activated by binding with cyclins; cyclin
arrest if it does not need to divide. quantities rise and fall during the cell cycle.
C) CdK activation is time-dependent, with more
2. What is the function of the G1 checkpoint? CdKs activating as the cell ages.
A) The G1 checkpoint confirms that cells have
D) CdKs are inhibited when cyclin levels increase,
reached the appropriate size to undergo
and activated when cyclin levels decrease.
division.
Answer: B; Cyclins are synthesized and broken down in
B) The G1 checkpoint occurs between metaphase
progression with the cell cycle. When the right cyclin is present,
and anaphase, and ensures that sister chromatids
it binds to CdK and activates it, initiating the next stage in the
are lined up correctly.
cell cycle.
C) The G1 checkpoint checks for DNA damage,
either signaling for repair or triggering apoptosis.

Teacher Manual 51
6. When cancer develops, the cell cycle is 9. Colchicine is an extract from a plant called
unchecked, with cells continuing to divide when the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale). It has
the shouldn’t. Both proto-oncogenes and tumor been found that colchicine added to cells will
suppressor genes are implicated in cancer, but bind to the protein tubulin, thus inhibiting
are different in their mode of action. Suppose tubulin’s polymerization. Why would this inhibit
that a researcher found that a particular skin mitosis?
cancer occurred when a regulatory protein was A) DNA could not be replicated
disabled, shutting off a cell division process. B) spindles could not form
Which type of genes were mutated to cause this
C) anaphase would be blocked
result?
D) no transcription of tubulin mRNA would occur
A) proto-oncogenes, because they activate growth
factors Answer: B; Spindles are formed from bundles of microtubules,
which in turn are composed of many tubulin subunits. If these
B) proto-oncogenes, because they are always part
subunits are blocked from connecting to each other, the spindle
of skin cancers
cannot form, and mitosis cannot proceed.
C) tumor suppressor genes, because they cause
cancer when they are inactivated 10. Certain cells in humans, known as adult stem
D) tumor suppressor genes, because they are cells, provide valuable maintenance functions.
always part of skin cancers. What can adult stem cells do that most cells
cannot?
Answer: C; Tumor suppressor genes are sometimes likened to
the brakes on a car. When functioning normally, they help cell A) freeze the mitotic process in cells that are
division proceed normally, keeping it at a regular rate. When becoming cancerous
they are inactivated (disabled), it’s like taking off the brakes. B) take up prokaryotic DNA and use it to stabilize
mitosis
7. A researcher has been observing skin cells being
grown in the laboratory. After growing and C) divide to form new cells in certain tissues
dividing normally for some time, the cells start D) differentiate into whatever type of cells are
to round up, with the nucleus collapsing and needed to repair tissues
fragmenting. Predict what will most likely happen Answer: C; Adult stem cells are found in tissues such as bone
next to these cells. marrow. While most adult cells are suspended in the G0 stage,
adult stem cells are free to make mitotic divisions and produce
A) rapid cell division, producing a tumor
new cells as needed.
B) rapid cell division, producing loosely connected
skin cells 11. The cell cycle is a complex set of stages that is
C) blistering of nuclear membrane, resulting in highly regulated with checkpoints. Describe the
multinucleate cell events that occur in the cell cycle, including at
D) blistering of plasma membrane, followed by least one checkpoint.
phagocytosis by white blood cells Descriptions of the events that occur in the cell cycle may
Answer: D; The cells being observed are going through include:
apoptosis, programmed cell death. This can occur if there Events (1 point each, maximum 3 points)
is a defect in a cell, such that it cannot pass checkpoints.
• G1 Growth (Interphase)—Cells recover from the previous
8. Diploid organisms begin life as a single fertilized division, grow in size and increase the number of organelles
egg. Repeated cell divisions are required to present, as well as accumulate materials used for DNA
shape that single cell into a complex multicellular synthesis and performing normal functions such as
organism. However, cells must not only be made communication and cellular respiration.
but also be “trimmed” or eliminated to produce • S Synthesis of DNA (Interphase)—During this stage, replication
the final organism. What process is responsible of DNA occurs. Following replication, each chromosome is
for eliminating unneeded or defective cells? composed of two identical DNA double helix molecules
(chromatids), and the two identical chromatids are called sister
A) apoptosis
chromatids that are attached.
B) phagocytosis
• G2 Growth and preparation for cell division (Interphase)—
C) anaphase reduction During this stage, the cell synthesizes the proteins that will
D) cytokinesis assist cell division, such as those that form microtubules that
Answer: A; Apoptosis destroys cells in an organized fashion. For will form the mitotic spindle.
example, the digits of human fetuses are originally connected to • Mitosis—Mitosis occurs after DNA replication and is followed
each other. Organized cell death destroys the connecting by cytokinesis, and therefore passes a complete genome from
webbing, so that the digits can move freely. the parent cell to daughter cells (producing two genetically
identical daughter cells).

52 CHAPTER 9 | The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction

 • The cell cycle is directed by internal controls or checkpoints. A) Based on the chart, describe the various roles of
Internal and external signals provide stop-and-go signs at the the dystrophin gene and protein. Identify which
checkpoints. Cancer can result from disruptions in cell cycle cellular function is most dependent on the
control. dystrophin gene.
• When a cell specializes, it often enters into a stage where it no Clearly, the dystrophin protein is essential in many different
longer divides, but it can reenter the cell cycle when given intracellular processes. Among them, it is especially active in
appropriate cues. Non-dividing cells may exit the cell cycle; the contractile function of the heart muscle cell (“Contractile
or hold at a particular stage in the cell cycle. Apparatus”), as well as production of ATP as evidenced by its
role in the “Citric Acid Cycle” and “Oxidative Phosphorylation”.
ONE of the following checkpoints (1 point)
B) Muscular dystrophy is the diseases associated
• G1 checkpoint—if DNA is damaged then apoptosis will occur,
with mutations in the gene that produces
otherwise, the cell is committed to divide when growth signals
dystrophin. Hypothesize if the cell cycle has the
are present and nutrients are available
ability to identify or correct mutations, and if so at
• G2 checkpoint—mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated which stage(s).
properly; if DNA is damaged and cannot be repaired, then
Given that the “contractile apparatus” constitutes 31% of all
apoptosis will occur
dystrophin activity within the cell (more than any other cellular
• M checkpoint—mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are function), we can conclude that dystrophin is most vital to
not properly aligned. helping the heart muscle cell contract.
12. The dystrophin gene is one of the longest C) People with the disease muscular dystrophy
known DNA sequences in the human genome exhibit muscle irregularities, and often cannot
and is located on the X chromosome. It codes for walk or breathe without mechanical assistance.
a protein (called dystrophin) that is important Describe how the role of dystrophin in muscle
for a number of structural and biochemical cells explains some of the symptoms observed in
processes within a muscle cell. A defect in this muscular dystrophy.
gene can result in different forms of a disease Many of the symptoms in muscular dystrophy relate to muscle
known as muscular dystrophy. The chart to the weakness and degeneration. Dystrophin holes skeletal muscle
left identifies the different areas of activity of cells together and also relates to their ability to contract. Without
the dystrophin protein inside of a mouse heart dystrophin, muscle fibers cannot contract normally, leading to
muscle cell. The activity is reported in terms of weakness and eventual degeneration.
percentage of all dystrophin associated activity
within the cell.

Teacher Manual 53
CHAPTER 10
Meiosis and Sexual
Reproduction
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
10.1 Overview of Meiosis ½ 5.1 Meiosis
5.1 Meiosis

10.2 Genetic Variation 1 5.2 Meiosis and Genetic Diversity

5.6 Chromosomal Inheritance

5.1 Meiosis
10.3 The Phases of Meiosis ½
5.2 Meiosis and Genetic Diversity
10.4 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis ½ 5.1 Meiosis
10.5 The Cycle of Life
10.6 Changes in Chromosome
½ 5.6 Chromosomal Inheritance
Number and Struture
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 10 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 5

Online Activities
The Great Sperm Race
Sordaria Activity

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The College Board’s AP Biology Investigative Labs contains Investigation 7 - Cell Division:
Mitosis and Meiosis. Part 4 of this lab is modeling meiosis. You probably modeled mitosis
during the Chapter 9 activities. You may use the suggested method for modeling meiosis from
Investigation 7, or you may choose Activity 1 below. I suggest ordering slides or using images
from the internet for the Sordaria activity.
Investigation 7 is rich with activities that provide students with the science practices and
concepts that will help make students successful on the AP Biology Exam. Slides for Part 5
can be obtained from a biological supply company.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on meiosis
 art 4 of Investigation 7 OR Activity 1: Modeling Meiosis and Crossing
P
Over—25 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—5 minutes on the difference between meiosis and fertilization
Activity 2 Mitosis v. Meiosis, as a demonstration—15 minutes
 ecture—25 minutes on non-disjunction, the human diseases that result from
L
chromosomal mutations, and karyotype analysis.

54 CHAPTER 10 | Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Day 3: Lecture—20 minutes on Sordaria
(Optional: Activity 3—The Great Sperm Race)
Investigation 7, Part 5—25 minutes
Teaching Tips: Student should be clear that fertilization is not a part of meiosis, that they are
separate events. Even though meiosis occurs, fertilization does not always follow. Gametes
either engage in a fertilization event or die after 72 hours.
Pointing out the differences between oogenesis that produces only one viable egg and
spermatogenesis that produces 4 viable sperm is important knowledge for students.
Emphasize the areas in meiosis that provide genetic variability. This would include crossing
over where homologous chromosomes exchange pieces of DNA and independent assortment
which is the random movement of homologous chromosomes to the metaphase plate in
Meiosis I and subsequent separation in Anaphase I.
AP students must also be prepared to compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students sometimes confuse the process called meiosis with fertilization and write about
unfertilized chromosomes. They are two separate events. Meiosis is intended to the amount
of genetic material in a sex cell so the two sex cells (gametes) can combine during fertilization
to produce a zygote with the correct amount of genetic material. Providing activities that show
both meiosis and fertilization can dispel this misconception.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Modeling Meiosis and Crossing Over: students will use pool noodles to construct
chromosomes and demonstrate the process of meiosis.
This activity can also be completed as an alternative to Investigation 7, Part 4.
I would suggest preparing two paired chromosomes to represent XY chromosomes. You will
need a total of 8 pool noodles – 4 for each parent.
To represent the male (4 noodles total), you will need 2 for replicated X chromosome and 2
for the replicated Y chromosome.
To represent the female (4 noodles total), you will need 2 noodles to represent one
replicated X chromosomes and 2 noodles to represent the other X chromosome.
Use duct tape of a unique color to circle all X chromosomes, 10 cm from the upper end
of all X chromosomes. The duct tape should be of the same color on two each of the X
chromosomes so you will need two different colors of duct tape. Cut these ends off and
place toothpicks on both sides of the cut chromosomes and then reconnect the
chromosomes. The bottoms of the X “chromosomes” should be marked with a different
color duct tape. These chromosomes can now be used to simulate the formation of a tetrad
and crossing over. The Y chromosomes form a homologous pair. You show independent
assortment by the movement of one X and one Y, or 2 X chromosomes into each of 4
unique haploid cells. The cell membrane can be made using yarn or chalk on the floor.
This can be conducted as a demonstration or you can make enough noodles for the entire class.
This activity was originally developed by:
Locke, John, and Heather E. McDermid. “Using Pool Noodles to Teach Mitosis and Meiosis.”
Genetics 170.1 (2005): 5–6. PMC. Web. 31 Jan. 2018.
2. Mitosis vs Meiosis: Students will create a chart comparing and contrasting the processes
of mitosis and meiosis.
It is important for the AP Exam that students are able to compare and contrast meiosis
and mitosis.

Teacher Manual 55
 Students may have already realized that mitosis and meiosis have many similarities as you
begin this chapter on meiosis, but it is easy to get confused on where the two cycles differ.
To aid your students in better understanding the differences between the two processes,
ask your students to create a table with a column for Meiosis I, Meiosis II, and Mitosis.
Students can then describe the different events in each phase for each cycle. Have the
students place stars on the phases in which distinctly different events occur. Ask your
students to draw a picture of the outcome of each cycle.
3. The Great Sperm Race: students will participate in a teacher-lead demonstration which
shows the difference between meiosis and fertilization. Directions and links to the online
activity are available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: This can be done in addition to the game or instead of the
game. Instruct students to create two flow charts outlining the major steps of meiosis
and fertilization.

4. Sordaria Activity: students will use crossing-over flashcards to determine the percentage of
crossing-over that occurs in Sordaria. Links to the full directions and supplies are available
in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Making Connections – Beginning

Help students access text by using a diagram or an illustration to demonstrate key points. For
example, label the parts of a meiosis diagram. Before reading, explain the diagram and labels
to students using gestures and short phrases. As you read, point out each labeled item on the
diagram to show students how the information in the diagram connects to information in the text.

Sequencing – Advanced
Have students write a paragraph summarizing the sequence of events in meiosis or
fertilization. They may find it useful to first organize the sequences in an outline or a table.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 10.1, Check Your Progress 2. Examine how many combinations of
1. Compare the chromosome number in a parent chromosomes are possible in the gametes in a
cell and a daughter cell after mitosis. cell with four pairs of homologous chromosomes.
After meiosis, the parent cell has 46 chromosomes and the There are 16 possible combinations of chromosomes (24).
daughter cell has 23. 3. Evaluate why meiosis and sexual reproduction
2. Examine how chromosome number changes are important in responding to the changing
during meiosis I and meiosis II. environment.
In meiosis I, the chromosomes replicate and then split, going In a changing environment, meiosis and sexual reproduction
from 2n to n. In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate, might give a few offspring a better chance to survive, thereby
reducing the amount of DNA in n. increasing the possibility of passing on their genes to the next
generation.
3. Explain the purpose of a bivalent in chromosome
pairing. Section 10.3, Check Your Progress
A bivalent ensures that each daughter nucleus has a member 1. Describe the differences between the
from each pair of homologous chromosomes. chromosomal combinations of a cell at
Section 10.2, Check Your Progress metaphase I and metaphase II of meiosis.
At metaphase I, bivalents independently align themselves at
1. Describe the two main ways in which meiosis
the metaphase plate of the spindle. The chromosomes are
contributes to genetic variation. independently assorted. At metaphase II, the chromosomes still
Meiosis bring about genetic variation in two key ways: crossing- align at the metaphase plate, but not in homologous pairs since
over and independent assortment of homologous chromosomes. only one chromosome of each homologous pair is present.

56 CHAPTER 10 | Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

2. Explain what would cause daughter cells 3. Compare structural changes between an
following meiosis II to contain identical inversion and a translocation.
chromosomes or nonidentical chromosomes. An inversion results in a chromosome with the same genetic
Following meiosis II, daughter cells could have identical material but in a different order. A translocation results in two
chromosomes to the parent cell if no crossing-over took place. nonhomologous chromosomes that have exchanged some
If crossing-over did take place, the cells would be nonidentical. genetic material and thus do not have the same genetic
information as their parent. In both cases, the resulting
3. Examine what could happen if homologous
chromosomes are the same size as the parents.
chromosomes lined up top to bottom instead
of side by side during meiosis I. AP Assessment
If homologous chromosomes lined up top to bottom during 1. In 1879, the cytologist Edouard van Beneden was
meiosis I, you could end up with cells that had both pairs of
surprised to find varying chromosome numbers
some homologues while completely missing other
chromosomes.
in roundworms. Gametes had two chromosomes,
while all other cells had four. Which explanation
Section 10.4, Check Your Progress correctly explains this observation?
1. Compare chromosome alignment between A) Gametes in roundworms are defective and lack
metaphase I of meiosis and metaphase of the full number of chromosomes.
mitosis. B) Gametes will go through an extra round of DNA
replication just before fertilization, restoring the
During metaphase I of meiosis, bivalents independently align at
diploid number.
the metaphase plate. The paired chromosomes have a total of
four chromatids each. During metaphase in mitosis, individual C) Gametes will fuse and join their chromosomes
chromosomes align at the metaphase plate. They each have with another gamete, which requires them to
two chromatids. have half the diploid number.
2. Explain how meiosis II is more similar to mitosis D) Gametes in roundworms are not used for sexual
than to meiosis I. reproduction.

Meiosis II is more similar to mitosis than meiosis I because in Answer: C; When the sperm with 2 chromosomes joins an
both meiosis II and mitosis, the original number of chromosomes egg with 2 chromosomes, the roundworm zygote will have
is maintained, whereas in meiosis I, the number of chromosomes 4 chromosomes. From the zygote come all the other cells of the
is halved. roundworm, and all those cells will have 4 chromosomes, the
diploid number.
Section 10.5, Check Your Progress 2. Which is the best description of homologous
1. Describe where cells that undergo meiosis are chromosomes?
located in humans. A) chromosomes that are identical and come from
In humans, cells undergoing meiosis are located in the ovaries the same parent
(females) and testes (males). B) chromosomes that are identical but come from
2. Compare the number of gametes produced different parents
during oogenesis and spermatogenesis in C) chromosomes that are similar and come from the
humans. same parent
Oogenesis produces one egg and at least two polar bodies, D) chromosomes that are similar and come from
whereas spermatogenesis produces four viable sperm. different parents
Answer: D; Homologous chromosomes are similar in size,
Section 10.6, Check Your Progress appearance, and type of genes, but they are not identical. You
1. Explain the kinds of changes in chromosome receive one copy of a particular chromosome from your father,
number that can be caused by nondisjunction and one from your mother. While each might have a hair color
in meiosis. gene, one might code for brown hair and one for blonde.
Nondisjunction in meiosis can cause aneuploidy (monosomy 3. Certain aspects of the process of meiosis
and trisomy). These can be in sex chromosomes (e.g. Turner contribute to variation in sexually reproducing
syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, etc.) or autosomal organisms. One such aspect is the formation of
chromosomes (e.g. trisomy 21). the synaptonemal complex during Prophase I.
2. Examine why sex chromosome aneuploidy is How does the synaptonemal complex relate to
more common than autosome aneuploidy. variation?
Sex chromosome aneuploidy is more common because extra A) Close association of homologues promotes
copies of sex chromosomes are much more easily tolerated in crossing over, which recombines genes.
humans than are extra copies of autosomes, and are therefore B) The proteins that form the synaptonemal
more likely to survive. complex often damage the DNA, increasing
mutations.

Teacher Manual 57
 C) Because of synapsis, it is impossible for poisoned, and cohesins were no longer available
homologues to move freely and sort to cells.
independently, reducing variation.
A) The cleavage furrow necessary for cytokinesis
D) Cohesin and synapsis proteins will trigger the in animal cells would not form.
formation of additional random DNA, which
B) Sister chromatids would not be tightly held
inserts into the chromosome.
together, and may separate prematurely.
Answer: A; Crossing over occurs in synapsis when breaks in DNA
C) DNA replication would be unable to begin.
result in their broken ends being joined to nonsister chromatids.
This recombination results in a new combination of genes that D) Microtubules could not extend and attach to the
can be passed to the offspring, increasing variation. kinetochores.
Answer: B; The lipid group is not as cohesive in structure as
4. At first glance, cells going through meiosis look other macromolecule groups. Some have fatty acids, Cohesins
as if they are simply going through mitosis twice. hold together sister chromatids until Anaphase II. In addition,
However, a closer look reveals differences. they also contribute to the formation of chiasmata that help to
Which step of meiosis is just like a step in hold homologous chromosomes together in Metaphase I.
mitosis?
8. Independent assortment of chromosomes
A) metaphase I
contributes to producing gametes with a variety
B) metaphase II of chromosome combinations. If an organism
C) both metaphase I and metaphase II has a diploid number of four (four pairs of
D) neither metaphase I nor metaphase II chromosomes), how many different combinations
Answer: B; In metaphase I, chromosomes are lined up next to of maternal and paternal chromosomes could be
their homologues. When anaphase I occurs, homologues are produced?
dragged to opposite poles. In metaphase II, individual A) four
chromosomes are lined up along the equator. When anaphase II B) eight
occurs, sister chromatids are separated and dragged to opposite
poles. The events of metaphase II are like the events of C) twelve
metaphase in mitosis. D) sixteen
Answer: D; The number of combinations would be 24 = 2 × 2 ×
5. Mitosis likely evolved first, with meiosis evolving
2 × 2 = 16.
later as a variation on mitosis. Key differences
between the two involve chromosome number 9. In humans, meiosis ultimately leads to the
and type of cell produced. Which accurately formation of egg and sperm cells. In males, each
describes those features in meiosis? parent cell produces four sperm cells, but in
A) one diploid parent cell, two diploid daughter cells females, each parent cell produces only one
B) two diploid parent cells, four diploid daughter large egg cell. What advantage is there to this?
cells A) Once fertilized, an egg cell will have a large
C) one diploid parent cell, four haploid daughter cell quantity of cytoplasmic material to aid the
developing embryo.
D) one haploid parent cell, four haploid daughter
cells B) An egg cell will be fertilized by multiple sperm,
requiring a large supply of cytoplasm.
Answer: C; The original parent cell is diploid. In order to produce
haploid gametes, two divisions follow. This produces four C) Having a large size makes an egg cell a better
haploid daughter cells. target for sperm cells.
D) Having a large size makes it easier for egg cells
6. The processes of mitosis and meiosis have many to travel in the uterus.
similarities. Which event does NOT occur in both Answer: A; Each large egg is usually fertilized by only one sperm.
mitosis and meiosis? The sperm cell contributes chromosomes, but not much cytoplasm
A) homologous pairs align in the center of the cell to nourish the zygote.
B) chromosomes condense and become visible
10. Down syndrome is also called trisomy 21, a
C) sister chromatids separate reference to the presence of an extra 21st
D) cytokinesis chromosome. What error results in the presence
Answer: A; Homologous pairs do not associate together in of this extra chromosome?
mitosis. In meiosis, this association occurs in Metaphase I. A) crossing-over
7. Proteins called cohesins are just one of the many B) euploidy in metaphase I
proteins and enzymes necessary for meiosis. C) nondisjunction during mitosis
Cohesins form loops which hold together sister D) nondisjunction during meiosis
chromatids after DNA replication. Predict what Answer: D; Trisomy 21 results when chromosomes fail to
would happen if cohesin formation was separate during Meiosis I, leaving half the egg cells with an extra

58 CHAPTER 10 | Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

 chromosome 21, and some containing no chromosome 21. If cells children, and therefore their fitness is not necessarily
with the extra chromosome are fertilized by a normal sperm, the impacted.
zygote will have 3 copies of that chromosomes. • Changes in chromosome structure may lead to intellectual
11. Some outwardly visible variations (phenotypes) in disability or facial abnormalities or congenital heart conditions
and liver problems (as seen with the syndromes listed). If
species are not directed by the environment but
phenotypic variations hinder attraction by potential mates,
occur through random changes in DNA and then reproduction is hindered and fitness is decreased.
through new gene combinations. Some However, these individuals may live to reproduce, and
phenotypic variations significantly increase or thereby pass on their genetic material to their offspring.
decrease the fitness of the organism and the • Lowered genetic diversity with parthenogenesis can make it
population. more difficult for populations to respond to environmental
A) Describe two kinds of data that could be changes. However, if crossing-over during meiosis occurs
collected by scientists to provide a direct answer between the sister chromatids instead of the nonsister
to the question: how can scientists determine chromatids of homologous chromosomes, small amounts
that a change in chromosome number or of variation are maintained in the genome.
structure will decrease the fitness of an
12. Meiosis, a reduction division, followed by
organism?
fertilization ensures genetic diversity in sexually
B) Explain how the data you suggested in part (a) reproducing organisms. In a paragraph, explain
would provide a direct answer to the question.
the connection between meiosis and increased
Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each) genetic diversity necessary for evolution.
• A karyotype may be used to identify if an aneuploid (extra Connections between meiosis and increased genetic diversity
or missing copies of chromosomes) condition exists. may include (1 point each):
Nondisjunction during meiosis I or meiosis II may result
• Natural selection operates on populations through the
in aneuploidy.
phenotypic differences (traits) that individuals display; meiosis
• Trisomy occurs when an individual has three of a particular followed by fertilization provides a spectrum of possible
type of chromosome (2n+1). Down syndrome is a well- phenotypes on which natural selection acts, and variation
known trisomy in humans resulting in an extra copy of contributes to the long-term continuation of species.
chromosome 21.
• Independent assortment: During meiosis, homologous
• Monosomy occurs when an individual has only one of a chromosomes are paired, with one homologue originating
particular type of chromosome (2n-1) and is usually lethal. from the maternal parent and the other from the paternal
• Aneuploidy of sex chromosomes, while not necessarily lethal, parent. Orientation of the chromosome pairs is random with
may result in syndromes such as Turner syndrome, Klinefelter respect to cell poles. Separation of the homologous
syndrome, and Jacobs syndrome. chromosomes ensures that each gamete receives a haploid
• Abnormalities in crossing-over may result in deletions, (1n) set of chromosomes composed of both maternal and
duplications, inversions and translocations within paternal chromosomes.
chromosomes. These changes in chromosome structure maybe • Crossing over: During meiosis, homologous chromatids
result in syndromes such as Williams syndrome, cri du chat exchange genetic material via a process called “crossing
syndrome, and Alagille syndrome. These can be identified by over;” thus, the resulting four gametes, while carrying the
doing a karyotype or by studying the inheritance pattern of a same number of chromosomes, are genetically unique with
disorder in a particular family. respect to individual alleles and allele combinations.
• Look for when crossing-over occurs during parthenogenesis • Sexual reproduction of diploid organisms involves the
(a form of asexual reproduction, where only one parent recombination of heritable information from both parents
contributes genetic information to the next generation). through fusion of gametes during fertilization. This increases
Explanations (1 point each) the genetic variation in populations by providing for new
combinations of genetic information in each zygote.
• If phenotypic variations hinder attraction by potential mates,
then reproduction is hindered and fitness is decreased. For 13. The variation produced by meiosis at the
example, individuals with Down syndrome have an increased cellular level affects all levels of an organism’s
tendency toward leukemia, cataracts, intellectual disability, physiology.
and an accelerated rate of aging. A) Describe TWO kinds of data that could be
• If monosomy is lethal, this will certainly decrease fitness as the collected by scientists to provide a direct answer
organism will die before reproduction. to the question: how does variation in molecular
• Often, aneuploidy of sex chromosomes is not evident units provide cells with a wider range of
outwardly until puberty or when trying to reproduce. They functions?
may not hinder attracting a mate, but may cause difficulty in B) Explain how the data you suggested in part (a)
reproduction. Turner females can usually lead fairly normal would provide a direct answer to the question.
lives if they receive hormone supplements and some have Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each)
given birth following in vitro fertilization using donor eggs.
• Genetic material is exchanged l between nonsister chromatids
Klinefelter syndrome causes sterility, which decreases an
during meiosis I (crossing over).
individual’s fitness. Jacobs males are fertile and may have

Teacher Manual 59
 • Homologous chromosome pairs separate independently 14. Many scientists think that motor proteins play an
(randomly) during independent assortment. important role in the movement of chromosomes
• The union of male and female gametes during fertilization in both mitosis and meiosis. To test this hypothesis,
creates another avenue for diversity in the resulting zygote researchers have produced yeast that cannot
cell. make the motor protein called Kar3p. They also
Explanations (1 point each) have produced yeast that cannot make the motor
• This allows for a new combination of genetic material in protein called Cik1p, which many think moderates
the daughter chromosomes, because the members of a the function of Kar3p. The results of their
homologous pair can carry slightly different alleles for the experiment are shown in the graph to the right.
same genetic traits. When the genetic material is swapped, the A) Evaluate whether Cik1p seems to be important
chromatids are no longer identical and so the daughter cells for yeast meiosis.
receive daughter chromosomes with recombined alleles. The
Yes. The yeast that cannot make Cik1p produces far fewer
offspring can then have a different set of alleles (and therefore
haploid cells.
genes) than their parents.
B) Assess whether Kar3p seems to be necessary for
• A maternal or paternal homologue may be oriented toward
yeast meiosis.
either pole of the cell during alignment at the metaphase plate.
This allows for a significantly large number of possibilities for No. Cells without ability to make Kar3p still make haploid cells.
assortment and combination of genes to the different daughter C) Conclude whether all motor proteins seem to
cells. (In humans with 23 pairs of chromosomes, the possible play a vital role in meiosis
combinations are 223! No. Of the two major proteins tested, Kar3p does not appear to
• Zygotes have (223)2 possible chromosome combinations, play a role in meiosis.
assuming no crossing-over occurred! This provides great
opportunity for genetic diversity within a population, with both
positive (allowing the population greater stability in responding
to environmental change), and negative (typically just when
harmful mutations occur for an individual that lead to disease)
outcomes.

60 CHAPTER 10 | Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

CHAPTER 11
Mendelian Patterns
of Inheritance
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
11.1 Gregor Mendel 1 5.3 Mendelian Genetics
11.2 Mendel’s Laws 2 5.3 Mendelian Genetics

11.3 Mendelian Patterns of 5.3 Mendelian Genetics

2
Inheritance and Human Disease 5.6 Chromosomal Inheritance
5.4 Non-Mendelian Genetics
11.4 Beyond Mendelian Inheritance 1
5.5 Environmental Effects on Phenotype
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 11 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 5

Online Activities
Talk-Through Mendelian Genetics
Pigeonetics
Genetics with Wisconsin Fast Plants
Genetic Disorder Product

Teaching Strategy and Approach

If you have the classroom space, methods for caring for plants over missed school days, and
time, then College Board’s Investigation 1: Artificial Selection should be conducted. You
should try to set this lab up early in the unit or during the Mitosis unit. An alternative lab is to
use characteristics that germinating fast plant seed display (Activity 1 below) or genetic corn.
Both are available from science supply houses.
Class time: six 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—10 minutes on Mendelian genetics including monohybrid and dihybrid
L
crosses
Activity 1: Talk-Through Mendelian Genetics—15 minutes
 egin Activity 2: Genetics with Wisconsin Fast Plants or Investigation
B
1—20 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—25 minutes on non-Mendelian genetics
Activity 3: Pigeonetics—15 minutes
Tend to Wisconsin plants—5 minutes
Day 3: Complete Day 3 of Fast Plants—15 minutes
Lecture—15 minutes on genetic diseases
Begin Genetic Disorder Projects—15 minutes

Teacher Manual 61
Day 4: Complete Day 4 of Wisconsin Fast Plants activity—30 minutes
Continue Genetic Disorder Projects—15 minutes
Day 5: Lecture—15 minutes on rules of probability
Genetic Disorder presentations—30 minutes
Day 6: Summative assessment
Teaching Tips: This unit will mix lab activities, lectures and group projects. It will be helpful
to recap the work at the beginning and end of each class. The students can be called on to
recap as well.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students get the concepts of homologous chromosomes and alleles confused and may write
about “homologous alleles”. The pool noodle activity that students completed during the
meiosis unit will help them keep these two concepts separated. You may want to show
students these models again.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Talk-Through Mendelian Genetics Activity: Students will review and explain different aspects
of Mendelian genetics. A full worksheet and directions are available in your online course.
2. Genetics of Organisms Using Wisconsin Fast Plants: This investigation was designed for
students to develop understanding of the following biological concepts and skills:
• Mendel’s law of segregation and law of independent assortment
• Inheritance of two traits
• How genotypes influence phenotypes
• Scientific inquiry, including interpretation of evidence
• Practice with Chi-Square statistical analyses
Student worksheets and complete directions are available on your online course.
3. Pigeonetics: Students use an online simulation developed by the University of Utah to
breed pigeons for particular traits to better understand Mendelian patterns. Additional
directions and links are available in your online course.
4. Genetic Disorder Project: Students will research and present on genetic disorders and their
patterns of inheritance. Full instructions for students are available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Some students may be struggling with the vocabulary

surrounding genetics. Provide your students with the list in the handout in the online
guide to write the meanings in their own words. You can then ask them to identify which
of the genetic disorders on the sheet are a result of nondisjunction, mutation, and/or
sex-linked in place of studying one particular disorder.
 or students who work better independently, are uncomfortable with public speaking,
F
or have advanced understanding of genetic mutations, you may assign this activity as
a paper. Instead of a poster, students must present their research in written form.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Practice Linguistic Patterns: Talking Stick – Intermediate

Have students work in small groups. This strategy allows every student to have an opportunity
to speak several times. Ask a question or give a prompt about non-Mendelian genetics and
then pass a stick or other object to the student. The student speaks, everyone listens, and

62 CHAPTER 11 | Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

then passes the object to the next person. The next student speaks, everyone listens then the
student passes the object on until everyone has had one or two turns.

Oral Language Development – Advanced

Have students scan the lesson for content vocabulary words in context. Help them pronounce
the vocabulary words correctly. Discuss vocabulary meanings with them.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 11.1, Check Your Progress 2. Construct a pedigree of Ivar Ragnarsson’s family
1. Explain the difference between the particulate tree, assuming that his mother and both her
theory of inheritance and the blending concept. parents were normal and that Ivar’s father’s father
had osteogenesis imperfecta (mother was normal).
The blending concept implied that parents of contrasting
appearance always produced offspring of intermediate Osteogenesis imperfecta is an autosomal dominant disorder. If
appearance. The particulate theory of inheritance is based on Ivar Ragnarsson’s mother and both her parents were normal,
the existence of minute particles (genes), and inheritance and Ivar’s paternal grandfather had the disorder but his paternal
involves the reshuffling of the same genes from generation grandmother did not, then the allele was inherited through the
to generation. men of the family:

2. Explain why the garden pea was a good choice Maternal grandmother: aa
for Mendel’s experiments. Maternal grandfather: aa
The garden pea was a good choice for Mendel’s experiments Mother: aa
because it was easy to cultivate, had a short generation time, Paternal grandmother: aa
and could be cross-pollinated by hand or self-pollinate. Paternal grandfather: Aa
Father: Aa
Section 11.2, Check Your Progress Ivar: Aa
1. Summarize how Mendel’s laws of independent
assortment relate to the process of meiosis. Section 11.4, Check Your Progress
Mendel’s laws of independent assortment state that each pair of 1. Summarize why incomplete dominance does not
factors assorts independently of the other pairs, and all possible support blending.
combinations of factors can occur in the gametes. Meiosis Incomplete dominance does not support blending because the
explains why the F1 plants in Mendel’s experiments produced individual alleles have not altered, even though the phenotypes
every possible type of gamete, and therefore, four phenotypes have blended.
appeared among the F2 generation. Homologous pairs line up
independently of one another, allowing chromosomes equal 2. Summarize how to differentiate between an
chance to pair with any other chromosome assortment. X-linked trait and an autosomal trait.
2. Explain why the Tt and TT genotypes both have With X-linked traits, males cannot be carriers. If the dominant
the same phenotype. allele is on the single X chromosome, they show the dominant
phenotype, and if the recessive allele is on the single X
Tt and TT will both have the same phenotype (e.g. tall plant) chromosome, they show the recessive phenotype. Females,
because T is a dominant allele. As long as one of the two alleles however, can be carriers for X-linked traits, like autosomal
is a T, the plant will be tall, regardless of whether the other allele traits, because they have two X chromosomes.
is a T or a t.
3. Explain how a trait may be both polygenic and
3. Calculate the probability of producing an Aabb multifactorial.
individual from an AaBb × AaBb cross.
A trait may be both polygenic and multifactorial because it may
The probability of producing an Aabb individual is 1 in 8 (2 of the be governed by two or more sets of alleles, and subject to
16 squares in a Punnett square). environmental influences. Examples include cleft lip, clubfoot,
diabetes, allergies, cancers, and more.
Section 11.3, Check Your Progress
1. Summarize how to distinguish an autosomal AP Assessment
recessive disorder from an autosomal dominant 1. Gregor Mendel developed the idea of
disorder using a pedigree. independent assortment based on his work with
In autosomal recessive disorders, only offspring with both recessive dihybrid crosses. He was not familiar with
alleles will have the disorder, and those with dominant alleles (one chromosomes, or the process of meiosis. Today,
or both), will not. It is very possible for the disorder to skip multiple we understand that independent assortment
generations before showing up on the pedigree. A pedigree for an occurs as a result of what event during meiosis?
autosomal dominant disorder will most likely exhibit the disorder in
every generation, since you only need one of the two alleles to be A) condensation of chromosomes in Prophase I
affected in order for the disease to present. B) alignment of chromosomes in Metaphase I

Teacher Manual 63
 C) separation of sister chromatids in Anaphase II C) Increasing CO2 triggers heat-sensitive respiratory
D) formation of four gametes in cytokinesis enzymes.
Answer: B; A cell’s homologous pairs line up independently D) Cold temperatures activate genes for enzymes to
of each other. As long as two genes are located on different trigger hibernation.
chromosomes, the assortment between them is random. Answer: B; The enzyme tyrosinase inactivates at temperatures
above 33°C, reducing pigment production and resulting in white
Use the following statement to answer questions 2 and 3:
color of the head and body. In cooler regions (such as ears and
Albinism is a recessive trait in which cells fail to make the
tail), the enzyme is active, producing a dark pigment.
pigment melanin.
2. If “M” stand for the ability to make melanin, which 6. In Mendel’s experiments with peas, he saw that a
genotype correctly displays the genes that would trait that did not show in the F1 generation would
result in albinism? predictably reappear in the F2 generation. From
this observation, he developed the Law of
A) mm
Segregation. Which statement(s) is/are part
B) Mm
of the Law of Segregation?
C) MM
A) Factors controlling traits are separated in
D) Either Mm or MM could indicate albinism. formation of gametes.
Answer: A; In order to show albinism, an individual would have B) Each parent carries two factors for a trait.
to have two copies of the recessive form of the gene. They
C) Gametes carry only one factor for a trait.
would not produce any melanin. Mm has one copy for the
dominant gene, and would produce some melanin, while D) all of the above
MM would produce abundant melanin. Answer: D; Mendel concluded that the pattern he observed
would only work out if a parent carried two factors controlling a
3. If a parent who was albino had offspring with trait, and that these two factors became separated when
a parent who was heterozygous, what is the gametes were formed. Fertilization would restore these factors,
probability that their offspring would be albino? but random fertilization meant the factors did not necessarily
A) 0% return to their original pairings.
B) 25% 7. In humans, some traits are sex-linked, meaning
C) 50% their gene is carried on the X chromosome.
D) 75% X-linked recessive disorders are seen more often
Answer: C; The cross is Mm X mm. A Punnett square predicts 2/4 in males than females. What is most likely true if
of offspring would be mm, or albino. a female displays an X-linked trait?
A) Her father did not show the trait, her mother was
4. When Mendel crossed two plants with opposite a carrier.
traits together, only one of the traits showed in
B) Her father carried the trait, her mother had no
the offspring. For example, if a plant pure for
copies of the allele.
wrinkled seed was crossed with a plant pure for
round seed, all the offspring showed round seed C) Her brothers are all carriers of the trait.
(a parental trait). This disproved what commonly D) Her mother and father both had a copy of the
held theory of his time? allele.
A) segregation theory Answer: D; To display a recessive trait, an individual must have
two copies of the allele. In this case, that means that the father
B) dominance theory
must have had a copy (and thus showed the condition), and that
C) cooperative inheritance theory the mother had a copy (and either had the condition or was a
D) blending concept of inheritance carrier).
Answer: D; According to the Blending Inheritance concept, the 8. Inheritance of genes within a population is a
offspring in the cross described should have had an intermediate cornerstone of species’ ability to change over
trait, a blend of the two parents. The observation that Mendel’s
time.
peas always showed one parental trait or the other indicated
blending did not happen. A) Describe two kinds of data that could be
collected by scientists to provide a direct answer
5. While Mendel did not pay attention to to the question, how can scientists investigate
environmental effects on phenotype, we know the role of natural selection in evolution?
today that environment can affect expression in B) Explain how the data you suggested in part (a)
certain genes. Which answer describes an effect would provide a direct answer to the question.
of temperature on Himalayan rabbits? Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each)
A) Light coloration occurs in those parts of the rabbit • Data that supports Mendel’s particulate theory of inheritance
exposed to higher temperatures. would support the ideas of natural selection’s role in evolution.
B) In the extremities of the rabbit, lower temperatures In this theory, inheritance involves the reshuffling of the same
activate an enzyme, producing dark pigment. genes from generation to generation.

64 CHAPTER 11 | Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

 • Genetic variation and mutation play roles in natural selection dominant trait for the leaves of this plant, and
and can play a part in populations changing over time. whether yellow or white blossoms are the
• A diverse gene pool is important for the survival of a species dominant trait for the flowers.
in a changing environment. While not the case for all plants, for the purpose of this prompt,
Explanations (1 point each) the students should consider this unknown plant to have genes
that would behave in the way that Mendel’s pea plant genes did
• If parents of contrasting appearance always produced
with discrete traits. Student responses are expected to reflect
offspring of intermediate appearance, then no individuals
the work of Mendel. Answers may include:
would have a selective advantage because over time variation
would decrease as individuals became more and more alike • Ensure that the plants will be true-breeding (offspring exactly
(natural selection would have nothing to act upon). like the parent plants – so plants with serrated leaf edges only
have plants with serrated leaf edges, while smooth-edged
• Individuals with genes that when expressed confer favorable
plants only have offspring with smooth leaves) by only allowing
variations are more likely to survive and produce more
self-pollination over several generations.
offspring. Individuals that have experienced harmful mutations
may not survive or reproduce more offspring. • For best, most apparent results, test for only one trait at a time,
controlling all other variables. So, first we will look at the trait
• An adaptation is a genetic variation present in a population
of leaf edges.
that is favored by selection and is manifested as a trait that
provides an advantage, allowing a population to continue even • Perform reciprocal crosses: dust the pollen of true-breeding (P
in the face of change. generation) serrated-leaf plants onto the stigmas of smooth-
leaf plants (P generation), and dust the pollen of smooth-leaf
9. Methemoglobinemia is an autosomal recessive plants onto the stigmas of serrated-leaf plants.
disorder. If a man and a woman are both carriers
• The first generation (F1) should all display the same phenotype
of the recessive allele, what is the probability of and one could infer that this will be the dominant trait, if
each of the following (show all work): Mendelian genetics is followed.
A) All three of their offspring will be of normal • To further confirm the idea that the traits being display are the
phenotype. dominant traits, allow the F1 plants to self-pollinate, and if a
B) All three of their offspring will have 3:1 ratio is achieved in the F2 generation, where three out of
methemoglobinemia four individuals display the trait shown by the F1 generation,
Mathematical routines used to describe the natural then that is the dominant trait.
phenomena may include: • To confirm that the F1 plants of the first cross are, in fact,
Work shown (1 point each) heterozygous for the trait being examined, cross F1 generation
• Normal = MM; Carrier = Mm; Methemoglobinemia = mm plants with true-breeding plants of what you understand to be
the recessive trait to perform a testcross. If the resulting
• According to Mendelian patterns of inheritance, each genotype offspring show a 1:1 phenotypic ratio, then the correct
may occur in offspring. Student may construct a Punnett square. dominant and recessive traits have been identified properly.
• (a) This is equal to the odds of not producing an affected child • Perform the same steps to test the next trait, being thoroughly
(notice this is phenotype, not genotype, so MM and Mm are conscientious in controlling which plants are able to pollinate
added together). (¾) × (¾) × (¾) = (27/64) or (0.75)3 with which plants.
• (b) This is equal to the odds of producing a child who has the B) Assuming serrated margins and white flowers are
disease (mm). (¼) × (¼ × (¼) = (1/64) or (0.25)3 the dominant traits, determine what fraction of
Answer (1 point each) the offspring of two heterozygous plants would
• If both parents are carriers, their genotypes should reflect this: be expected to have serrated margins and yellow
Mother = Mm; Father = Mm blooms.
• The probability for each of the genotypes to occur in offspring This question requires us to do a dihybrid cross (or remember
are: MM = ¼; Mm = ½; and mm = ¼. the 9:3:3:1 ratio). We can represent the gene for leaf edges with
the symbol “L” for dominant serrated margins and “l” for
• Probability that all three offspring will be of normal phenotype:
recessive smooth margins. Likewise, for flower color, we
(27/64) or 0.42 or 42%.
can use “F” for white flowers and “f” for yellow flowers.
• Probability that all three offspring will have methemoglobinemia:
The problem states that the birds being crossed are
(1/64) or 0.016 or 1-2%.
heterozygous for each trait, implying that the genotype for
10. Botanists discover a rare new species of plant both birds would be LlFf.
and find that all individuals in the species display There are 16 total offspring. The genotypes of the offspring
a desirable ability to withstand high heat and would then be 1 LLFF, 3 Llff, 3 llFf, 8 LlFf, 1 llff. Therefore, 12 of
appear to be avoided by most large herbivores. the offspring carry the dominant L allele, giving them the
Scientists have determined that the leaves have serrated leaf edge phenotype (1 LLFF, 3 Llff, 8 LlFf). Of those 12,
either sharp, serrated edges or smooth margins, 9 carry the dominant F allele for white flowers (1 LLFF, 8 LlFf).
and blooms that are either yellow or white. This means 9 out of the 16 offspring will express both the
serrated edges and the white flowers phenotypes.
A) Design an investigation that would determine
whether serrated or smooth margins were the

Teacher Manual 65
CHAPTER 12
Molecular Biology
of the Gene
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
1.4 Properties of Biological Macromolecules
12.1 The Genetic Material 1
6.1 DNA and RNA Structure
12.2 Replication of DNA 2 6.2 Replication
12.3 Gene Expression: RNA and
1 6.1 DNA and RNA Structure
the Genetic Code
12.4 Gene Expression:
1 6.3 Transcription and RNA Processing
Transcription
12.5 Gene Expression: Translation 1 6.4 Translation
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 12 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 6

Online Activities
From Gene to Protein – A Historical Perspective
Transcription and Translation Practice
Constructing a Model of Protein Synthesis
The Making of the Fittest: Evolving Switches, Evolving Bodies

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The direction in which the pentose sugar is situated determines how replication and
transcription will proceed. For this reason, I would emphasis the numbering of the carbons
on the pentose to help students grasp this important knowledge.
Class time: six 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—25 minutes on DNA history, the scientists and experiments that
L
contributed to our understanding of DNA, and the structure of DNA and RNA.
Activity 1: From Gene to Protein—A Historical Perspective Activity—20 minutes
Day 2: Lecture and/or video—25 minutes on DNA replication
 ecture—20 minutes on the directionality of DNA, with students drawing
L
diagrams of replication
Day 3: Lecture—25 minutes on transcription and translation
Activity 2: Transcription and translation practice—20 minutes
Day 4: Activity 3: Construction a model of protein synthesis—45 minutes

66 CHAPTER 12 | Molecular Biology of the Gene

Day 5:  ecture—20 minutes on redundancy in the DNA code, accuracy of replication,
L
repair mechanisms, differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic processes,
gene expression.
Activity 4: Making of the Fittest
Day 6: Complete Activity 4 and summative assessment
Teaching Tips: This is a very detailed chapter. There are many videos and interactive
websites that are available. Because these concepts are some of the most abstract,
I recommend the HHMI website for videos.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students may think that DNA and RNA are structurally identical and have the same function.
They also do not realize that transcription and translation are very precise processes rather
than somewhat random processes. Students may think that transcription and translation
both happen in the nucleus. Students mistakenly think that genetic information is stored
somewhere within the nucleotides rather than in the sequence of the nucleotides.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. From Gene to Protein—A Historical Perspective: Produced by College Board as an AP®
Biology Curriculum Module, this module offers different activities that provides students with
hands-on learning experiences. A link to the lesson can be found in the your online courses.
2. Transcription and Translation Practice: Students review and explain transcription and
translation with a worksheet. A full worksheet and additional directions are available in
your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: For students who are struggling with the transcription and
translation process, show the HHMI BioInteractive Videos for DNA Transcription and
Translation (link in your online course).
 rovide the students with a piece of white paper. Before each animation, explain that
P
they are to sketch the processes that they see. The sketches do not need to be highly
detailed (lines, arrows, and basic shapes are fine). After they have sketched the process,
have them go back with a textbook and label the different parts. They can then write out
the steps or explain their sketches to a partner.

3. Constructing a Model of Protein Synthesis: Students will work in groups to kinesthetically

model protein synthesis. Full directions and student procedures are available in your online
course.
4. The Making of the Fittest: Evolving Switches, Evolving Bodies: An HHMI activity which
students relate eukaryotic gene regulation to body development by interpreting molecular
diagrams of transcription and translation. Link and further details can be found in your
online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening and Speaking—Intermediate

Read aloud a paragraph. After each sentence or two, pause and ask volunteers to identify an
important idea in the text. Have students create a two-column chart, and write the important
idea in the left column and write a phrase or short sentence restating what they heard about
the ideas in the right column.

Teacher Manual 67
Using Visual and Contextual Support—Advanced High
Have students write a paragraph explaining and evaluating Fig. 12.1, 12.2, or 12.5 used in
relation to the content of the text. What was its purpose? How effective was it? Did the caption
contribute useful information? Have volunteers share their evaluations with the group.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 12.1, Check Your Progress 2. Describe the three major classes of RNA. What is
1. Explain the major features of DNA structure. the function of each class?
DNA has four different types of nucleotides: adenine and Messenger RNA (mRNA): takes a message from DNA in the
guanine are purine bases with a double ring, and thymine and nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Transfer RNA (tRNA):
cytosine are pyrimidine bases with a single ring. Adenine pairs transfers amino acids to the ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. DNA also has a makes up the ribosomes (along with ribosomal proteins), where
sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside of the paired bases, polypeptides are synthesized.
to form a double helix. 3. Explain why the genetic code is said to be
2. Explain the roles of Erwin Chargaff and Rosalind degenerate.
Franklin in elucidating the final structure of DNA. The genetic code is degenerate to help protect against
Erwin Chargaff determined that adenine and thymine pair potentially harmful mutations. Most amino acids have more
together, and guanine and cytosine pair together, so the amount than one codon for redundancy.
of adenine and thymine is equal, and the amount of guanine and
cytosine is equal. However, the amount of each of these bases in
Section 12.4, Check Your Progress
DNA varies from species to species. Rosalind Franklin’s x-rays of 1. Explain the role of RNA polymerase.
DNA led her to the discovery of the double helix (X pattern). RNA polymerase, when attached to the promoter region,
initiates transcription. It moves along the template strand in the
Section 12.2, Check Your Progress 5’ direction, and adds a nucleotide only to the 3’ end of the
1. Explain the three major steps in DNA replication. polymer under construction.
The three major steps are unwinding of the original DNA, 2. Describe the three major modifications that occur
complementary base pairing to the two separated single strands, during the processing of an mRNA.
and joining of the short new strands to form the new DNA. During the processing of an mRNA, it receives a cap, a poly-A
2. Explain why replication must occur differently on tail, and the introns are spliced out.
the leading and lagging strands. 3. Distinguish between the introns and exons of a
Replication must occur differently on the leading and lagging gene.
strands because DNA can only be synthesized in a 5’ to 3’ Introns are non-protein-regions of pre-mRNA, and exons are the
direction, but the parental strands (and the daughter strands) are protein-coding regions. Introns are spliced out, and the exon
antiparallel, so one of the strands runs 3’ to 5’. This is the lagging information becomes part of the mature mRNA.
strand because short 5’ to 3’ have to be produced through
periodic starts and stops. Synthesis in the 5’ to 3’ is much Section 12.5, Check Your Progress
smoother because it is continuous: this is the leading strand.
1. Explain the role of transfer RNA in translation.
3. Compare DNA replication in prokaryotes and
Transfer RNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes.
eukaryotes.
DNA in prokaryotes is found in a single, circular loop, and can be
2. Describe how the structure of a ribosome
replicated in one direction or both directions, depending on the contributes to polypeptide synthesis.
species. Replication always begins at the same place – the origin Ribosomal structure contributes to polypeptide synthesis
of replication. It is possible for a new round of DNA to begin because they have a binding site for mRNA and three binding
replication even before the previous round is complete. DNA in sites for tRNA. The tRNA binding sites facilitate complimentary
eukaryotes begins at numerous origins of replication and occurs base pairing between tRNA anticodons and mRNA codons. The
bidirectionally. Replication is more time consuming because the large ribosomal subunit has enzyme activity from rRNA that
strands are so long. Because they are linear instead of circular, creates the peptide bond between adjacent amino acids. The
telomeres help solve the problem of DNA being unable to peptide bond is created many times to produce a polypeptide.
replicate at the ends of the strands. 3. Examine the events that occur during the three
major steps of translation.
Section 12.3, Check Your Progress
The three major steps of translation are 1) initiation: brings all the
1. Examine the flow of genetic information in a cell. translation components together, 2) elongation: when a
Genetic information flows from the DNA, is transcribed into an RNA polypeptide increases in length one amino acid at a time, and 3)
molecule (mRNA, tRNA, or rRNA), and then is translated by a termination: when the polypeptide and assembled components
ribosome into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (protein). that carried out protein synthesis are separated from one another.

68 CHAPTER 12 | Molecular Biology of the Gene

AP Assessment widely distributed among organisms today. Major
1. A comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA features of the genetic code are shared by all
replication shows that prokaryotic DNA has a modern living systems.
single origin of replication, while eukaryotic DNA A) Describe two specific examples of conserved
has multiple origins. What is the most likely core biological processes and features involved
benefit of this difference? in the molecular biology of genes.

A) Having only a single origin of replication allows B) Explain how the examples you described for part
prokaryotes to replicate faster than eukaryotes. (a) support the concept of common ancestry for
all organisms.
B) The presence of multiple origins makes it
possible to replicate the much larger amount Descriptions of examples (1 point each)
of eukaryotic DNA in a reasonable time. • Both DNA and RNA are carriers of genetic information through
C) Eukaryotic cells can use the repeats at the origins transcription, translation and replication.
of replication to control the production of • All DNA consists of the same nitrogenous bases (cytosine,
primase. guanine, adenine, and thymine), and RNA consists of the
D) Prokaryotic cells are much less prone to errors at same, except substitute uracil for thymine.
the origin. • RNA polymerase, the enzyme that carries out transcription, and
Answer: B; Any given eukaryotic chromosome is larger than the DNA polymerase, the enzyme required for DNA replication, are
one chromosome of E. coli, and eukaryotes tend to have multiple very similar in their actions.
chromosomes. This adds up to a much larger DNA presence. • RNA molecules play a prominent role in the regulation of the
Having multiple origins of replication allows replication to start genome.
in many places at once, rather than starting at the end of each Explanations (1 point each)
chromosome and progressing linearly. • DNA and RNA are common throughout all domains of life
2. In eukaryotic cells, scientists have discovered the (mammalian mitochondria and chloroplasts just differ slightly).
presence of introns, stretches of DNA that are • The genetic code is universal to all living organisms. Therefore,
non-coding, and will be removed during RNA it is possible to transfer genes from one organism to another
processing. It seems inefficient to copy introns and suggests that all living organisms share a common
into RNA, and then remove them before evolutionary heritage.
translation. What possible function(s) might • They are similar enough to suggest that both enzymes evolved
introns play in cells? from a common ancestral enzyme.
A) Introns may be responsible for producing • Some believe this is evidence that RNA may have preceded
fluorescent proteins. DNA in the evolutionary history of cells.
B) Introns may be converted to ribozymes, RNA that 5. To study RNA synthesis, a group of scientists
has enzymatic characteristics. used a fluorescent molecular beacon to trace
C) Introns may allow cells to edit the same mRNA molecules. This beacon becomes fluorescent
transcript in different ways, thus increasing the when it binds to newly synthesized RNA. The
variation of proteins in the cell. fluorescence increases as the RNA chain
D) Introns may promote the production of lengthens. Thus, the beacon can be used
macroRNAs, large RNA fragments that are to follow RNA synthesis. In this experiment,
used to destroy viruses. scientists added the antibiotic rifampin (rif)
Answer: D; Alternative mRNA splicing may produce different to RNA polymerase from a virus (T7 RNAP),
versions of the same base protein. This can give more raw Escherichia coli (E. coli RNAP), and
material on which evolution can act, broadening the functions Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis
of the original protein. RNAP) and followed RNA synthesis.
3. A segment of DNA reads as GGG CAA TTA. What A) Describe the relationship between the
would be the sequence of tRNA that would be fluorescence level and time in each experiment
not exposed to rifampin.
encoded from that?
Fluorescence levels increased the most over time in the bacterial
A) GGG CAA UUA
and viral RNA not treated with rifampin.
B) CCC GUU AAU
B) Infer what the relationship between fluorescence
C) GGG CAA TTA level and time indicates is happening in each
D) CCC CGG AAT case where rifampin was added.
Answer: A; The mRNA sequence that matched to the original RNA synthesis is inhibited.
DNA sequence would be CCC GUU AAU. The tRNA sequence C) Interpret which organism’s RNA synthesis is
that is complementary to the mRNA is GGG CAA UUA. affected most by the antibiotic rifampin.
4. Organisms share many conserved core E. coli and M. smegmatis are greatly affected by rifampin. Viral
processes and features that evolved and are RNA is slightly affected.

Teacher Manual 69
CHAPTER 13
Regulation of Gene
Expression
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
4.2 Introduction to Signal Transduction

4.3 Signal Transduction

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction

13.1 Prokaryotic Regulation 1
Pathways

6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
Pathways
13.2 Eukaryotic Regulation 2
6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization

4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
13.3 Gene Mutations 1 Pathways

6.7 Mutation
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 13 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4
Unit Review: AP Unit 6

Online Activities
Operons
Gene Switches
Identical Twins, Identical Fates? An Introduction to Epigenetics
Lost in Translation

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Regulation of gene expression is an abstract concept and hard for many students to visualize.
Videos and models are a great way to help students connect with the material.
The reasons for gene regulation are multiple but should be pointed out to students. I always
like to remind them that the liver cell is oozing bile but that the skin cells on their face are not
oozing bile because of gene regulation. Cell specialization is one of the most important
reasons for gene regulation. Only certain parts of DNA are active in any cell so that the cell
has what it needs to function.
Class time: four 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on operons
Activity 1: Operons—25 minutes

70 CHAPTER 13 | Regulation of Gene Expression

Day 2: Lecture—20 minutes on eukaryotic gene regulation
Activity 2: Gene Switches—25 minutes
Day 3: Lecture—10 minutes on epigenetics
Activity 3: Identical Twins, Identical Fates?—35 minutes
Day 4: Lecture—10 minutes on mutations in DNA
Activity 4: Lost in Translation—35 minutes
Teaching Tips: Case studies are a good way to get students involved and thinking deeply
about content. The National Center For Case Study Teaching In Science has a case study
on epigenetics that can be found on their website. You can print these materials and have
students work in groups to read and analyze the data and provide answers to the critical
thinking questions.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students tend to forget that all cells in a multicellular organism contain the same DNA.
Somehow they think that the DNA is divided according to function. This information should
make them realize the intricate regulation that must occur in a multicellular organism.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Operons: Students will construct a model of an operon (trp or lac). Full directions and
student worksheets available in your online course.
2. Gene Switches: Students watch an HHMI animation and navigate an interactive website to
better understand how gene regulation works. Additional directions and a link to the activity
are available in your online course.
3. Identical Twins, Identical Fates? An Introduction to Epigenetics: Students read a case study
which features epigenetics prepared by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in
Science. Links and further directions are available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: For students who are stronger visual learners, provide a link
to the Nova Science Now video on Epigenetics (available in your online course). This
video provides an excellent animation of DNA methylation.
 ou can also review the discussion questions found in Supported Materials after
Y
viewing.

4. Lost in Translation: Students build a series of pipe cleaner bumblebees following amino acid
coding instructions to learn the effects of mutation.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening – Beginning
Have students log in to their ebook to hear pronunciations of chapter vocabulary terms.
They can also listen to a complete audio read of the text.

Oral Language Development – Intermediate

Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.

Teacher Manual 71
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 13.1, Check Your Progress 2. Explain how a frameshift mutation may disrupt
1. Explain the difference between the roles of the a gene’s function.
promoter and operator of an operon. Frameshift mutations can disrupt a gene’s function because all
the codons downstream of the mutation get shifted through the
The promoter signals the start of the operon and the location
addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides. This results in a
where transcription begins, while the operator controls
completely new sequence of codons, yielding a nonfunctional
transcription of structural genes.
protein.
2. Summarize how gene expression differs in an
3. Discuss how a mutation in a tumor suppressor
inducible operon versus a repressible operon.
gene and in proto-oncogenes disrupts the cell
In an inducible operon, the enzymes only need to be active when cycle.
the specific nutrient is present, and are then turned on. In a
repressible operon, the enzymes instead can be turned off A mutation in a tumor suppressor gene and in proto-oncogenes
by a change in shape of the repressor. disrupts the cell cycle because it can allow the cell to continue
dividing unchecked. Tumor suppressor genes ordinarily act as
3. Describe the difference between positive control brakes on cell division, and proto-oncogenes are usually turned
and negative control of gene expression. off but when turned on stimulate cell division.
Positive control of gene expression is when a molecule that is
active (inducer) promotes the activity of the operon. Negative AP Assessment
control is when an active molecule (repressor) shuts down an 1. Regulatory proteins control the expression of
operon. genes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
4. Explain which operon discussed in this section is through transcriptional control. At what stage in
catabolic and which operon is anabolic. the gene expression process would regulatory
Inducible operons are usually catabolic and repressible operons
proteins have their effect?
are usually anabolic. A) They modulate the binding of RNA polymerase
to the DNA promoter.
Section 13.2, Check Your Progress B) They control RNA editing and processing.
1. List the five levels of genetic control C) They moderate the rate at which tRNAs assemble
in eukaryotes. at the ribosome.
chromatin structure, transcriptional control, posttranscriptional D) They interfere with the joining of amino acids to
control, translational control, posttranslational control tRNAs.
Answer: A; Regulatory proteins interact with the binding of RNA
2. Explain how chromatin structure influences gene polymerase. When they bind on, they either block transcription
expression. by literally blocking RNA polymerase, or they facilitate
Chromatin structure influences gene expression through transcription by making it easier for RNA polymerase to
chromatin packing: it is used as a way to keep genes turned off. bind to the promoter.
If genes are not accessible to RNA polymerase, they cannot be
transcribed. 2. Your classmate is lactose intolerant, and
therefore consumes no lactose-containing foods.
3. Discuss how small RNA molecules and Consider the population of E. coli living in your
proteasomes regulate gene expression. classmate’s gut. Which statement best describes
Small RNA molecules regulate gene expression through altering these bacteria?
DNA compaction, disabling the translation of mRNA in the A) Their lac operon must operate at high speed
cytoplasm, and joining with an enzyme to form an active to manufacture enough lactose.
silencing complex. Proteasomes regulate gene expression
B) Their lac operon will be deactivated and
because they help control the amount of protein product in
removed from the bacterial chromosome,
the cytoplasm.
due to the permanent lack of lactose.
C) Their lac operon is always turned on, utilizing
Section 13.3, Check Your Progress
other disaccharides to interact with their lac
1. List some common causes of spontaneous repressor.
and induced mutations. D) Their lac operon is always turned off, without
Spontaneous mutations are caused by any number of normal lactose to interact with their lac repressor.
biological processes, such as a transposon jumping or a Answer: C; The presence of lactose is necessary to interact with
chemical change in a DNA base. Induced mutations are caused the repressor. Without lactose, the repressor will always be
by environmental factors, such as exposure to toxic chemicals bound to the operator on the operon. Transcription by RNA
or radiation. polymerase will always be blocked, and the operon’s genes
cannot be read: the operon is always turned off.

72 CHAPTER 13 | Regulation of Gene Expression

3. Posttranscriptional control provides another 6. Eukaryotes have evolved a variety of regulatory
avenue for gene regulation in eukaryotic cells. mechanisms that allow them to fine-tune gene
One such control mechanisms involves small expression and produce a large number of
RNA’s. What is the most common effect of proteins from a relatively small number of genes.
microRNAs (miRNAs)? Explain how three regulatory mechanisms of
A) amplification of gene expression by copying gene expression support efficient cell function.
genes Explanation for how the regulatory mechanism in supports
B) increasing rate of RNA processing in the nucleus efficient cell function (1 point each):
C) silencing genes by inhibiting the translation of • Promoters, terminators and enhancers are regulatory
their mRNA sequences (stretches of DNA) that interact with regulatory
D) inhibiting gene expression by blocking proteins to control transcription allowing for cell specialization
transcription in that only what is needed is coded for, and only when it is
needed.
Answer: C; These small pieces of RNA can bind to mRNA and
disable its translation. Thus, the gene is read (transcribed), but • The expression of specific genes can be turned on by the
not expressed (translated). presence of an inducer or activator (a small molecule that
interacts with regulatory proteins and/or regulatory
4. The term mutation refers to any change in the sequences) when gene expression is needed.
nucleotide sequence of a gene. Of the types of • Regulatory proteins stimulate gene expression by binding to
mutations listed below, predict which would likely DNA and stimulating transcription (positive control) or binding
cause the least change in the gene. to repressor to inactivate repressor function when the specific
A) point mutation outcome of gene expression is needed, and therefore not
B) frameshift mutation using energy and resources when they are not necessary at
other times.
C) transposon
• The expression of specific genes can be inhibited by the
D) nondisjunction presence of a repressor (a small molecule that interacts with
Answer: A; A point mutation is a change in single point, in this regulatory proteins and/or regulatory sequences) when gene
case a single nucleotide. In some cases, there is no change in expression is not needed, thus saving materials and energy for
the final product, as the same amino acid is coded for. In other the cell.
cases, the amino acid product is changed and causes drastic • Regulatory proteins inhibit gene expression by binding to DNA
results (as in sickle cell anemia). and blocking transcription (negative control) when the results
5. A mutagen is chemical that can cause DNA to of gene expression are not needed by the cell so energy and
mutate. It is very important, then, for scientists to materials are not wasted.
determine if compounds are mutagens or not. • Certain necessary genes are continuously expressed; that is,
The Ames test is used to identify mutagens. The they are always turned “on,” e.g., the ribosomal genes.
test uses a strain of bacteria that cannot make • Transcription factors bind to specific DNA sequences and/or
the amino acid histidine. The bacteria are other regulatory proteins. The combination of transcription
exposed to a suspected mutagen and grow on a factors binding to the regulatory regions at any one time
medium without histidine. The bacteria that grow determines how much, if any, of the gene product will be
produced.
have a mutation called a reversion because they
reverted to the natural condition of making
histidine. The compounds in the graph were
Ames tested.
A) Describe the relationship between the amount
of the compound and the mutation.
The greater the amount of compound in the culture, the greater
the reversion rate.
B) Analyze which compound is the strongest
mutagenic compound.
A is the strongest mutagen, producing the most colonies with
reversion mutations.

Teacher Manual 73
CHAPTER 14
Biotechnology and Genomics

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

14.1 DNA Technology 4 6.8 Biotechnology
14.2 Biotechnology Products 3 6.8 Biotechnology
14.3 Gene Therapy
14.4 Genomics
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 14 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 6

Online Activities
From Gene to Protein – A Historical Perspective
Transcription and Translation Practice
Constructing a Model of Protein Synthesis
The Making of the Fittest: Evolving Switches, Evolving Bodies

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Students are generally fascinated by biotechnology, and this chapter hits several standards
for the AP Biology exam. Investigation 8: Bacterial Transformation and Investigation 9:
Biotechnology: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA are both centered on genetics and the
transfer of information. The College Board estimates between 7-9 class periods for these two
labs, but I feel that they can be conducted in far less time. You can order kits for
transformation from biological supply houses and the most fascinating kits are using the pGLO
gene. Kits can also be ordered that are crime scene analysis for Investigation 9.
An important note: Investigation 8 from the AP Biology lab manual requires several days of
preparation before students can conduct their investigations.
Class time: seven 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture – 25 minutes on the basic procedures in biotechnology, restriction
L
enzymes and the use of plasmids as vector
Video such as HHMI’s about genetic engineering – 5 minutes
 ctivity 1: Modeling Restriction Enzymes or Activity 2: Biotechnology in
A
Production– 20 minutes
Day 2:  ecture – 10 minutes, on remaining biotechnology techniques not discussed
L
on Day 1
Activity 3: Biotechnology group research – 25 minutes
Group presentations on Activity 3 – 10 minutes
Day 3: College Board Investigation 8: Bacterial Transformation – 45 minutes

74 CHAPTER 14 | Biotechnology and Genomics

Day 4:  ontinuation of Investigation 8: counting and analyzing the transformation
C
efficiency – 25 minutes
 reparation for Investigation 9: pouring gels for gel electrophoresis, cutting
P
DNA using restriction enzymes – 20 minutes
Day 5: Investigation 9: Biotechnology: Restriction Enzyme Analysis – 45 minutes
Day 6:  ontinuation of Investigation 9: analysis of DNA fragments and graphing
C
results – 45 minutes.
Day 7: Summative assessment

Teaching Tips: One approach to the lengthy labs about biotechnology is to request an
in-school field trip for your students and a substitute for yourself. Start the transformation
activity before the field trip and include the analysis potion during your in-school field trip.
You can make the transformation protocol more of an inquiry-based lab by setting up a
research scenario. Students will simulate working in a biotech firm which has financial
problems. They will research the various stages in the transformation protocol to
see where steps could be changes to save money. Make sure that one group is
the control group and follows the protocol as it is written in the lab.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

The simplest misconception is that many students do not understand how restriction enzymes
function and believe that they only cut through half of the DNA.
Students generally think of science as having a body of knowledge that is unchanging. The
Human Genome Project completion and its effect on our understanding of human DNA is a
great place to show the dynamics of changing knowledge.
Many students may initially think that GMOs are harmful or unhealthy. This is a great
opportunity to disentangle ethical or moral concerns from health and safety concerns.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Modeling Restriction Enzymes: students demonstrate how restriction enzymes work
using paper and scissors. Working in small groups, students will model restriction
enzyme activity. A full set of directions and a student worksheets are available in your
online course.
2. Biotechnology in Production: students produce a silent video demonstrating the steps of
different technologies.
Many biotechnologies are dynamic and contain a lot of different steps. Electrophoresis,
cloning, and PCR are great examples of dynamic procedures.
Having students act out how the technologies work can be a fun way to help them
understand the steps of particular methods.
For this activity, break students into groups of 4 or 5.
Each group will be instructed to produce a silent video demonstrating a particular
biotechnology.
After students are finished with their videos, share their results with the class.
3. Biotechnology Group Research: students will conduct an internet-based research
assignment on a particular biotechnology.
Students, working in groups of 3 or 4, conduct Internet-based research on their assigned
biotechnology topic. Remind students about responsible web searching, and how to
determine whether a site is a legitimate source.

Teacher Manual 75
 Biotechnology topics to research:
1. Electrophoresis
2. Plasmid-based transformation
3. Restriction enzyme analysis of DNA
4. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
5. Genetically modified foods
6. Transgenic animals
7. Cloned animals
8. Pharmaceuticals, such as human insulin or factor X
They will present their findings to the class describing the technologies that are used and
how humans have manipulated the genetic material in order to produce a desired product.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of allowing students to conduct open-ended

Internet-based research, provide the students with specific biotechnology company
websites such as Sigma, Promega or GenScript. Using the company website, the
students then have to research one of the services that particular biotech service offers
and explain what it is, how it works, and when a researcher might want to use it. This
would support the learner on what information they need to research without
overwhelming the student with extraneous details.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching – Beginning

Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the
terms out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in
their interactive notebooks.

Making Connections – Intermediate

Paraphrase content to make it accessible to all students. Paraphrasing helps students make
connections more easily.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 14.1, Check Your Progress (STR) sequences, the number of which varies between
each person.
1. Explain the purpose of restriction enzymes in
creating an rDNA molecule. 4. Explain why genome editing may be more
efficient than recombinant DNA processes.
Restriction enzymes cleave DNA, which is necessary to create
rDNA from two or more sources. First, the restriction enzyme Genome editing may be more efficient than recombinant DNA
cuts the DNA, and then DNA ligase seals the foreign DNA into processes because it does not need a vector to edit, replace, or
the opening created remove targeted DNA – it can work directly on the DNA.

2. Summarize how the polymerase chain reaction Section 14.2, Check Your Progress
(PCR) is used in biotechnology. 1. List some of the beneficial applications of
PCR creates many clones of a piece of DNA rapidly, without first transgenic bacteria, animals, and plants.
inserting it into a plasmid. It therefore mimics DNA replication in Benefits include medical improvements (insulin, human growth
the cell for very specific targeted DNA. This DNA can be analyzed hormone, vaccines, etc.), higher vitamin contents (e.g. rice), pest
for various purposes, from understanding human evolution to and herbicide resistance, longer shelf life, and faster growth of
forensic science. animals, among others.
3. Explain how DNA fingerprinting distinguishes 2. Distinguish between a transgenic animal and
individuals. a cloned animal.
DNA varies from person to person, and DNA fingerprinting A transgenic animal has incorporated one or more genes from
uses these variations to differentiate among individuals, another animal into their DNA, whereas a clone has the exact
like a fingerprint. It uses PCR to amplify short tandem repeat same DNA as the donor animal.

76 CHAPTER 14 | Biotechnology and Genomics

Section 14.3, Check Your Progress Answer: B; If DNA from one source is cut with a RE, and has a
sticky end with GGAA sticking out, that piece of DNA will pair up
1. Describe the methods being used to introduce
with another fragment that has the complementary sequence
genes into humans for gene therapy. (CCTT). Thus the two pieces of DNA can be combined, with the
Genes can be introduced through ex vivo gene therapy (gene help of DNA ligase
is inserted into cells that have been removed then returned to
the body), in vivo gene therapy (gene is delivered directly into 2. Once DNA has been cut into fragments with
the body), or RNA interference (small pieces of RNA silence the restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis can be
expression of specific alleles). used to separate out the fragments. Which best
2. Give an example of ex vivo gene therapy and describes the result of running DNA fragments
in vivo gene therapy. through electrophoresis?
Ex vivo gene therapy example: infecting bone marrow cells A) The gel apparatus first cuts up the DNA, and then
with the gene that codes for ADA, for children who have SCID. separates by charge.
In vivo gene therapy example: the gene that codes for a B) Fragments that run through the gel are
transmembrane carrier of the chloride ion is sprayed into the separated, and then joined using sticky ends.
nose of cystic fibrosis patients C) As fragments move through the gel, the smaller
3. Explain the difference between RNA fragments move farther, so the fragments are
interference and in vivo gene therapy. separated out by size.
RNA interference introduces complimentary RNA into cells to D) By the end of the process, fragments have been
bind with target RNA, whereas in vivo gene therapy delivers the separated out according to the proportion of
specific gene needed. thymine bases.
Answer: C; The electrical current in the apparatus pushes
Section 14.4, Check Your Progress fragments through the gel. The larger the fragment, the less it
1. Distinguish between the genome and the can move; the smaller the fragment, the farther it can be pushed.
proteome of a cell. Eventually, fragments are separated by size.
Genomes are the complete genetic makeup whereas proteomes 3. The processes of genetic engineering depend
are the complete collection of proteins.
on bacteria, in one way or another. For example,
2. Summarize the difference between a short the bacterium Thermus aquaticus was crucial to
tandem repeat and a transposon. revolutionizing the polymerase chain reaction
A short tandem repeat is a sequence of DNA that repeats (PCR) process. What contribution has been
multiple times on a chromosome, whereas a transposon is a made by this bacterium?
specific DNA sequence that has the ability to move within and A) a heat stable DNA polymerase, which does not
between chromosomes. denature at the temperatures needed in PCR
3. Explain how the use of microarrays and B) restriction enzymes that function in high acidity
bioinformatics aids in the study of genomics C) robust versions of DNA ligase that do not break
and proteomics. down when shaken
Microarrays can show you which genes are turned on in a D) The bacterium acts as a host for the amplification
specific cell or organism at a particular time and under what portion of PCR.
environmental circumstances. Bioinformatics uses computer
technology and statistics to store and study the biological Answer: A; In order to amplify DNA in PCR, the DNA must be
information contained in a genome. It contains a lot of raw data heated high enough to cause the original DNA stands to
that might not be understood now, but is available to scientists separate. The separated strands will serve as templates on
for research. which new DNA can be made, using the heat stable molecule
originally found in Thermus aquaticus.
AP Assessment 4. Agricultural plants are a favorite target of
1. Scientists who are using restriction genetic engineering, with many such plants
endonucleases (RE) for genetic engineering having received genes designed to improve
purposes will use RE that leave “sticky ends” disease resistance or nutritional content. For
when they cut, as opposed to “blunt ends.” the most part, techniques used to modify plants
What is the advantage of sticky ends? are different from those used to modify animals.
A) Sticky ends allow the researcher to attach One such technique utilizes a plasmid from the
appropriate enzymes to the DNA strand. plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
B) Sticky ends have unpaired bases, which can be Transformation by this method will not occur
matched up to complementary bases of DNA unless which step below occurs?
from another source. A) Plasmids are isolated from their original
C) Blunt ends are unstable and will separate over time. plant cells.
D) Blunt ends are limited in number, and do not allow B) Plasmids are sorted with gel electrophoresis
for a variety of matches to other DNA sources. into small fragments.

Teacher Manual 77
 C) Plasmids are isolated from Agrobacterium, and D) Such a finding is coincidental, and no conclusion
have their disease-causing genes removed. can be drawn.
D) Plasmids from Agrobacterium are combined Answer: A; Close relatives tend to have similar genes, inherited
with Agrobacterium’s large chromosome; this from recent common ancestors. However, a researcher would
recombinant is taken up by plant cell. want to look at other comparisons for a number of genes before
Answer: C; Agrobacterium is a plant pathogen, whose normal drawing a definitive conclusion. The similarity of the two
job is to infect plant cells and cause galls (tumors). In order to collagen genes tends to suggest that the gene product is
get a living recombinant plant, the disease-causing genes must important, and alternative (possibly nonfunctioning) versions
be removed from the Ti plasmid, and replaced with the gene of it have not been conserved.
of interest.
8. The field of comparative genomics is yielding
5. Overfishing and environmental changes have valuable new insights into the relationships
lead to population declines for many species between species, impacting taxonomy and
of fish. Researchers have developed a new evolutionary biology.
salmon, which contains 99.9% genetic material A) Describe two kinds of data that could be
from Atlantic salmon, as well as gene products collected by scientists to provide a direct answer
from two other fishes. What is the most to the question: how is the concept of biological
evolution supported by genomics?
accurate term for this new salmon?
B) Explain how the data you suggested in part (a)
A) cloned animal
would provide a direct answer to the question.
B) promoter
Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each)
C) transgenic animal
• The human genome has many small regions of DNA that vary
D) genetically modified organism among individuals and may vary by only one nucleotide.
Answer: C; Transgenic animals contain genes transplanted from • Prokaryotes typically possess a singular chromosome with
another species. genes that are packed together very closely. Eukaryotic
chromosomes are more complex and the genes are seemingly
6. Once scientists have sequenced a genome, randomly distributed along the length of a chromosome
they then need to annotate the genome by
• Because of genomics, we now know that there are repetitive
figuring out which parts of the genome DNA elements that include tandem repeats (repeats next to
represent genes, and then determine what each other on the chromosome). are more fragmented into
those genes code for. Which strategies below exons with more intervening introns scattered throughout.
would be useful in searching for genes? • Because of genomics, we now know that there are repetitive
A) searching for promoter regions DNA elements that include interspersed repeats (repeats that
B) searching for start and stop codons occur intermittently on a single chromosome or across multiple
C) searching for codons that code for amino acids chromosomes).
• The true significance of transposons has only begun to come
D) Any or all of these strategies could be useful.
to light with genomics. Transposons have been found across
Answer: D; All of these strategies are based on a knowledge of multiple domains of life: they have been found in bacteria, fruit
the architecture of a gene: what should the beginning look like, flies, humans, and many other organisms.
what should its functional parts look like, etc. This helps
• Comparative genomics offers a way to study changes in a
researchers avoid non-coding regions of DNA.
genome over time, because the model organisms have a
7. Today, genetic information is collected in large shorter generation time than humans.
international databases where it can be used Explanations (1 point each):
to compare genetic information across species, • Genetic variation provides a mechanism for natural selection
using tools such as BLAST (Basic Local to act upon. Many SNPs have no effect, while others may
Alignment Search Tool). Suppose a researcher contribute to enzymatic differences affecting phenotype.
has been comparing genes between the • Similar organisms have similar genome structure. In general,
American crocodile and a newly discovered the more complex an organism is, the more complex the
Brazilian crocodile. He has found that DNA genome of that organism 0 with more and larger introns.
sequences for the collagen protein are 98% • The number and types of tandem repeats may vary
similar in the two species. What is a reasonable significantly from one individual to another, making them
conclusion from this finding? invaluable as indicators of heritage.
A) The American crocodile and the Brazilian • Because of their common occurrence, interspersed repeats are
crocodile may be closely related. thought to play a role in the evolution of new genes.
B) The American crocodile and the Brazilian • These moving DNA sequences can sometimes alter
crocodile are NOT closely related. neighboring genes, particularly decreasing their expression.
C) The protein collagen is not important, and has The movement of transposons throughout the genome is
not evolved much. thought to be a driving force in the evolution of living

78 CHAPTER 14 | Biotechnology and Genomics

 organisms. Many scientists now think that many repetitive DNA sequence. PCR is a chain reaction because the targeted DNA is
elements were originally derived from transposons. repeatedly replicated as long as the process continues.
• Comparing genomes can help us understand the evolutionary • Illustrative examples of products of genetic engineering
relationships between organisms (e.g. it was found that the include: genetically modified foods, transgenic animals, cloned
genomes of all vertebrates are highly similar). Modern animals, and pharmaceuticals.
technology allows comparisons of genomes of organisms
from every domain, revealing interesting and sometimes 10. The polymerase chain reaction revolutionized
unexpected relationships. biologists’ ability to sequence DNA. As you
learned in Chapter 14, multiple types of PCR
9. Identify and describe at least two commonly
exist. But why do scientists need different
used genetic engineering technologies used by
techniques? The table below highlights the
scientists to manipulate heritable information.
sensitivity level of three different types of PCR:
Descriptions of technologies employed to manipulate heritable
conventional, nested, and real-time.
information may include (1 point each):
A) Summarize the information in the table.
• Gel electrophoresis (now being replaced by fluorescently
labeled DNA fragments excited by lasers and resulting Real-time PCR is the most effective across the board, for all sizes
transmissions detected and recorded): Used in DNA of DNA studied. Nested PCR is effective from 2 ug-2 pg, but it is
fingerprinting or DNA profiling, this method separates DNA not 100% effective at any sizes smaller than that. Conventional
fragments according to their size; the result of fragment sorting PCR is only 100% effective from 2 ug- 20 ng.
was a pattern of distinctive bands that can identify a person B) Compare and contrast the three types of PCR.
due to each person having their own restriction enzyme sites. What may be some pros and cons of each type?
• Plasmid-based transformation – makes use of recombinant Conventional PCR cost the least, but it is least effective. Real-
DNA technology: Plasmids are small accessory rings of DNA time PCR is the most effective but costs the most. Nested PCR
found in bacteria that are not part of the main chromosome but costs more than conventional but less than real-time, and its
can instead replicate on its own and can be easily removed cost is in the middle of the two tests. As the test gets more
from or introduced into a bacterial cell (vector DNA). Using reliable and more effective across more sizes of sample the cost
restriction enzymes to cleave DNA and DNA ligase to seal DNA, of the test increases. Researches must determine which test is
foreign DNA can be introduced into bacteria and be replicated, best for them in order to make the best use of the monetary
cloning the introduced DNA. resources available to them. Real-time PCR is also faster than
• Restriction enzyme analysis of DNA: Restriction enzymes cut conventional PCR.
DNA at specific locations. Each restriction enzyme recognizes C) Conclude which types of PCR you would use if
a specific sequence of nucleotides. After the enzyme cuts you only had 2 ng of sample.
the DNA, “sticky ends” may be formed that are useful in the Conventional PCR would not work with a 2 ng sample. If results
cloning of DNA sequences. are needed immediately then real-time PCR would be the best
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) – quickly creates many choice. It is, however, a more expensive test than nested PCR or
clones of a piece of DNA without first inserting it into a conventional PCR. The best choice is the type of PCR that is cost
plasmid. The process mimics DNA replication in the cell, except effective and also 100% reliable with the size of sample that is
that PCR is very specific – it amplifies only a targeted DNA available, and for this test that would be nested PCR.

Teacher Manual 79
CHAPTER 15
Darwin and Evolution

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

15.1 The History of Evolutionary
Thought
7.1 Introduction to Natural Selection
15.2 Darwin’s Theory of Natural
1 7.3 Artificial Selection
Selection
7.12 Variations in Populations
15.3 Evidence For Evolution 1 7.6 Evidence of Evolution
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 15 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7

Online Activities
Following Darwin’s Journey
Simulating Natural Selection
Evolution in the Birds-of-Paradise

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Under the new AP curriculum, convergent evolution is addressed under the “Artificial
Selection” topic, hence its inclusion here. Sometimes, students struggle with the evolutionary
definition of fitness (confusing it with athleticism or health). Providing examples of adaptations
that are unrelated to strength can help clarify. In addition, its important to stress that fitness
includes survival and reproductive success, hence adaptations that may shorten a individual’s
life span while increasing their mating success (such as male peacocks).
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture – 25 minutes on Charles Darwin and the theory of natural selection
Activity 1: Following Darwin’s Journey – 20 minutes
OR Activity 2: Simulating Natural Selection – 20 minutes
Day 2: Lecture – 25 minutes on interdisciplinary evidence for evolution
Activity 3: Evolution in the Birds-of-Paradise – 20 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

It is helpful to address misconceptions about scientific theories before touching on evolution.
Emphasize that evolution isn’t a belief system, but an explanation based on evidence.
Separate what science can study (the natural world) from what it can’t (the supernatural).
Fitness is often a confusing topic for students. Emphasize that fitness is measured within
members of the same population, not between organisms of different species. Fitness refers
to reproductive success and not general wellbeing.

80 CHAPTER 15 | Darwin and Evolution

Students may believe that evolution happens in individual organisms rather than populations.
Students generally believe that an organism can change to be better suited for the environment
that has changes. This is not the case; we would have perfect humans if we could change to
suit our environment.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Following Darwin’s Journey: Students will trace Darwin’s journey through different internet
resources. You may choose to have students trace the movements of Darwin’s voyage and
discoveries through their own web investigation or provide links. Suggested links can be
found in your online course.
2. Simulating Natural Selection: Students will demonstrate natural selection using beans and
various appendages, such as forks and spoons, to try and pick the beans up. This is a great
visual example of how adaptations are important to fitness. A link to the activity files is
available in your online course.
3. Evolution in the Birds-of-Paradise: Students use the Cornell Lab of Ornithology Birds-of-
Paradise Project to explore evolution. There are numerous ways you might want to use this
material to best fit into your classroom.
(1) The Cornell Lab offers three premade lessons that you can integrate into your lecture
with Lesson 2 and 3 being most pertinent to this chapter.
(2) You may choose to view the videos found on the bird-of-paradise website as part of your
lecture and then discuss what features of the birds have evolved any why as a class.
(3) You may decide you would rather allow students navigate the interactives found under
the tabs: the Birds and Evolution in Isolation to explore how and why the birds have
evolved. They could work in pairs or groups to present their findings.
Links to the activity website are available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Comprehension Skill – Beginning

Ask questions about the lesson content to elicit yes/no answers: “Can evidence for evolution
be found in biogeographic, fossil, anatomical, and biochemical fields.” yes “Does changes in
genotype always result in changes in phenotype?” no

Listening and Speaking – Advanced

Tell students to listen without taking notes while you read aloud a content area paragraph.
After you have finished, have students write down what they remember from your reading.
Have students work in small groups to compare their notes. Then have each group write a
summary of their understanding.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 15.1, Check Your Progress 2. Evaluate Lamarck’s idea of “inheritance of
1. Define catastrophism and identify who acquired characteristics” as an explanation
proposed this idea. of biological diversity.
Catastrophism was proposed by Baron Georges Cuvier The idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics is Lamarck’s
and postulates that sudden changes in fossil variations way to explain adaptation to the environment. It states that the
can be explained by a series of local catastrophes, or mass environment can produce physical changes in an organism
extinctions, followed by repopulation by species from during its lifetime that are inheritable. This, however, is not true
surrounding areas. because phenotypic changes acquired during an organism’s
lifetime do not result in genetic changes that can be passed to
subsequent generations.

Teacher Manual 81
 3. Construct a timeline of the history of 3. Explain how biomolecules support the theory of
evolutionary thought. Include major contributors evolution by natural selection.
and a brief description of each contribution Biomolecules support the theory of evolution by natural selection
along the timeline. because all living organisms use the same basic biochemical
Ancient Greece Plato and Aristotle: species ‘essential form’ molecules, including DNA, RNA, and ATP. They use a triplet
nucleic-acid code in their DNA to encode for 1 of 20 amino acids
Mid-1700’s Carolus Linnaeus: scala naturae and essential form
that will form their proteins. All organisms – from humans to
Late 1700’s Baron Georges Cuvier: catastrophism (also founded prokaryotes, have some genes in common, and the sequence
paleontology) for amino acids of some proteins is similar across the tree of life.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck: inheritance of acquired This preservation of information points to a common ancestor
characteristics for all living things.
James Hutton and Charles Lyell: theory of slow, uniform geologic
change and uniformitarianism AP Assessment
Mid-1800’s Charles Darwin: Theory of Evolution, influenced by 1. In natural selection, “nature,” or the environment,
slow geologic change (Lyell) and population growth (Malthus) acts as a selection agent. In artificial selection,
what is the selection agent?
Section 15.2, Check Your Progress A) humans who choose which individuals survive
1. List the three categories of observations made and reproduce
by Darwin that support evolution by natural B) changing levels of carbon dioxide in the
selection. atmosphere
observations of change over time, biogeographical observations, C) the organisms themselves
natural selection and adaptation D) computer-generated decision-making software
2. Summarize the components of Darwin’s theory Answer: A; Darwin himself cited artificial selection as
of evolution by natural selection. demonstrating how it was possible for traits in a population
to vary over time. By selecting which dogs to breed, or roses to
1) Organisms exhibit variation that can be passed from one
pollinate, humans can cause tremendous changes in a species.
generation to the next – heritable variation. 2) Organisms
compete for available resources. 3) Individuals within a 2. The continent of Australia has been separated
population differ in terms of their reproductive success. from the other continents for more than 70 my.
4) Organisms become adapted to conditions as the The diverse array of marsupial mammals found
environment changes. on the continent includes many species that
3. Identify several mechanisms of evolutionary are strikingly similar to placental mammals on
change that can be studied. other continents. Which reasoning best explains
Some mechanisms of evolutionary change that can be studied how these similarities have developed since the
include artificial selection, Darwin’s finches, phenotypic separation of the mammal groups?
evolution at the genetic level in fruit flies, and industrial A) The two different groups of mammals faced
melanism in peppered moths. different selection pressures, and diverged away
from a common ancestor.
Section 15.3, Check Your Progress B) The two different groups of mammals faced
1. Define transitional fossils and provide one similar selection pressures, and converged on
similar traits.
example.
C) Artificial selection on the part of Australian
Transitional fossils bear a resemblance to two groups that in
natives selected for similar traits as on other
the present are classified separately. They often represent the
continents.
intermediate evolutionary forms of life in transition from one
type to another or a common ancestor of these types. An D) Placental and marsupial mammals have
example is Archaeopteryx, which is an intermediate between interbred over the millennia and shared their
dinosaurs and birds. gene pools.
Answer: B; There are only so many ways that species can
2. Summarize the differences between homologous solve problems with their existing genes. If similar mutations
and analogous vestigial structures, as well as make similar traits available, and similar environments make
what each tells us about common ancestry. those traits favored, then the traits will spread and the two
Homologous vestigial structures are inherited from a common different groups will become more and more similar. Small
ancestor (e.g. postnatal tails), and occur because an organism’s tree-dwelling marsupial and placental mammals with mutations
anatomy carries traces of their evolutionary history. Analogous such that flaps of skin are left between front and hind limbs may
vestigial structures serve the same function but originated both find those flaps allow them to glide away from predators,
independently in different groups of organisms that do not share and thus survive.
a common ancestor (e.g. a bat wing and a butterfly wing).

82 CHAPTER 15 | Darwin and Evolution

3. Over the last 40 years, Peter and Rosemary Answer: C; To estimate fitness, scientists look at the reproductive
Grant have studied changes in beak shape in success of an organism. A plant which is successful at attracting
ground finches on one island in the Galapagos. pollinators is most likely to produce many seeds, and thus have
They measured variation in beak shape of many offspring.
many birds each year, and then looked for 6. Fossil evidence is vital to supporting
patterns of change. They found that beak evolutionary thought. If species have been
size was correlated with changes in seed changing throughout earth’s history, then it
availability, which correlated with wet/dry would be reasonable to predict that some
years. Which condition necessary for natural transitional fossil species will exist in the fossil
selection is supported by the observations record. Which describes an example of a
described above? transitional species?
A) Variation is rare in populations not faced with A) The fossil Tiktaalik has a flat head like
environmental stress. amphibian descendants, but also has fins
B) Selection is favored if variations lead to increases like fish ancestors.
in an individual’s lifetime reproductive success. B) Modern whales have nostrils on the top of their
C) Random changes in weather patterns are not heads, unlike their tetrapod ancestors.
considered a selection factor. C) Brussel sprouts and kohlrabi have many genes in
D) Selection only occurs if phenotypic variation is common with their wild mustard ancestors.
genetically transmissible from generation to D) The forelimbs of birds and bats contain
generation. homologous skeletal structures.
Answer: B; The amount of rainfall helped determine which Answer: A; Tiktaalik is said to be transitional between fish and
plants set seeds. Variations in beaks meant that, if seed supply amphibian tetrapods. It has features of each—fins and scales like
changed, the birds with the appropriate beak would survive fish, flat head and expanded ribs like amphibians.
better, and the Grants saw an increase in this particular trait
(until rainfall conditions changed again). An increase in birds 7. The development of genomics has extended
with that trait implies an increase in reproductive success. the lines of evidence supporting evolution.
Technologies allowing scientists to sequence
4. During Darwin’s time, many scientists were still
DNA make it possible to compare species on a
influenced by 18th century concepts which made
biochemical basis. Which statement describes
it difficult for them to envision the possibility of
how DNA comparisons are used in evolutionary
evolution. For example, leading scientists such
biology?
as Linnaeus believed in the “fixity” of species.
What does this idea propose about the nature A) Two species whose DNA sequences are highly
similar likely inherited that DNA from a recent
of species?
common ancestor.
A) Species exist in a scale of nature, with each
B) Two species whose DNA sequences are highly
species ranked according to its worth.
similar likely inherited that DNA from a distant
B) Species existing today are the only species that common ancestor.
ever existed.
C) As selection acts on phenotypes and not
C) Each species has an ideal geographical location, genotypes, DNA comparisons do not help
which is fixed. explain natural selection.
D) Each species has an ideal form which does not D) As selection acts on genotypes and not
change. phenotypes, DNA comparisons can be used
Answer: D; According to the concept of fixity of species, each to explain natural selection.
species has an ideal form, which is fixed and unchanging. If this Answer: A; evolutionary biologists use genetic similarities to
were true, then evolutionary change would not be possible. determine when or how species might have diverged from a
5. Evolutionary biologists may use the term “fitness” common ancestor.
to compare different organisms. Which best 8. According to natural selection, variation exists
describes an organism considered to have a in all populations, and nature acts on that
high evolutionary fitness? variation to select individuals to survive. In
A) a very strong animal, capable of physically the 19th century Darwin could not adequately
defeating rivals explain the source of the variation found in a
B) a very fast animal, capable of running away from species. How would a 21st century scientist
predators explain the source of variation?
C) a plant that is very successful at attracting A) Organisms will change their traits as needed to
pollinators survive, thus producing new traits.
D) a plant that has camouflaged its fruit, hiding it B) Random mutations in genes provide varied traits
from animals on which selection can act.

Teacher Manual 83
 C) External forces such as radiation cause new frequencies in a population, analysis of sequence data sets,
traits in an individual when their structures are analysis of phylogenetic trees, construction of phylogenetic
damaged. trees based on sequence data).
D) Sexual reproduction is responsible for all 11. Scientists claim that a population’s ability to
variation in a population. respond to changes in the environment is
Answer: B; The existence and function of DNA was unknown affected by genetic diversity. Support this claim
at the time of Darwin. Today we know that DNA controls traits, with THREE pieces of evidence.
and that DNA can be altered in many ways.
Description of the scientific evidence may include (1 point each):
9. An increased understanding of how DNA • Changes in the environment often drive natural selection;
works shows evolutionary biologists how even populations with greater genetic diversity have the best
simple changes in genes can produce large chances of adapting to those changes (notice that populations
changes in organisms. Which example shows adapt, not individuals).
how a change in a regulatory gene can result • All animals have genes in common that control the development
in extensive changes in the organism? of the body plan. At the level of the gene, small changes in the
A) A mutation in a single gene is likely responsible DNA sequence of switches that turn genes “on” and “off” can
for the differences seen between birds and produce new features that might play a role in mating rituals or
humans. in surviving environmental changes.
B) A rapid increase in the amount of soot discoloring • If some organisms have mutations that allow it to survive and
tree trunks changed the DNA of peppered moths. not be susceptible to its killing agent, and they are able to pass
that mutation down to their offspring, the population has a
C) A change in the timing and duration of genes
chance for survival. Examples: Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
controlling vertebral development could produce
the snake skeleton. • If a population has little genetic diversity and there is not a
mutation to survive its killing agent present in the population,
D) By stretching their bodies and elongating their
then the population will suffer and collapse. Examples:
necks, giraffes have produced long necks.
• Plants that have been sprayed by herbicides
Answer: C; Genes controlling development, such as Hox
genes, can create large changes by simply staying on longer. • Corn rust affecting agricultural crops
Differences between groups such as birds and humans are too • Potato blight causing the potato famine
complex for single-gene control. Answers B and B describe
12. The changing frequencies of light-colored and
Lamarckian changes, not changes due to natural selection.
dark-colored moths have been studied for
10. Biological evolution driven by natural selection decades in the United States. The percentage
is supported by evidence from many scientific of the melanic, or dark, form of the moth
disciplines. Describe THREE of these examples was low prior to the Industrial Revolution. It
of scientific evidence and how they connect to increased until it made up nearly the entire
support the modern concept of evolution. population in the early 1900s. After antipollution
Description of the scientific evidence for evolution driven by laws were passed, the percentage of melanic
natural selection may include (1 point each): moths declined, as shown in the graph.
• Fossils can be dated by a variety of methods that provide A) Describe the selective pressures and
evidence for evolution. These include the age of the rocks environmental conditions that would affect
where a fossil is found, the rate of decay isotopes including the survival of melanic and non-melanic moths
carbon-14, the relationships within phylogenetic trees, and the in the United States.
mathematical calculations that take into account information Selective pressures might include predation, and environmental
from chemical properties and/or geographical data. conditions might include air pollution levels.
• Morphological homologies represent features shared by
B) Interpret the percent decrease in Pennsylvania
common ancestry. Vestigial structures are remnants of
melanic moth population.
functional structures, which can be compared to fossils and
provide evidence for evolution. About 50%
• Biochemical and genetic similarities, in particular DNA C) Hypothesize why the percentage of melanic
nucleotide and protein sequences, provide evidence for moths might have remained at a relatively low
evolution and ancestry. level in Virginia.
• Mathematical models and simulations can be used to illustrate Virginia might have maintained a low amount of air pollution
and support evolutionary concepts (graphical analyses of allele throughout the study period.

84 CHAPTER 15 | Darwin and Evolution

CHAPTER 16
How Populations Evolve

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

6.7 Mutation

7.2 Natural Selection

16.1 Genes, Populations, and
1 7.4 Population Genetics
Evolution
7.5 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

7.8 Continuing Evolution

6.7 Mutation

7.2 Natural Selection

16.2 Natural Selection 1
7.8 Continuing Evolution

8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystem

6.7 Mutation

7.2 Natural Selection

16.3 Maintenance of Diversity 1
7.8 Continuing Evolution

7.12 Variation in Populations

Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 16 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 6
Unit Review: AP Unit 7

Online Activities
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Simulation: Snack Edition
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Simulation: Index Card Edition
Rock Pocket Mouse Unit

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The Hardy-Weinberg equation is fairly easy for students to understand and shouldn’t take
much class time. It is more important for students to be able to analyze whether a given
population is in or out of H-W equilibrium, and to predict the shifting of alleles. The HHMI Rock
Pocket Mouse is a great activity that has a video to go with it. You can also find many videos
about the Grants and their finch research on the Galapagos to tie these concepts to real life.
The summative assessment for microevolution should be combined with macroevolution.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture – 25 minutes on microevolution, genetic drift, and Hardy-Weinberg
L
equilibrium
Activity 1: Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Simulation: Snack Edition – 20 minutes
 R Activity 2: Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Simulation: Index Card Edition –
O
20 minutes

Teacher Manual 85
Day 2:  ctivity 3: Introduce the Rock Pocket Mouse unit by a short lecture and showing
A
three video clips that are outlined below, then do the activity – 45 minutes
Day 3: Finish Rocket Pocket Mouse Unit and review the correct answers – 25 minutes
 iscuss the heterozygous advantage as demonstrated in the sickle cell
D
allele – 20 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Generally students believe that an organism changes in order to fit into its environment. The
Rock Pocket Mouse activity clearly demonstrates that a change in DNA has caused a change
in the allele for fur color. Students generally do not think that an organism can mutate its own
DNA on purpose.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Simulation: Snack Edition: Students will complete Hardy-
Weinberg equations using common snack crackers to model the different components.
A link to the detailed instructions can be found in your online course.
2. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Simulation: Index Card Edition: Students will demonstrate natural
selection using index cards. Directions for this activity can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: For students who are struggling with the mathematical
expression of Hardy-Weinberg, you can offer extra practice with the worksheet found in
your online guide. Divide your class into pairs to work on the practice problem together.
Ask the students to underline and define the words in the problem that they might be
having trouble with. Often, the new vocabulary that students encounter when learning
genetics may be causing confusion and adds an extra stumbling block as they try to
understand what the mathematical question is asking.

3. Rock Pocket Mouse Unit: Students will learn how volcanic activity impacted a population of
rock pocket mice, using this online simulation. This activity includes short videos, animations,
and worksheets. Links to these components are available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching – Beginning

Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the
terms out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in
their interactive notebooks.

Oral Language Development – Advanced

Have students scan the lesson for content vocabulary words in context. Help them pronounce
the vocabulary words correctly. Discuss vocabulary meanings with them.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 16.1, Check Your Progress If these conditions are not met, allele and/or genotype
frequencies can change in a population.
1. List the five conditions necessary for Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium, and describe what 2. Estimate the equilibrium genotype frequencies
happens to allele frequencies in a population from a population with allele frequencies p = 0.10,
if these conditions are not met. q = 0.90.
The five Hardy-Weinberg principles are no mutation, no pp = 0.01; pq = 0.18; qq = 0.81
migration, large gene pool, random mating, and no selection.

86 CHAPTER 16 | How Populations Evolve

Section 16.2, Check Your Progress C) migration in or out is kept to a small number
1. Explain the difference between a population D) mutation only occurs to cells in meiosis
undergoing stabilizing, directional, or disruptive Answer: B; Hardy and Weinberg reasoned that, in very small
selection. populations, random chance events could intervene to
drastically change allele frequencies. Such changes to small
During stabilizing selection, the intermediate phenotype
populations are collectively known as genetic drift.
increases in frequency. During directional selection, an extreme
phenotype is favored, which changes the average phenotype 2. Assume that a population of sunflowers is in
value. During disruptive selection, two extreme phenotypes are Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. In these flowers,
favored, creating two new average phenotype values, one for yellow petals (Y) are dominant to white (y). A field
each phenotype. of 2000 flowers has 620 white-petaled flowers.
2. Construct an example of a phenotype distribution What is the frequency of the recessive allele?
curve for a population under directional selection A) 0.56
that is increasing in body size. B) 0.31
In this example, body size would be on the x-axis and number C) 0.44
of individuals would be on the y-axis. The normal distribution’s
D) 0.20
peak would shift toward the right over time, toward a larger
body size (in the opposite direction of figure 16.8 b.). Answer: A; The problem asks for the frequency of the
recessive allele, q. The frequency of the recessive genotype
3. Explain why sexual selection is a form of (q2) = 620/2000 = 0.31. If q2 = 0.31, then q = the square root
natural selection. of 0.31, or 0.56.
Sexual selection is a form of natural selection because it affects 3. Cheetahs suffer from all of the problems of
fitness – the ability to produce surviving offspring. modern large cat species, such as overhunting
and habitat loss. However, they are also
Section 16.3, Check Your Progress believed to have been through a population
1. Identify the ways in which diversity is maintained bottleneck some 10,000 years ago. What
in a population. evidence would justify the bottleneck claim?
Diversity is maintained in a population through a variety of A) Modern cheetah populations are scattered over
ways. Mutations create new alleles, genetic drift occurs, several continents.
sexual reproduction recombines alleles, the environment can B) Mating in cheetahs has been observed to be
select for specific traits that might change with a changing random.
environment, etc.
C) Cheetah populations show very little genetic
2. Demonstrate how sickle-cell disease is an variation.
example of stabilizing selection. Do the same D) Individual cheetahs are known to develop high
for cystic fibrosis. speeds for hunting.
Sickle-cell disease is an example of stabilizing selection because Answer: C; Modern genetic analysis shows that cheetahs have
there is a heterozygous advantage associated with the disease, drastically low levels of variation. If a population goes through
and those with homozygous alleles have lower fitness. The a bottleneck, the small group of survivors has relatively little
homozygous recessive form is a devastating condition, but those variation. This low level of variation persists in the populations
with the heterozygous phenotype are less susceptible to malaria, that follow.
giving them a reproductive advantage over those with sickle-cell
disease and those without the allele. Cystic fibrosis is similar – 4. In a particular species of rodent, males vary by
the recessive allele causes a defective plasma membrane. This size. Larger males are more robust, and typically
protects those heterozygous for the allele from typhoid fever. can outcompete smaller males for food sources.
Those who are homozygous recessive experience severe lung However, smaller males can survive on less
infections and digestive difficulties, and those who are food, and spend less time looking for food.
homozygous dominant are more susceptible to typhoid fever. Smaller males are more likely to be available to
mate when females come into heat. Given the
AP Assessment circumstances, which individuals have a higher
1. G.H. Hardy and W. Weinberg developed an fitness, large or small males?
understanding of how variation in populations A) large males, because they are more physically fit
tends to persist. They proposed that, in an ideal B) large males, because they get more food
population, allele frequencies would remain C) small males, because they reproduce more often
constant if certain conditions are met. Which
D) small males, because they do not need as
answer below describes a Hardy-Weinberg much food
condition needed for a non-evolving population?
Answer: C; Evolutionary biologists define fitness on the basis of
A) mating is nonrandom reproductive success. If small males reproduce more often, and
B) population is large leave more offspring behind, that makes them more fit.

Teacher Manual 87
5. At any given moment, the amount of variation in 9. Sexual selection refers to adaptive changes
a population reflects a balance between forces that increase the chances of finding a mate
increasing variation and forces decreasing and thus increasing fitness. Which adaptation
variation. Which force would decrease variation? is an example of sexual selection?
A) mutation A) Male squirrels will cache nuts in a variety of
B) nonrandom mating locations.
C) crossing over B) Female squirrels will chatter to warn of predators.
D) random fertilization C) Female songbirds are often dull-colored.
Answer: B; Mate selection influences variation. Imagine that D) Male songbirds sing to defend their territory.
a female bird chooses males with crests on their heads. By Answer: D; Male songbirds establish a breeding territory. By
choosing males with that particular trait, females are mating singing along the boundaries of this territory, they both attract
nonrandomly. This choice acts as a force to increase crests, females and drive away rival males. It costs energy to make bright
which will make that the common trait, decreasing variation. pigments, which may be worth the investment if males attract
more females, but not worth it for females trying to produce eggs.
6. One condition necessary for a population to
be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is that there 10. Sickle cell anemia is a recessive human
be no migration. Which answer would be an genetic disorder with the potential to be lethal.
example of migration? Scientists found a higher frequency of the
A) snakes hibernating over winter recessive allele in regions of Africa where
B) wildebeest gathering at a watering hole every parasite-caused disease malaria was also
morning present. Which best explains this correlation?
C) pollen being carried by wind from one pine A) The parasite that carries malaria also carries the
population to another sickle cell gene.
D) lady bugs eating pollen from a plant B) There is a heterozygote advantage for individuals
who are heterozygous for sickle cell anemia.
Answer: C; Migration occurs when genetic information enters or
leaves a population. In the case of plants, this typically involves C) Individuals who have the double recessive for
pollen being blown or carried between populations. sickle cell have capillaries blocked by sickled red
blood cells.
7. The Hardy-Weinberg condition that might be D) Directional selection is reducing the frequency of
least likely to occur in a population is no the sickle cell allele.
mutations. While the normal mutation rate is Answer: B; Individuals who are heterozygous for sickle cell
low, mutations do occur. However, a mutation have some sickled cells, but are not debilitated by the disease.
may not have much effect on a population, However, the parasite that causes malaria will be killed if it
due to which of the following reasons? gets into a sickled cell. Thus individuals who are heterozygous
A) Mutations are only found in sexually reproducing have milder cases of malaria, and are more likely to survive to
organisms. reproduce. This maintains the sickle cell allele in the population.
B) Mutations are not found in organisms who 11. Albinism (aa) is a rare homozygous recessive
successfully reproduce. trait that is carried in many species. It was found
C) Most mutations produce favorable changes. that in a population of squirrels in Upstate New
D) Most mutations are repaired by cellular repair York, that 90% of the population had A alleles
mechanisms. and 10% carried a alleles. Assuming that the
Answer: D; The vast majority of mutations produced by DNA population was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium,
replication errors or by mutagens are picked up by a variety of calculate what would we expect to find for the
repair mechanisms. genotypic frequencies of the homozygous
recessive trait in the F2 generation.
8. Scientists have been studying a population of
a finch species in the Galapagos Islands. This 0.01
population has two distinct beak sizes, small and Solution: A = 0.90 a = 0.10
large. These different sizes seem to be persisting p2 + 2pq + 22 = 1
in this population over time. Which term AA = (0.90)2 = 0.81
describes the likely mode of selection at work? Aa = 2(0.9)(0.1) = 0.18
A) disruptive aa = (0.10)2 = 0.01
B) directional
12. An inherited disease that affects the nervous
C) destructive system results in patients that are homozygous
D) stabilizing recessive at a certain locus that has two alleles,
Answer: A; disruptive selection results in a bimodal distribution B and b. In a population of 150 people, two
of a trait, where the intermediate phenotype is selected against. people have genotype bb.

88 CHAPTER 16 | How Populations Evolve

A) Calculate the allele frequencies of both B and b • Natural selection or random events can influence the
for this population, and determine the frequencies evolutionary process, especially in small populations.
that would be evident if the population is in
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. 13. You are observing a grouse population in
which two feather phenotypes are present
B) Explain how your results in part (a) indicate
whether or not this population is evolving. in males. One is relatively dark and blends
into shadows well, and the other is relatively
Calculations of gene frequency and the appropriate explanation
bright and more obvious to predators. The
of the results may include:
females are uniformly dark-feathered.
Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each)
Observing the frequency of mating between
• In this population of 150, there would be 300 alleles: 194 B and females and the two types of males, you
106 b. (p = 0.65; q = 0.35) have recorded the following: matings with
• If this population was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, there dark-feathered males: 13 matings with bright-
would be 63 BB individuals, 69 Bb individuals, and 18 bb feathered males: 32
individuals.
A) Propose a hypothesis to explain why females
• (p2 = 0.42; 2pq = 0.46; q2 = 0.12) apparently prefer bright-feathered males.
• The actual population presented is not equal to what would
Sexual selection often results when one sex prefers showy
be expected in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (46 BB, 102 Bb, coloration in their mates. Answers may include that showy
and 2 bb). coloration may be correlated with other successful traits.
Explanations (1 point each) B) Describe what selective advantage might there
• Since the actual numbers of alleles in the population are not be in choosing a male with alleles that make it
what would be expected in equilibrium, this population may more susceptible to predation.
be evolving. Showier mates must also be able to survive predation attacks.
• In order to have Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and not evolve,
the population would have to be (1) sufficiently large, (2) without C) Detail what data would help test your hypothesis.
migration, (3) lack mutations, (4) experience random mating, Answers will vary, but may include survival rates for dark-
and (5) experience an absence of selection. feathered versus bright-feathered males.

Teacher Manual 89
CHAPTER 17
Speciation and
Macroevolution
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
7.6 Evidence of Evolution

17.1 How New Species Evolve 1 7.8 Continuing Evolution

7.10 Speciation
7.3 Artificial Selection

7.6 Evidence of Evolution

17.2 Modes of Speciation 2
7.8 Continuing Evolution

7.10 Speciation
7.6 Evidence of Evolution

7.8 Continuing Evolution

17.3 Principles of Macroevolution 1
7.10 Speciation

8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems

Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 17 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7

Online Activities
Sexual Selection in Guppies
Investigating Speciation in Anolis Lizards
Sexual Selection and Speciation Round Table

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The best way to make evolution come alive for students is to alternate hands on activities with
short lectures. It is helpful to have access to digital learning resources even if you only have
one teacher computer that you can project for the entire class. The Department of Evolution
at the University of California at Berkeley maintains an excellent website that students may
find useful.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture – 30 minutes on macroevolution and the mechanisms that lead to
L
speciation: genetic drift, natural selection, mutations, and immigration
Activity 1: Sexual Selection in Guppies– 15 minutes
Day 2: Lecture – 15 minutes on reproductive isolation
Activity 2: Investigating Speciation in Anolis Lizards – 30 minutes
Day 3: Summative assessment or Activity 3: Sexual Selection and Speciation Round Table

90 CHAPTER 17 | Speciation and Macroevolution

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Students may be confused about the difference between being related and having a common
ancestor. If you are related, then you share a common ancestor. Students tend to think that
you evolved from your relative. Students confuse the idea that mutations are random events
but natural selection is not a random event. Natural selection acts in a directed fashion on
favorable traits. There is confusion over the term design to describe a specific structure.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Sexual Selection in Guppies: Students simulate Endler’s 1980 classic experiment on the
balance of sexual selection and natural selection. See your online course for links to the
simulation website and teacher directions.

Differentiated Instruction: For a deeper dive into Endler’s Guppy experiment, present
students with the National Center for Case Study Teaching Science: Evolution and
Plasticity in Guppies. Instead of a virtual simulation, students read a detailed account
of Endler’s study and are presented with the real data to examine. There are four parts
to the study, but the first part will be adequate for most high school classrooms. You
may choose to spilt your classroom into small groups or pairs to read the case study
and answer the questions, or you may want to read the case study and go through the
questions as a group.

2. Investigating Speciation in Anolis Lizards: Students will work in small groups to research the
causes of speciation in Anolis lizards. Links to the activity are available in your online course.
3. Sexual Selection and Speciation Round Table Discussion: Students research examples of
sexual selection and speciation by watching livestreams from a zoo or an aquarium and
present to the class in a round table type discussion.
There are so many fascinating examples of sexual selection and speciation that exist, that it
makes it a great subject for students to discuss why and how it has come to be.
For this activity, have students get started by visiting a zoo or aquarium, or watching a live
webcam from a zoo or aquarium – the San Diego Zoo’s and the National Aquarium offer
particularly diverse selections. Instruct students to pay close attention to the differences
between the male and female organisms, or to organisms that appear closely related.
Students will then pick one species, group or family to research in greater detail with a focus
on either sexual selection within the species or speciation within the group or family.
After the students have concluded their research, they must present their findings in a
conference-like round table setting. Other students should be encouraged to offer ideas of
how or why speciation may have occurred.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Practicing Linguistic Patterns: Talking Sticks – Beginning

Have students work in small groups. This strategy allows every student to have an opportunity
to speak several times. Ask a question or give a prompt about speciation, and then pass a
stick or other object to the student. The student speaks, everyone listens, and then passes
the object to the next person. The next student speaks, everyone listens then the student
passes the object on until everyone has had one or two turns.

Summarizing – Intermediate
Review with students that a summary is a short explanation of a longer work. Provide students
with an example of a summary of one section of a lesson. Help them fill in a graphic organizer
to provide a visual for the summary.

Teacher Manual 91
Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 17.1, Check Your Progress Section 17.3, Check Your Progress
1. Identify the various factors that can lead to 1. Explain how the punctuated equilibrium model
microevolution and macroevolution. provides an alternative explanation of the
Genetic drift, natural selection, mutation, and migration drive theory of catastrophism proposed by Cuvier
microevolution and macroevolution. (see Section 15.1).
In both catastrophism and punctuated equilibrium, species
2. List three species concepts and explain the appear quite suddenly in the fossil record. In catastrophism,
main requirements of each. it was believed that these species came from elsewhere to
Morphological species concept: diagnostic traits (appearance) repopulate a location after a catastrophic event. In punctuated
distinguish species. equilibrium, it is theorized that these species came about
Evolutionary species concept: morphological traits distinguish through rapid speciation after a period of stasis followed by
one species from another. an extinction event.
Phylogenetic species concept: a family tree identifies species 2. Discuss how the study of developmental genes
based on a common ancestor. supports the possibility of rapid speciation in
Biological species concept: reproductive isolation the fossil record.
distinguishes species. The developmental genes that get expressed dictate the body
shapes and organs of an individual. A few changes in gene
3. Explain how frogs that look similar but have
expression can produce the myriad animals we see alive today
different courtship calls can be classified as and in the fossil record, which can occur over relative short time
different species. periods (rapid speciation).
Frogs that look similar but have different courtship calls could be
classified as different species because they are reproductively 3. Identify the developmental genes that influence
isolated (biological species concept). Courtship calls are a form macroevolution
of behavioral isolation. Some of the developmental genes that affect macroevolution
include the Pax6 gene for eye formation, the homeotic (Hox)
genes for repeated structure locations, the Tbx5 gene for limbs,
Section 17.2, Check Your Progress and the Pitx1 gene for the pelvic-fin.
1. During the last Ice Age, deer mice in Michigan
became separated by a large glacial lake and AP Assessment
are now two different species. Identify the mode
of speciation. 1. Reproductive isolation is key to the development
of new species. Various pre- and post-zygotic
This is a form of allopatric speciation because there is a
mechanisms can help to maintain reproductive
physical barrier preventing the two deer mice populations
from reproducing.
isolation. Which is an example of a post-zygotic
isolating mechanism?
2. List the evidence you would need to show that A) temporal isolation
the five species of big cats—Panthera leo (lion), B) reduced F2 fitness (hybrid breakdown)
P. tigris (tiger), P. pardus (leopard), P. onca
C) prevention of gamete fusion
(jaguar), and P. uncia (snow leopard)—are an
example of an adaptive radiation. D) behavioral isolation
Examples of evidence to support adaptive radiation would Answer: B; Post-zygotic mechanisms occur after a zygote has
include a single ancestral species; removal of a competitor, been formed. In this case, a hybrid has formed between two
predator, or change in the environment (allowing for ecological groups. Although the F1 hybrid is viable and fertile, the offspring
release); and sympatric or allopatric speciation. produced are weak or sickly, and do not reproduce.

3. Predict the outcome of convergent evolution on 2. While speciation generally requires many
the variety of cichlid fish in a newly discovered generations to occur, it can take place in as
African Rift Valley lake compared to other lakes little as one generation. Polyploidy is a common
with similar microhabitats. phenomenon in plants. Why is polyploidy
considered to be responsible for instantaneous
Based on what we know about cichlid fish in African Rift
sympatric speciation?
Valley lakes, it is likely that the cichlids in a newly discovered
lake with similar microhabitats would have species that A) Offspring that are polyploid cannot reproduce
look similar to those in the other lakes. They would have with their parent type but are not geographically
adapted to the specific microhabitats in a similar way, separated from them.
therefore looking and behaving in a similar fashion, but B) Offspring that are polyploid cannot reproduce
arising from a different ancestor. This is an example of with their parent type and have become
convergent evolution. geographically separated from them.

92 CHAPTER 17 | Speciation and Macroevolution

 C) Polyploid plants are more likely to produce This proposed that evolution proceeded in
sticky seeds which are carried away from the slow, gradual steps, due to selection acting on
parent plant. the occasional favored genetic mutation. How
D) Polyploid plants are less likely to produce sticky does the concept of punctuated equilibrium
seeds, so offspring stay near parent. proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay
Answer: A; Sympatric speciation results when two populations Gould compare to the Modern Synthesis?
become reproductively isolated in some way OTHER than A) Both conceive of evolution as slow and gradual.
geographic separation. In this case, the polyploid offspring
B) Both propose that species tend to stay the same
produce gametes that are chromosomally incompatible with
for very long periods of time.
the parental gametes.
C) Punctuated equilibrium proposes that mammals
3. In North America, two species of birds called and birds follow different patterns than other
shrikes are believed to have descended from eukaryotic organisms.
the same ancestral species. Loggerhead and D) Punctuated equilibrium proposes that evolution
northern shrikes look very similar to each other, can occur more rapidly, over shorter periods
but do not interbreed. Mitochondrial DNA of time.
evidence points to their having begun evolving Answer: D; Evolutionary biologists Eldredge and Gould based
separately since the time of the last glaciation. their 1972 proposal on an examination of the fossil record. This
They are no longer geographically separated. provided several examples where species seemed to change
How would being separated geographically very little for most of their evolutionary history, and then
have facilitated the separation of the ancestral changed “rapidly.” We now know of several mechanisms that
population into new species? could cause large-scale genetic change, which could promote
rapid speciation if favored by circumstances.
A) The groups separated by glaciers would have
faced slightly different selection pressures. 6. A scientist interested in studying two species
B) Glaciers would have prevented emigration/ of wild lettuce brought them into the same
immigration and the sharing of genes. greenhouse. The species were Lactuca
C) Variations in behavior, such as in mating dances, graminifolia (spring flowering) and Lactuca
that popped up in one group would stay in canadensis (summer flowering). To make the
that group. plants flower, she manipulated the light in
D) all of the above different areas of the greenhouse to give each
Answer: D; All of these factors contribute to the allopatric species the illusion of being in its flowering
speciation of the shrikes. Although no longer separated by season. Much to her surprise, the two species
glaciers, the populations were separated long enough for the cross-pollinated and created hybrids. Was she
changes described to have produced populations that were mistaken about the two Lactuca species being
different enough not to interbreed. separate species?
4. Adaptive radiation is a process that results in A) No, the two species are normally temporally
isolated.
the occurrence of closely related species that
have evolved relatively recently from a common B) No, the two species are normally behaviorally
ancestor. Examples include honeycreeper birds isolated.
in Hawaii or Darwin’s finches. Which type of C) Yes, by definition two different species cannot
speciation is the basis for the phenomenon of interbreed.
adaptive radiation? D) Yes, having the same first name (Lactuca) means
A) instantaneous speciation the plants are the same species.

B) prezygotic speciation Answer: A; In nature, the two species bloom at different times
and would rarely have the opportunity to cross-pollinate. They
C) allopatric speciation are effectively separate species; bringing them together in the
D) sympatric speciation lab does not duplicate their normal situation.
Answer: C; In adaptive radiation, members of a species spread 7. Over the centuries, different ways of defining
through an area and colonize new habitats. Over time, each
what a species is have been developed. Which
population adapts to its different habitat. Because of geographic
type of definition would be most practical to
separation, they are reproductively isolated from the other
members of the original species. If they are separated long use when distinguishing one fossil species of
enough, they will have become too different to mate with the fish from another?
original species. A) morphological species concept
5. Scientists in the early 20th century who wanted B) biological species concept
to combine their new knowledge of genetics C) evolutionary species concept
with the concept of gradual evolution by natural D) any approach is fine, as long as the species is
selection developed the “Modern Synthesis.” thoroughly described

Teacher Manual 93
 Answer: A; In the case of fossils, all scientists have to go on is Explanations (1 point each)
the physical remains, and possibly some idea of what kind of • The biological species concept identifies species based on
habitat the organism may have lived in. Whether or not two whether two or more populations experience reproductive
fossils could interbreed is unknown, and their evolutionary isolation that inhibits inbreeding. New species arise from
pathway always has an element of speculation. reproductive isolation over time, which can involve scales of
hundreds of thousands or even millions of years. For two
8. Biologists have been observing fish near the
species to remain separate, populations must be reproductively
coast of South America. They discover that isolated – no gene flow occurring between them.
what they once thought was one species of
• Consistent with the definition of pre-zygotic isolating
fish is actually two distinct species which do
mechanisms that can prevent mating from being attempted
not interbreed. or prevent fertilization from being successful if mating is
A) Describe two kinds of data that could be collected attempted. These types of isolating mechanisms prevent
by scientists to provide a direct answer to the hybridization (mating of two different species). The two
question, how can scientists determine which species remain isolated.
type of reproductive isolation is preventing gene • Consistent with the definition of post-zygotic isolating
flow and maintaining two separate species? mechanisms that operate after the formation of a zygote
B) Explain how the data you suggested in part (a) from the fusion of two gametes. These types of isolating
would provide a direct answer to the question mechanisms prevent hybrid offspring from developing and
Description of the appropriate kind of data and reproducing. If a hybrid is born, it is often infertile. The genes
the appropriately linked explanation of its of the parents are unable to be passed on to successive
selection may include: generations, so the two species remain isolated.
Descriptions of kind of data (1 point each) 9. Biologists have many questions about the
• Confirm that two distinct species truly exist, using the origins of multicellular animals. Scientists believe
morphological species concept (these fish probably look the that the common ancestor of multicellular
same since scientists didn’t know they were separate species), animals resembled single-celled organisms
the evolutionary species concept, or the biological species called choanoflagellates. How these microscopic
concept. DNA testing recommended. filter feeders may have evolved into complex,
• Check for pre-zygotic mechanisms, such as: multicellular animals is very much a topic of
• Habitat - do the two species live in different habitats, such as debate among scientists. Dr. Claus Nielsen
an estuary versus the open ocean? developed a 6-step process (shown above)
• Temporal - do the two species mate at different times of through which multicellular animals may have
the year? evolved from single-celled organisms.
• Behavior - does one species respond to a courtship ritual that A) Explain how changes in food intake and digestion
is not recognized by the other species? would be important in the evolution of complex,
• Mechanical - are the two species physically unable to multicellular animals.
reproduce? The ability to obtain more food efficiently and to be able to digest
• Gamete isolation - if the gametes of the two species meet, it efficiently would lead to larger organisms that can grow faster
can they fuse to become a zygote? and increase in complexity.

• Check for post-zygotic isolating mechanisms, such as: B) Describe how the development of a nervous
system and sense organs relate to increasing
• Hybrid inviability - does the zygote die or not develop complexity of multicellular animals.
properly?
A nervous system allows organisms to sense changes in their
• Hybrid sterility - does the zygote develop into a environment. It may lead to better predators and prey that
sterile adult? are able to escape. As predators and prey adapt to changing
• If two hybrids mate and produce offspring, do the F2 hybrids environments and each other, more complex and diverse
have reduced fitness? organisms may evolve.

94 CHAPTER 17 | Speciation and Macroevolution

CHAPTER 18
Origin and History of Life

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

7.6 Evidence of Evolution
18.1 Origin of Life ½
7.13 Origin of Life on Earth
2.11 Origins of Cell Compartmentalization

18.2 History of Life 1 7.6 Evidence of Evolution

7.11 Extinction
7.6 Evidence of Evolution
18.3 Geological Factors that
½ 7.11 Extinction
Influence Evolution
8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 18 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7

Online Activities
Mass Extinction Events
Explaining Biogeographic Data: Evidence for Evolution

Teaching Strategy and Approach

You may have students who cannot envision how a cell could originate on Earth. The
coacervate activity will actually show students that this is a distinct possibility. Much like with
Chapter 17, this chapter can present students with information they find in conflict with their
personal beliefs. It is important to stress that the purview of this course is the scientific
theories for the origins of life; science can neither prove nor disprove supernatural
explanations. While the many experiments surrounding the theories on the origins of life are
interesting, the curriculum does not ask students to connect specific studies to the scientists.
Most students have studied plate tectonic movement but few have considered the effect such
shifting of continents has on the types of organisms that can exist in the changing
environments that are produced.
The activities below bring a reality to evolution in a changing environment. Tactile learns will
benefit as they develop the model continents and auditory learners will benefit when the
explanations of the effects this change could have on organisms in the area.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 the various theories of how life originated on Earth
Activity 1: Producing Coacervates—25 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—5 minutes on the theory of endosymbiosis
Activity 2: Modeling Endosymbiosis—10 minutes

Teacher Manual 95
 Lecture—5 minutes on mass extinctions and tectonic plate movements
 ctivity 3: Mass Extinction Events or Activity 4: Explaining Biogeographical
A
Data —30 minutes
Day 3: Summative assessment or Activity 3: Sexual Selection and Speciation Round Table

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students are generally aware that the extinction of dinosaurs coincided with a meteorite
striking Earth. Most students view mass extinctions as horrible catastrophes and fail to realize
that these extinctions open areas for new species to inhabit.
The idea of endosymbiosis may not be new to students. The evidence that supports this
theory will probably be new to most students. This type of justification is important in the
development of any theory. Many students will falsely believe that one cell tried to consume
another cell but we think that this entrapment was a chance occurrence.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Producing Coacervates: Students produce the possible precursors of life.
You can order a kit from a biological supply house that provides instructions and materials
for students to make coacervates. Students will actually produce the possible precursors of
life. The colloidal suspension produced by students will exhibit some of the same properties
of living organisms. When the membrane-like structures surrounding the droplets are
stained, the coacervates look even more life-like.
2. Modeling Endosymbiosis: Students will model endosymbiosis with clay.
Hand out three colors of soft play dough or clay, such as: red, green, and orange. Instruct
students to make a 10-12” “snake” of the red clay then form it into a ring. Next, have the
students create a ball of orange clay that is about 1” in diameter. Explain that the red clay is
the original cell and the orange ball is an aerobic heterotrophic proteobacterial cell.
Have your students push the orange cell into the red cell. The orange cell will be
encapsulated by the red cell's membrane. Pinch the red membrane off once it is completely
around the orange cell. Then, reconnect the red cell's membrane.
Repeat with a green ball of clay. This clay is a photosynthetic proteobacterium.
Discuss endosymbiosis with your students. It's important to stress to students that this most
likely happened by chance. Have your students brainstorm ideas why they think the
proteobacterial cells were not digested by the original cell.
Explain that some of the evidence scientists have to support this theory is in the number of
the membranes around internal organelles and the biochemistry in the similarity of the outer
membranes to the original cell. This should be apparent in the different colors of clay
surrounding the cells.
Ask your students what other characteristics mitochondria and chloroplast have to support
the idea that they were once free-living cells.
3. Mass Extinction Events: Students use HHMI BioInteractive Resources to learn more about
mass extinction events. If time is limited, students can use the EarthViewer function to watch
the continents grow and shift over billions of years. See your online course for links and
further directions.

Differentiated Instruction: Alternatively, you can choose to show one of the two HHMI
films: the Day the Mesozoic Died or Great Transitions: The Origin of Birds. The Day the
Mesozoic Died is a great example of how many scientific disciplines are used to support
a hypothesis; whereas Great Transitions supports the Learning Objectives: Explain
species diversity in an ecosystem as a function of speciation and extinction rates and
Explain how extinctions can make new environments available adaptive radiation. After

96 CHAPTER 18 | Origin and History of Life

 viewing the video as a class, you can lead with these as discussion points to facilitate conversation.
Links to both are available in your online course.

4. Explaining Biogeographic Data: Evidence for Evolution: Students will determine how geological change
influenced evolution. Links to the resources and further directions are available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Using Visual and Contextual Support – Beginning

Reinforce the use of visual context to derive meaning through examples of environmental print. Pantomime
or elicit one-word responses to the meaning derived from such images as a stop sign, exit sign, or safety
symbols and other cautionary or explanatory labels used in the classroom. Then provide students with
enlarged copies of the image that supports the reading. Discuss different parts of the image, pointing to
each as you say it.

Making Connections – Intermediate

Paraphrase content to make it accessible to all students. Paraphrasing helps students make connections
more easily.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 18.1, Check Your Progress 2. Identify two features of organelles that support
1. Identify the stages of the origin of life hypothesis. the endosymbiotic theory of organelle evolution.
organic monomers, organic polymers, protocells, living cells 1. Present-day mitochondria and chloroplasts have a size that
lies within the range of that for bacteria. 2. Mitochondria and
2. List three different hypotheses that explain the chloroplasts have their own DNA and make some of their own
origin of organic molecules from inorganic proteins. 3. The mitochondria and chloroplasts divide by binary
matter, and identify the key features of these fission, as bacteria do. 4. The outer membrane of mitochondria
hypotheses. and chloroplasts differ – the outer membrane resembles that of
Primordial Soup Hypothesis: Early Earth had very little oxygen eukaryotic cell, while the inner membrane resembles that of a
and was made up of water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and bacterial cell.
ammonia. This reducing atmosphere could have driven abiotic 3. List the sequence of events in the Precambrian
synthesis. that led to the evolution of heterotrophic and
Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis: Thermal vents at the bottom of the photosynthetic protists.
ocean provided all of the elements and conditions necessary to The first cells gave rise to bacteria and archaea. The first
synthesize organic molecules. eukaryotic cells evolved from archaea once the atmosphere
Extraterrestrial Origins Hypothesis: Organic molecules on comets became an oxidizing environment. Heterotrophic protists arose
and meteorites could have seeded the chemical origin of life on when eukaryotic cells gained mitochondria by engulfing aerobic
early Earth. bacteria. Photosynthetic protists arose when these cells gained
3. Compare and contrast the features of the chloroplasts by engulfing photosynthetic bacteria.
protocell membrane with a modern plasma
Section 18.3, Check Your Progress
membrane.
1. Explain why continents drift and summarize the
The modern plasma membrane is made up of phospholipids
assembled in a bilayer. The first plasma membranes were likely
geological evidence to support plate tectonics.
made up of a fatty acid bilayer. To move select molecules Continents drift because of plate tectonics. The Earth's crust is
through the protocell's membrane, fatty acids can flip between fragmented into slablike plates that float on a lower, hot mantle
the two layers. Proteins can be associated with the fatty acid layer. Evidence to support plate tectonics includes coastline
layers, and like modern cell membranes can have an electrical mirror images, similar geological structures in many areas where
potential difference, can divide, and are subject to selection. continents used to touch, fossil distributions around the world,
and mammalian biodiversity differences in different locations.
Section 18.2, Check Your Progress 2. Explain how continental drift relates to current
1. Determine the age of a fossil that contains 25% and past distributions of ecosystems.
of its original 14C. Fossil distributions of seeded ferns have shown up on all continents,
11,450 years old supporting the theory that all continents were once joined.

Teacher Manual 97
 Cynognathus fossils are found in Africa and South America, and Answer: D; The Miller-Urey experiment did not have any life
the Lystrosaurus group were found in Antarctica, Africa, and present, yet new organic molecules appeared that were not
Southeast Asia. Marsupials are only endemic to South America originally present. The conclusions drawn from this have to be
and Australia, which were connected when the landmasses were limited, however. They did not show that life formed this way,
a supercontinent. They were able to diversify on Australia when simply that it was possible for organic molecules to form this
the landmass broke off, but were likely not as successful in way.
South America due to competition with placental mammals.
3. One puzzle about the origin of life on earth
3. List the mass extinction events that have relates to the origin of enzymes. Some have
occurred on Earth and describe the hypotheses suggested that RNA may have served as the
that explain the cause of each. earliest enzymes, helping to form polypeptides.
Ordovician: continental drift (Gondwana arriving at cold South Pole) What evidence supports this proposal?
Devonian: bolide (crater-forming projectile) and/or Gondwana A) The sugar ribose is difficult to form under early
returning to South Pole Earth conditions.
Permian: excess carbon dioxide from stagnate organic matter B) DNA has many coding regions for RNA.
mixing to the ocean surface during continental drift
C) The RNA in ribosomes catalyzes peptide bond
Triassic: bolide formation.
Cretaceous: bolide D) Transfer RNA catalyzes RNA processing.
Answer: C; The rRNA in today's cells catalyzes the formation of
AP Assessment polypeptides in protein synthesis. This supports the notion that
1. As scientists work on explanations of the RNA can perform a catalytic function, and may have done that in
development of life on earth, they are keenly early Earth.
interested in understanding conditions on the
4. A scientist is examining fossil impressions in
early planet. Part of this understanding involves
rocks of single-celled prokaryotic organisms. The
the effect of changing atmospheric CO2 levels.
rocks have been dated to 3.0 bya. The scientist
Predict the most likely outcome if CO2 levels
concludes that the prokaryotic organisms
dropped rapidly.
depended on aerobic respiration processes. Why
A) Dropping CO2 would increase global temperature. is this conclusion probably erroneous?
B) Dropping CO2 would decrease global A) Atmospheric oxygen levels were too low at the
temperature. time to provide oxygen for respiration.
C) Dropping CO2 would increase atmospheric B) Prokaryotic organisms cannot do aerobic
moisture. respiration.
D) Dropping CO2 would decrease atmospheric C) It is impossible to determine what type of
moisture. respiration was being used.
Answer: B; With less CO2 in the atmosphere to act as a D) No prokaryotic organisms can do photosynthesis,
greenhouse gas, temperature would drop. CO2 levels can drop so they would not have been producing oxygen.
due to the chemical processes from extensive weathering. This
is believed to have occurred during the Hadean eon, leading to Answer: A; Oxygen-producing photosynthesis does not seem to
freezing of the oceans. have built up oxygen in the atmosphere until somewhere
between 2 and 1.5 BYA. Prior to this time, oxygen was virtually
2. The Miller-Urey experiment of 1953 is a classic unavailable in the atmosphere, thus discouraging the evolution
in prebiotic chemistry. Miller and Urey attempted of aerobic respiration.
to stimulate early earth conditions by combining
5. Compared to living in water, living on land
a reducing atmosphere with liquid water and
produces many challenges. Which traits
“lightning” from electric sparks. They produced
facilitated the colonization of terrestrial habitats?
some small organic molecules, including amino
A) use of mitochondria to perform cellular respiration
acids. What can be concluded from this
experiment? B) use of chloroplasts to perform photosynthesis
A) Life on Earth began in the organic soup of the C) evolution of adjustable pores on leaf surfaces for
ocean. gas exchange
B) Organic molecules need living organisms to D) lack of UV protection found in aquatic animals
produce them. Answer: C; Stomata surround pores in leaves, and can allow
C) Laboratory conditions cannot be used to simulate those pores to be open or closed. Thus plants can regulate and
real life conditions. minimize the flow of water out of their tissues, which protects
them from drying out. Such an adaptation is not useful in an
D) It is possible to form organic molecules from
aquatic habitat.
inorganic molecules in the absence of life.

98 CHAPTER 18 | Origin and History of Life

6. Fossils provide important evidence of life Permian period (about 250 mya) resulted in the
through time. In order to date fossils, scientists loss of 90% of known species. It has been
utilize various techniques. Which is an example suggested that this extinction resulted from
of relative dating? excess carbon dioxide. What damage could
A) According to the law of superposition, the top excess carbon dioxide have caused?
layer in an undisturbed formation of sedimentary A) the abrupt formation of continental ice sheets
rock is the youngest layer. B) increased velocity of ocean currents
B) According to the 24-hour timescale metaphor, C) terrestrial climate change which altered
humans arrived much later relative to plants. vegetation patterns
C) Carbon-14 dating can be used for fossils up to D) reduced continental subduction, resulting in less
100,000 years old. land mass
D) Potassium-Argon dating is useful for the oldest Answer: C; Excess CO2 in the atmosphere absorbs heat. This
fossils. changes atmospheric wind patterns and affects the uptake and
Answer: A; Relative dating compares the ages of two different release of moisture across the globe.
fossils relative to each other, based on their position in a
sedimentary rock formation. 10. There are several hypotheses about the natural
origin of life on Earth, each with supporting
7. Archaeologists have discovered fossil animal scientific evidence.
bones at the site of a prehistoric village. When A) Describe two of these scientific hypotheses
examined radiometrically, the bones seem to about the origin of life on Earth.
have half of the 14C they would have originally
B) Explain why and how the hypotheses you
had. Given that the half-life of 14C is 5730 years, suggested in part (a) were revised and refined.
about how old are these bones?
Description of the appropriate hypotheses and the appropriately
A) 5730 years old linked revision may include:
B) 11,460 years old Descriptions of hypotheses (1 point each)
C) 17,190 years old • 1920's: Oparin-Haldane hypothesis (aka primordial soup
D) 22,920 years old hypothesis) proposes that the first stage in the origin of life
Answer: A; If the bones have lost half their 14C, then one half-life was the evolution of simple organic molecules from the
has passed by. One half-life takes 5730 years to decay away. inorganic compounds that were present in the Earth's early
atmosphere. It proposes that early Earth had little oxygen, but
8. Study of global distribution of fossils can did have water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and ammonia.
produce some puzzling finds. For example, • 1920's: Oparin-Haldane hypothesis continued: Additionally,
fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris have been concentrated mixtures of macromolecules tend to give rise to
found in South America, South Africa, Australia coacervate droplets that tend to absorb and incorporate
and Antarctica, land forms which are widely various substances from surrounding solution. This leads to a
separated. These fossils seem to be the same semipermeable-type boundary, like a plasma membrane,
kind of Glossopteris and to have formed at the around the droplet.
same time. What observation best explains this • 1950's: Miller-Urey experiment tests the Oparin-Haldane
distribution? hypothesis, producing a variety of amino acids and other
A) Seed ferns are very adaptable. organic acids from circulating a mixture of early atmospheric
gases past an electric spark.
B) Seed ferns are often found in floating rafts in the
ocean. • 1980's: Wächtershauser's iron-sulfur world hypothesis
proposes that thermal vents at the bottom of the Earth's
C) Each of these continents was produced by
oceans provided all the elements and conditions (carbon
volcanic action.
monoxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, iron and nickel sulfide)
D) These continents were once joined but have necessary to synthesize organic monomers.
drifted apart. • Wickramasinghe and other scientists feel that the organic
Answer: D; About 200 million years ago, South America, South molecules whose presence in some meteorites have been
Africa, Australia and Antarctica were joined together as the confirmed could have seeded the chemical origin of life on
southern half of the supercontinent Pangaea. Glossopteris early Earth. Perhaps even bacterium-like cells evolved first on
flourished at that time, forming one continuous interacting another planet and were then carried to Earth. A meteorite
population. As the supercontinent broke up, the continents from Mars landed on Earth some 13,000 years ago, and upon
drifted away from each other, and Glossopteris eventually examination, contained tiny rods similar in shape to fossilized
became extinct. bacteria.
9. The fossil record shows evidence of five major Explanation of revisions (1 point each)
extinctions throughout earth's history. For • The hypothesis needed to be tested and retested for validity in
example, the extinction at the end of the a laboratory setting. This was done first by Miller and Urey, but
has since been done again and again.

Teacher Manual 99
 • 1960's: Bangham discovered that the lipids from egg yolks, 11. Use the figure below to answer question 11.
when placed in water, naturally organize themselves into Chloroplasts belong to a group of organelles
double-layered bubbles roughly the size of a cell known as called plastids, which are found in plants and
liposomes. algae. Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis.
• Deamer and Bangham saw liposomes as possibly providing the Other plastids store starch and make
first membranous boundary and thereby protecting early substances needed as cellular building blocks
molecules from their surrounding and concentrating them. or for plant function. The illustration above
• This experiment has been tested and re-examined over the shows a way these plastids might have evolved.
past decades (sound scientific practice of reproducibility and
A) Summarize the process described in the diagram.
peer review), achieving similar results. Additionally, some were
Include the definition of phagocytosis in your
able to create a greater variety of organic molecules, and also
description.
found evidence suggesting that nitrogen gas was present as
opposed to ammonia in the primitive atmosphere, so further The cytoplasm of a eukaryote, the host cell, engulfed an alga
testing was done to show that ammonia could have been containing a plastid and surrounded it in a vacuole (phagocytosis).
produced. Over time, the contents of the vacuole changed into another
type of plastid.
• The research of Huber has shown that organic molecules will
react and amino acids will form peptides in the presence of B) Analyze and critique the endosymbiont theory for
iron-nickel sulfides under conditions found in thermal vents the evolution of plastids. Include all sides of
(monomers become polymers). scientific evidence for the explanation.
• This hypothesis continues to be investigated. Answers will vary. Accept answers that provide multiple points of
evidence and a clear understanding of the implications of each
on the endosymbiont theory.

100 CHAPTER 18 | Origin and History of Life

CHAPTER 19
Taxonomy, Systematics,
and Phylogeny
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
19.1 Systematic Biology ½ 7.6 Evidence of Evolution
7.6 Evidence of Evolution
19.2 The Three-Domain System ½
7.7 Common Ancestry
7.6 Evidence of Evolution

19.3 Phylogeny 1 7.7 Common Ancestry

7.9 Phylogeny
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 19 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7

Online Activities
Constructing a Cladogram
Nailing Cladistics
Taxonomy of Seashells

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Classification is a frequent topic on AP exams, and there are many released FRQs that have
students construct phylogenies based on tabular data. It can be helpful to start teaching
concepts such as derived characteristics using a trait table. Common traits include vertebrae,
amniotic eggs, feathers, lungs, etc. This is a good approach since many students can place
these traits intuitively.
Ultimately, students should be able to place organisms based on an “amino acid difference”
chart. Teaching the skill of identifying closely related or ‘least-different’ species and ‘most-
different’ or outgroups is going to be very useful for the AP exam. There is no mention of
dichotomous keys in the new curriculum, so those can be skipped or added for enrichment.
While students have already worked with phylogenetic trees in the BLAST Lab, the extra
practice here will help cement this concept. It is also very important for students to realize that
classification can change with additional evidence, such as DNA sequences, is obtained.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—25 minutes on taxonomy, systematics and phylogenies
Activity 1: Constructing a Cladogram OR Activity 2: Nailing Cladistics—20 minutes
Day 2: Activity 3: Taxonomy of Seashells—45 minutes

Teacher Manual 101

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Many students think that you can depict all ancestors in a straight line. If you compare their
ancestors, which include cousins and aunts and uncles, they will be better able to understand
that most ancestries are branching. The dynamic nature of classification will be new to most
students. Most students do not realize that as we obtain additional information, an existing
phylogeny may be changes.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Constructing a Cladogram: Students will use data to build a cladogram. Directions and
answer key available in your online course.
2. Nailing Cladistics: Developed by NOVA Teachers, student use common hardware to build a
cladogram. A link to the PBS website with the activity and further directions are available
online.
3. Taxonomy of Seashells: This online activity directs students to explore principles of
taxonomy by sorting seashells according to their morphological characteristics and
constructing an evolutionary tree. A link to the activity is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: To give students greater insight on how all life on Earth is
related, direct students to the Tree of Life Web Project. Here, students can explore the
phylogeny of different groups of organisms in a more open-ended manner. Instead of
building a phylogenetic tree, students can navigate ones that are already created and
report back their findings. Students may research different species in a particular group
that interests them or you may have them detail how certain organisms are related to
one another.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening and Speaking—Beginning

Read aloud a paragraph one sentence at a time. At the end of each sentence, ask students to
say a word or short phrase that describes an important concept or example from the
sentence. Model recording the concept in the left column of the a notes table. Have students
use your model to record information in their own chart.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Intermediate

Before reading, have students take a close look at the visual support. Have them use the
image as they work in pairs to form questions about the selection. After reading, have
partners compare their original predictions with questions they answered no. Have them
discuss how their ideas changed or stayed the same. Move around the room to monitor
progress.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 19.1, Check Your Progress 2. Define and provide an example of a trait used
1. Describe the relationship among classification, in systematics.
systematic biology, and taxonomy. A trait used in systematics is a shared feature among a group of
organisms that evolved from a common ancestor. An example is
Systematic biology is the study of biodiversity, which helps us
the spinal cord trait of the phylum Chordata.
understand the evolutionary relationships between species.
Taxonomy is the branch of systematic biology that identifies,
names, and organizes biodiversity into related categories,
through classification.

102 CHAPTER 19 | Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeny

 3. Explain why the grouping together of birds and AP Assessment
bats based on having wings does not represent 1. Scientists may use the cladistics method to
a natural group. show relationships among groups of organisms.
The grouping of birds and bats based on having wings does not This requires that they look for the presence or
represent a natural group because DNA evidence shows that absence of certain characters in each group. In
their wings evolved at different times in the history of life, and particular, there is an emphasis on shared
they do not share a common ancestor with wings. derived characters. What is a derived character?
A) trait which has evolved the most, compared to
Section 19.2, Check Your Progress common ancestor
1. List the traits that separate archaea from other B) character inherited from the most recent common
single-celled organisms. ancestor of the group
Archaea have varied branched lipids, whereas bacteria and C) adaptation that is only seen in one member of
eukaryotic single-celled organisms have unbranched the group
phospholipids comprising their cellular membrane. Archaea have
D) trait that conveys no adaptive advantage
different rRNA nucleotide sequences, and the chemical nature of
their cell wall is also different. Answer: B; Derived characters are found within one group, but
not found within all members of the larger group. Thus derived
2. Explain the evidence indicating that fungi are characters help to distinguish one group from the other. For
more closely related to animals than to plants. example, humans are members of the group Mammalia, and also
DNA evidence shows that fungi are more closely related to of the group Vertebrata. The character of hair is a shared derived
animals than plants, despite appearances. character for mammals. The character of vertebrae is not, since
vertebrae are found in all vertebrates, not just mammals.
3. Identify the traits shared by all eukaryotic
organisms. 2. Please refer to Figure 19.7 (p. 347) to answer
questions 2–5. This figure represents a cladogram
All eukaryotic organisms have a membrane-bound nucleus and
various organelles, some of which arose through endosymbiosis showing a variety of animals. Which group is
of other single-celled organisms. most closely related to the chimpanzee?
A) terrier
Section 19.3, Check Your Progress B) lizard
1. Interpret the ancestral or derived state of traits C) lancelet
relative to their position on the phylogeny in D) tuna
Figure 19.5. Answer: A; Chimpanzees and terriers both share the characters
Class Mammalia: ancestral trait is mammary glands of hair and mammary glands. The two groups are separated by
the derived characters of enlarged brain (chimp) and long
Order Artiodactyla: ancestral trait is even-toed hooves
canines (terrier).
Family Cervidae: derived trait is antlers
3. Based on Figure 19.7, what characteristic
Family Bovidae: derived trait is horns distinguishes finches and crocodiles from
Order Primates: ancestral trait is opposable thumbs lizards?
A) vertebrae
Family Cebidae: derived trait is tails
B) feathers
Family Hominidae: derived trait is full shoulder rotation C) gizzard
2. Compare two phylogenies of the same set of D) amniotic egg
organisms; one requires 10 evolutionary Answer: C; Finches and crocodiles share the derived character of
changes, the other 15. Explain which phylogeny having a gizzard. Feathers are found only in finches.
would be the best hypothesis for evolutionary
history, and why. 4. Crocodiles and lizards are both considered
reptiles. However, according to the cladogram in
The phylogeny with 10 evolutionary changes is more
Figure 19.7, crocodiles are more closely related to
parsimonious since it is the simplest evolutionary history, so is
the better candidate to accurately describe how the set of
finches (birds) than to the lizards. What evidence
organisms relate to each other. justifies grouping these animals in this way?
A) Finches and crocodiles both lay eggs.
3. Recognize the various traits used to construct a
B) Finches can fly and crocodiles can swim, while
phylogeny.
lizards are only terrestrial.
Traits that can be used to describe a phylogeny include fossil
C) Crocodiles, lizards and birds all have four limbs.
traits, morphological traits, behavioral traits, and molecular
traits. D) Crocodiles and birds both possess a gizzard, but
lizards do not have this derived character.

Teacher Manual 103

 Answer: D; Based on the characteristics given in the cladogram, D) The rRNA sequences of protists are used to
lizards do not have gizzards, but crocodiles and finches do. This produce many ribozymes.
diagram is simplified, and does not list other features the two Answer: A; Despite their small size, protists are complex cells
groups have in common, such as skeletal, respiratory, and with eukaryotic nuclei and organelles.
behavioral similarities.
8. New technologies have opened up new ways
5. According to the cladogram in Figure 19.7, of comparing taxa. In particular, scientists can
lancelets are considered the “outgroup.” Which now compare DNA between groups. When
statement is consistent with this label? comparing closely related groups, scientists
A) Lancelets possess all the derived characters of often use mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) rather
the ingroup, but evolved earlier. than nuclear DNA. Why?
B) Lancelets possess none of the derived characters A) Because mtDNA is so abundant, cells have more
of the ingroup, but evolved earlier. mtDNA to study.
C) Lancelets are small filter-feeding chordates. B) Because of its faster mutation rate, mtDNA tends
D) Lancelets and tuna share the characteristic of to have more differences between groups.
ocean-dwelling. C) Nuclear DNA does not mutate, and so does not
Answer: B; An outgroup is used as a basis of comparison for the show differences.
ingroup. It is closely related (all the groups in the cladogram are D) Nuclear DNA is fragile, and does not withstand
chordates) but does not possess the derived characters laboratory analysis.
(lancelets are not vertebrates).
Answer: B; Species that are closely related tend to have very
6. A new field called “infectious forensics” similar genes. In order to distinguish their differences, mtDNA,
analyzes the phylogenetic history of certain with its higher mutation rate, is more likely to actually have
infectious agents. These agents, such as HIV differences from one group to another.
and hepatitis C (HCV), mutate very quickly. In 9. Comparisons of the amino acid sequences of
one case, a defendant was accused of injecting proteins can be used to establish evolutionary
a victim with HCV. Suppose that a few years relationships. Cytochrome c, for example, is a
have elapsed between infection and the trial. protein found in the electron transport chain of
Predict what would be found on a phylogenetic mitochondria. One study showed humans and
tree of the victim’s and the defendant’s HCV, if chimpanzees have 94% similar amino acid
the defendant is guilty. sequences in Cytochrome c, while humans and
A) The two HCV’s should be genetically identical, Pseudomonas bacteria show 43% similar amino
and on the same branch. acids. What conclusion can be best justified
B) The defendant’s HCV would contain all the same from this data?
mutations, but would be found on a lower branch, A) Cytochrome c has a different function in humans
indicating it had evolved first. and bacteria.
C) The victim’s HCV would show mutations not B) Pseudomonas is not aerobic and has no electron
found in the defendant’s HCV, and a clear transport chain.
pathway for the development of these mutations
C) Humans and Pseudomonas have a distant
would be seen on the phylogenetic tree.
common ancestor.
D) No comparison can be made, due to the time
D) Humans and Pseudomonas have a recent
lapse between infection and trial.
common ancestor.
Answer: C; The HCV would develop changes, but those changes
Answer: C; Almost half of the amino acid sequence between
should all be based on DNA the original HCV sample possessed.
humans and Pseudomonas is different, meaning that the two
These forensic applications give support for the guilt of the
groups have been separate for a fairly long time, giving mutations
defendant, but they do not prove that the defendant was the one
in the DNA coding for those amino acids plenty of time to develop.
who administered the injection.
10. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms can be
7. Protists such as amoeba or paramecia are
constructed from morphological similarities to
single-celled, microscopic organisms. Why are
illustrate speciation that has occurred.
they classified in the Domain Eukarya rather
Relatedness of any two groups on the tree is
than Bacteria or Archaea?
shown by how recently two groups had a
A) Protists have true nuclei and complex organelles.
common ancestor. Using the observable traits
B) Protists have a single ring-shaped chromosome. recorded in the data table, create a simple
C) The rRNA sequences of protists are identical to cladogram that correctly represents the
Bacteria. possible evolutionary relationships among

104 CHAPTER 19 | Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeny

molluscs. Mark the shared characters on your 11. Systematic biologists rely on morphological,
model in the appropriate locations. genetic, and molecular data to study
Cladogram representation may include (1 point each): evolutionary relationships between taxa. The
• Each organism and character from the data table is evolutionary tree shown above uses molecular
represented: chiton, clam, snail, octopus, and nautilus, mantle, data to trace the lineages of different sea stars
single shell gland, bivalve shell, torsion, and tentacles. in the sub-genus Hexasterias. Each letter
• Evolutionary lines of cladogram are discernible and easily represents a specific sea star species.
followed. A) Identify which sea star is most closely related to
• Characters are noted on appropriately matched evolutionary sea star A.
lines, NOT at nodes. D
• Mantle clade includes all organisms; Single shell gland clade B) Identify which is the oldest sea star.
includes clams, snail, octopus and nautilus.
L. polaris
• Octopus and nautilus form a clade with shared tentacles trait.
C) Analyze which group of sea stars has the most
• Clams are the only organism with a bivalve shell and snails are
diversity—C, G, N or L, K, M. Defend your choice
the only organism with torsion character.
with evidence.
L, K, M; this group has more divisions, which indicates more
diversity.

Teacher Manual 105

CHAPTER 20
Viruses, Bacteria,
and Archaea
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
6.4 Translation
20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions ½
6.7 Mutation
6.1 DNA and RNA structure
20.2 Prokaryotes ½
6.7 Mutations
3.5 Photosynthesis

6.7 Mutations
20.3 Bacteria 1
7.9 Continuing Evolution

7.12 Variation in Populations

20.4 Archaea
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 20 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 6, Unit 7 (Unit 3 Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Viral Replication
Retroviruses
Bacterial Quorum Sensing

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The new curriculum no longer requires students to explain the lytic or lysogenic cycles of viral
replication, so teaching that would be for enrichment only. The main things to focus on are the
reasons why viruses are not considered alive, and the importance of reverse transcriptase
(see IST-1.O.5). This is also the only standard that specifically refers to virus interactions with
the host cell. It can be helpful to incorporate host cell recognition while teaching cell
signaling, signal cascades, and receptor/ligand interactions.
If your students have not already conducted Investigation 8: Transformation you could
complete this investigation now.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on viruses, viroids, and prions
Activity 1: Viral Replication—15 minutes
Activity 2: Retroviruses—10 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—25 minutes on bacteria and archaea
 ctivity 3 : Bacterial Quorum Sensing OR Activity 4: Velcro Toss and Catch
A
Bacteriophage—20 minutes

106 CHAPTER 20 | Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Modern media is constantly bombarding us with information on how to kill viruses. It is no
wonder that most students think that viruses are alive. If you examine our system of
classifying organisms, you will not find a category for viruses. A classification system does
exist that only includes viruses.
The pathogens viroids and prions may be new concepts to students. Generally students have
a hard time differentiating those agents that can cause disease that are not living from the
living pathogens. The information in Chapter 20 is important because it makes that distinction.
Less than 1% of bacteria actually cause disease yet students generally associate bacteria with
disease. There are many diverse methods of obtaining energy and roles in the environment
that are filled by bacteria. Nitrogen fixation, the mutualistic relationships between humans and
bacterial production of vitamins K and B, and the bacteria in the rumen of cows for digesting
cellulose are examples of important bacterial activity.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Viral Replication: Students will create a model of the lytic or lysogenic cycle after watching a
video. A link to the video is available in your online course.
2. Retroviruses: Students will determine how retroviruses work after watching a short video. A
link to the video is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Alternatively, this activity may be completed without the aid
of the HHMI BioInteractive. Present your students with pads of sticky notes in a few
different colors. Then, draw a large circle representing a cell in front of the class. Explain
to the students they must use the sticky notes to show how retroviruses enter the cell
and replicate. The students can write key words on the sticky notes or draw images as
they detail the cycle. You can do this activity as a group or break the class into smaller
groups.

3. Bacterial Quorum Sensing: Students will perform a click and learn activity on quorum
sensing. A link is available in your online course.
4. Velcro Toss and Catch Bacteriophage: Students will perform an activity to demonstrate the
size difference between bacteriophage and a bacterium, and show how a bacteriophage
may attach to a host.
This activity demonstrates both the difference in size between bacteriophage and a
bacterium, as well as how bacteriophage may attach to a host.
This activity can be performed as a demonstration or by students, depending on how many
materials you would like to acquire.
As bacteriophage range in size from 10-100 times smaller than a bacterium (which also
varies in size!) true scale is not exceptionally important in this activity. This allows you to be
flexible with your materials.
Obtain either a Velcro paddle and a bag of small soft craft pom-poms OR cheap knit
winter gloves and or ping pong balls which you then must adhere small velcro sticker
rounds to.
The paddle or the glove becomes the “bacterium” and the pom-poms or ping pong with
velcro stickers becomes the “bacteriophages.”
Have students toss the bacteriophages at the bacterium. Do they stick? Why or why not?
Discuss the idea of receptors and ligands between the host and the virus with your
students.

Teacher Manual 107

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening and Speaking—Beginning

Read aloud a paragraph one sentence at a time. At the end of each sentence, ask students
to say a word or short phrase that describes an important concept or example from the
sentence. Model recording the concept in the left column of their notes tables. Have
students use your model to record information in their own chart.

Information in Pictures—Intermediate
Instruct a small group of students to write a paragraph describing what is happening in
Fig. 20.3. Their paragraphs should describe all parts of the diagram in their own words.
Ask for volunteers to read their paragraphs. Have students ask for clarification as needed.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 20.1, Check Your Progress 3. Define three ways in which prokaryotes can
1. Explain why viruses are not considered living recombine their genetic material without sexual
organisms. reproduction.
Viruses are not considered living because they can only replicate Prokaryotes can recombine their genetic material through
using the metabolic machinery of a host cell, they do not have a conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
metabolism, and they do not respond to stimuli.
Section 20.3, Check Your Progress
2. Compare and contrast transcription seen in
1. Explain the development of antibiotic resistance
prokaryotic cells to reverse transcription
in bacterial strains.
undertaken by retroviruses.
Antibiotic resistance in bacterial strains occurs when genes
Reverse transcription by retroviruses converts RNA to cDNA,
conferring resistance to antibiotics can be transferred between
which is used a template to make double-stranded DNA. This
infectious bacteria by transformation, conjugation, or
DNA is then integrated into the host genome and replicates.
transduction. Selective advantage has developed due to the
Transcription in prokaryotic cells requires an unwinding of the
excessive and improper use of antibiotics over the years.
DNA to create a complimentary RNA strand.
2. Explain how autotrophic and heterotrophic
3. Describe how alterations in DNA sequences
bacteria differ.
lead to the rapid emergence of viral diseases.
Autotrophic bacteria carry out photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
Alterations in DNA sequences lead to the rapid emergence of
to create organic compounds from inorganic compounds, while
viral diseases because they allow for the virus to jump to other
heterotrophic bacteria consume organic compounds.
species, and are difficult to prevent through antibodies because
they change so rapidly (hence the need for a yearly flu shot). 3. Construct a hypothesis about how cyanobacteria
4. Explain, from an evolutionary standpoint, why it may have affected the atmosphere of early Earth.
is beneficial to a virus if its host lives. Cyanobacteria may have affected the atmosphere of early Earth
because they photosynthesize. They likely were the first to
It is beneficial to a virus if the host lives because the host can
introduce oxygen into the atmosphere.
spread the virus around longer if it is alive and interacting with
others, then if it is dead.
Section 20.4, Check Your Progress
Section 20.2, Check Your Progress 1. Identify the differences between archaea and
1. Explain why mutations are more frequently bacteria.
passed down in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes. Archaea are different from bacteria because they have different
lipids in their plasma membranes and different cell wall types.
Mutations are more frequently passed down in prokaryotes
because they reproduce asexually, replicating their exact DNA 2. List the three types of archaea distinguished by
from generation to generation. their unique habitats.
2. Describe the difference between a prokaryote halophiles, thermoacidophiles, methanogens
nucleoid and a eukaryote nucleus.
A prokaryotic nucleoid is a region in the cell with a dense area of
genetic material. A eukaryotic nucleus contains its genetic
material in a nuclear envelope.

108 CHAPTER 20 | Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea

3. Archaea are thought to be closely related to host plasma membrane, and the viral contents are brought into
eukaryotes. Explain the evidence that supports the cell by endocytosis. Once viral parts are manufactured, they
this possibility. will exit the cell by becoming enveloped by host membranes.
Archaea and eukaryotes share some of the same ribosomal 4. Prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary
proteins not found in bacteria, initiate transcription in the same fission, which is a form of asexual reproduction.
manner, and have similar types of tRNA. Describe the mechanisms for introducing
genetic variability into prokaryotic populations,
AP Assessment and explain how this variability relates to
1. Compared to cells, viruses are simple in structure, emergent diseases caused by bacteria.
with a core of nucleic acid surrounded by protein. Explanation of how viruses introduce genetic variation in host
Certain viruses carry additional enzymes needed organisms may include (1 point each):
for their replication. Why do retroviruses need to • Viruses have highly efficient replicative capabilities that allow
carry copies of reverse transcriptase? for rapid evolution and acquisition of new phenotypes. Viruses
A) They need this enzyme in order to metabolize replicate via a component assembly model allowing one virus
glucose. to produce many progeny simultaneously via the lytic cycle.
B) They need this enzyme to penetrate the host's • RNA viruses lack replication error-checking mechanisms, and
membrane. have higher rates of mutation. Related viruses can combine/
C) Without this enzyme, the host cannot use the recombine information if they infect the same host cell.
viral RNA to make DNA. • Viral replication allows for mutations to occur through usual
D) Without this enzyme, the host cannot protect host pathways.
itself from the virus RNA. • Some viruses are able to integrate into the host DNA and
Answer: C; Retroviruses are called that because they must get establish a latent (lysogenic) infection. These latent viral
their host do a “retro” or back step before the host can make genomes can result in new properties for the host such as
viral parts. All cells normally go from DNA to RNA to proteins; increased pathogenicity in bacteria.
they can't start protein synthesis with RNA. Reverse transcriptase
5. Although they are morphologically similar to
allows the host to go from RNA (viral) to DNA, and then finish the
process: DNA to RNA to proteins. bacteria, archaea are a distinct group of
organisms that possess similarities to both
2. Retroviruses have been found to lack error- eukaryotes and bacteria. Archaea were once
checking mechanisms typically expected for thought to be a subgroup of bacteria, but they
transcription. Predict the likely result of this clearly have eukaryotic characteristics as well.
deficiency. They often inhabit extreme environments in
A) Retroviruses have low reproduction rates. which neither eukaryotes nor bacteria can live.
B) Retroviruses have high amounts of introns. A) Calculate the percentage of archaea features
C) Retroviruses have high mutation rates and high that are bacterialike, eukarya-like, and archaea-
variation. specific.
D) Retroviruses have high mutation rates and low Bacteria-like: 31%
variation. Eukarya-like: 56%
Answer: C; Without mechanisms to correct transcriptional errors,
Archaea-specific: 25%
more varied results can be expected. Rapid mutation and adaptation
are part of what make RNA viruses difficult to manage medically. B) Explain why archaea may be classified as their
own domain.
3. Viruses tend to be specific for their hosts.
Viruses that attack animal cells do not behave Archaea share morphological characteristics with bacteria (both
lack a nuclear membrane) while also sharing features with
in the same way as viruses that attack bacterial
eukaryotes, like transcription.
cells. Which event describes a step unique to
invasion by an animal virus? C) Determine into which group you would classify
A) The nucleic acid of the attacking virus is used by the archaea. Explain your answer.
the host to make new viral parts. Answers will vary but should show that the students think about
B) Viral nucleic acid becomes incorporated as a the characteristics of eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea and the
prophage in the host DNA. similarities and differences between the three. Most students
may choose eukarya-like because they have the most
C) Enveloped viruses merge with the plasma characteristics in common, but other answers that show a well
membrane and re-lease their DNA/RNA inside. thought out process should be accepted.
D) all of the above
Answer: C; Animal viruses recognize receptors in specific host
tissue. Once attached to these receptors, there is fusion with the

Teacher Manual 109

CHAPTER 21
Protist Evolution and Diversity

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

2.3 Cell Size
21.1 General Biology of Protists 1½
2.11 Origins of Cell Compartmentalization
21.2 Supergroup Excavata
21.3 Supergroup Chromalveolata
21.4 Supergroup Rhizaria
21.5 Supergroup Archaeplastidia ½ 8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems
21.6 Supergroup Amoebozoa
21.7 Supergroup Opisthonkonta
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 21 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 2 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Identifying Supergroups
Contractile Vacuoles in Protists

Teaching Strategy and Approach

There has not been a consensus among scientists as to the acceptance of the number and
names of all the supergroups associated with the domain Eukarya. The fluidity of this section
needs to be stressed to students. The information about the individual organisms in Chapter
21 is very detailed, and entirely out of scope for the AP Biology curriculum. This chapter can
be used to add information about protists when teaching concepts such as the role of surface-
area-to-volume ratio and the endosymbiont theory.
It is important to stress to students that specific terms in this chapter are unlikely to show up
on the AP Biology exam, unless there is crossover with another chapter.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—20 minutes on the evolutionary history of protists and the fluidity of
L
their current classification.
Review of microscopy techniques—10 minutes
Activity 1: Identifying Supergroups—15 minutes
Day 2: Activity 1: Identifying Supergroups, continued—25 minutes
Activity 2: Contractile Vacuoles in Protists—20 minutes

110 CHAPTER 21 | Protist Evolution and Diversity

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Most students have not considered the supergroups with subgroups approach to categorizing
the organisms in the domain Eukarya and will most likely be confused at first. Stress that
protists are all eukaryotic microorganisms. Protists are incredibly diverse, and scientists are
still in the process of understanding their relationships.
While the specific names of the Supergroups are not required to be memorized by the AP
Exam, students should be familiar with how osmoregulation occurs within protists, so be sure
to introduce your students to the contractile vacuole.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Identification of Supergroups: Students will document the organisms of protists in a mixed
culture. From a biological supply house, order a mixed culture of protists. Have students
draw or use their cell phones to document the organisms and then have students place
each organism into one of the Supergroups.
2. Contractile Vacuoles in Protists: Students will research how the contractile vacuole functions
in a specific protist and present their findings in words and with a drawing
Divide your class into pairs or small groups. Assign each group a protist that has a central
vacuole such as: amoeba, paramecium, euglenid, or dictyostelium. (Not all protists have
vacuoles so having students choose an organism of their interest is not a good idea for this
activity.)
Students must then research how the contractile vacuole functions in their specific
organism. You may use only protist information from the textbook or allow your students to
research using outside sources. Have your students present their findings in writing and/or
to the rest of the class. Be sure to have your students include a drawing of their protist and
its vacuole.

Differentiated Instruction: For a greater visual of how a contractile vacuole regulates

water, show your students a video of a paramecium from the Cell Image Library (link
available in your online course).
 iscuss with your students the process that is occurring as you show the video. Then,
D
have your students draw what they think might happen if the paramecium is placed in a
hypertonic environment and/or a hypotonic environment.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching—Beginning
Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the
terms out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in
their interactive notebooks.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Advanced

Have student pairs take turns reading the text to one another. Remind that they are reading
for an audience, and that they need to maintain the audience’s interest with their voices.
Move around the room, correcting pronunciation as necessary. Ask students what information
they learn from the title and how the title makes them approach the text. Have pairs discuss
their opinions. Then have them share their thoughts with the class. Record their contributions
on the board.

Teacher Manual 111

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 21.1, Check Your Progress 3. Asexual spores produced in liver cells enter the human
bloodstream and feed as trophozoites.
1. Explain how mitochondria and chloroplasts
originated in eukaryotic cells. 4. Red blood cells rupture and merozoites invade and reproduce
asexually inside new red blood cells.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated in eukaryotic cells
through endosymbiosis. Mitochondria were derived first from 5. Merozoites and toxins pour into the bloodstream. 6. Some
endosymbiosis of an aerobic bacterium, and chloroplasts were merozoites become gametocytes and enter the bloodstream.
derived later from the endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium. If taken up by a mosquito, they become gametes.

2. Describe how algae and protozoans are Section 21.4, Check Your Progress
nutritionally different from one another. 1. Why are cercozoans, radiolarians, and
Algae are photoautotrophic protists that synthesize organic foraminiferans in the same supergroup?
compounds via photosynthesis. Protozoans are heterotrophic or They are grouped together because of their rRNA sequence
mixotrophic protists that obtain organic compounds from the data.
environment.
2. What make cercozoans a good model
3. Identify the eukaryote supergroups that (a) organism?
include both plants and protists and (b) include
The endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria living in their cells took
fungi, animals, and protists.
place only 100 million years ago, making them important model
a) Archaeplastida b) Opisthokonta organisms in the study of endosymbiosis evolution.

Section 21.2, Check Your Progress 3. Why are radiolarians and foraminiferans good
geological markers?
1. What are the two distinctive features of the
Radiolarians and foraminiferans are good geological markers
excavates?
because their fossils date as far back as the Precambrian and
atypical or absent mitochondria and distinctive flagella and/or each geological period has a distinctive form of a foraminiferan.
deep oral grooves

2. Match two excavates with the human diseases Section 21.5, Check Your Progress
they cause. 1. What are the unique features of red algae?
Trichomonas vaginalis causes trichomoniasis, and Trypanosoma Red algae are multicellular seaweeds that possess red and blue
brucei causes African sleeping sickness. accessory pigments, which transfer energy from absorbed light
to the photopigment chlorophyll during photosynthesis.
Section 21.3, Check Your Progress
2. What are the unique features of green algae?
1. What characteristics separate alveolates from
Green algae are protists that contain both chlorophylls a and b.
stramenopiles?
Alveolates have alveoli (small air sacs) lying just beneath their Section 21.6, Check Your Progress
plasma membranes that are thought to lend support to the cell
surface or aid in membrane transport. Stramenopiles do not 1. How do amoebozoans move and feed?
have alveoli. Amoebozoans move and feed by pseudopods.

2. Which chromalveolates are useful to humans? 2. How do plasmodial slime molds and cellular
All chromalveolates that are primary producers are useful to slime molds differ?
humans, because they supply some of the oxygen humans need Plasmodial slime molds exist as a diploid, multinucleated,
to breathe. In addition, diatoms are used for filtering agents, cytoplasmic mass enveloped by a slime sheath, while cellular
soundproofing materials, and gentle polishing abrasives. Brown slime molds exist as individual amoeboid cells.
algae is harvested for human food and fertilizing. Macrocystis
produces algin, which is added to ice cream, sherbet, cream Section 21.7, Check Your Progress
cheese, and other products to give a smooth consistency.
1. Which eukaryotic organisms are classified as
3. Summarize the life cycle of Plasmodium vivax, opisthokonts?
one apicomplexan that causes malaria. Animals, fungi, and several closely related protists are classified
1. Gametes fuse to create a zygote, which produces sporozoites as opisthokonts.
in the Anopheles mosquito gut, which migrates to the salivary
gland. 2. Choanoflagellates are most like the common
ancestors of which eukaryotic kingdom?
2. Sporozoites pass from mosquito to the human bloodstream
and then the liver when the mosquito bites a human. sponges

112 CHAPTER 21 | Protist Evolution and Diversity

AP Assessment 4. The group known as protists has always been a
1. The oldest definitive fossil eukaryotes are about challenge to classify. At one time, protists were
1.5 bya. Serial endosymbiosis is believed to commonly referred to as “plant-like” or “animal-
account for the origin of eukaryotes from like.” Using the common freshwater protist
prokaryotes. What evidence supports the Euglena as an example, why are such terms
prokaryotic origin of eukaryotic organelles? misleading?
A) Protists have a wide range of feeding modes. A) Euglena is multicellular, unlike other protists.
B) The eukaryotic nucleus has its own separate B) Euglena is unicellular, unlike plants or animals.
membrane. C) Euglena can be either photosynthetic or
C) Mitochondria have their own DNA. heterotrophic, like both plants and animals.
D) Chloroplasts can perform photosynthesis. D) Euglena does not undergo sexual reproduction,
as both plants and animals do.
Answer: C; Mitochondrial DNA is formed in a ring, just as it is in
prokaryotic cells. They also have their own, prokaryote-like Answer: C; Euglena possesses a type of chloroplast, and will
ribosomes which can translate the genes found in the undergo photosynthesis if sufficient light is available. If light is
mitochondrial DNA. too dim, these chloroplasts break down and the Euglena begins
ingesting food from the environment. Euglena therefore
2. The protists known as kinetoplastids contain possesses both “plant-like” and “animal-like” characteristics.
several deadly parasitic species. These
5. In the most recent attempts to classify protists,
parasites cause widespread damage in humans
they have been assigned to a taxon called a
and domestic animals. They can be spread by
“supergroup,” located in size between Domains
contact with infected animals, insect vectors or
and Kingdoms. This has created a couple of
blood transfusions. Kinetoplastid parasites
surprising groups. What justification is there for
protect themselves from their host with a
placing single-celled green algae, colonial
glycoprotein coat whose glycoproteins are
green algae, and multicellular land plants in the
highly variable. Which defense against these
same supergroup, Archaeplastida?
parasites is likely to be least effective?
A) All of the subgroups listed are photosynthetic.
A) development of vaccine based on a glycoprotein
in the coat B) All of the subgroups listed utilize anaerobic
respiration.
B) spraying insecticides for tsetse flies or other
insect vectors C) All of the subgroups listed have mitochondria.
C) screening of blood transfusions for presence of D) All of the subgroups listed have plastids derived
parasites from cyanobacteria.
D) following careful hygiene procedures when Answer: D; Despite the many differences between trees and
working with domestic animals one-celled algae, both contain plastids in their chloroplasts that
were apparently formed endosymbiotically from cyanobacteria.
Answer: A; It has proven difficult to develop vaccines due to the
highly variable nature of the glycoprotein coat. Only one of a 6. Both the organisms Volvox globator and Wolffia
thousand glycoproteins is expressed at a time. globosa are classified in the supergroup
3. Although one-celled organisms might be small, Archaeplastida. Volvox is a colonial green algae
they are far from simple, and can adapt to a visible to the naked eye, consisting of several
wide range of circumstances. It has been thousand cells and reaching 1 mm in diameter.
observed that many protists have fluctuating Wolffia is described as the world’s smallest
osmotic potentials, tending to keep their cell flowering plant, measuring about 0.5 mm in
contents hyperosmotic compared to the length. Why is Volvox considered a colony, and
surrounding environment. Which organelle Wolffia a multicellular organism?
would be most useful in regulating osmotic A) Volvox cannot photosynthesize without a host
concentrations? organism.
A) flagella B) Volvox cells have flagella and the colony can
move.
B) eyespot
C) Wolffia displays division of labor, with many
C) pellicle
specialized types of cells.
D) contractile vacuole
D) Wolffia is able to move quickly to evade a
Answer: D; Protists are constantly taking in water from their predator.
aquatic environment. As water moves into the cytoplasm, it fills
Answer: C; In colonies, almost all of the cells are the same,
the contractile vacuole which eventually contracts to eject the
performing the same duties. In multicellular organisms, there are
excess water. These organelles are found in both fresh and
specialized cells, performing specific functions of reproduction,
saltwater protists.
nutrition, etc.

Teacher Manual 113

 7. Members of some protist supergroups are 10. While many protists have important beneficial
responsible for producing harmful algal blooms effects, certain other protists are responsible for
(HABs). These include the red tides produced a variety of human diseases. It has been
by toxic dinoflagellates, which produce predicted that many of these diseases may
dangerous neurotoxins resulting in fish kills and become more common under conditions of
human health problems. Red tides have been global climate change. Which statement is the
linked to which causal event? most reasonable justification for such a
A) spring tides occurring during full moons prediction?
B) high nutrient runoff from agricultural activity A) Insect vectors will reproduce more rapidly in
warmer conditions.
C) intensification of coastal currents
B) Warmer weather induces people to cool down in
D) overfishing in coastal areas with poor circulation
bodies of water, which may contain pathogenic
Answer: B; Runoff of nutrients like nitrogen or phosphorous from protists.
agricultural lands provides dinoflagellates with a limiting
C) Warmer ocean temperatures will increase the
nutrient. This allows the protist to reproduce rapidly, generating
rate of reproduction for protists implicated in
larger quantities of neurotoxin in the water then is normally
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs).
found. As the protists die off, they may also induce anoxic
situations, as they rapidly use up aquatic supplies of oxygen as D) all of the above
they decay. Answer: D; Insects produce lots of offspring, and will reproduce
more when temperatures are higher. And aquatic protists will
8. The ocean floor has been deposited with many likewise reproduce more often in warmer waters.
substances over the years. Due to their high
abundance in certain areas, protists contribute 11. Use the figure below to answer question 11. In
to the formation of deposits called “oozes.” 2002, scientists in France reported the first
These are classified according to their primary confirmed symbiotic relationship between
mineral content. Which protist groups will plantlike protists called green algae and a land
contribute to forming siliceous oozes? plant’s cells. The figure at the right represents
A) diatoms and radiolarians an alga inside a cell from the Ginkgo biloba
tree.
B) foraminiferans and euglenozoans
A) Examine the figure and estimate the size of the
C) rhodophyta and chlorophyta
algal cell.
D) amoebozoans and dinoflagellates
The diameter is approximately 3 × 10-6 m.
Answer: A; Both diatoms and radiolarians have glassy
exoskeletons made of silicon dioxide. These oozes can form only B) Explain why the term endophytic is appropriate
in deep waters where the rate of deposition of the protist to describe these algae. The prefix endo means
exceeds the rate of dissolution of the silica. “within” and the suffix–phyte means “plant”.
The algae cells are within the plant cells.
9. Many protists have the ability to reproduce
either sexually or asexually. Diatoms in the SAR C) Describe how this discovery connects to the
supergroup, for example, will reproduce endosymbiont theory.
asexually until they have become somewhat The endosymbiont theory posits that double-membrane bound
reduced in size, at which point they begin to organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, were
go through a sexual cycle. Which statement is originally free-living cells engulfed by larger cells. Sometime like
most accurate in describing the diatom the symbiotic relationship here could look like an early version of
reproductive pattern? an endosymbiont.

A) The sexual reproduction phase allows for rapid

reproduction.
B) The asexual reproduction stage is advantageous
under changing environmental conditions.
C) The asexual reproductive stage produces the
most variation.
D) The sexual reproduction phase produces the
most variation.
Answer: D; Sexual reproduction presents the opportunity to
combine genetic material from two sets of parents, producing a
new combination. Asexual reproduction produces offspring like
the parent, save for mutations.

114 CHAPTER 21 | Protist Evolution and Diversity

CHAPTER 22
Fungi Evolution and Diversity

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

22.1 Evolution and Characteristics
of Fungi
22.2 Diversity of Fungi
22.3 Symbiotic Relationships
1 8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems
of Fungi
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 22 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 8 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Interview a Mycologist

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Most of the information about fungi appears in the AP Biology Curriculum Framework as
illustrative examples. This means that there are no standards specifically directed and fungi
or their unique reproductive strategies. The most important portions of this chapter are the
mutualistic relationships between fungi and other organisms, and their role in food webs. One
particular illustrative example is how mating pheromones trigger yeast gene expression. This
is not specifically covered in the textbook, but Activity 1 below provides an interactive option
to cover this topic in class.
Class time: one 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—25 minutes on fungi ecological interactions, including symbiotic
L
relationships and diseases.
Activity 1: Yeast Pheromones OR Activity 2: Interview a Mycologist—20 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Many students confuse fungi with plants and think that fungi are photosynthetic. This is a
good opportunity to revisit the unique characteristics of plants and fungi. Stress the mode of
obtaining nutrients is by absorption of predigested macromolecule. The excretion of digestive
enzymes outside of an organism is the hallmark of fungi.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Yeast Pheromones: Students will read about how yeast find mates and create an
advertisement for a yeast pheromone “product”.

Teacher Manual 115

 Provide your students with a diagram of the two mating types of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae—MATa and MATα—and discuss how the successful mating only occurs when two
haploid cells of opposite mating type fuse.
Alternatively, you may have your students research this on their own or read parts of a
review article which details the mating process, such as: Bardwell, L. (2005). A walk-through
of the yeast mating pheromone response pathway. Peptides, 26(2), 339–350.
Next, describe the how the different cells secrete different pheromones to find each other,
and when they do how downstream signal transduction may be activated as a response to
the mating pathway.
To bring a little levity to the subject, tell your students to pretend they are in product
development for a company that is trying to increase successful yeast mating in the yeast
world. Working in pairs or small groups, they are to create a fictitious product to sell to one
of the yeast types to increase attractions of the opposite mating type. The students must
then create an ad campaign for their yeast product (as if they were trying to “sell” the
product to the yeast).
2. Interview a Mycologist: Students will ask a professional mycologist questions about fungi.
See resources and additional tips in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: If you are unable to locate a mycologist, have students

visit Tom Volk’s website (linked in your online course) and select the fungus for their
birth month.
 ach student can make a short presentation of their fungus to the class. Presentations
E
should include information about the taxonomy of their fungus, how it obtains nutrients,
and if it is involved in any symbiotic relationships

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching—Beginning
Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the
terms out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in
their interactive notebooks.

Word Origins—Intermediate
The word mycology comes from two Greek words; ‘μύκης’ means fungus’ means household
and ‘logos’ means study. Have students find cognates, or words that have come from a
common ancestor, which can help them understand new vocabulary.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 22.1, Check Your Progress Section 22.2, Check Your Progress
1. Describe how animals and fungi differ with 1. Compare and contrast the three zoospore-
respect to nutritional mode. producing phyla.
Animals are heterotrophs: they get their nutrition by consuming Phylum Blastocladiomycota can be plant pathogens and
outside nutrients. Fungi are saprotrophs: they externally digest some exhibit an alternation-of-generations life cycle. Phylum
organic material and absorb nutrients. Neocallimastigomycota are anaerobic and live in the guts of
many herbivores. Phylum Chytridiomycota are aquatic fungi that
2. Explain how fungal cells differ from plant cells. are saprotrophic or parasitic. All three phyla have spores with
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose; fungi cell walls are made flagella called zoospores.
of chitin.
2. Discuss how spore dispersal is accomplished in
3. Describe the function of a fungal spore. different phyla of fungi.
A fungal spore is a reproductive structure that can form a new Spore dispersal can be by means of swimming with flagella or
organism without fusing with another reproductive cell. exposure to wind, rain, or vectors like insects.

116 CHAPTER 22 | Fungi Evolution and Diversity

 3. Discuss the evolutionary advantage of a fruiting B) disrupt enzymes that foster the production of
body and how size and complexity of fruiting chitin
bodies differ between phyla. C) develop poisons for the light reaction process
Fruiting bodies lift spores higher off the ground for wind or water D) develop poisons for the electron transport chain
dispersal. The Phylum Zygomycota have small fruiting bodies Answer: B; Both plant cell walls and fungal cell walls contain
consistent of a stalk with sporangium. The Phylum Ascomycota structural polysaccharides, so a general attack on that process
generally have cup-shaped fruiting bodies that are small but would damage both organisms. However, only fungi contain
visible to the naked eye. The Phylum Basidiomycota can have chitin in their cell walls, so disrupting chitin formation would only
large, complex fruiting bodies like mushrooms and puffballs. disable fungi, not the corn plant.

Section 22.3, Check Your Progress 3. Many fungi have complex life cycles alternating
between haploid and diploid stages. Typically,
1. Explain the difference between a mutualistic
haploid-type fungi grow rapidly by binary fission
and parasitic symbiosis.
under stable/good conditions, and only turn to
A mutualistic symbiosis is one where both partners benefit. A sexual reproduction under unstable/difficult
parasitic symbiosis is one where one partner benefits and the conditions. What advantage might there be to
other is harmed.
alternating reproductive methods in such a way?
2. Explain the components of a lichen and how it A) asexual produces lots of mutations, which sexual
reproduces. can eliminate
Lichens contain a fungal partner (a glomeromycete or B) sexual produces lots of mutations, which asexual
ascomycete) and photosynthesizing partner (algae or can eliminate
cyanobacteria). Lichens reproduce asexually by releasing C) The identical offspring produced in asexual
fragments that contain hyphae and an algal cell. In fruticose reproduction are probably well suited for present
lichens, the sac fungus reproduces sexually. conditions.
3. Summarize the symbiotic relationship between D) The varied offspring produced in asexual
mycorrhizae and plants. reproduction will contain many options for
advantageous gene combinations.
Fungus enters the cortex of the roots of plants, giving the plants
a greater absorptive surface for nutrients. The fungus benefits Answer: C; If the organism has a gene combination that is doing
from carbohydrates produced by the plant. well, chances are that gene combination will continue to do well
if conditions are stable. If they become unstable, the variation
AP Assessment produced by sexual reproduction is more likely to throw out a
new, useful combination for new conditions.
1. A key characteristic of multicellular fungi is the
presence of a mat of filaments called hyphae. 4. At one time, fungi were classified in the plant
This mat of hyphae produces a large surface- kingdom. However, as more and more
area-to-volume ratio for the organism. How is differences with plants were found, scientists
this advantageous to the fungus? eventually put fungi into their own taxonomic
A) makes the fungus larger and intimidating to group. Which description applies to the
predators Kingdom Fungi?
B) allows the fungus to store more starches in its cells A) They are heterotrophic, utilizing extracellular
digestion.
C) gives the fungus a protective camouflaged
appearance B) They are heterotrophic, utilizing internal digestion.
D) gives the fungus more absorptive area to soak up C) They are chemoautotrophic.
digested food D) They are photosynthetic.
Answer: C; Fungi and animals share a more recent common Answer: A; Fungi release digestive enzymes into organic material,
ancestor than any of the other answer choices. The phylogenetic and then absorb the smaller nutrient molecules that are produced.
tree is based on molecular data showing that fungi and animals
are more similar than fungi and plants. 5. Based on the phylogenetic tree above, which
group is most closely related to the Fungi?
2. Crop plants such as corn and oats are A) land plants
devastated every year by fungal infections.
B) brown algae
Suppose a group of scientists is working on a
fungicide for corn plants. They are hoping to C) animals
stop fungal growth by targeting the production D) water molds
of new fungal cells. Which strategy is most Answer: C; Fungi and animals share a more recent common
likely to be successful? ancestor than any of the other answer choices. The phylogenetic
A) disrupt enzymes that foster the production of tree is based on molecular data showing that fungi and animals
polysaccharides are more similar than fungi and plants.

Teacher Manual 117

 6. While fungi do not have distinctive male or experiment, lichens were split apart with each
female body types, an individual species can partner grown separately. In this case, the algae
distinguish one reproductive strain from grew faster when by itself, but the isolated
another. Typically, one mating strain of the fungus grew poorly. Which claim can most
species releases pheromones into the reasonably be justified by these results?
environment. If a filament containing cells of the A) When isolated, the algae and fungus could no
opposite strain is near enough, the pheromone longer absorb phosphorus ions.
locks with a receptor, setting off signal B) The algae and the fungus normally form a
transduction. Which of the responses listed mutualistic relationship.
would lead to sexual reproduction? C) In the lichen, the fungus is acting as a controlled
A) The second strain grows toward the first, with parasite on the alga.
cells eventually fusing. D) In the lichen, the alga needs the fungus, but the
B) Sperm will be released into environment from fungus does not need the alga.
spermatogonia. Answer: C; The observation that the alga was able to grow at a
C) Haploid cells are released from the egg chamber. much faster rate suggests that it is normally hampered by the
D) Spores are released from one strain, fusing with presence of the fungus. Without the loss of nutrients to the
spores of the opposite strain. fungus, the alga thrives.
Answer: A; Pheromones signal the presence of opposite mating 9. Fusarium oxysporum is a disease-causing
types. Opposite mating types must grow close enough for cells organism of many crops, including asparagus.
to fuse together, producing a diploid cell which usually quickly The fungus penetrates the roots and spreads
goes through meiosis to restore the haploid condition
up through the plant, often reducing the flow of
7. Scientists wanted to mimic natural conditions water to the stem and leaves. Infected plants
for oak seedlings in a greenhouse, but failed to produce fewer and smaller spears than healthy
explain this to the lab assistants setting up the plants do. The fungus stays in the soil year
experiment. These assistants sterilized the soil after year.
and rinsed the roots of the seedlings in a Sodium chloride (NaCl, or table salt) treatment is
fungicide. The plants grew poorly. This poor a common method for suppressing disease in
growth was most likely directly due to the lack plants. The table shows data collected after an
of what natural condition? asparagus field was treated with a dusting of
A) The fungicide eliminated the nutritional lichens salt.
normally found on roots.
A) Calculate the percentage change, standard
B) The fungicide eliminated the symbiotic deviation, and standard error in spear number
mychorrizae normally found on roots. and spear mass.
C) The sterilized soil lacked the fungal spores 13.9 percent increase in spear number; 22.9 percent increase in
needed for water uptake. spear mass
D) The sterilized soil lacked the organic molecules
B) Interpret how the salt treatment affects the
needed for nutritional support of symbiotic fungi.
asparagus crop.
Answer: B; Mycorrhizae have been found in association with
Spear number and spear mass increase.
almost all vascular plants. The presence of mycorrhizae
enhances the uptake of nutrients from the soil, particularly C) Hypothesize why salt might have this effect on
phosphates. the plants. Outline a plan to test your hypothesis.
8. Lichens are typically described as mutualistic Possible answer: Either it kills the fungi or makes the plant more
relationships in which both partners (a fungus resistant. For testing hypotheses, accept all reasonable answers.
and a cyanobacterium or an alga) benefit. In an

118 CHAPTER 22 | Fungi Evolution and Diversity

CHAPTER 23
Plant Evolution and Biology

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

23.1 Ancestry and Features of
2 7.6 Evidence for Evolution
Land Plants
23.2 Evolution of Bryophytes:
Colonization of Land
23.3 Evolution of Lycophytes:
Vascular Tissue
23.4 Evolution of Pteridophytes:
Megaphylls
23.5 Evolution of Seed Plants: Full
Adaptation to Land
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 23 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Exploring the NYBG Steere Herbarium
Seeds of Change

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The details of various reproductive plant strategies are not included in the curriculum
framework and so little time should be spent on memorizing such material. Instead, you can
use this information to draw connections between the evolution of photosynthetic pathways
and land plants. Focus on the pivotal adaptations which allowed plants to transition to land.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—25 minutes on key groups of plants and their features
 ctivity 1: Plant Evolution Walk OR Activity 2: Exploring the NYBG Steere
A
Herbarium—20 minutes
Day 2: Activity 3: Seeds of Change—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Most students have spent very little time learning about the evolution of land plants. Many
students will not know the differences between the major phyla of plants.
The AP Exam is unconcerned with details of specific phyla, so the best use of this chapter is
to add depth to students’ understanding of the various data that provide evidence for the
theory of evolution.

Teacher Manual 119

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Plant Evolution Walk: Students will take a walk in a natural environment to observe
differences in land plants.
This activity works best if you have access to a close-by natural environment with plants,
such as a park, where your students can take a walk during an appropriate season. If there
is inclement weather or you do not have access to such a location, see the differentiated
instructions below.
One of the best ways to explore plant evolution is by physically seeing the difference in
plants. Print out a phylogenetic tree with the different clades of plants for your students.
Then, take your students on a walk to see which type of plants you can find. You can do this
after describing the evolution of land plants or talk while you walk, depending on the size of
your class.
You may want to scout out your walk before hand to determine what plants are
present at the location. Look at rocks for moss, shaded or wet areas for ferns, and at
the different types of trees in your location to see if you can find angiosperms and
gymnosperms.
Or you may elect to make the activity more of a scavenger hunt to see if students can find
the different clades of land plants. It is okay if you cannot find them all. Have students
observe the physical differences between the plants you do find.
Students can take photos of the plants or draw pictures of the plants you find on the
phylogenetic tree. After your walk, ask students to write up their findings by explaining the
plants you found and how they are related to each other. Which characteristic do they
share? And which characteristics are novel?

Differentiated Instruction: If you do not have access to a close-by natural

environment with plants, there is inclement weather, or for those with limited mobility,
find photographs and/or specimens of the different types of plants to pass around
the class while you talk. Then, have your students take the images or specimens
and arrange them in chronological order. Ask students to describe how the plants are
related to each other. Which characteristic do they share? And which characteristics
are novel?

2. Exploring the NYBG Steere Herbarium: Students will navigate the online NYBG Steere
Herbarium to find examples of different land plants. Links and further details are available in
your online course.
3. Seeds of Change: Students will students will examine DNA sequences using the National
Center for Biotechnology Information BLAST from different plants to determine how land
plants evolved. Directions and links are available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Beginning

Reinforce the use of visual context to derive meaning through examples of environmental
print. Pantomime or elicit one-word responses to the meaning derived from such images as a
stop sign, exit sign, or safety symbols and other cautionary or explanatory labels used in the
classroom. Then provide students with enlarged copies of the image that supports the
reading. Discuss different parts of the image, pointing to each as you say it.

Activate Prior Knowledge—Advanced High

Have students use the information on the KWL chart to give a short oral presentation about
the passage.

120 CHAPTER 23 | Plant Evolution and Biology

 Subject (ex. Land Plants) K- What I Already Know
From experience From previewing
Moss is short, Some plants can grow tall, others can’t.
Some plants have flowers Plants need water and sun to grow bigger
W—What I Want to Learn
Why are trees so tall and mosses so short? / Why do some plants have flowers but mosses do not?
L-What I Learned
Trees have vascular systems, mosses are very simple plants. / Nonvascular plants have spores.
What I Want to Know More About How will I Learn More
How did plants grow taller? Read articles
Ask an expert

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 23.1, Check Your Progress 2. Explain how xylem contributes to an upright
1. Compare and contrast the traits of charophytes body plant.
and land plants. The walls of xylem contain lignin, a strengthening agent.
Both charophytes and land plants have cellulose in their cell 3. Define the terms homosporous and
walls, store carbohydrates as starch, and contain chlorophyll heterosporous.
a and b. The difference lies with their embryos. Charophytes Homosporous: having spores that grow into one type of gamete.
do not protect the embryo, while land plants do. Heterosporous: having microspores that grow into a male
2. List the adaptations that led to a land existence gametophyte and megaspores that grow into a female
for plants. gametophyte.
development of a cuticle to reduce water loss; tracheids to
Section 23.4, Check Your Progress
transport water and minerals upward; three-dimensional tissues;
diploid genome 1. Compare the life cycle of a fern to that of a
3. Highlight the evidence that supports the moss.
evolution of land plants from aquatic, algae-like In ferns, but not mosses, the sporophyte is dominant and
cells. separate from the gametophyte.
embryo protection > apical growth > vascular tissue > 2. Describe the structures found on a fern
microphylls and megaphylls > seeds, flowers, double megaphyll.
fertilization, endosperm, fruit Megaphylls have broad leaves with several branches of vascular
tissue. In addition, there are visible sori housing the clusters of
Section 23.2, Check Your Progress sporangia.
1. Explain the various methods of bryophyte 3. Explain the sequence of events in the haploid
reproduction. portion of the fern life cycle.
Bryophytes have a dominant gametophyte generation, produce Within a sporangium, meiosis occurs and spores are produced.
flagellated sperm that swim to the egg, and can also reproduce When a sporangium opens, the spores are released. A spore
asexually. germinates into a prothallus (the gametophyte), which typically
2. List the characteristics that enabled the bears archegonia at the notch and antheridia at the tip between
bryophytes to successfully colonize land. the rhizodes. Fertilization takes place when moisture is present,
because the flagellated sperm must swim in a film of water from
asexual and sexual reproduction; ability to survive in harsh
the antheridia to the egg within the archegonium.
environments; sporophyte is protected from drying out
3. Explain which portion of the bryophyte life Section 23.5, Check Your Progress
cycle is the most dominant. 1. List the life cycle changes that have enabled
The gametophyte portion is most dominant. The sporophyte is pines to better adapt to life on land.
dependent upon the gametophyte. Water is not required for fertilization because pollen grains (male
gametophytes) are windblown, and 2. Ovules protect female
Section 23.3, Check Your Progress gametophytes and become seeds that disperse the sporophyte,
1. Name two features of lycophytes that increase the generation that has vascular tissue.
their ability to survive on land.
In lycophytes, the dominant sporophyte has vascular tissue, and
therefore roots, stems, and leaves.

Teacher Manual 121

 2. Compare and contrast the four types of Answer: A; Stomata are pores in the surface of the leaf. Guard
gymnosperms. cells around the stomata can open and close, thus regulating the
amount of gas exchange that can occur.
Conifers: cone bearing and evergreen; cycads: cone bearing,
evergreen, and wind-pollinated; ginkgoes: cone bearing, 4. Cooksonia, the first known vascular land plant,
deciduous; gnetophytes: cone bearing and insect-pollinated. appeared about 420 MYA ago. Although it
3. List the functions of the key structures required lacks leaves and roots, it is believed to show
for angiosperm reproduction. evidence of vascular tissue. What advantage
The stamen contains the anther and the filament. Pollen forms in did vascular tissue give to land plants?
the pollen sac of the anther. The carpel contains the stigma, A) Vascular plants can grow tall to compete for light.
style, and ovary. An ovule in the ovary becomes a seed, and the B) Vascular plants can move water and minerals
ovary becomes the fruit. from the ground through the plant.
AP Assessment C) Vascular plants can move sugars from where
they are made in the leaves into the roots for
1. In comparing early-evolving land plants to later- storage.
evolving land plants, certain trends can be
D) all of the above
observed. All land plants have both haploid and
diploid generations. But the diploid generation Answer: D; Xylem gives support to plants, allowing them to reach
far above the ground. It also carries water and dissolved minerals
has become increasingly dominant. Selection
from the soil throughout the plant. Phloem carries dissolved sugars
for a dominant diploid stage would give what from where they are made to where they are used or stored.
advantage?
A) allows plant to be larger 5. Non-seed producing plants rely on water to
carry the egg to the sperm. How are eggs and
B) allows plant to inhabit drier habitats
sperm brought together in terrestrial seed-
C) increases genetic variability
producing plants?
D) increases pollination efficiency
A) by water
Answer: C; The variability that results from diploidy gave plants
B) by wind or a pollinator
an advantage, giving a variety of forms for selection to act on as
plants conquered new habitats. C) They travel through the vascular tissue.
D) They combine within the stomata on the leaf
2. Early land plants would have found that surface.
obtaining water was challenging. These early
Answer: B; Eliminating the reliance on water for fertilization is
plants, similar to extant Charophytes and one adaptation that has helped seed plants spread out into
bryophytes, lacked roots, unlike later plants. many diverse habitats.
What symbiotic relationship has developed that
helps land plants take up water, whether or not 6. Many conifers in the gymnosperm group are
the plant has roots? fire adapted. That is, they have adapted to
A) close associations with fungi to enhance water living in regions that are periodically swept by
and nutrient uptake fire. For example, some pinecones will only
open to release seeds after having gone
B) bacterial colonies within the plant cells
through very high temperatures (such as occur
C) photosynthetic Protistans formed coats on the
during fires). How is this adaptation helpful?
plant exterior
A) allows sugars in seeds to be converted to
D) viral assemblies pumped water into cells
starches
Answer: A; Close associations with fungi enhances the uptake of
B) Seeds do not germinate until parent is dead.
both water and minerals. Although often thought of as involving
roots, these associations can also form with rootless plants, and C) Fire reduces competing plants and leaves
doubtless did so during the early colonization of land. mineral-rich ash behind.
D) ensures that the cone material does not interfere
3. Most land plants are covered with a waxy with seed germination
cuticle, which minimizes drying out of the plant.
Answer: C; Young seeds can sprout in an area that has fewer
However, this coating interferes with gas competing plants, and may have more sunlight. The mineral-rich
exchange. What structure allows land plants ash may provide additional nutrients.
to exchange gases with the environment?
A) stomata 7. In gymnosperms, egg cells are held within
cones. In order for the egg to be fertilized,
B) microphylls
sperm nuclei must reach the egg. Which
C) megaphylls statement best describes the coordination
D) xylem between pollination and fertilization in
gymnosperms?

122 CHAPTER 23 | Plant Evolution and Biology

 A) Pollination and fertilization are simultaneous. Part (b)—Explanations of adaptations may include (1 point each):
B) Fertilization occurs within 24 hours of pollination. • Vascular tissues permit the transport of water and nutrients
C) Fertilization occurs about a year after pollination. throughout the plant since on land not all cells are constantly
exposed to water, they support taller plant structures, and they
D) Pollination occurs on cones, while fertilization
also avoid water loss due to lower surface-area-to-volume
occurs in stems.
ratios.
Answer: C; The female structures of the gymnosperm are not yet • The whole male gametophyte (pollen grain) moves to the
mature when pollination occurs. After pollination, a pollen tube
female gametophyte instead of needing sperm to travel,
forms that slowly digests its way through the cone to the location
allowing for fertilization without water. The less a plant relies
of the egg cells. By the time the sperm arrives, the egg is ready
on water for reproduction, the farther that plant can radiate
to receive it.
onto drier land, take advantage of new resources, and become
8. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms can be more abundant.
constructed from morphological similarities • Seeds store food and offer protection to the sporophyte
to illustrate speciation that has occurred. embryo, allowing survival during harsh conditions.
Relatedness of any two groups on the tree • Other adaptations not noted on data table: Cuticles prevent
is shown by how recently two groups had a desiccation, diploid genome hides effects of single deleterious
common ancestor. Use the table below to alleles that might come about with increased exposure to UV
respond to parts (a) and (b). light.
A) Using the observable traits recorded in the data 9. Researchers analyzed fossil evidence and DNA
table, create a simple cladogram that correctly sequence data of ferns. They found that ferns
represents the possible evolutionary relationships have shown greater diversity in more recent
among plants. Mark the shared characters on evolutionary history. They concluded that the
your model in the appropriate locations. diversity of modern ferns evolved after
B) Explain which traits provided the opportunity for angiosperms dominated terrestrial ecosystems.
some plants to adapt to life on land from their Observe the two models, above, showing the
aquatic origins. evolution of the diversity of organisms.
Part (a)—Cladogram representation may include (1 point each): A) Select the model that best fits the researchers'
• Each organism and character from the data table is represented: conclusion described above.
liverworts, mosses, hornworts, lycophytes, ferns, gymnosperms, B
flowering plants, and embryo protection, apical growth, vascular
B) Infer how the evolution of angiosperms might
tissue, microphylls, megaphylls, seeds and fruit.
have influenced fern diversity.
• Evolutionary lines of cladogram are discernible and easily
Angiosperms provided more diverse conditions, such as more
followed.
shade, which encouraged fern diversity.
• Characters are noted on appropriately matched evolutionary
lines, NOT at nodes.
• Lineages are nestled, as a clade-within-a-clade.
• Lycophytes are the only plants with microphylls. The hornworts
do exhibit apical growth, but do not have vascular tissue.

Teacher Manual 123

CHAPTER 24
Flowering Plants: Structure
and Organization
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
24.1 Cells and Tissues of Flowering
Plants
24.2 Organs of Flowering Plants 8.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
24.3 Organization and Diversity
1 2.3 Cell Size
of Roots
24.4 Organization and Diversity
of Stems
24.5 Organization and Diversity
1 2.3 Cell Size
of Leaves
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 24 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 2 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Analysis of Plant Evidence from a Crime Scene
Bouquet of Flowers: the World’s Best Artificial Flower

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Much of the information in this chapter is not directly assessed on the AP exam. Instead, this
chapter can be used to continue supporting the learning objectives in Topic 8.2 and 2.3.
Providing students with many examples of adaptations will help them develop an
understanding of evolution and ecology.
It is no longer necessary to assess students on the specifics of flower anatomy. In the new
curriculum, students are instead asked to understand how plant anatomy reflects adaptation
to terrestrial life. This is a good opportunity to discuss how flowers and fruits in particular are
evidence of this. You can also discuss the coevolution that occurs between seed-dispersing
animals and plants.

Class time: two 45-minute class periods

Day 1: Lecture—35 minutes on plant organs and their features
Activity 1: Flower Dissection—10 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—20 minutes on monocots and eudicots
 ctivity 2: Analysis of Plant Evidence at a Crime Scene OR Activity 3: Bouquet
A
of Flowers: the World’s Best Artificial Flower

124 CHAPTER 24 | Flowering Plants: Structure and Organization

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Students may misunderstand what substances plants get from photosynthesis versus from
their roots. Students may think that plants get all the nutrients they need from photosynthesis,
or that they are taking up energy through their roots. Clarify for students the role of
photosynthesis, and that energy (sugar) is provided through CO2 absorbed through their
leaves. Meanwhile, essential nutrients and water are absorbed through the roots.
Perhaps the biggest misconception is that plant cells do not need to undergo cellular
respiration because they produce sugar. Use this opportunity to reinforce the idea that all
cells undergo cellular respiration.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Flower Dissection: Students will dissect and label the parts of a flower. Rather than
memorizing the names and functions of specific organs, instead ask students to think about
how the flower increases the fitness of the plant in a terrestrial environment.
Bring in a flowering plant or a bouquet of flowers for students to dissect. Working in pairs,
students can separate the different parts of the plant and make labels of what the parts are
and look up their function.
Students will then make a chart identifying how the different flower components relate to
the success of the plant species on land. Encourage students to draw pictures of the parts
as they work.

Differentiated Instruction: Alternatively, instead of dissecting a flower, you can have

your students “build” a flowering plant. Divide your class into pairs or small groups and
pass out sticky notes. Students must draw and write on the sticky notes the different
parts of the flowering plant as they “build” their plant on their desk or on a wall. Students
must then design a flow chart of the contributions to fitness as described above.

2. Analysis of Plant Evidence from a Crime Scene Students will use plant based evidence to
determine a guilty suspect. Details are available in your online course.
The preparation for this activity is simple. Obtain one monocot plant (examples are corn, iris,
grass) and one dicot plant (examples are azalea, begonia, and philodendron) and label one
plant A and one plant B. Determine ahead of time which plant you will consider the plant
that was owned by the guilty suspect. Obtain cross sections of monocot or eudicot stems,
depending on which plant you chose. Have students use microscope to view the evidence
and complete the activity found in your online guidebook.
3. Bouquet of Flowers: the World’s Best Artificial Flower: Students will design a flower that
needs to survive under particular conditions. Links and additional details are available in
your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening—Beginning
Have students log in to their ebook to hear pronunciations of chapter vocabulary terms. They
can also listen to a complete audio read of the text.

Making Connections—Advanced High

Have students make connections between the text and their prior knowledge using a Think/
Pair/ Share activity. Ask students to complete the following statement: This text reminds me
of because . Have ELL students and English proficient students pair up to
share their connections.

Teacher Manual 125

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 24.1, Check Your Progress Section 24.4, Check Your Progress
1. List the three specialized meristems that arise 1. Describe the transport tissues found in a
from the apical meristem. vascular bundle.
protoderm, ground, and procambium meristem A vascular bundle contains xylem and phloem.
2. List the three specialized tissues in 2. Compare the arrangements of the vascular
angiosperms and the cells that make up bundles in monocot stems and eudicot stems.
these tissues. Vascular bundles are scattered in monocots and form a ring in
Epidermal tissue is made up of epidermal cells; ground tissue is eudicot stems.
made up of parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells; 3. Contrast primary growth with secondary growth.
vascular tissue is made up of tracheids and vessel elements of
Primary growth is growth in length and is nonwoody; secondary
the xylem, and sieve-tube members and companion cells of
growth is growth in girth and is woody.
the phloem.
4. List the components of bark.
3. Compare the transport functions of xylem and
phloem. Bark is composed of cork, cork cambium, cortex, and phloem.
Xylem transports water and minerals throughout the plant. 5. Compare the features in the annual rings of
Phloem transports sucrose and other organic molecules usually spring wood and summer wood.
from the leaves to the roots. An annual ring is composed of one year’s growth of wood—one
layer of spring wood made up of wide vessel elements with thin
Section 24.2, Check Your Progress walls, followed by one layer of summer wood which has fewer
1. Describe how the plant body is organized. vessels.
The body of a plant consists of a root system (branch roots, root
hairs, and primary roots) and a shoot system. The shoot system
Section 24.5, Check Your Progress
contains the stem and leaves: two types of plant vegetative 1. Explain how the cuticle, stomata, and trichomes
organs. Axillary buds can develop into branches of stems or protect the leaf.
flowers, the reproductive structures of a plant. The root system is The cuticle prevents water loss through its waxy layer. The
connected to the shoot system by vascular tissue that extends stomata, in most plants, close at night or during water stress
from the roots to the leaves. to conserve water. The trichomes decrease predation.
2. List the three vegetative organs in a plant, and 2. Describe the role of guard cells.
state their major functions. Guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomata.
Vegetative organs are the leaves (photosynthesis), the stem
(support, new growth, transport), and the root (absorb water AP Assessment
and minerals).
1. Plants are stationary, fixed in place throughout
3. Infer the difference in energy investiture their life. This means that plants in general, and
between annual and perennial plants. angiosperms in particular, have adaptations to
In annuals, energy is invested in the vegetative structures to reduce competition with their offspring. Which
support flower and seed production, since after seeds are adaptation would do the most to reduce such
produced and dispersed, the entire plant dies. In perennials, competition?
energy is expended to make vegetative structures such as wood,
A) brightly colored flowers
bulbs, underground tubers, and leaf buds to help the plant
survive from year to year. B) white flowers
C) tap roots
Section 24.3, Check Your Progress D) seeds inside juicy fruits
1. Explain the cellular features in roots that allow Answer: D; Juicy fruits attract animals to eat them. The animal
for exchange of water and nutrients with the carries the seeds away from the parent plant. Wherever those
soil. seeds sprout, they will not be in direct competition with their
Water and minerals pass through the cytoplasm of endodermal parent.
cells in order to enter the xylem.
2. A small shrub called Amborella trichopoda is
2. Describe the advantages of some root found in the rain forests of New Zealand, and is
specializations. believed to be the closest living relative of the
Some plants have food storage roots. Prop roots are specialized earliest angiosperms. An investigation of its
for support. Pneumatophores of some plants allow it to acquire mitochondrial genes shows what seem to be
oxygen even though it might live in water. Aerial roots offer protein genes that are found in mosses. These
physical support, water and nutrient uptake, and in some genes are believed to have become
cases, photosynthesis. incorporated into the plant by mitochondrial

126 CHAPTER 24 | Flowering Plants: Structure and Organization

 fusion, occurring when mosses have grown in 6. Various strategies for timing of reproduction are
close association with Amborella. What would found in the plant kingdom. Which statement
be the best term to describe this type of gene correctly identifies a difference between annual
acquisition? and perennial plants?
A) horizontal gene transfer A) Annual plants devote all their energy to making
B) vertical gene transfer reproductive structures.
C) eukaryotic gene induction B) Perennial plants grow vegetative structures in
their first season, then reproduce and die in their
D) prokaryotic gene conjugation
second season.
Answer: A; Horizontal gene transfer occurs when genes are
C) When flower-producing genes in annual plants
directly acquired from another species. In this case, the mosses
are blocked, they display perennial traits and
growing on the plant appear to have somehow fused cellular
devote energy into the growth of vegetative
content such that their mitochondria came into contact.
structures.
3. Plants and animals have both similarities and D) all of the above
differences with respect to the organization of Answer: C; Experiments have been done in which genes such as
their tissues. Which type of plant cells are LEAFY are blocked in annuals. As a result, the plant does not
analogous to the stem cells found in animals? produce reproductive structures in its first season, but instead
A) xylem vessels continues producing vegetative structures.
B) shoot system cells 7. Modern potatoes were developed from
C) meristematic tissue cells ancestors that grew in the Andes Mountains.
D) bundle sheath cells What primary selection factor gave rise to the
Answer: C; Like stem cells, meristematic tissue cells are capable enlarged starchy roots of potato plants?
of dividing and differentiating into various types of cells. A) short growing season; stored food allowed plants
to get a jump start on the spring
4. Many angiosperm plants produce hair-like
B) constant wind; large tubers held the plant down
structures called trichomes. Trichomes are an in the soil
adaptation particularly useful in stationary
C) cold temperatures; stored starch could be broken
organisms such as plants. How might trichomes
down for heat
protect plants and increase survival?
D) human cultivation; pretty purple flowers
A) protect from sun
encouraged humans to grow them
B) protect from moisture loss
Answer: A; Plants with a higher capacity for starch storage were
C) discourage herbivory selected for by the cold temperatures and short growing season.
D) all of the above The energy stored in the tuber was used to sprout a new set of
Answer: D; The fuzzy nature of the trichomes results in all of the vegetative structures quickly in the next season.
listed protections. In addition, some trichomes may produce 8. Scientists who are investigating climatic
toxic substances in a further defense against herbivory. changes in a region may use tree cores or
5. The vascular systems found in vascular plants rings from old growth trees. Such cores show
are analogous to those found in animals. What distinct bands that not only indicate how many
is a primary difference between the systems in years the tree has lived, but also give some
plants and animals? information about the conditions the tree has
A) Animal vascular systems are important in faced. What phenomenon is responsible for the
transporting water. appearance of tree rings?
B) Plant xylem vessels often contain supporting A) spring growth, when temperatures are low,
fibers, and act as a skeleton. produces smaller, thick-walled vessels
C) Animal vascular systems are important in B) spring growth, when moisture is abundant,
transporting minerals. produces large thin-walled xylem vessels
D) Plant phloem vessels are not found in all plants. C) summer growth, when temperatures are high,
produces large thick-walled xylem vessels
Answer: B; The woody tissue of plants contains xylem that is
reinforced with rigid fibers. In that case xylem functions both to D) summer growth, when temperatures are high,
transport water and to support the plant above the ground. produces variation in color of the secondary
Blood vessels of animals do not have such rigid supporting xylem
elements. Answer: B; The difference in appearance of spring and summer
wood marks a distinct demarcation from one season to the next.
Wide rings are produced under good growing conditions, with
abundant rainfall, etc.

Teacher Manual 127

 9. Organisms must exchange matter with the • Restricted growth due to lack of water, sugars, and other
environment to grow, reproduce and maintain organic compounds to all cells in the plant.
organization. Explain how root hair size and • Loss of ability to anchor the plant.
shape affect the overall rate of nutrient intake • Loss of the ability to penetrate the soil if not cylindrical in
in flowering plants. shape.
Explanation of the benefits of root hairs may include: • Loss of efficient and effective uptake of water and nutrients.
• As cells increase in volume, the relative surface area decreases • Potential loss in the production of hormones or storage of
and demand for material resources increase; more cellular carbohydrates (as seen in carrots and sweet potatoes).
structures are necessary to adequately exchange materials • Loss of stoma or spongy mesophyll (which has many air spaces
and energy with the environment. These limitations restrict for gas exchange) would restrict gas exchange causing
cell size. restricted photosynthesis and waste removal and could
• Root hairs increase the surface area of the root (instead of increase water loss.
increasing the volume), increasing the amount of absorption of • Loss of paslisade mesophyll would impact leaf structure and
water and minerals, as well as anchoring the plant to various therefore functioning.
substrates. Minerals typically require active transport to enter
• Loss of chloroplasts means loss of ability to photosynthesize
root hairs, unlike water which enters via osmosis.
without the use of photoreceptors.
• Cylindrical shape allows it to penetrate the soil as it grows and
permits water to be absorbed from all sides. 11. A scientist wanted to learn what type of input—
• Explanations may include diagrams, which should be checked smell, taste, or touch—helps Pieris caterpillars
for accuracy, particularly that root hairs are projections of choose food. She used four Petri dishes each
epithelial cells in the root. of intact leaves and cut leaves. Each set of
leaves consisted of a nonmustard family plant
10. Interactions and coordination between systems
(the control) and three different mustard family
provide essential biological activities.
plants. A caterpillar was added to each dish,
A) Describe two interactions between constituent and its behavior was observed and recorded.
parts of flowering plants, such as those within the
The table shows the results of the experiment.
vascular system.
T represents the caterpillar touched the plant
B) Explain what would happen to the functionality of but did not bite it. A represents the caterpillar
the organism if a component was changed or lost
took a bite but then abandoned the leaf.
for one of the interactions you describe for part (a).
C represents that the caterpillar chose the
Description of plant system interactions and the appropriately leaf and ate it for a time.
linked predictions may include:
A) Evaluate the data. Describe the trends you
Description of interactions (1 point each): observe regarding the caterpillars choosing
• The vascular system is comprised of xylem and phloem, and mustard-family plants and control plants.
these tissues are comprised of cells specialized for transport. The caterpillars prefer the mustard plants to the control plants.
Xylem (vessel elements and tracheids) transport water and
minerals from roots to leaves while phloem (sieve-tube B) Compare the data from intact and cut leaves.
members and companion cells) moves sucrose from leaves In the control samples, the caterpillars had the same response
to roots. to both the intact leaves and the cut leaves. The caterpillars
• Roots are made up of epidermis (with root hairs to increase responded about the same to both intact and cut leaves of
surface area-to-volume ratio), cortex (functions in food Mustard 1. The caterpillars exhibited a slight preference for the
storage), endodermis (regulation of exchange as seen with cut leaves of Mustard 2. The caterpillars exhibited a large
Casparian strip), pericycle, and vascular tissue. preference for the cut leaves of Mustard 3.
• Leaves are made up of mesophyll cells (palisade mesophyll C) Hypothesize an explanation for the caterpillars’
and spongy mesophyll) and include stoma and chloroplasts. choice of leaves.
Answers will vary. Students might suggest that something about
Predictions after a change or loss (1 point each): the plants’ taste or nutritional value caused them to be favored
• Loss of structural support for plant over the others.
• Restricted ability for photosynthesis due to lack of water
making it to the leaves

128 CHAPTER 24 | Flowering Plants: Structure and Organization

CHAPTER 25
Flowering Plants:
Nutrition and Transport
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
25.1 Cells and Tissues of Flowering
1 8.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems
Plants
25.2 Organs of Flowering Plants
1.1 Structure of Water and Hydrogen
25.3 Organization and Diversity Bonding
4
of Roots
2.3 Cell Size
25.4 Organization and Diversity
of Stems
25.5 Organization and Diversity
of Leaves
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 25 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 1 and Unit 2 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Managing Soil Erosion
Celery Sucks

Teaching Strategy and Approach

This chapter applies concepts such as water potential and concentration gradients, and may
make those topics clearer for students. Investigation 11 is a great opportunity to make what
may appear to be boring topics more lively and hands-on for students. It might be easier to
have students make predictions about the environments, gather and analyze their data, and
then try to explain their results before teaching the concepts formally. Then you can frame the
lessons around their lab data, which they will know more intimately since they collected it
themselves. The lab does not require a lot of prep time or technical skills (especially if you do
the whole-plant-mass method) and can be easily integrated into your regular curriculum.
For Investigation 11, the College Board recommends several lab periods (45 minutes each).
The first part of the lab can be conducted in several ways. Plants may be provided from
different environmental conditions such as shade plants, direct sunlight plants, and plants that
float of top of a body of water. Allow students to choose their own plant and develop their
own hypothesis.
In the first part of this investigation (stomatal peel), you guide students through an
investigation, ask them focused questions, and give them suggestions for further study. In this
investigation, students begin by exploring methods to calculate leaf surface area and then
determine the average number of stomata per square millimeter in a particular kind of plant.
From their data, several questions about the process of transpiration in plants should emerge.
Students can explore these questions in their own investigations. However, the expected
outcome is unknown.

Teacher Manual 129

The second portion of the lab can be conducted using the recommended potometers or by
using whole plants that are initially massed, placed in a certain environmental condition. A final
mass is taken to determine the effect on the environmental condition chosen by that lab group.
In the second part of this lab, in which students select an environmental factor and explore its
effect on transpiration, is an example of open inquiry. With experience, students will be able to
investigate questions that they themselves have formulated and use procedures of their own
design to investigate answers. The potometer investigation can take place during two lab
periods and the whole plant investigation takes partial class time for a week.
This chapter is also the best opportunity to discuss soil health, an illustrative example under
Topic 8.2. See Activity 1 below.
Class time: five 45-minute class periods
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on the importance of soil, water, and mineral update in plants
Activity 1: Managing Soil Erosion—25 minutes
Day 2: Activity 2: Celery Sucks—10 minutes
 ecture – 35 minutes on transpiration and the transport mechanisms of sugar
L
through phloem
Day 3: Lecture—5 minutes on water loss regulation
Introduction and Part 1 of College Board Investigation 11–40 minutes
Day 4: Investigation 11–45 minutes
Day 5: Investigation 11, wrap-up with analysis and discussion of results—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One major misconception about plants is that the roots take in water without interacting with
other parts of the plant. The notion that transpiration, of the loss of water from a leaf, is the
major driving force of water uptake is hard for many students to understand. After the
properties of water are reviewed, students are better able to understand how plants defy
gravity by movement of water up a plant and against gravity.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Managing Soil Erosion: Students use an interactive calculator to determine what factors
affect erosion rates. Further directions and links are available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of using a computer simulation, reach out to your

local agricultural extension office or cooperative. Frequently these organizations will
have individuals willing to speak to your classroom about soil health and/or erosion.
 lternatively, you may find some photographs of different landscapes in different climates
A
being used for different agricultural purposes. Have your students make observations
about what they see and discuss which they think shows the healthiest soil and why.

2. Celery Sucks: Students place celery in food dye to watch transpiration occur.
For this classic activity, you will need several bunches of celery with leaves attached,
several cups of water, and food coloring.
Prior to your lecture, provide a small cup of water with 6-10 drops of food coloring to your
students (red works well) and an approximately 6” piece of celery with leaves attached. Students
will place the celery into the dyed water and will observe capillary action as you lecture.
You can also do this as a demonstration in front of the class.

130 CHAPTER 25 | Flowering Plants: Nutrition and Transport

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching—Beginning
Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the
terms out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in
their interactive notebooks.

Listening and Speaking—Intermediate

Slowly read aloud a paragraph. After each sentence or two, pause and ask volunteers to
identify an important idea in the text. Have students write the important idea in the left column
of their notes table and write a phrase or short sentence restating what they heard about the
ideas in the right column.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 25.1, Check Your Progress 2. Identify the cohesion and adhesion properties
1. Outline the process of mineral exchange of water that pertain to water transport.
between plant roots and soil. When water molecules are pulled upward during transpiration,
their cohesiveness creates a continuous water column. Adhesion
Roots take up minerals from the soil through cation exchange.
allows water molecules to cling to the sides of xylem vessels, so
Hydrogen and other positive ions switch places with a positively
the column of water does not slip down.
charged mineral ion in the soil, and the root takes up that
needed nutrient. 3. Explain the role of guard cells and stomata in
2. Describe how human activities, such as regulating water transport within a plant..
urbanization, affect soils. Water entering the guard cells causes an increase in turgor
pressure, which causes the stoma to open; when water exits the
Many human activities, such as overgrazing, the clearing of land
guard cells and turgor pressure decreases, the stoma closes. The
for urbanization and roads, and plowing, can erode soil. Climate
plant loses less water, but photosynthesis isn't usually as efficient.
change can also increase storm intensity, which can drive
erosion as well.
AP Assessment
Section 25.2, Check Your Progress 1. Water transport in vascular plants can be quite
1. Explain the role of the endodermis and impressive, moving water as much as 100 m in
Casparian strip in concentrating minerals the giant redwood. What provides the primary
in a plant. force for moving water through the redwood?
Minerals must pass through the endodermal cell membrane by A) guttation push
passive transport or active transport, requiring ATP from cellular B) transpiration pull
respiration. The Casparian strip prevents the backflow of C) anti-gravity forces
minerals to the soil.
D) aquaporin osmosis
2. Describe the relationship of nitrogen-fixing Answer: B; Water is pulled from the surface of a leaf by
bacteria with a host plant. transpiration. Cohesion pulls water behind it, aided by adhesion
The bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrate or of water to the walls of the xylem.
ammonium, which can be taken up by plant roots. The host
plant provides food and a space to live for the bacteria. 2. Water potential is defined as the potential
energy of water molecules. Which factors
3. Explain how both partners benefit from a influence the water potential of the solution
mycorrhizal association. found inside a plant cell?
The fungus obtains sugars and amino acids from the plant. The
A) concentration of solution
plant obtains inorganic nutrients and water from the fungus.
B) turgor pressure
Section 25.3, Check Your Progress C) gravity
1. Describe how water flows upward against D) all of the above
gravity. Answer: D; All these forces affect the potential energy of water
Evaporation of water from leaf surfaces causes water to be in a plant cell, and affect the likelihood that water will move in or
under tension in stems due to the cohesion of the water out of the cell. However, the effect of gravity is generally very
molecules. small, and ignored.

Teacher Manual 131

 3. Plants capture energy above ground, and then 6. Extensive irrigation is sometimes used for farm
send sugars to the roots. Much of the energy fields in dry climates. Unfortunately, the
used in the root hairs is dedicated to actively evaporation of this irrigated water leaves
transporting ions into the roots. In addition to behind solutes, and salts can accumulate in the
providing needed nutrients for the whole plant, soils. Scientists are developing crops that can
what other benefit results from active transport grow in these salty soils. One group is trying to
in root hair cells? breed plants that produce high concentrations
A) Water molecules are actively transported into of organic molecules in their roots. Will these
root hairs along with minerals. plants be able to tolerate the saline soils?
B) Energy is used to block the entry of water, A) No, making the organic molecules will use too
preventing the root from rotting. much of the root's energy.
C) A favorable diffusion gradient is created such B) No, the excess organic molecules in the roots will
that water will move from the soil into the root make an unfavorable concentration gradient and
hairs. repel water.
D) A favorable diffusion gradient is created such C) Yes, the extra organic compounds will help
that simple sugars will move from the soil into develop the high solute concentration needed in
the root hairs. roots to encourage water to move in.
Answer: C; Maintaining a higher concentration of solute in the D) Yes, the extra organic compounds can provide
cells of the root hairs also establishes a lower concentration of the extra energy needed to actively transport
solvent (water) in those cells. Water then moves into the plant water into the roots.
passively. Answer: C; Existing halophytes are known to have these stores
of excess organic molecules in their roots. This means that, even
4. Stomata can open and close to regulate gas
though the soil environment is very high in solutes, the root can
and water exchange. At any given time, the still establish a favorable concentration gradient for water.
number of open stomata reflects the balance
between controlling water loss and allowing 7. Water in soil is held in pores or spaces
gas exchange. Under what conditions would a between grains. As water from the soil is used
plant tend to have the highest number of up by plants, the water potential in the area
closed stomata? surrounding the root decreases. Predict the
A) cool rainy day effect of this change in water potential.
B) warm windy day A) Decreased water potential encourages water
from surrounding areas to move in.
C) warm calm day
B) Decreased water potential makes it more likely
D) hot windy day
the water will move into the root.
Answer: D; The warmer the temperature, the faster the
C) Bacteria in the soil thrive in low water potential,
transpiration rate, and the more water is lost from the plant.
damaging root activity.
Transpiration is also increased by wind, which rapidly removes
water from the leaf, preventing the transpired water from staying D) Bacteria in the soil will clump together,
around the leaf. Both these conditions together would result in encouraging water to move in from neighboring
many closed stomata in an attempt to minimize water loss. areas.
Answer: A; As soil water is taken up by the plant, the solutes
5. Sugars are translocated in a vascular plant become more concentrated. This causes the overall water
through phloem tissue. In this process, sugars potential of the soil water to lower. Water tends to move from
are moved from where they are made (source) higher water potential to lower water potential. If the new water
to where they are used/stored (sink). If a new potential is lower than the surroundings, water will move into the
weed-killer disabled proton pumps in the plant, area surrounding the roots.
which part of translocation would be disrupted?
8. Standard fertilizers seek to enhance plant
A) uploading of sugars from source to phloem sap growth by supplying plants with N, P, and K.
B) unloading of sugars from phloem to sink Which answer correctly matches the
C) bulk flow of phloem sap through sieve tubes macronutrient to one of its important functions?
D) Both A and B would be disrupted. A) potassium . . . component of proteins
Answer: D; Both uploading and unloading depend on the active B) phosphorus . . . component of carbohydrates
transport of sugars. When sugars are actively transported into C) nitrogen . . . component of proteins
phloem at the source, this creates a high concentration of sugar
D) all of the above
in the sieve tubes. Water moves into the sieve tubes passively,
which increases the turgor pressure, and this pressure drives the Answer: C; Nitrogen is a critical component of amino acids.
movement of phloem sap. Phosphorus is found in ATP and nucleic acids. Potassium is
critical to the operation of stomata.

132 CHAPTER 25 | Flowering Plants: Nutrition and Transport

9. A young student was fascinated by carnivorous 12. An angiosperm experiences a season of
plants. The student received a Venus fly trap as drought with little water availability. Predict TWO
a birthday gift. The student decided to give it the ways the plant will respond to this change and
best care, putting it in a pot with rich soil, adding identify ONE way it will use negative feedback
small amounts of fertilizer, and making sure the mechanisms to maintain its internal environment.
soil was not overwatered, and placing the pot in Explanation of plant responses to water stress may include:
a sunny window. To the student's surprise, the
• In a drought, warmer and drier air can hold more water,
plant grew poorly and then died. Which best
creating a larger driving force for water movement out of the
explains the failure of the student's flytrap? plant, which increases the rate of transpiration.
A) The plant needs to grow in near-darkness in • Negative feedback: The plant will signal the closure of stomata
order to attract flies.
(pores in the leaf) to reduce water loss due to transpiration, but
B) The student needed to provide flies in the this will also inhibit photosynthesis because the plant will no
fertilizer. longer get carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
C) The plant should have had no water added, as it • The plant may lose some foliage in an effort to preserve
picks up water from the air. energy and have less plant parts to maintain. As water is lost,
D) The plant normally grows in nutrient-poor soils, turgor will be decreased.
so that adding extra fertilizer was deadly. • As soil dries, transpiration will decrease as pressure potentials
Answer: D; Venus fly traps are found in boggy soils, which are will change throughout the plant – if there is less water in the
typically low in nitrogen. The insects they trap act like a nutritional soil than in the cells, then water will not enter the cells.
supplement, making up for the poor soil. Rich soils will discourage • Unfortunately, the plant may not be able to survive the drought
them from trapping insects, and may actually burn the roots. long-term. Because transpiration cools plants by pulling water
through the plant, and also carries nutrients throughout the
10. Phytoremediation is the practice of using plants
plant, the plant's capacity to regulate its temperature or to
to concentrate or break down pollutants, grow and be nourished will be decreased.
including heavy metals like lead or cadmium.
• Unfortunately, the plant may not be able to survive the drought
Plants that are used for this have natural
long-term. Because stomata will be closed, carbon dioxide will
abilities to accumulate heavy metals without not enter the plant and photosynthesis will be reduced, which
toxic effect. In such plants, the metals move may make the plant become energy starved.
from the roots to accumulate in the shoots.
13. Plants require a variety of micro- and
What is the most likely selective pressure that
macronutrients to grow and develop. For farmers,
has resulted in these plants?
it is important to understand the nutrient demands
A) The metals are available to absorb radiant energy
of the crops, and what kinds of fertilizers are best
from the sun.
suited to meet these needs. A team of scientists
B) Moving the metals to the shoots prevents them tested the effects of poultry manure mixed with
from interfering with water absorption in the
varying levels of inorganic fertilizer on shallot
roots.
yields in Ghana. The scientists applied different
C) Toxic metals in the shoots make the plant amounts of the poultry manure to the shallots:
undesirable to grazing animals.
none, 10 tons/ha (hectare), 20 t/ha, and 40 t/ha.
D) Lining the shoot cells with metals makes the cells Additionally, they added three different levels of
tough and difficult to chew. inorganic fertilizer: none, 300 Kg/ha, and 600 Kg/
Answer: C; It is most likely that the practice of hyperaccumulation ha. Their data is shown in the table above.
in the shoots was selected for as a defensive mechanism. Animals
A) Calculate the mean bulb yield for each level of
feeding on the toxic shoots would not survive.
inorganic fertilizer application.
11. As global temperatures increase, scientists are Accept all answers that reasonably represent the data.
interesting in understanding how particular
B) Summarize the impact of fertilizer level on shallot
plants respond to increasing temperatures. In bulb yield.
the following experiment, the transpiration rates
Adding poultry manure and inorganic fertilizer both increased
of three crop species were tested under
number of bulbs per plant. 40 t/ha of poultry manure with no
different temperatures. Assuming the increase inorganic fertilizer yielded the highest number of bulbs per plant.
in transpiration is linear, estimate the No poultry manure or inorganic fertilizer yielded the lowest
transpiration rate of Species #2 at 40°C. number of bulbs per plant.
7.1
C) Explain why a farmer would apply both an
The transpiration rate of Species #2 increases by 1.2 every 5C. organic and inorganic fertilizer to their crops.
5.9 - 4.7 (mL/hr) / 35 - 30 = 1.2 (mL/hr) / 5C The highest bulb yields were found in the treatment that had no
4.7 - 3.5 (mL/hr) / 30 - 25 = 1.2 (mL/hr) / 5C inorganic fertilizer, but lots of manure. This might not be
1.2 + 5.9 = 7.1 mL/hr sustainable for farmers, so combining smaller amounts of manure
with inorganic be a way to increase bulb yields sustainably.

Teacher Manual 133

CHAPTER 26
Flowering Plants: Control
of Growth Responses
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
4.3 Signal Transduction
26.1 Cells and Tissues of Flowering
1 4.5 Feedback
Plants
8.1 Responses to the Environment
26.2 Organs of Flowering Plants 1 8.1 Responses to the Environment
26.3 Organization and Diversity
1 8.1 Responses to the Environment
of Roots
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 26 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 and Unit 8 (Illustrative Examples)

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Students may struggle to understand that plants produce and are regulated by hormones —
they may incorrectly assume hormones are only found in animals. An activity that allows
students the opportunity to experience the effects of plant hormones can enable students to
gain an appreciation for them (such as Activity 1, below).
This chapter contains a lot of vocabulary and concepts that are not assessed on the AP exam.
Some overall concepts of hormone response are evident here, but mainly serve as examples
for topics previously covered in the course. None of the vocabulary terms in this chapter align
to what the AP exam will assess, so it is important not to stress them out about it.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—25 minutes on plant signaling and response, and the major classes of
L
plant hormones.
Activity 1: Effect of an Auxin on Plant Growth, introduction and set-up—20 minutes
Day 2:  ctivity 1, continued: have students check on their plants and record
A
observations—10 minutes
Activity 2: Plant Hormone Dance—20 minutes
Lecture—15 minutes on plant defenses
Day 3: Lecture—25 minutes on tropisms and light-sensing
Activity 3: Tropism and Photoperiods in Plants—20 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students will have a misconception about tropism and think that tropism is a growth response to
an environmental factor. Tropism refers to the direction of plant growth, rather than general growth,
being determined by the direction of an environmental factor, such as light, gravity, or touch.

134 CHAPTER 26 | Flowering Plants: Control of Growth Responses

Students may think that photoperiodism is the effect of day length on flowering.
Photoperiodism is much more and also refers to such plant activities as seed germination,
tuber and bulb formation, leaf abscission, and dormancy.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. The Effect of an Auxin on Plant Growth: Students will observe plant growth in the presence
of 3-Indoleacetic acid.
To conduct this activity, purchase 3-Indoleacetic acid form a chemical supply house. You
may also use root-grow from a retail greenhouse. Purchase small plants or have your
students plant seeds and wait for germination and growth. Allow student to plan their own
investigation into the effect of 3-Indoleacetic acid on plant growth.
If your purchase plants, allow a two week period in order to obtain observable results. If you
purchase seeds, add the time for germination and maturation to the activity length.
2. Plant Hormone Dance: Students will write and perform an interpretive dance showing how a
specific hormone effects plant growth.
For this activity, break students into small groups. Using Fig. 26.1 in the textbook, assign
each group a plant hormone. Students will be required to research the hormone and answer
questions such as: What is the effect of this hormone on plant? How does it work? After
students have researched the hormone, then instruct them that they are to choreograph a
short dance showing how the hormone effects the plant. Students can then perform their
plant hormone dance to the rest of the class.

Differentiated Instruction: The above activity requires space and mobility for groups to
perform dances. An alternative option is to have students search for pictures that show
the results of plant hormone usage. They should create a gallery of pictures that indicate
these effects.

3. Tropism and Photoperiods Diagrams: Students will design a diagram illustrating a specific
tropism or photoperiod in plants.
For this activity, students will work in small groups. Assign each group either a tropism or
a photoperiod: phototropism, thigmotropism, gravitropism, short-day plants, long-day Plants,
and day-neutral plants. Students should create a diagram showing the movement of the
plant to the tropism or how the plant responds to day length. Encourage students to add
labels to their diagrams. Students can then share their work or post it in the classroom.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Context Clues—Beginning
Help students identify context-clue words in the text they could use to understand vocabulary
words. Have students circle the words. Say the vocabulary words and context—clue words
aloud. Have students repeat them. Then have students copy the clue word into the
appropriate spaces of a three-column chart.

Three-column chart
Words Context Clues Meanings

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Advanced High

Have students write a paragraph explaining and evaluating the Fig. 26.10 used in relation to
the content of the text. What was its purpose? How effective was it? Did the caption contribute
useful information? Have volunteers share their evaluations with the group.

Teacher Manual 135

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 26.1, Check Your Progress increased at dusk, and reached a peak after
1. Explain how hormones assist in bringing about dark. What claim could reasonably be justified
responses to stimuli. by this data?
Hormones coordinate the responses of plants to stimuli. A) Nectar production requires cooler night-time
temperatures.
2. Describe how auxin causes a plant to bend
B) Nectar is not produced for pollinators in this
toward light. plant.
Auxins concentrate on the shady side of a stem where they
C) Moonflowers are pollinated by night-flying moths.
cause the wall to weaken, stretch, and eventually be rebuilt as
elongated on one side. This bends the stem. D) Moonflowers are CAM plants, fixing carbon
dioxide at night.
3. Describe one feedback mechanisms used by
Answer: C; Moonflowers display circadian rhythms by opening
plants.
only at night. Night-flying moths are attracted to moonflowers
One example is when fruit is in the presence of ethylene, it not only by the scent of the nectar but also by the white color
ripens. This can be through diffusion in the plant, or via the air. of the flower.

Section 26.2, Check Your Progress 2. Bean plants display a circadian rhythm in which
the leaves fold down at night, and then extend
1. Explain how root cells determine the downward
out again each morning. This type of movement
direction.
is NOT considered a tropism because:
Sedimentation of statoliths (starch granules) is the mechanism by
A) The movement is not a response to gravity.
which root cells perceive gravity.
B) The movement is reversible.
2. List examples of internal and external stimuli.
C) The movement is a response to phytochrome
Internal stimuli: action potentials, hormones, turgor pressure. activity.
External stimuli: light, touch, gravity.
D) The movement is a directional response.
3. Explain how changes in turgor pressure can
Answer: B; Tropisms are a movement toward or away from a
cause a leaf to collapse.
stimulus. This movement is caused by differential growth and is
The loss of water from cells of a leaf results in reduced turgor not reversible.
pressure and the leaf goes limp.
3. Black walnut trees (Juglans nigra) release the
Section 26.3, Check Your Progress toxin juglone from their roots. Juglone blocks
the germination and growth of nearby seeds.
1. Describe the phytochrome protein and its
What is a direct advantage to the walnut tree?
conversion between two forms.
A) fewer insects attracted to the area
Phytochrome is composed of two proteins that contain light-
sensitive regions. When triggered by red light, phytochrome B) greater patches of bare soil to absorb water
causes various genes to become active or inactive, leading to C) increase in competition for nutrients
seed germination, shoot elongation, and flowering responses. D) reduction of competition for nutrients
2. Explain why a long-day plant still flowers if the Answer: D; By reducing the number of plants growing around it, the
long day is interrupted by a period of darkness. walnut will not compete with them for soil nutrients. In addition,
The plant is responding to a short night, not to the length of the day. there will be fewer plants shading out the young walnut trees.
3. Describe the various roles of phytochrome. 4. The first plant hormone to be discovered was
The conversion between phytochrome red and phytochrome auxin. Auxin responds to light by moving away
far-red promotes seed germination, inhibits shoot elongation, from it, to the shady side of the plant. It is
promotes flowering, and affects plant spacing and the thought that auxin then binds to receptors in
accumulation of chlorophyll. the plasma membrane of the shaded cells,
4. Explain the criteria for circadian rhythms. triggering a series of events that result in cell
elongation. How could this benefit the plant?
1. Occur every 24 hours;
A) causes plant to bend toward the light, allowing
2. Occur with or without day/night lighting;
more photosynthesis
3. Can be reset if external cues are provided.
B) causes plant to bend away from light, protecting
it from drying out
AP Assessment
C) shaded elongated cells have more space for
1. A team of scientists tracked flowering activities phloem flow
shown by the tropical moonflower vine
D) shaded elongated cells have lower temperatures,
(Ipomoea alba). They found that nectar
promoting starch storage
production was very low during daylight hours,

136 CHAPTER 26 | Flowering Plants: Control of Growth Responses

 Answer: A; The differential cell growth means that one side of a leaves for a week. However, if under the same jar an ethylene-
shoot (the shady side) is elongating faster than the opposite side producing ripe apple is added, abscission of the holly leaves
(the sunny side). As a result, the shoot bends and the plant will occur. Tomatoes can be genetically modified to produce no
grows toward the light. ethylene and stay green for shipping instead of turning red on
5. The Appalachian Mountains are home to many the vine if the gene for ethylene synthesis is removed, then the
functional enzyme for ethylene biosynthesis will not be
plants described as spring ephemerals. These
produced.
small plants, such as fire pink and columbine,
• Cytokines regulate gene expression to allow for cell replication
bloom early in spring and have finished their
and division by triggering mitosis and cytokinesis. In plants
blooming cycle by the time the trees over them
they also help form organs and are influenced by auxin.
have leafed out. Which is the correct term to
• Gibberellins promote signal transmissions that affect specific
describe their photoperiod?
genes, stimulating growth (particularly stem elongation) and
A) long-day plants triggering seed germination.
B) short-day plants • Auxin attaches to a receptor, causing a chain of events that
C) day-neutral plants weakens the cell wall so that it can be stretched and rebuilt
D) none of the above even larger, causing the stem to elongate particularly on one
side so that it can bend toward the light so that the plant can
Answer: A; These plants are long-day plants, meaning that they
capture more light energy (phototropism). Auxin functions in a
bloom when the day becomes longer than a certain critical period.
similar fashion to stimulate roots to grow downward
This point will occur in the spring, as the days become longer.
(gravitropism) into the soil.
6. Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) is a short-day plant,
8. Scientists understand flower formation involves
typically blooming in late summer as days
hormone messengers, and that these messengers
become shorter. Scientists grew wild rice in a
respond to environmental factors. Researchers
greenhouse where they could control the
were interested in understanding how these
timing of day and night. In an experiment,
hormones might function if graft plants were
scientists put rice plants on a long night/ short
created between species with different
day schedule. Then they interrupted the long
photoperiods. Two graft plants were created: one
night with a brief flash of light. Predict the
with a day-neutral plant grafted onto a short-day
result of this experiment.
plant, and one with a day-neutral plant grafted
A) Plants will bloom as they normally would, as the onto a long-day plant. The day-neutral plant
day is still short.
flowered sooner when it was grafted to the short-
B) Plants will bloom as they normally would, as day plant that was exposed to its critical period.
flowering is controlled by temperature, not light. The flowering of another day-neutral plant also
C) Plants will not bloom, as the night is not “long,” was accelerated when it was grafted to a long-
but split in half. day plant that was exposed to its critical period.
D) Plants will not bloom, as the flash of light will A) Examine the drawings above. Form a hypothesis
denature vital enzymes. about why the grafted day-neutral plants
Answer: C; It is really night length, not day length, that controls flowered before the day-neutral plant that was
flowering. The flash of light resets a plant's internal clock. They not grafted.
interpret the interrupted night as short night, day, short night, Answers will vary, but students may hypothesize that there is
and do not flower. some chemical that is transported from the other plants to the
7. Explain how signal pathways mediate gene day-neutral plant.
expression, using THREE pieces of evidence B) Predict what might happen if a long-day plant
from studies of plant hormones. was grafted to a short-day plant and they were
Explanations using evidence from studies of plant hormones may exposed to the critical period of the short-day
include (1 point each): plant.
• Plant cells respond to stimuli by utilizing signal transduction, Answers will vary, but students may predict that a chemical (or
the binding of a molecular “signal” that initiates and amplifies hormone) might be transported from the plant receiving the
through a transduction pathway (a series of relay proteins or correct day length to the other plant, stimulating flowering.
enzymes that pass a signal until it reaches the machinery of C) Design an experiment to determine the “longest
the cell) a cellular response, typically the response is made by day” under which a long-day plant flowers.
the plant's genes. Hormones serve as the chemical signals in Answers will vary but should include exposure to series of day
plant cells to coordinate the response. lengths that become gradually longer.
• Increase in ethylene levels induce enzyme production that
promotes fruit ripening and in abscission (dropping leaves). A
holly twig with leaves placed in a closed system will not drop

Teacher Manual 137

CHAPTER 27
Flowering Plants:
Reproduction
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
27.1 Sexual Reproductive
1 8.1 Responses to the Environment
Strategies
27.2 Seed Development
27.3 Fruit Types and Seed
1 8.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
Dispersal
27.4 Asexual Reproductive
Strategies
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 27 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 8 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Pollen Tube Growth
Bouquet of Flowers—Name that Pollinator
Asexual Plant Reproduction

Teaching Strategy and Approach

As with the other chapters about flowers, students are not required to know specific facts
about their structures. Instead, reinforce the adaptive role of flowers and how they have co-
evolved with pollinators. In addition, the formation of fruits around seeds can also be explored
as another strategy to reduce competition between parents and their offspring. It is worth
noting and comparing dispersal strategies (wind, water, animals) in light of evolution.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods
Day 1:  ecture—25 minutes on reproduction in flowering plants, pollinators and seed
L
dispersal
 ctivity 1: Pollen Tube Growth, preparation and slide incubation OR
A
Activity 2: Bouquet of Flowers—Name that Pollinator—20 minutes
Day 2:  ecture—15 minutes on asexual reproduction and lab techniques for producing
L
plants from totipotent cells
Finish Activity 1, if started yesterday
Activity 3: Asexual Reproduction in Plants—15 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

The concept of plants undergoing an alternation of generations type of life cycle is hard for
students to grasp. They will not be tested on the stages of this cycle on the AP exam but the
evolution of this cycle is what has made plants so successful in terrestrial habitats. The
combination of a life cycle that is resistant to desiccation along with a life cycle that introduces

138 CHAPTER 27 | Flowering Plants: Reproduction

variation into a population is a powerful combination that students should appreciate.
Emphasize the evolutionary advantages of the alternation of generations life cycle rather than
the immense vocabulary that is involved.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Pollen Tube Growth—Students will observe pollen grains growing pollen tubes.
In this classic lab, students will observe pollen grains growing pollen tubes. You will need
access to microscopes and basic biology lab tools to perform this lab. It requires two days:
one to prep and one to observe the grains. Refer to your online course for student handout
and detailed instructions.
To turn this activity into an experiment which students can design, refer to the Cornell
Institute for Biology Teachers activity: “To Form a pollen tube . . . or not to form a pollen
tube,” under Bouquet of Flowers. See your online course for a link
2. Bouquet of Flowers—Name that Pollinator: Students will investigate pollinators and
pollination in flowers.
The Name that Pollinator lab has students determine which type of pollinator might be
responsible for helping pollinate their flower based on a chart of pollinator-flower
characteristics. This lab only requires a handful of flowers, microscope, and the provided
chart. A link to this online activity is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of dissecting flower heads and observing pollen

grains, you may have students use the provided chart on pollinators and the flower
characteristics they prefer to identify specific types of pollinator-flower relationships.
Student may then write a short paragraph on the relationship and how the different
organisms may have co-evolved.

3. Asexual Plant Reproduction: Students will observe how some plants reproduce asexually.
Bring in several examples of asexually reproducing plants such as a spider plant with shoots
that contain offspring and a strawberry plant. Demonstrate the cloned offspring.
Bring in several potatoes. Have students cut out the eyes of the potatoes and suspend
place them in petri dishes in water with the eyes facing upward. Plant should start to sprout
within one week depending on the condition of the original potato. You may add inquiry to
this activity by allowing students to set up their potato eyes in various lighting situations,
with additives to the water, in varying eye numbers per petri dish or other variables that your
students come up with.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Beginning

Reinforce the use of visual context to derive meaning through examples of environmental
print. Pantomime or elicit one-word responses to the meaning derived from such images as a
stop sign, exit sign, or safety symbols and other cautionary or explanatory labels used in the
classroom. Then provide students with enlarged copies of the image that supports the
reading. Discuss different parts of the image, pointing to each as you say it.

Oral Language Development—Intermediate

Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.

Teacher Manual 139

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 27.1, Check Your Progress Section 27.4, Check Your Progress
1. Compare the development and structure of the 1. Identify the possible benefits of asexual
male gametophyte with those of the female reproduction.
gametophyte. 1. The newly formed plant is often supported nutritionally by the
Male gametophytes (sperm-bearing pollen grains) are produced parent plant until it is established.
in the anther of the stamen. The female gametophyte (egg- 2. If the parent plant is ideally suited for the environment, the
bearing embryo sac) is produced in an ovule within the ovary of offspring will be as well.
the carpel.
3. If distance between individuals makes cross-pollination
2. Describe the products of double fertilization in unlikely, asexual reproduction is a good alternative.
angiosperms. 2. Describe methods of asexual reproduction in
Each microspore produces a two-celled pollen grain. The wild plants.
generative cell produces two sperm, and the tube cell produces
Stolons and rhizomes produce new shoots and roots; fruit trees
a pollen tube. One of the four megaspores resulting from
produce suckers; stem cuttings grow new roots and become a
meiosis of the mother cell in the ovule produces a seven-celled
shoot system.
female gametophyte, called the embryo sac.
3. Explain the benefits of plant tissue culture.
3. Explain how a flowering plant may coevolve in
response to an increase in the body size of its Tissue from leaves, meristem, and anthers can become whole
plants in tissue culture.
pollinator.
In order to accommodate the larger size of the pollinator, natural AP Assessment
selection in the flowering plant may lead to an increase in the
structural support of the part that the pollinator lands upon. It
1. The angiosperms enjoy a close evolutionary
may also lead to an increase in the size of the flower to relationship with many insect pollinators. In an
accommodate a larger pollinator. effort to ensure pollination, flowers often have
specific characteristics that attract specific
Section 27.2, Check Your Progress pollinators. For example, flowers that are white
1. Identify the origin of each of the three parts of or yellow and heavily scented often are moth-
a seed. pollinated. How might these characteristics
attract moths?
The embryo is derived from the zygote; the stored food is
derived from the endosperm; and the seed coat is derived from A) Light colors repel nocturnal insects that prey on
the ovule wall. moths.
2. Explain why the seed coat and the embryo are B) Light colors are easier to find at night, when the
both 2n. moths are active.

The ovule is a sporophyte structure produced by the female C) Heavy scents attract insects that moths like to
parent. Therefore, the wall (which becomes the seed coat) is 2n. eat.
The embryo inside the ovule is the product of fertilization and is, D) Heavy scents are not attractive to other insects.
therefore, 2n. Answer: B; Plants attractive to nocturnal moths often release
3. Describe the structure and function of the their scents at night. The scent, along with the pale color, makes
cotyledon. the flower easier to find in the dark.
Cotyledons are embryonic leaves that are present in seeds. 2. While outcrossing is generally considered
Cotyledons store nutrients derived from endosperm (in eudicots). desirable in reproduction, some plants are
regularly self-fertile. What advantage might be
Section 27.3, Check Your Progress gained by self-fertile flowers?
1. Compare the structure and dispersal methods A) less resistant to disease
of dry and fleshy fruits.
B) more variation in the offspring
Dry fruits, with a dull, thin, and dry covering derived from the
C) can take advantage of wind pollination,
ovary, are more apt to be windblown. Fleshy fruits, with a juicy
eliminating showy flowers
covering derived from the ovary and possibly other parts of the
flower, are more apt to be eaten by animals. D) no need to make large conspicuous flowers to
attract pollinators
2. Compare the protective methods of monocot
Answer: D; Self-fertile species tend to make smaller flowers.
and eudicot seedlings used to protect their first
Their offspring are less varied, but may be well-adapted to a
true leaves.
stable environment.
Eudicot seedlings have a hook shape, and monocot seedlings
have a sheath to protect the first true leaves.

140 CHAPTER 27 | Flowering Plants: Reproduction

3. Seed germination depends on the utilization of C) Seeds separated by blowing get better access to
stored starch. The hormone gibberellic acid sunlight.
(GA) received by the endosperm initiates a D) Seeds separated by blowing will land far from
signal transduction pathway that results in the parent, reducing competition.
production of α-amylase. This enzyme begins Answer: D; By dispersing the young away from the parent,
the breakdown of starches. GA is produced by stationary organisms such as plants ensure that they are not in
the embryo. What’s the most likely reason that competition with their offspring for nutrients or sunlight.
GA does not induce α-amylase production in
7. A strawberry is a delicious fruit, bearing many
the embryo?
seeds on its surface. Strawberry plants send
A) The embryo is not made of cellular material. out horizontal stems called stolons, which may
B) The embryo does not have receptors for GA. produce new plants. Which statement correctly
C) Only the endosperm contains nuclear material. describes reproduction in strawberries?
D) Only the endosperm contains starch. A) Fruit results from asexual reproduction, while the
Answer: B; In order for a hormone to affect a cell, the cell must plant grown from the stolon is the product of
have receptors for that hormone. GA is received by receptors in sexual reproduction.
the aleurone, the outer coat of the endosperm. B) Fruit results from sexual reproduction, while the
plant grown from the stolon is the product of
4. Many adaptations found in flowering plants help asexual reproduction.
them succeed in a terrestrial setting. For
C) Strawberry seeds will be carried by stolons away
example, water is not needed to bring together from the parent plant.
egg and sperm. What process describes how
D) Stolons will produce asexual, non-fruiting plants.
this is accomplished in flowering plants?
Answer: B; Seeds are produced when egg and sperm (from
A) After landing on the appropriate stigma, sperm
pollen) fuse together. All of the cells from the stolon are
cells travel down a pollen tube to reach the
produced through mitotic cell divisions.
protected egg cell in the ovule.
B) After landing on the appropriate stigma, sperm 8. Gymnosperms and some important
cells fuse with egg cells found in the sticky angiosperms such as grasses and grains, rely
material in the stigma. on wind for pollination. However, animal
C) Pollinators form holes in the ovary, through which pollination has such a strong selective
pollen is dropped. advantage that it is found in most angiosperms.
D) Pollinators set off a series of signal transductions, What is the advantage of animal vs. wind
inducing the egg to travel to the pollen grain. pollination?
Answer: A; Pollen tubes are found in both gymnosperms and A) Animal-pollinated plants can make less pollen,
angiosperms. In each case, sperm cells travel down the pollen because pollen transfer is more efficient.
tube until reaching an opening in the ovule, leading them to fuse B) Animal-pollinated plants can spend less energy
with the egg cell within. on making colorful and showy flowers.
5. Once a showy flower has attracted a pollinator C) Wind pollination is only successful in very windy
and been pollinated, the petals have done their areas.
job. In most cases, the cells of the petal than go D) Wind pollination is only possible at certain times
through, the cells die, and the petals drop off. of the year.
A) double fertilization Answer: A; Wind pollinators must release enormous amounts of
pollen to ensure that enough will reach eggs to pollinate the
B) gametogenesis
next generation. Rather than allocating large amounts of energy
C) apoptosis to making pollen, animal pollinators put less energy overall into
D) organogenesis producing showy or scented flowers.
Answer: C; Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, involves a 9. Scientists claim that timing and coordination of
complex series of actions that result in the death of cells in the specific events are necessary for the normal
corolla. Energy can then be focused on development of seed
development of an organism and that these
and fruit.
events are regulated by multiple mechanisms.
6. Children love to blow the seeds of a mature Justify this claim by using THREE pieces of
dandelion, and watch the seeds take off on the evidence found in angiosperm strategies.
air currents. However, from the plant’s point of Explanation of the timing and coordination of mechanisms in the
view, what is the benefit of seeds that sail on growth and development of angiosperms may include (1 point
air currents? each):
A) Blown seeds will seek out different energy sources.
B) Blown seeds are harder for predators to find.

Teacher Manual 141

 • When plants reproduce sexually, they undergo alternation of • Flowering is often a response to environmental signals, such
generations, in which they alternate between two multicellular as the length of the day/night or time of year.
stages, one diploid and one haploid, and each stage having its • Temperature and the availability of water and oxygen
own sequential steps. determine seed germination in most plants. These
• Flowering is often a response to environmental signals, such requirements help ensure that seeds do not germinate until
as the length of the day/night or time of year. the most favorable growing season has arrived.
• Temperature and the availability of water and oxygen • For seeds to take up water, bacterial action and even fire may
determine seed germination in most plants. These be needed.
requirements help ensure that seeds do not germinate until • Pollination and seed dispersal may rely on environmental
the most favorable growing season has arrived. Some seeds factors, such as the presence and distribution of wind or
also require a period of dormancy that must be completed animals.
even if favorable conditions are present. Some seeds may
• Flowers may display differing colors due to changes in soil pH.
need to experience a period of cold weather before dormancy
is broken. For seeds to take up water, bacterial action and 11. In nature, some plants produce chemicals that
even fire may be needed. Fleshy fruits contain inhibitors affect nearby plants. This is called allelopathy.
so that germination does not occur while the fruit is still Some scientists studied the connection
on the plant. between allelopathy and the spread of
• In double fertilization, one of the sperm from a mature male nonnative plants, such as garlic mustard Alliaria
gametophyte unites with the egg to form a 2n zygote; petiolata. They investigated the effect of garlic
however, the second sperm unites with the two polar nuclei mustard on the seed germination of native
centrally placed in the embryo sac to form a 3n endosperm plants Geum urbanum and Geum laciniatum.
nucleus (which develops into the endosperm, the nutritive
A) Describe the effect of garlic mustard on seed
tissue that the developing embryonic sporophyte will use as an
germination.
energy source).
It decreases the percentage of seeds that germinate.
• Development of the embryo within the seed involves cell
division, cell elongation, and differentiation of cells into B) Alfalfa is like A. petiolata in that it can
tissues, which then develop into organs. allelopathically inhibit germination of some
• Apoptosis (programmed cell death) is vital to normal flower seeds. Design an experiment to test if alfalfa
development. sprouts allelopathically inhibit tomato or pea
seed germination.
10. Explain the influence of environmental factors
on the phenotypes of flowering plants, using at Designs will vary but should include a control. Students could
grow various seeds in the presence of alfalfa and then grow
least three pieces of evidence produced
them without alfalfa.
through scientific practices.
Explanation of the influence of environmental factors on plant
phenotype may include (1 point each):
• Climate change may alter the flowering season due to
adaptations of a flexible genome.

142 CHAPTER 27 | Flowering Plants: Reproduction

CHAPTER 28
Invertebrate Evolution

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

28.1 Evolution of Animals 2 7.6 Evidence for Evolution
28.2 The Simplest Invertebrates
28.3 Diversity Among the
Spiralians
28.4 Diversity of the Ecdysozoans
28.5 Invertebrate Deuterostomes
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 28 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Invertebrate Observations
Hooray for Horseshoe Crabs!

Teaching Strategy and Approach

This chapter should only be used to supplement classification and cladogram analysis.
Students are not required to know specific attributes of invertebrates and thus shouldn’t be
tested on them. If you are looking for more examples to help students understand EVO-3.B & ­
EVO-3.C, this chapter supplies them.
Activity 1 allows students to research the behavior of two invertebrates that are likely to
interact. This will provide students with a lasting familiarity with at least two invertebrate
species.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on evolution and phylogeny of invertebrates
Activity 1: Invertebrate Observation—25 minutes
Day 2:  ctivity 2: Comparison of Invertebrates OR Hooray for Horseshoe
A
Crabs!—30 minutes
Student presentations–15 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students may forget that insects are animals, yet insects are the most successful animals in
terms of numbers and longevity on Earth. Details on them can be provided for interest, but
won’t be tested on the AP exam.
Students may not realize how many diseases can be caused by invertebrates. Bacteria and
viruses are the most commonly recognized pathogens, yet as many as 120 million humans are
probably currently infected with the filarial worm.

Teacher Manual 143

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Invertebrate Observations: Students will observe live specimens of hydra and daphnia.
In this activity, students will observe live specimens of hydra and daphnia. They will then
place the two on the same slide and observe how they interact. You can order separate
samples of hydra (a Cnidarian) and daphnia (an Arthropod) from most biological warehouse
suppliers. More detailed instructions can be found on your online guide.
2. Comparison of Invertebrates: Students will research and compare similarities and
differences between invertebrates from different phyla.
Divide your students into groups of 4. Assign each group an invertebrate phylum: Porifera,
Cnidarians, Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Annelida, Nematoda, Arthropoda, or Echinodermata.
Explain to your students that they are to become “experts” in their given area. Students
must work together to learn as much as they can about the phylum and then give a
presentation to the class on their phylum.

Differentiated Instruction: Alternatively, you focus the students research on a specific

system within invertebrates, such as:
1. Support and movement
2. Digestion
3. Excretion
4. Circulatory system
5. Reproductive strategies
6. Major evolutionary advancements
7. Interactions with humans
 tudents can work in small groups, pair or even individually to research how their
S
system works within invertebrates. Instead of presenting their findings to the entire
class, students can make a poster to be displayed or write an essay to be handed in.

3. Hooray for Horseshoe Crabs!: Students study the horseshoe crab and how it relates to other
invertebrates.
This activity was developed by The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) and The National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS). It has students
identify the basic anatomical features of a horseshoe crab, and then relate it to how the crab
survives in an estuary. The activity also contains a comparison between the horseshoe crab
and other arthropods. A link to this activity can be found in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening and Speaking—Beginning

Read aloud a paragraph one sentence at a time. At the end of each sentence, ask students
to say a word or short phrase that describes an important concept or example from the
sentence. Model recording the concept in the left column of the notes table. Have students
use your model to record information in their own chart.

Comprehension Skill—Advanced High

Ask questions about lesson content to elicit complete sentences: What general trend can be
observed for an increase in the number of HOX genes and HOX gene clusters? Body plans
seem to increase in complexity. What are some characteristics of the simplest animals
Porifera? Sponges are asymmetric and lack true tissues.

144 CHAPTER 28 | Invertebrate Evolution

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 28.1, Check Your Progress 2. Compare the features of the flatworm, mollusc,
1. State three characteristics that all animals have and annelid body cavity, digestive tract, and
in common. circulatory system.
Multicellular, usually with specialized tissues, ingest food, diploid Annelids and molluscs have a complete digestive tract, a true
life cycle. coelom, and a circulatory system (closed in annelids and open in
molluscs). Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity with only one
2. Explain the colonial flagellate hypothesis about opening, no coelom, and no circulatory system.
the origin of animals.
3. Describe the life cycle of two spiralian
Animals are descended from an ancestor that resembled a parasites.
hollow spherical colony of flagellated cells. Individual cells
became specialized for reproduction. Two tissue layers arose by Blood fluke (Schistosoma): 1. Larvae penetrate skin of a human,
invagination. the primary host, and mature in the liver. 2. Adult worms live and
copulate in blood vessels of human gut. 3. Eggs migrate into
3. Compare radial and bilateral symmetry, and digestive tract and are passed in feces. 4. Ciliated larvae
provide examples of animals that exemplify (miracidia) hatch in water and enter a snail, the secondary host.
each. 5. In the snail, a mother sporocyst encloses many developing
Radial symmetry: body organized circularly; examples: daughter sporocysts; daughter sporocysts enclose many
cnidarians and ctenophores. Bilateral symmetry: have right and developing larvae (cercariae). 6. Larvae (cercariae) break out
left halves; examples: most other animals. of daughter sporocysts, escape snail, and enter water.
4. List two differences between deuterostomes Tapeworm (Taenia): 1. Primary host ingests meat containing
and protostomes. bladder worms. 2. Bladder worm attaches to human intestine
where it matures into a tapeworm. 3. As the tapeworm grows,
Deuterostomes: blastopore becomes anus, radial cleavage, proglottids mature, and eventually fill with eggs. 4. Eggs leave
coelom forms from gut; Protostomes: blastopore becomes the primary host in feces, which may contaminate water or
mouth, spiral cleavage, coelom forms from mesoderm. vegetation. 5. Livestock may ingest the eggs, becoming a
secondary host as each larva becomes a bladder worm encysted
Section 28.2, Check Your Progress in muscle. 6. Rare or uncooked meat from secondary host
1. List three ways in which cnidarians are more contains many bladder worms
complex than sponges. 4. List three phyla that feed with lophophores.
Sponges are multicellular with no symmetry and no digestive Bryozoa, Phoronida, Brachiopoda
cavity. Cnidarians have true tissues, are radially symmetrical, and
have a gastrovascular cavity. Section 28.4, Check Your Progress
2. Summarize how a sponge obtains nutrients. 1. Name two ways in which roundworms are
The interior of sponges has canals lined with flagellated cells anatomically similar to arthropods.
called choanocytes. Flagella produce a water current that carries Roundworms and arthropods are protostomes that molt.
food particles that are filtered out.
2. List two ways that crustaceans are adapted to
3. Describe the medusa and polyp body forms of an aquatic life and insects are adapted to living
a cnidarian. on land.
Polyps have mouths directed upward. Medusae are bell-shaped
Crustaceans breathe by gills and have swimmerets. Insects
with tentacles around the opening of the bell and mouth directed
breathe by tracheae, and they may have wings.
downward.
3. Describe the features chelicerates have in
4. Explain how a cnidarian, such as a jellyfish,
common.
stings its prey.
The first pair of appendages is the chelicerae (modified fangs),
Stinging cells called cnidocytes have a fluid-filled capsule called
and the second pair is the pedipalps (hold, taste, chew food).
a nematocyst in which a hollow threadlike structure is coiled and
They have a cephalothorax and abdomen.
is discharged when stimulated. Some trap prey; others contain
paralyzing toxins. Section 28.5, Check Your Progress
Section 28.3, Check Your Progress 1. Explain why echinoderms and chordates are
now considered to be closely related.
1. List the characteristics similar in flatworms,
molluscs, and annelids. Both echinoderms and chordates follow a deuterostome pattern
of development, and molecular data indicate they are closely
They all have bilateral symmetry, three tissue layers, and
related.
protostome development.

Teacher Manual 145

 2. Delineate the evidence that supports the Use Fig. 28.3 to predict which animal group
evolution of echinoderms from bilaterally would NOT have active HOX genes.
symmetrical animals. A) cnidarians
The larval stage is bilaterally symmetrical. B) chordates
3. Describe the location and function of skin gills, C) arthropods
tube feet, and the stomach. D) sponges
Skin gills are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the skin that project Answer: C; The simplest of all the animals, sponges do not have
through the body wall and are used for respiration. Tube feet are multiple tissue layers.
a part of the water vascular system on the oral surface and are
used in locomotion, feeding, gas exchange, and sensory 4. Cnidarians such as jellyfish and anemones
reception. The stomach is located in the central disc and has two have two-way digestive systems. More complex
parts. The cardiac stomach can be inverted and extended into animals such as annelids have a one-way
bivalves, where it secretes digestive enzymes. Partly digested digestive system. Which statement describes
food is taken into the pyloric stomach inside the sea star, where an important difference between the two types
digestion continues. of digestive systems?
4. Explain the functions of the water vascular A) One-way systems have two openings, mouth and
system in sea stars. anus.
The water vascular system functions in locomotion, feeding, gas B) One-way systems show less specialization of cells.
exchange, and sensory reception.
C) Two-way systems are faster and more efficient.
AP Assessment D) Two-way systems are found in all aquatic animals.
1. All animals living today are most likely Answer: A; In one-way systems, food enters at the mouth. It is
processed by specialized cells as it travels the length of the gut.
descended from choanoflagellates who
Indigestible material exits at the anus. Such a system is more
lived about 600 mya. The phylogenetic
efficient, getting more out of the food.
tree above is based on morphological and
molecular data. According to this tree, which 5. Gastrovascular cavities such as are found in
animal group is the closest relative of the cnidarians are sometimes called a “stomach,”
Chordates? but they often perform an important function
A) arthropods not performed by actual stomachs. Choose the
B) sponges answer that describes that function.
A) using flagella to filter food from the water
C) echinoderms
B) serving as protective armor for the cnidarian
D) annelids
C) releasing poison darts to protect the cnidarian
Answer: C; While Chordates and Echinoderms do not appear that
similar at first glance, they both follow a developmental pattern D) acting as a hydrostatic skeleton, supporting the
which classifies them as Deuterostomes. In Deuterostomes, the cnidarian
blastopore of the blastula becomes the anus, while in Answer: D; A gastrovascular cavity is essentially a bag of water.
Protostomes, it becomes the mouth. Because of water’s resistance to compression, muscles can
contract against this bag, aiding in the locomotion of this group.
2. A scientist is classifying a newly discovered
Unlike hard skeletons, this hydrostatic skeleton can be ejected,
animal. It has protostome development, as is seen when an anemone rapidly “ducks” and flattens itself
segmentation, and produces trochophore larva. against the substrate.
To which group does this animal belong?
A) cnidarians 6. Specialization of regions of the body for
specific tasks appears to be more likely with
B) molluscs
segmentation, making segmentation
C) sponges advantageous. For example, earthworms have
D) chordates paired nephridia in each segment that are
Answer: B; Molluscs show all of the characteristics listed. Other specialized to remove waste from that segment,
organisms showing these traits would be the annelids, preventing the buildup of ammonia.
flatworms, and rotifers. A) enzymatic
3. Homeotic, or HOX, genes play a role in B) nitrogeneous
controlling the ultimate body plan found in C) acidic
various animals. Specifically, HOX genes are D) fatty
active in all animals with multiple tissue layers.
Answer: B; Nitrogeneous wastes are a product of protein
metabolism. Ammonia requires a lot of water to be stored, which
in the case of terrestrial animals is not practical.

146 CHAPTER 28 | Invertebrate Evolution

7. Arthropods are well known as the largest common ancestor. Use the table below to
phylum of animals. While some arthropods are respond to parts (a) and (b).
aquatic, much of their success is due to their A) Using the observable traits recorded in the data
adaptations for terrestriality. Which adaptation(s) table, create a simple cladogram that correctly
help arthropods succeed as land dwellers? represents the possible evolutionary
A) chitinous exoskeleton relationships among animals. Mark the shared
characters on your model in the appropriate
B) jointed appendages for locomotion
locations.
C) tracheae for respiration
Cladogram representation may include (1 point each):
D) all of the above • Each organism and character from the data table is
Answer: D; Chitinous exoskeletons are flexible but waterproof. represented: sponges, cnidarians, molluscs, annelids,
Jointed appendages have opened the door for a huge variety of roundworms, arthropods, echinoderms and chordates, and
locomotory habits. Tracheae lead from openings in the multicellular, tissue layers bilateral symmetry, segmentation,
exoskeleton to bring oxygen into the body. molting of cuticle, and protostome and deuterostome
development.
8. Crustaceans such as crayfish are members of
the phylum Arthropoda. While most crustaceans • Evolutionary lines of cladogram are discernable and easily
are aquatic, there are a few terrestrial followed.
representatives, including the pill bugs • Characters are noted on appropriately matched evolutionary
(isopods). Despite being terrestrial, pill bugs are lines, NOT at nodes.
limited to damp and moist environments. What • Lineages are nestled, as a clade-within-a-clade.
is responsible for that limitation? • Segmentation evolved multiple times, within annelids,
A) Crustaceans have gills that cannot tolerate arthropods, and chordates, which are each in a different
dry air. small clade.
B) Crustaceans do not have waterproof B) Explain which evolved traits provided the
exoskeletons. opportunity for some animals to engage in
directed movement—toward food or mates and
C) Crustaceans require a wet environment for filter
away from danger.
feeding.
D) Crustaceans lack jointed appendages, and Explanations of adaptations may include (1 point
require wet surfaces for locomotion. each):
Answer: A; As crustaceans, pill bugs possess gills which must be • Bilateral symmetry allowed for defined anterior and posterior
kept moist. Diffusion cannot occur across the gill if it dries out. ends, with forward movement guided by the anterior end and
therefor greater specificity in direction of movement.
9. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms can be
• Cephalization, localization of a brain and specialized sensory
constructed from morphological similarities to
organs at the anterior end of an animal allowed for more
illustrate speciation that has occurred. refined processing of signals and response.
Relatedness of any two groups on the tree is
shown by how recently two groups had a

Teacher Manual 147

CHAPTER 29
Vertebrate Evolution

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

29.1 The Chordates
7.6 Evidence of Evolution
29.2 The Vertebrates 3
8.1 Responses to the Environment
29.3 The Fishes
29.4 The Amphibians
29.5 The Reptiles
29.6 The Mammals
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 29 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
OneZoom Tree of Life
Tiger Shark vs. Panda Bear

Teaching Strategy and Approach

While students will likely be more interested in vertebrates than invertebrates, the information
in this chapter is only relevant as illustrative examples. This means that students need
knowledge of at least one of these vertebrate systems to supplement their understanding of
evolution and ecology. The activities listed here are projects that will allow students the
opportunity to become proficient in vertebrate systems across many groups of vertebrates.
Human systems will be addressed in later chapters.
This is another opportunity to reinforce evidence of evolution and cladogram analysis. The
AP exam will not assess students on specific body systems or relationships of vertebrates.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on animal classes
Activity 1: OneZoom Tree of Life—25 minutes
Day 2: Start Activity 2: Vertebrate Research OR Tiger Shark vs. Panda Bear—45 minutes
Day 3: Finish Activity 2 or 3, and student presentations—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

For many students, this may be their first introduction to the different animal groups. They
may have never heard of the amniotic egg and have trouble comparing the human embryo
surroundings to an amniotic egg.

148 CHAPTER 29 | Vertebrate Evolution

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. OneZoom Tree of Life: Students will navigate an interactive map of the evolutionary links
between vertebrates.
For this activity, students will need access to computers. You could also use this resource
as part of your lecture.
Direct your students to: onezoom.org and click on the Start Exploring tab
Students will find an interactive map of how all life on Earth is related. Explain that they can
use the search bar to see the different types of vertebrates you have lectured on and that
the zoom button will help them find more information on different organisms. The tree also
gives dates of when these chordates and vertebrates appeared in evolutionary history.
Have your students work in pairs to draw their own evolutionary trees for different
Chordates, Vertebrates, Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Mammals using pertinent
information from the website.
2. Vertebrate Research: Students will research and present on a system in a vertebrate.
Students may work on this activity in class, for homework, or both. They should present
their findings to the rest of the class.
Divide the class into groups of 4. You may split the systems of groups of animals to suit your
class size. If you have skeletal models or specimens for each group of vertebrates, allow
students to use these in their presentation.
Students should look in Chapters 32–38 for specific examples of their system.
Assign each group one of the illustrative examples:
1. Circulation of fluids 4. Gas Exchange
2. Digestion of food 5. Osmoregulation
3. Nitrogen waste production 6. Thermoregulation
A. Each group should provide the general anatomy of the system in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
and mammals and explain how that anatomy helps the system function.
B. Students must describe and provide visual representation for the organ/organs that make up
this system.
C. Students must create a visual representation that traces the evolution of this system through the
various classes of vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.

Differentiated Instruction: This activity requires public speaking and peer-interaction. An

alternative approach is to let students work individually to create a chart and then a visual
representation to describe one of the above illustrative examples. Students must include the
function of the illustrative example and its evolution throughout vertebrates. The students work
can be displayed as a poster in the classroom and/or handed in as an individual assignment.

3. Tiger Shark VS Panda Bear: Students will research and discuss the differences between
vertebrate systems.
For this activity, students will compare the differences in vertebrate systems by comparing
two animals of different vertebrate groups. Is one system better than another? You can spin
this activity by pretending it is a pretend combat.
You can find further examples and directions in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Summarizing—Beginning
Review with students that a summary is a short explanation of a longer work. Provide students
with an example of a summary of one section of a lesson. Help them fill in a graphic organizer
to provide a visual for the summary.

Teacher Manual 149

Oral Language Development—Advanced
Have students scan the lesson for content vocabulary words in context. Help them pronounce
the vocabulary words correctly. Discuss vocabulary meanings with them.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 29.1, Check Your Progress Section 29.5, Check Your Progress
1. Discuss how humans, as chordates, possess all 1. Contrast the characteristics of crocodilians with
four characteristics either as embryos or adults. those of snakes.
Humans are chordates that have the four chordate characteristics Alligators and crocodiles live in fresh water, have a thick skin,
during the embryonic period of their life cycle. The notochord is two pairs of legs, powerful jaws, and a long muscular tail that
replaced by the vertebral column during development. The dorsal allows them to capture and eat other animals in or near the
tubular nerve cord becomes the spinal cord. Pharyngeal pouches water. Snakes have no limbs and have relatively thin skin. They
(the first pair of pouches) develop into auditory tubes. A postanal live close to or in the ground and can escape detection. They use
tail is present in a developing embryo, but lost during development. smell (Jacobson’s organ) and vibrations to detect prey. Some use
2. Explain why adult sea squirts are classified as venom to subdue prey, which they eat whole because their jaws
are distensible.
chordates, although they look like thick-walled,
squat sacs. 2. Explain what features indicate that birds are
A sea squirt larva has the four characteristics as a larva, and then reptiles.
undergoes metamorphosis to become an adult, which has gill Birds are reptiles: feathers are modified scales; birds have
slits but none of the other characteristics. clawed feet and a tail that contains vertebrae.

Section 29.2, Check Your Progress Section 29.6, Check Your Progress
1. Describe the advantages of an endoskeleton. 1. Identify two traits that are unique to mammals.
The endoskeleton protects internal organs, provides a place of Mammals have hair or fur and mammary glands.
attachment for muscles, and permits rapid, efficient movement. 2. Describe features that distinguish the three
2. Explain how four legs would be useful in groups of mammals.
terrestrial environments. Monotremes (have a cloaca and lay eggs), marsupials (young
Four legs are useful for locomotion on land, where the body is are born immature and finish development in a pouch), and
not supported by water. placental (eutherian) mammals (development occurs internally
and the fetus is nourished by placenta).
Section 29.3, Check Your Progress
1. List and describe the characteristics that fishes
AP Assessment
have in common. 1. Members of the phylum Chordata have certain
All fishes are aquatic vertebrates and ectothermic. They all live in traits in common. Which traits listed below are
water, breathe by gills, and have a single circulatory loop. found in all chordates?
2. Distinguish between lobe-finned and ray-finned A) notochord
bony fishes. B) vertebrae
Ray-finned bony fishes have fan-shaped fins supported by thin, C) jaws
bony rays. Lobe-finned bony fishes have fleshy fins supported D) all of the above
by bones. Answer: A; All chordates possess a notochord at some point
in their life. This cartilaginous rod is replaced by vertebrae in
Section 29.4, Check Your Progress most chordates.
1. List the characteristics that amphibians have 2. One of your friends is on the school swim
in common. team. Your posted a message on social media
Two pairs of limbs; smooth, non-scaly skin that stays moist; about how they wished that they “still had the
lungs; a three-chambered heart with a double-loop circulatory gills that humans have before they are born.”
pathway; sense organs adapted for a land environment; What is wrong with this statement?
ectothermic; and have aquatic reproduction.
A) Gills only partially develop in humans, and are
2. Describe the usual life cycle of amphibians. replaced by pharyngeal pouches in early
Usually, amphibians carry out external fertilization in the water. development.
The embryos develop in the eggs until the tadpoles emerge. B) While gills develop in fishes, in humans those
They then undergo metamorphosis, growing legs and genes are used to produce the notochord.
reabsorbing the tail, to become adults.

150 CHAPTER 29 | Vertebrate Evolution

 C) Humans born with gills have too many other The relationships between the three groups are
defects to survive. shown in Figure 29.15. Explain how we know
D) Humans never have any form of gills, only the that dinosaurs, crocodilians, and birds are more
pharyngeal pouches that would become closely related to each other than they are to
functioning gills in fishes. snakes, lizards, and other vertebrates. Support
Answer: D; While it is a common misconception, it is not true that your answer with at least THREE pieces of
humans have gills while in the womb. The fetus receives oxygen evidence.
from its mother via the umbilical cord. Parts of the pharyngeal Evidence for how we know birds, dinosaurs and crocodilians
pouches have been “repurposed” for other, non-respiratory are more closely related to one another than they are to other
functions in humans. reptiles may include (1 point each):
3. Fishes have a single-loop, single-pump • Fossil evidence: Transitional forms have been found between
circulatory system, while birds and mammals dinosaurs and birds, which means they date to time periods
have a double-loop, double-pump system. between the Jurassic period and the Cenozoic era and confirm
The trend toward greater complexity of the that dinosaurs are ancestors to birds. Fossils have also shown
circulatory system reflects selection for greater dinosaurs to have had feathers, although they likely were used
efficiency. How is the bird/mammalian system for warmth instead of for flight.
more efficient than the fish system? • Common ancestor: Thecodonts, an extinct group of animals,
A) Double pumping flattens red blood cells, causing are the common ancestor for crocodilians, dinosaurs,
them to slide more easily through vessels. and birds.
B) Double pumping moves blood faster, replenishes • Morphological: Crocodilians and birds share derived features,
oxygen more quickly. such as skull openings in front of the eyes and clawed feet.
However, many of these derived features, such as the temporal
C) Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can
openings of the diapsid skull are shared by snakes, lizards and
mingle, increasing the transfer of carbon dioxide.
tuataras as well. Other amniotes, such as mammals, do not
D) Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can have two temporal openings.
mingle, keeping the overall temperature of the
7. Scientists claim that free energy is required for
blood low.
living systems to maintain organization, to grow
Answer: B; Birds and mammals are active endotherms, and have
or to reproduce, but that multiple strategies
a high oxygen demand. Repumping blood after it has visited the
exist in different living systems. Justify this
lungs ensures that highly oxygenated blood is sent forcefully
to tissues. claim using TWO pieces of evidence found in
vertebrate animals.
4. Birds have successfully conquered the world of
Descriptions of evidence for multiple strategies in vertebrates
flight, and their adaptations reflect this. Which
may include (1 point each):
adaptation is NOT directly related to flight?
• Fish, amphibian, and mammalian circulatory systems differ
A) amniotic eggs enclosed in shell
in the number of heart chambers and circuits but retain the
B) molting and replacing of feathers regularly closed system of their common ancestor.
C) presence of air sacs as part of respiratory system • Endothermy (utilized by birds and mammals) and ectothermy
D) extension of air sacs into bone (utilized by fish, amphibians, reptiles) provide different strategies
Answer: A; Amniotic eggs are an adaptation for terrestriality. for regulation of energy use and internal temperature.
Enclosing eggs inside a shell (leathery or brittle) keeps the • The respiratory system for gas exchange may be gills (in fish
developing embryo from drying out. and amphibians, generally) or lungs, with various modifications
(in mammals, birds and other reptiles).
5. While extant reptiles may not seem to have
much in common with birds, current thought 8. Lamnid sharks have two types of muscles. Red
is that birds should in fact be considered as muscle tissue does not tire easily and is used
descendants of dinosaurs. What reptilian traits more during cruising. White muscle tissue is
are seen in modern birds? used more during short bursts of speed. Both
A) amniotic eggs muscles, however, are always used at the same
time. The peaks of the graph represent when
B) scales
each muscle type contracts.
C) clawed feet
A) Evaluate the timing of the contractions of the
D) all of the above two types of muscle when sharks are cruising.
Answer: A; Fossil evidence supports the notion that birds may have Red and white muscles contract at about the same time.
descended from animals such as velociraptors. Velociraptor fossils
B) Compare the timing of the contractions between
seem to show the presence of feathers, supporting this idea.
the two muscle types change when the sharks
6. A sequence of known transitional forms are actively swimming.
occurred between dinosaurs and the birds. The Red muscles contract after the white muscles.
crocodilians and birds shared derived features.

Teacher Manual 151

CHAPTER 30
Human Evolution

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

30.1 Evolution of Primates 1 7.9 Phylogeny
30.2 Evolution of
Humanlike Hominins
30.3 Evolution of Early
Genus Homo
30.4 Evolution of Later
Genus Homo
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 30 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
On Becoming Human
The Origins of Humans
Hominid Cranium Comparison (the Skulls lab)

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Most of the information in this section is out of scope for the AP exam. Relating chimpanzee
DNA to human DNA in the context of common ancestors is the most likely topic from this
chapter to appear on the exam. If your students are struggling with cladogram analysis, this
chapter can provide more examples for practices. It’s also important to note the particular
adaptations that set humans and other primates apart: opposable thumbs, larger brains,
bipedalism, tool use (though this is not actually unique to primates). This combination of traits
has allowed humans to compensate for lesser developed other skills, such as speed and
strength.
Class time: one 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture – 10 minutes on the major human traits and when they evolved
Activity 1, 2, or 3 – 35 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Many students may not accept human evolution, and you may not want to displace their belief
systems. Rather, provide information that is scientifically based and let students know that this
will be your approach.
Most students believe that an opposable thumb is a unique human characteristic, but
opposable thumbs exist in Old World monkeys, great apes, and humans.

152 CHAPTER 30 | Human Evolution

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.

1. On Becoming Human: Students will watch a video and answer questions on human
evolution. A link to the video and student questions are available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Also described on the On Becoming Human website is a

lesson plan for comparing human and ape chromosomes. You may choose to follow
that plan as described or find a copy of Flammer (2013) Chromosome Connections. In
this activity, students compare banding patters to observe evidence of common
ancestry between hominids.

2. The Origins of Humans: Students watch a video and take an interactive quiz on human
evolution. A link to this video is available in your online course.
3. Hominid Cranium Comparison (The “Skulls” Lab) by Martin Nickels: Students study
differences in fossil skulls throughout human evolution. A link to the instructions are
available in your online course. You may use plastic casts, or the photographs included
on the website, to make your measurements. The author also includes some great
discussion questions and some extension activity ideas.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Activate Prior Knowledge – Beginning

Before reading, say key terms from the paragraph aloud, one at a time. Have students raise
their hands if they have heard the term before. Have them use a word or phrase to tell
something about the term. Use yes/no questions and prompts to help students complete
a KWL Chart.

Subject (Human Evolution)

K- What I Already Know
From experience From previewing
Humans can talk Humans look like chimpanzees
Humans live all over the Earth Chimpanzees can’t talk
W – What I Want to Learn
How closely are chimpanzees related to humans?
L-What I Learned
Chimpanzees and humans are closely related but differs by 1.5%
What I Want to Know More About How will I Learn More
Why can’t chimpanzees talk? Read articles
Ask an expert

Using Visual and Contextual Support – Advanced

Have student pairs take turns reading the text to one another. Remind that they are reading
for an audience, and that they need to maintain the audience’s interest with their voices.
Move around the room, correcting pronunciation as necessary. Ask students what information
they learn from the title and how the title makes them approach the text. Have pairs discuss
their opinions. Then have them share their thoughts with the class. Record their contributions
on the board.

Teacher Manual 153

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 30.1, Check Your Progress AP Assessment
1. Identify the location of hominins, hominids, 1. Figure 30.4 shows the evolution of the primate
anthropoids, and prosimians in the evolutionary group. Based on this figure, about how long ago
tree of the primates. did humans diverge from chimpanzees?
Prosimians and anthropoids split around 57 MYA. Hominids are a A) 5 mya
subset of anthropoids that arose around 12 MYA. Hominins are a B) 9 mya
subset of hominids that diverged from chimpanzees around 5-7
C) 15 mya
MYA.
D) 38 mya
2. Describe the characteristics that humans share
with chimpanzees. Answer: A; According to the figure, humans and chimpanzees
shared a common ancestor between 5 and 6 mya.
Both humans and chimpanzees are hominins and they share a
similar structure in their genomes, plus the general 2. By studying their position in the figure, certain
characteristics of all primates. comparisons can be made among the primates.
Which statement regarding comparing humans
Section 30.2, Check Your Progress to other primates is true?
1. Compare the characteristics of an australopith A) Humans form an outgroup compared to the other
with those of an ardipithecine. primates.
Ardipithecines lives primarily in trees, whereas the australopiths B) Humans are most closely related to gorillas.
lived both in and out of trees. The brain size of the australopiths C) Humans and lemurs share the least number
was larger, and this group was better adapted for bipedalism. of derived characters.
2. Explain why an understanding of bipedalism and D) Humans and lemurs share the greatest number
brain size is important in understanding the of derived characters
evolution of the hominins. Answer: C; As humans and lemurs are placed the farthest apart
Larger brain size and the appearance of bipedalism, which freed from each other, they would be expected to have the most
the hands to use tools and hold babies, are evolutionary differences. Every time a new branch separates off of the
developments that occurred with hominins. original, that branching is based on the evolution of new
derived characters.
Section 30.3, Check Your Progress 3. Which statement correctly describes the
relationship of gibbons to gorillas?
1. Discuss the general evolutionary trends in early
A) Gibbons and gorillas are both hominins.
Homo species.
B) Gibbons and gorillas are both hominines.
Increased size of brain cavity, increased height, eventual use of
tools and fire. C) Gibbons and gorillas are both hominoids, but
only gorillas are hominines.
2. Discuss how the evolution of bipedalism and D) Gibbons and gorillas are both hominids, but
increased brain size probably contributed to neither is considered a prosimian.
H. erectus’s migration from Africa.
Answer: C; Gorillas and gibbons share enough genetic and
Bipedalism allowed for organisms to move young more easily; physical characteristics to be classed in the Superfamily
increased brain size allowed for higher intellect and thus Hominoidea. However, gibbons do not share the traits of
adaptation to nonforest environments. bipedalism and large brains.
4. Members of the taxonomic tribe Hominini, or
Section 30.4, Check Your Progress
hominins, are either humans or directly ancestral
1. Explain how the replacement model explains to humans. Your textbook states that molecular
both the dominance of Cro-Magnons and the data can be used to estimate when hominin
formation of human ethnic groups. evolution began. Predict the differences that
The replacement model suggests that humans evolved from one would be seen between DNA of Homo sapiens,
group in Africa, and then migrated to other locations. This means that and that of an early human such as Homo
different groups of Cro-Magnon humans could adapt to different habilis.
locations, eventually forming the major human ethnic groups.
A) H. sapiens and H. habilis would have identical
2. Discuss what factors led to the development DNA.
of biocultural evolution as a factor in human B) H. sapiens and H. habilis would show few
evolution. differences in DNA.
Increased brain size, reliance on tool use, and a hunter-gatherer C) H. sapiens and H. habilis would show a great
lifestyle, required development of communication. many differences in DNA.

154 CHAPTER 30 | Human Evolution

 D) H. sapiens and H. habilis would have such Description of fossil analysis and examples of evidence for
different DNA that they could not be compared. evolution may include (1 point each):
Answer: B; Although they are believed to have divulged from a Descriptions of fossil analysis (1 point each)
common ancestor, fossil data suggests the two species have • Determining the age of a fossil:
been on separate paths for about 5 million years. During that
• 
Dating the ages of the surrounding rocks where a fossil is
time, differences in DNA would have accumulated. However, as
found.
both are still considered hominins, those differences would be
relatively few. • Measuring the rate of decay of isotopes including carbon-14.
5. Transposons are defined as mobile elements • Analyzing bone structure
found in the genome. The human genome • Analyzing the relationships within phylogenetic trees.
contains many transposons which have lost their • Analyzing the genomic composition of species.
mobility, and remain fixed in one location. A • Analyzing the chemical properties and/or geographical data.
comparison of human and chimpanzee DNA Example of evidence (1 point each)
finds similarities in patterns of these transposons.
• It is important to know the dates of fossils, as this component
What claim can be justified from this observation?
allows scientists to place the fossil in history, and compare the
A) Transposons are responsible for the differences fossil to other fossils of the same age.
found between humans and chimpanzees.
• Opposable toes may indicate tree-living species.
B) Transposons are not as common in chimpanzees
• Structure of spine and hips may indicate gait and the ability to
as they are in humans.
walk erect.
C) As transposons result from random retrovirus
• Size of braincase may indicate size of enclosed tissue.
infections, similar patterns must also be random.
• Locations of snouts and eyes indicate behaviors and abilities.
D) As transposons result from random retrovirus
infections, similar patterns suggest evidence • Phylogenetic trees and cladograms allow analysis of
of a common ancestor. established shared traits and common ancestors, as well as
points of divergence.
Answer: D; The same random pattern is unlikely to have
occurred by chance, suggesting humans and chimpanzees • Completed genomes of extinct and existing species allows
both inherited the pattern from a common ancestor. scientists to compare species and look for shared genes and
how similar or dissimilar species are.
6. Modern analysis of genomes show that human
• If the fossils are found near artifacts, such as tools or cave
and chimpanzee genes differ by only 1.5%. This
drawings (the fossils may have been found in a cave), that are
suggests that it is not the number of different
dated to be the same age, this can give clues as to the
genes that matters, but what those genes do. behavior or other traits of the organism. For example,
Which genes seem to be most likely responsible fossilized footprints gave evidence for bipedalism in an
for a key difference between humans and individual.
chimpanzees?
8. The fossil record for primate evolution is sparse.
A) genes controlling the development of the brain, In the simplified primate evolutionary tree below,
leading to larger human brain
the green diagram shows the present divergence
B) genes controlling the production of fur, leading to according to known fossils. The orange diagram
human hairlessness shows the timeline with presumed fossils filling
C) genes controlling the orientation of the thumb, the gaps. Use the diagrams to answer the
leading to humans’ unique opposable thumb following questions.
D) genes controlling the development of the snout, A) Summarize why lemurs, lorises, and bushbabies
producing the shorter snout seen in the great are considered descendants of the earliest
apes primates.
Answer: A; Genes that allowed brain development to continue The bushbabies, lorises, and lemurs were first to diverge from
longer in humans produce larger brains with more room for the ancestral primates.
cognitive functions such as sensory integration and memory.
B) Hypothesize how far back the divergence of the
7. Fossil evidence suggests humans have evolved lemurs might have occurred.
over millions of years and that apes and 80 million years, according to the shadow diagram
humans shared a common ancestor.
C) Evaluate whether tarsiers are more closely
A) Describe two ways scientists can analyze fossils related to apes or to lemurs.
in order to provide evidence for evolution.
apes
B) Explain two examples of fossil evidence that give
clues about human evolution.

Teacher Manual 155

CHAPTER 31
Animal Organization
and Homeostasis
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
31.1 Types of Tissues
31.2 Organs, Organ Systems, and
Body Cavities
31.3 The Integumentary System
4.5 Feedback
31.4 Homeostasis 2
8.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 31 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 and Unit 8 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Homeostasis in Antarctica
Keeping a Balance: Homeostasis and Negative Feedback

Teaching Strategy and Approach

This chapter is rich in developing information about homeostasis. How cells organized into
tissues, and tissue into organs, and organs into organ systems allow animals specific areas
for maintaining homeostasis. Students should become familiar with feedback mechanisms.
While the details about the nerve cell are not tested on the AP exam it can be helpful for
developing understanding about how signals and nerve impulses are transmitted. It can also
be used to refresh knowledge about the structure/function relationship with cell components
while tying it into organ functions. The nerve cell is structured very uniquely, because it has a
unique function that no other cells possess.
The section about feedback mechanisms is the part to focus on and relating it to homeostasis. There
are 3 different learning objectives to ensure students understand: ENE-3.A, ENE-3.B, and ENE-3.C. I
have found providing various illustrative examples like childbirth and central air-conditioning can
help students latch onto 1 example to use as a framework to apply to new concepts.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture – 15 minutes on organization of animal systems
Activity 1: Working Together – 15 minutes
Activity 2: Homeostasis in Antarctica – 15 minutes
Day 2: Activity 3: Keeping a Balance – 45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Homeostasis is an abstract concept and students may have a hard time realizing that
conditions within a human are constantly being monitored and adjusted. The visual
representation of the activity Keeping a Balance below helps students visualize changes

156 CHAPTER 31 | Animal Organization and Homeostasis

that can be occurring. Ask students to explain what would happen to the human body if
homeostasis is not maintained.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Working Together: Students will use string and post-it-notes to show why homeostasis is
important in order to maintain body systems.
For this demonstration, you will need post-it notes and a ball of string or yarn.
Instruct your students to stand in a circle and give each student a post-it note labeled with
a body system using Table 31.1 on page 574 of your textbook. With the roll of string or yarn,
start with the brain and pass the string to each organ system until all systems are connected.
Then have student in one organ system let go and have other students try to maintain the
circle. It really shows them what homeostasis is all about.
This can be done in small groups or as a class.
2. Homeostasis in Antarctica: Students listen to the accounts of an arctic explorer and learn
about challenges about maintaining homeostasis in cold weather. A link to the Project
Oceanology website containing to the audio clips is available in your online course.
3. Keeping a Balance: Homeostasis & Negative Feedback: Students will observe a negative
feedback system.
Several biological supply houses have kits for maintaining homeostasis. Situations are
provided that change the conditions from a set point. The student will notice a color
change in the organism’s fluids. In order to get back to the set point, required material
is added to the organism and the color returns to normal. Students also examine blood
glucose regulation. I recommend the “Keeping the Balance” activity from Science Takeout,
a link to which is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Alternatively, if you are unable to purchase a kit from a

supply warehouse, have your students plant the online game Body Control Center
through PBS Learning Media. Here students have to balance the homeostasis of a
virtual person that is undergoing different activities.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Word Origins – Beginning

The word homeostasis comes from two Greek words; ‘homolos’ which means like and ‘stasis’
means standing. Have students find cognates, or words that have come from a common
ancestor, which can help them understand new vocabulary.

Using Visual and Contextual Support – Intermediate

Before reading, have students take a close look at the visual support. Have them use the
image as they work in pairs to form questions about the selection. After reading, have partners
compare their original predictions with questions they answered no. Have them discuss how
their ideas changed or stayed the same. Move around the room to monitor progress.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 31.1, Check Your Progress the kidney tubules and various glands; columnar epithelium:
rectangular cells that line the digestive tract; stratified
1. List five types of epithelium and identify an
epithelium: layers of cells that protect various body surfaces;
example of where each type can be found. glandular epithelium: modified to secrete products, like the
Squamous epithelium: flat cells that line the blood vessels and goblet cells of the digestive tract.
air sacs of lungs; cuboidal epithelium: cube-shaped cells that line

Teacher Manual 157

 2. Compare and contrast the three major types 4. Describe the structure of nails, hair, sweat
of connective tissue. glands, and oil glands.
Fibrous connective tissue has collagen and elastic fibers in a Nails are keratinized cells that grow from the nail root; hair is
jellylike matrix between fibroblasts. Supportive connective tissue made of dead epithelial cells that have been keratinized; sweat
has protein fibers in a solid matrix between collagen or bone glands are tubules originating from the dermis; oil glands are
cells. Fluid connective tissue lacks fibers and has a fluid matrix usually associated with hair follicles.
that contains blood cells or lymphatic cells.

3. Describe the structure and function of skeletal, Section 31.4, Check Your Progress
smooth, and cardiac muscle. 1. Define homeostasis, and discuss why it is
Skeletal muscle, which is striated with multiple nuclei, causes important to body function.
bones to move when it contracts. Smooth muscle, which is Homeostasis, the dynamic equilibrium of the internal
spindle-shaped with a single nucleus, causes the walls of environment, maintains body conditions within a range
internal organs to constrict. Cardiac muscle, which has appropriate for cells to continue living.
branching, striated cells, each with a single nucleus,
causes the heart to beat. 2. Explain how the circulatory, respiratory, and
urinary systems specifically contribute to
4. Recall the three parts of a neuron and explain homeostasis.
the function of each. The circulatory system brings nutrients and removes waste from
Dendrites conduct signals toward the cell body; the cell body interstitial fluid; the respiratory system carries out gas exchange;
contains most of the cytoplasm and the nucleus, and it carries on the urinary system excretes metabolic wastes and maintains
the usual functions of the cell; the axon conducts nerve impulses. water-salt balance and pH of blood.

3. Discuss how negative feedback is similar to the

Section 31.2, Check Your Progress way a thermostat works.
1. Explain the difference between an organ and When conditions go beyond or below a set point, a correction is
an organ system. made to bring conditions back to normality again.
An organ is two or more types of tissues working together to
perform a function; an organ system is many organs working AP Assessment
to perform a process.
1. Animals use feedback systems to manage and
2. Identify two organ systems that protect the regulate bodily functions. Information about
body from disease. the output of the bodily function feeds back
The lymphatic and immune systems work together to protect to some kind of sensor, and adjustments are
the body from disease (other answers are possible). made. Which statement best describes negative
feedback?
3. List the body cavities found within the dorsal
A) Negative feedback results in a process slowing
and ventral cavities of humans.
down or stopping.
The dorsal cavity contains the cranial cavity and the vertebral
B) Negative feedback turns on or speeds up a
cavity; the ventral cavity contains the thoracic, abdominal, and
process.
pelvic cavities.
C) Negative feedback always operates in
conjunction with positive feedback.
Section 31.3, Check Your Progress
D) Negative feedback has disruptive effects on
1. List one function of skin that is common to homeostasis.
all animals and one that is unique to a single Answer: A; In this case, the term “negative” refers to the fact
group. that some process is decreasing or turning off. This action
The skin protects the deeper tissues from pathogens, trauma, helps to return some factor (heat, chemical levels) back to the
and dehydration in all animals. Only birds have feathers, a set point.
derivative of skin that is involved in flying.
2. Positive feedback mechanisms in humans can
2. Compare the structure and function of the be helpful or harmful. Which is an example of
epidermal and dermal layers of the skin. a positive feedback mechanism?
The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium, and it protects A) dilation of blood vessels when body temperature
and prevents water loss. The dermis is dense fibrous connective is high
tissue, and it helps regulate body temperature and provides
B) constriction of blood vessels when body
sensory reception.
temperature is low
3. Discuss why a dark-skinned individual living in C) Fever induces metabolic changes to push
northern Canada might develop bone problems. temperature down.
A dark-skinned person in a low sunlight area might develop a D) Fever induces metabolic changes to bring
deficiency of vitamin D, which is required for normal bone growth. temperature higher.

158 CHAPTER 31 | Animal Organization and Homeostasis

 Answer: D; Positive feedback causes change to increase in the A) Describe two external changes (or stimuli) that
same direction. In fever, the temperature becomes higher and the human body and/or cells must respond to
higher. While there is some debate about helpful effects of low in order to survive.
fevers in humans, very high temperatures are quite dangerous. B) Explain the negative feedback mechanism
3. The rate of heat transfer between organisms utilized by the human body and/or cells in
response to each change described for part (a).
and their environment is affected by many
factors, including size and body form. For Descriptions of human negative feedback mechanisms and
example, a mouse would gain or lose heat responses may include:
more rapidly than an elephant. How can this Description of external change (1 point each):
difference be explained? • A person exercises and their body temperature rises. If left
A) Mice have a slower metabolism than elephants. without a response, dehydration and heat stroke can occur,
as well as normal cellular mechanisms.
B) Elephants have a faster metabolism than mice.
• A person is outside in the cold for an extended amount of time.
C) Mice have a larger surface area for their mass.
If left without a response, hypothermia can occur, damaging
D) Elephants have a larger circulatory volume tissues.
than mice. • A person eats and their blood sugar (glucose) rises. If blood
Answer: C; Because of their smaller size, the mice have a higher glucose remains too high, hyperglycemia can occur and can
surface area-to-volume ratio. This allows the heat to dissipate/be even lead to a diabetic coma.
absorbed faster.
Explanation of negative feedback (1 point each):
4. Specialization of cells is displayed to a high • The body senses a change, and the hypothalamus responds
degree in human systems. These specialized by directing the blood vessels of the skin to dilate, allowing
cells group together in tissues, but complex more blood to flow near the surface of the body where heat
functions typically require two or more different can be lost to the environment. The nervous system activates
tissues group together in a(n) . sweat glands and so that the evaporation can help lower the
A) complex tissue temperature as well. When the temperature returns to normal,
the responses are inactivated.
B) connective tissue
• The body senses a change and the hypothalamus responds by
C) integument directing the blood vessels of the skin to constrict, conserving
D) organ heat. It can also tell the skeletal muscles to shiver, generating
Answer: D; Organs such as hearts or kidneys, have two or more heat. When the temperature returns to normal, the responses
different tissue types working together to perform a function. are inactivated.
• Receptors in the body sense a change, and the pancreas
5. It is now common knowledge that exposure to responds by secreting the hormone insulin into the blood.
sunlight is a key factor in triggering skin cancer. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostatic levels, insulin
While it might be tempting for a fair-skinned is no longer released.
person to completely avoid sun exposure, this 7. The contractile vacuole moves water from
would not be the best idea. Predict the most inside a paramecium back into its freshwater
likely unintended consequence of total avoidance environment. Researchers have studied the
of sunlight. effects of solution concentrations on paramecia.
A) increase in the quantity of unfavorable skin Paramecia were allowed to adapt to various
bacteria solutions for 12 h. Then, they were placed into
B) increase in DNA damage in skin cells hypertonic and hypotonic solutions. The graphs
C) decrease in production of vitamin D show the change in rate of water flow out of
D) decrease in melanin found in the iris of the eye the contractile vacuole over time.
Answer: C; It is thought that light skin was selected for in A) Analyze the graph. Explain the significance of the
temperate regions of the world because light skin allowed more downward and upward slopes in the graphs.
opportunity for UVB rays to interact with vitamin D precursors. The downward slope indicates that the contractile vacuole is
Vitamin D is important in bone and immune health. While certain filling with water. The upward slope indicates that the contractile
foods contain vitamin D, it is difficult to get enough from diet vacuole is being emptied.
alone, and some exposure to sunlight is needed.
B) Infer which paramecium was placed into a
6. Organisms use feedback mechanisms to hypertonic solution. Explain.
maintain their internal environments and Paramecium A; The slope of the graph indicates that its
respond to external environmental changes. contractile vacuole is emptying.

Teacher Manual 159

CHAPTER 32
Circulation and
Cardiovascular Systems
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
32.1 Transport in Invertebrates
32.2 Transport in Vertebrates
32.3 The Human Cardiovascular
System
32.4 Blood 2 3.7 Fitness
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 32 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 3 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Heart Function
The Vertebrate Circulatorium

Teaching Strategy and Approach

There is a great deal of detail that can add to a student's understanding of the circulatory
system yet is not a part of the AP Biology curriculum. Provide students with enough detail so
that they can explain the illustrative examples that pertain to the circulatory and pulmonary
systems. I would refrain from making them memorize the structures and flow of blood through
the heart.
The AP curriculum, as mentioned above does not assess details about the circulatory system.
Students could be exposed to these illustrative examples to help review their knowledge of
diffusion with some more context. Requiring students to memorize these parts and functions
is beyond what will be tested on the exam.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture – 20 minutes on the evolution of circulatory systems, components
L
of human blood
Activity 1: Heart Function – 25 minutes
Day 2:  ecture – 10 minutes on blood clotting and the interactions between the
L
pulmonary and circulatory systems
 ctivity 2: The Vertebrate Circulatorium OR Activity 3: Heart Dissection –
A
35 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

One of the most frequent misconceptions in this topic is that some students may think that the
heart has the function to store, filter, prepare or clean the blood. There is a connection with
the liver and spleen to take care of many of these functions. The heart's function is to take
oxygen poor blood from the body and to move that blood to a location to pick up oxygen- the
lungs- and to move the oxygen rich blood to all cells in the body.

160 CHAPTER 32 | Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems

Many students also believe that blood is produced in the heart. There is also a misconception
held by many students that the heart provides the body with energy.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. The Heart Function: Students will watch a video and summarize the function of the heart.
A link to the video is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Provide students with the structures and functions of the
heart on moveable pieces of paper. You can use images and words, or just words.
Students should align the correct structures and functions on the table. Once students
complete what they feel is correct, have them switch with a partner and grade it. In the
final steps, they can work as a team to review and ensure everything is correct. While
in pairs, students can share different ways they study in order to retain the knowledge.
This promotes different learning styles and supporting each other in learning.

2. The Vertebrate Circulatorium: Students will visit an interactive website, to explore and
summarize the circulatory system for different groups of vertebrates. A link is available
in your online course.
3. Heart Dissection: Students will perform a heart dissection, watch as a demo, or view as a
video. There are many inexpensive heart dissection kits that are commercially available.
Performing a dissection as a demo for the class is a great way to show the parts of a heart.
If you would rather skip taking apart a heart yourself, consider showing your classroom a
heart dissection video instead. PBS has a nice detailed heart dissection video that shows
the anatomy of a sheep heart.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Sequencing – Intermediate
Use an IWB to project the text and mark text during reading to reinforce key terms and
concepts. Use different colors to represent the different steps in the sequences.

Comprehension Skill – Advanced High

Ask questions about lesson content to elicit complete sentences. Why is it thought open
circulatory systems evolved first? They are present in simpler and evolutionarily older
animals. Where are red blood cells manufactured? RBCs are made in the red bone marrow
of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae, and the ends of the long bones.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 32.1, Check Your Progress 3. Explain why ostia are needed in an open
1. List the general functions of all circulatory circulatory system, but not a closed circulatory
systems. system.
Circulatory systems carry nutrients and oxygen to cells and Ostia allow the hemolymph to return to the heart of an organism
remove their wastes. with an open circulatory system so that it may be pumped
throughout the body. In a closed circulatory system, the blood
2. Explain how blood differs from hemolymph. is confined to the blood vessels.
Hemolymph is present in animals with open circulatory systems
and carries nutrients. Blood is found in closed circulatory
systems and contains respiratory pigments, which allow it to
Section 32.2, Check Your Progress
carry oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide away from them, as 1. List and describe the functions of three types
well as transport nutrients. of vessels in a cardiovascular system.

Teacher Manual 161

 Arteries carry blood away from the heart, capillaries exchange 2. Name the major events, in chronological order,
their contents with interstitial fluid, and veins return blood back that result in a blood clot.
to the heart.
Platelets accumulate at the site of injury and release a clotting
2. Explain why veins are the only blood vessels factor that results in the synthesis of thrombin. Thrombin
that contain valves. synthesizes fibrin threads that provide a framework for the clot.
Veins contain valves because they are thin-walled and there is AP Assessment
insufficient blood pressure in veins to return blood to the heart.
1. Both open and closed circulatory systems are
Valves plus skeletal muscle contractions are needed. Arteries
have thick walls and higher blood pressure so they don't need found in the animal kingdom. Which type of
valves to move blood to the tissues. circulatory system was likely the first to evolve?
A) open, as it is found in simpler and older animal
3. Discuss the evolutionary benefits of a two-circuit groups
circulatory pathway compared to a one-circuit
B) open, as it is found in more complex and older
pathway, especially for animals that breathe air animal groups
on land.
C) closed, as it is found in simpler and older animal
One-circuit pathways are less efficient because blood supplying groups
the tissues (after leaving the gills) is under low pressure. Two-
circuit pathways supply oxygen to tissues more efficiently, which D) closed, as it is found in more complex and older
helps land animals meet the increased demands of locomotion animal groups
on land versus in water. Answer: A; Open circulatory systems consist of open-ended
blood vessels which empty into body spaces. Most molluscs and
Section 32.3, Check Your Progress arthropods both have open systems, which are less efficient than
the closed circulatory systems found in large active animals.
1. Name each blood vessel and heart chamber
that blood passes through on its way from the 2. Vertebrate animals have closed circulatory
venae cavae to the aorta, and identify which systems which utilize a variety of vessels to
artery carries oxygen-poor blood. transport blood. Which description is correctly
From the body: vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right matched with the vessel type?
ventricle, pulmonary semilunar valve, pulmonary trunk and A) capillary . . . thin endothelium, thick smooth
pulmonary arteries (carrying oxygen-poor blood). From the muscle layer
lungs: pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left B) arterioles . . . single layer of endothelium
ventricle, aortic semilunar valve, aorta.
C) artery . . . thick layer of smooth muscle
2. Explain what specifically causes the sounds D) vein . . . thin layer of outer connective tissue
of the heartbeat. Answer: C; Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Those
First the atria contact, then the ventricles contract, and then nearest the heart have thick resilient smooth muscle layers,
they both rest. The lub sound occurs when the atrioventricular capable of absorbing the volume of freshly-pumped blood.
valves close, and the dub sound occurs when the semilunar
valves close. 3. Both birds and mammals have a double
circulatory system, which pumps blood twice on
3. Discuss why systolic blood pressure is higher each circuit. What selection factors have most
than diastolic. likely led to this arrangement in these animals?
Systolic pressure results from the contraction of the ventricles, A) Double pumping uses less energy than single
creating high pressure. Diastolic pressure is that lower pressure pumping.
present when the ventricles relax.
B) Double pumping keeps blood moving, resupplying
4. Predict what type of conditions might occur as oxygen more quickly.
a result of chronic hypertension and plaque. C) Having two hearts gives these animals a backup
Thromboembolism, stroke, heart attack. in case of failure.
D) Having two hearts improves the interaction with
Section 32.4, Check Your Progress the urinary system.
1. List the major components of blood and the Answer: B; Birds and mammals are energetic, endothermic
functions of each. animals whose rapid metabolisms demand a large amount
Blood contains plasma and formed elements. Plasma transports of oxygen.
many substances to and from the capillaries, helps defend 4. In organisms with closed circulatory systems,
against pathogen invasion, helps regulate body temperature, the blood flows around and around on a
and helps with clotting to prevent excessive blood loss. The continuous loop. What prevents the blood from
formed elements include red blood cells that carry oxygen to
flowing backwards?
tissues and return some carbon dioxide; white blood cells that
help protect the body from infections; and platelets that are A) rapid heart rate
involved in blood clotting. B) pulmonary arteries

162 CHAPTER 32 | Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems

 C) arterioles and venules hemophilia experienced in the bloodlines of European royal
D) valves in veins families can occur. This disruption is usually caused by
having few or no proteins that work with platelets to help
Answer: D; Valves are designed to prevent backflow. In humans,
the blood clot.
contraction of the skeletal muscles near the veins also works to
keep the blood flowing upward and onward. Description of possible result (1 point each):
• Excessive clotting can limit or block blood flow, which can lead
5. Each time the left ventricle of the heart to organ damage and could even lead to death.
contracts, blood is forced into the aorta under
• Hemophilia may cause people to bleed longer than others
pressure. At this point blood is at its greatest after an injury, or to bleed internally, which can lead to tissue
pressure. Where is it at its lowest pressure? and organ damage and could even lead to death, particularly
A) veins with bleeding in places like the brain.
B) capillaries What normally happens when a blood vessel in the body is
C) systemic arteries damaged is that platelets clump at the site of the puncture
and partially seal the leak (to the great pressure in blood, this
D) arterioles
happens relatively quickly). Platelets and the injured tissues
Answer: A; By the time the blood reaches the veins, it has lost release a clotting factor called prothrombin activator, which (as
much of its force. That is why valves and muscle pressure are indicated by the name) converts prothrombin to thrombin which
enlisted to help return the blood to the heart. acts as an enzyme to create the fibrin network around the platelet
6. Capillary beds are the functional units of the plug. Once blood vessel repair is initiated, the enzyme plasmin
destroys the fibrin network and restores the fluidity of plasma.
cardiovascular system with respect to gas
exchange. Oxygen and other small molecules 8. Organisms exhibit complex properties due to
such as water can easily diffuse across the thin interactions between their constituent parts,
wall of the capillary into the interstitial fluid. such as the interactions between the circulatory
Predict the movement of water at the arterial and respiratory systems. What would happen
end of the capillary bed. if those interactions were removed from an
A) Water is in equilibrium with the interstitial fluid, so organism?
there is no net movement. A) Predict what would happen to a person's
B) Water is forced by high blood pressure out of the respiratory system for each of the following
capillary into the interstitial fluid. scenarios:
C) Water is forced by high osmotic pressure out of i. if there was no heart
the interstitial fluid into the capillary. ii. if there were no red blood cells
D) none of the above iii. if there were no capillaries
Answer: B; Blood pressure is high enough at the entrance of B) Compare this scenario with the circulatory system
the capillary bed to force water out. It drops along the length of another type of animal.
of the bed, and by the time blood reaches the venous end, the Explanations of the interconnectedness of the two systems may
pressure is now lower than the osmotic pressure. At the venous include:
end, water tends to enter the blood. There is a small net loss of Predictions (1 point each)
water, which should be absorbed by the lymphatic system.
• ii. Red blood cells contain the respiratory pigment hemoglobin,
7. Scientists claim that alterations in the which has heme, an iron-containing group. Iron combines
mechanism of feedback often results in loosely with oxygen, which means oxygen is able to be carried
deleterious consequences. throughout the body via the bloodstream. Oxygen is vital to
cellular respiration, and so without red blood cells to deliver
A) Justify this claim by explaining TWO scenarios
oxygen throughout the relatively large/long human body, cells
where a disturbance in the feedback mechanism
in all the various tissues would not be able to perform
that controls blood clotting could occur.
metabolic activities.
B) Describe what would result from the disturbances
• iii. Capillaries utilize osmotic pressure and blood pressure to
from part (a).
facilitate gas, nutrient and waste exchange (oxygen and carbon
Explanations for what would result from alterations in blood dioxide are able to diffuse in and out of these tiny vessels).
clotting mechanisms may include: Without capillaries, oxygen would not be able to enter the
Explanations of disturbance (1 point each): bloodstream in the lungs, nor would it be able to exit the blood
• Excessive blood clotting can happen when plaque builds up stream and be delivered to tissues throughout the body.
inside the arteries or as the result of a faulty gene. When it is Explanation of differentiated function as a result of molecular
genetic, the defect can occur in the proteins (such as thrombin, unit variation (1 point each)
as seen in “Thrombophilia”) needed for blood clotting which • Many simple aquatic invertebrates, such as sponges,
then might clot too much or when unnecessary, or it can occur cnidarians and flatworms, do not have hearts. They have such
in plasmin which is meant to dissolve the fibrin network. thin body walls that each cell is exposed to water and can
• If the feedback mechanism for clotting is disrupted so that independently exchange gases and rid itself of wastes, or is
clotting does not occur, then a bleeding disorder like the close enough to other cells who do.

Teacher Manual 163

 • Aquatic animals with thin walls (such as sponges, cnidarians fever—during the two weeks preceding
and flatworms) are able to survive and thrive without an episode of acute chest syndrome and
respiratory pigments because oxygen diffuses across their hospitalization.
tissues from the water.
A) Identify which age group has the highest level of
• This type of structure would be found in animals with hearts
pain before being hospitalized.
and open circulatory systems, such as insects and arthropods.
20+
9. Patients who have been diagnosed with sickle-
cell disease face many symptoms, including B) Describe the relationship between age and fever
respiratory failure and neurological problems. before hospitalization.
The graph shows the relationship between Fever is highest in those under two years of age and lowest in
age and two different symptoms—pain and those over 20. Generally fever reduces with age.

164 CHAPTER 32 | Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems

CHAPTER 33
The Lymphatic
and Immune Systems
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
33.1 Evolution of Immune Systems
33.2 The Lymphatic System
33.3 Innate Immune Defenses
33.4 Adaptive Immune Defenses 2 4.3 Signal Transduction
33.5 Immune System Disorders
and Hypersensitivity Reactions
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 33 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Acting Out the Immune Response
Cells of the Immune System
Pathogens, Antibodies, and Vaccines

Teaching Strategy and Approach

While interesting, the AP curriculum has no mention of specific immune system components
or responses. Providing illustrative examples that focus on the Enduring Understanding: IST-3
is where you want to keep your focus. IST-3 is all about how cells communicate by sending/
receiving signals. The immune system is a good way to illustrate those concepts to students,
but they are not required to know specific cells like T-cells or B-cells. Antibody specificity is
another good concept to use to reinforce the structure/function of proteins.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture – 25 minutes on the lymphatic system and the history of human
L
understanding of the immune system
Activity 1: Immune System Game OR Activity 2 – Acting Out the Immune Response
Day 2:  ecture – 20 minutes on active and passive immunity and innate and adaptive
L
portions of the immune system
 ctivity 3: Cells of the Immune System OR Activity 4: Pathogens, Antibodies,
A
and Vaccines

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Many students do not recognize the lymphatic system but have some knowledge of lymphatic
organs such as tonsils and lymph nodes. It may be hard for students to realize that capillary
beds contain arterial capillaries, venous capillaries, as well as lymphatic capillaries. There is not
a great deal of emphasis on the lymphatic system in the AP curriculum but an understanding of
how the cells of the immune system interact with the lymphatic system is important for students
to fully understand the operation of the immune system.

Teacher Manual 165

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Immune System Game: Students use cards to aid in their understanding of the immune system.
You will need:
APC cards (Antigen Presenting Cell)
Antigen shapes (5 different shapes)
T-helper cells
5 B-cell cards (one for each antigen)
5 Containers with each antigen on it
Have 3-4 students wear the APC cards, 5 students with the B-cells cards and the rest can
be T-helper cells. The APC's will look for as many different ‘antigen shapes' set about the
room for a set amount of time like 1 minute (like an Easter egg hunt).
When time is called the APC's must find the appropriate T-helper cell for any antigen they
found. Once they find an antigen/T-cell match, the T-helper keeps the antigen and now must
find the correct B-cell.
The B-cells are also moving about the room looking for T-helper cells.
Once the T-helper finds the appropriate B-cell the B-cell begins to make ‘antibodies' which
can be crumpled paper, large beads, or anything that you can get a fair number of. The
B-cells must shoot the ‘antibodies' into a container- the size of the container will depend
on what you have them ‘shoot'.
The containers should have the antigen symbols on them so the B-cells know where to
shoot. The team wins that has the most ‘antibodies' in the can.
2. Acting Out the Immune Response: Students will perform a skit demonstrating how the
immune system works. A link to the activity and further directions are available in your
online course.
3. Cells of the Immune System: Students will use an HHMI Biointeractive “Click and Learn”
exercise to examine the cells of the immune system. A link and student worksheet are
available in your online course.
4. Pathogens, Antibodies, and Vaccines: Students will use a kit to see how the adaptive
immune system works. A link to the kit is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: If a kit is not possible for your classroom, place your
students in pairs. Instruct your students to create a flow chart for the adaptive and innate
immune responses. Ask your students to include in their charts what are the responses
of each system and what are the key “players” of each system. When students are
finished with their charts, put two pairs together and have them critique and compare
their flow charts.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Information in Pictures – Intermediate

Instruct a small group of students to write a paragraph describing what is happening in Fig. 33.9
Clonal selection theory as it applies to B cells. Their paragraphs should describe all parts of
the diagram in their own words. Ask for volunteers to read their paragraphs. Have students
ask for clarification as needed.

Using Visual and Contextual Support – Advanced High

Have students write a paragraph explaining and evaluating how Fig. 33.9 is used in relation to
the content of the text. What was its purpose? How effective was it? Did the caption contribute
useful information? Have volunteers share their evaluations with the group.

166 CHAPTER 33 | The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 33.1, Check Your Progress 3. Name five cell types involved in innate immunity
1. Describe the function of sentinel cells in cellular and the major functions of each.
slime molds. Mast cells initiate inflammation; phagocytes (dendritic cells,
macrophages, neutrophils) devour pathogens; natural killer cells
Under certain conditions, slime molds develop specialized
kill virus-infected cells and cancer cells by cell-to-cell contact.
sentinel cells that engulf pathogens and toxins.
2. List three specific types of PAMPs found 4. Summarize three specific functions of the
on microbes. complement system.
PAMPs are highly conserved microbial molecules, such as Complement proteins assist other immune defenses by initiating
double-stranded viral RNA, as well as carbohydrates, lipids, inflammation, enhancing phagocytosis of pathogens, and forming
and proteins found only in bacterial cell walls. a membrane attack complex.

3. Describe three ways that the evolution of Section 33.4, Check Your Progress
receptors for specific antigens increased
the effectiveness of the immune system. 1. Distinguish between antibody-mediated
immunity and cell mediated immunity, and
Immune cells expressing receptors for specific antigens can
list the types of cells involved in each.
multiply and differentiate, leading to an increased response to
an antigen. Immunological memory and the ability to respond With antibody mediated immunity, B cells bind to specific
to continuously evolving pathogens become possible. antigens. T cells secrete cytokines that stimulate these B cells
to differentiate into many plasma cells and memory cells. The
Section 33.2, Check Your Progress plasma cells secrete antibodies against a pathogen. During cell-
mediated immunity, cytotoxic T cells bind to antigens presented
1. Distinguish between the lymphatic and
by the MHC on the surface of a cell that is infected by a virus or
circulatory systems.
is cancerous, marking it for destruction. Helper T cells regulate
The lymphatic capillaries absorb excess interstitial fluids and adaptive immunity.
lipids, which are returned to the bloodstream in a one-way
system powered by the contraction of skeletal muscles. The 2. Explain the diversity of antibodies.
production and distribution of lymphocytes occurs in the organs Antibodies have a constant region and two variable regions
and vessels of the lymphatic system. The circulatory system is that bind to a specific antigen in a lock-and-key manner. Many
involved with the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, different antigen-binding sites can be generated.
nutrients, erythrocytes, and lymphocytes.
3. Explain the difference between active and
2. Summarize the functions of the lymphatic system. passive immunity, and list three examples
The lymphatic system absorbs fats, returns excess interstitial of each.
fluid to the bloodstream, produces lymphocytes, and helps
Active immunity is induced in an individual by natural infection,
defend the body against pathogens.
vaccination, or exposure to a toxin; passive immunity is produced
3. Describe the general location and function by one individual and is transferred into someone else, such
of the lymphoid organs. as maternal antibodies, administration of antibodies to treat
diseases, and bone marrow transplants.
Red bone marrow is a spongy, semisolid red tissue located in
certain bones (e.g. ribs, clavicle, vertebral column, head of
femur, and humerus), which produces all the blood cells of the Section 33.5, Check Your Progress
body. The thymus is a soft, bilobed gland located in the thoracic 1. Explain the general type of abnormality that
cavity between the trachea and the sternum where T lymphocytes causes most primary immunodeficiencies.
mature. Lymph nodes are small ovoid structures located along
Most primary immunodeficiencies are due to a genetic defect
lymphatic vessels through which the lymph travels. The spleen
in a component of the immune system.
is an oval organ with a dull purplish color that has both immune
as well as red blood cell maintenance functions. 2. Describe the treatments for autoimmune
diseases.
Section 33.3, Check Your Progress
Autoimmune diseases (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis) are generally
1. List three physical and three chemical barriers. treated with drugs that suppress the immune system.
Physical barriers include the skin, mucous membranes, and
ciliated epithelia; chemical barriers include lysozyme, stomach 3. Define xenotransplantation.
acid, and protective proteins (e.g. complement). The transplanting of animal tissues or organs into humans.
2. Describe the inflammatory response and explain
how this response is beneficial. AP Assessment
Four cardinal signs of inflammation are heat, swelling, redness, 1. Immune responses in vertebrates have formerly
and pain. Inflammation generally directs other components of been described as nonspecific and specific, but
the immune system (molecules and cells) to the inflamed area. might more accurately be described as innate

Teacher Manual 167

 and adaptive. How is an innate response C) The antibodies were degraded when they
distinguished from an adaptive response? passed across the placenta.
A) Innate responses tend to be slower and more D) The mom and baby are different genetically, so
specific. mom's antibodies degrade rapidly.
B) Innate responses tend to be faster and broader. Answer: A; Like all proteins, the antibodies will eventually break
C) Adaptive responses include physical barriers down. If the child then encounters the pathogen that the
like skin. antibodies were designed for, it will have no memory cells to
ensure a quick response.
D) Adaptive responses rely on recognition of
molecules characteristic of types of pathogens. 5. The surfaces of most vertebrate cells contain
Answer: B; Innate responses are always “ready,” and do not need proteins encoded by the major histocompatibility
to be manufactured when the pathogen appears. Macrophages complex (MHC). These proteins allow cells to
are always present, for example, and will engulf any bacterium distinguish self from nonself. Which characteristic
or virus whose molecules lock into the macrophage's receptors. would be most useful in making the MHC good
2. Aspects of innate immunity are found in a wide at its job?
variety of organisms. For example, some of the A) MHC proteins are relatively small and simple
proteins involved have recently been identified in structure.
in cnidarians. Which hypothesis could be B) MHC proteins are found in all tissues except
supported by this observation? immune system cells.
A) Cnidarians live in an environment rich in C) MHC genes show little variation, producing
pathogens. uniform MHC proteins.
B) Cnidarians often attack vertebrates, and have D) MHC genes are polymorphic, producing many
received genes by horizontal transfer. small differences in MHC proteins.
C) Innate immunity is found in all domains of life. Answer: D; The variability in MHC proteins helps to make the
self identity unique. It is much less likely that a pathogen would
D) Innate immunity is an evolutionarily conserved
be “close enough” to your own MHC that the body would not
core process.
recognize it as foreign. MHC proteins are not small and simple,
Answer: D; The fact that both cnidarians and vertebrates have but large and complex, again, helping to make them unique.
genes for innate response proteins implies that they share a
common ancestor. That common ancestor would be pretty far 6. Each year health organizations urge anyone
down on the phylogenetic tree of animals. over the age of 6 months to have a flu vaccine.
3. Once a bacterium has invaded the body, it may Even if you had a vaccine the year before, you
bind to a B cell as part of the adaptive immune need to be re-vaccinated. Why is a yearly flu
response. This will occur if the B cell has shot necessary?
receptors that recognize certain molecules on A) Influenza vaccines are produced in eggs, which
the bacterial surface. What is the correct term are digested by the body.
for the bacterial molecules that bind to the B B) Antibodies in the vaccine are fragile, and
cell receptors? degrade quickly.
A) antigen C) The influenza virus is prone to mutations, so new
strains of flu constantly appear.
B) antibody
D) Increased travel in the 21st century means new
C) antitope
types of flu are being transmitted around the world.
D) complementary protein
Answer: C; Influenza is prone to both antigen drift and antigen
Answer: A; Antigens are molecules on pathogens that provoke shift. Like all RNA viruses, influenza is replicated by a viral RNA
an immune response. They are usually proteins or glycoproteins. polymerase that lacks proofreading abilities, so mutations
4. Individuals can gain immunity either passively accumulate (antigen drift). More dramatically, new subtypes
or actively. An example of passive immunity of the viral proteins expressed on its surface may suddenly
appear (antigen shift). Thus, each year's flu shot is aimed at
would be shown when newborns already have
a different target.
some immunity, due to the antibodies they
received from their mother. However, this 7. Damage to tissues can elicit an inflammatory
newborn immunity does not last forever, and response. As a part of this response, histamines
each individual will eventually have to build are released from mast cells. Histamines cause
their own antibodies. Why does newborn nearby capillaries to dilate and become more
immunity not last? permeable. How is this effect beneficial?
A) The baby did not go through its own humoral A) Dilation reduces the amount of blood lost due
response, and does not have memory cells. to the injury.
B) The baby's own innate immunity will attack mom's B) Certain white blood cells can leave the blood
antibodies. and enter damaged tissue.

168 CHAPTER 33 | The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

 C) Pathogens become concentrated in the dilated Explanations of cell communication through cell-to-cell direct
vessels. contact may include (1 point each):
D) Cytokines are released to engulf the pathogens. • Natural killer cells are large, granular lymphocytes that kill
Answer: B; Once in the damaged tissues, these white blood virus-infected cells and cancer cells by cell-to-cell contact.
cells will differentiate into cells, such as macrophages capable They seek out cells that lack a particular type of MHC-1
of engulfing the pathogens. Macrophages will also release (major histocompatibility complex) on their surface. If the
cytokines, which stimulate the bone marrow to produce more pathogen lacks these MHC-1 molecules, they may be
white blood cells. recognized by NK (natural killer) cells, which then induce
them to undergo apoptosis.
8. Both B cells and T cells are formed in the • Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) must make cell-to-cell contact
bone marrow, and mature either in the bone to communicate with helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells. After
marrow (B cells) or in the thymus (T cells). A breaking a pathogen apart, they display a fragment of the
variety of recombination and gene splicing pathogen in association with an MHC class II protein on the
processes are at work in these cells, so that in cell's surface, which can bind to a TH cell that has a TCR
the end each person's body has a huge library capable of combining with that particular combination. This
of different B and T cells, all with different stimulates division.
receptors. How do these receptors play a role 11. The human body's immune system is composed
in clonal selection? of a variety of cells and antibody proteins that
A) Immature B and T cells with certain receptors will are able to carry out a number of roles in both
be “selected” to become prominent in the innate and adaptive immune defenses.
bloodstream. A) Describe three types of cells or antibody proteins
B) Macrophages will be “selected” to produce a utilized by the human body.
clone of free-floating receptors in the tissues. B) Explain how variation in molecular units of each
C) Any given pathogen will encounter a B cell with a of the types of cells described in part (a) provides
matching receptor, “selecting” that type of B cell the cells in the immune system with a wider
to be cloned. range of functions.
D) Adult humans will only contain B and T cells Variations in immune system cells provides a wider range of
with receptors that have been “selected” to be functions may include:
effective. Description of cells (1 point each)
Answer: C; Once a pathogen has encountered and bound to a • Phagocytic cells (white blood cells) of the innate defense
particular B cell, that type of B cell is marked for cloning. These system contain granules in their cytoplasm.
B cells will divide many times, forming plasm B cells capable
• B cells can differentiate (if stimulated by helper T cells) into
of making antibodies that have the right shape to tackle the
plasma cells with extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum.
pathogen that “selected” the original B cell.
• B cells can differentiate (if stimulated by helper T cells) into
9. Antibodies are defensive proteins which are memory B cells that contain specific BCRs that will recognize
produced in response to the presence of an specific antigens and promote immediate response in case of
antigen. Antibodies will bind to complementary future infection.
receptors on the pathogen. What effect does • Antibodies are Y-shaped protein molecules with constant
this have? regions along the trunk of the Y and variable regions at the
A) Bound antibodies may cause antigens to clump tips of the Y to form two antigen-binding sites.
together. • While there are three different types of T cells, each has a
B) Cells coated with antibodies are marked for unique T-cell receptor (TCR) that can recognize and antigen
destruction by natural killer cells. fragment in combination with an MHC molecule.
• Helper T cells recognize and respond only to antigens
C) Antibodies may activate the complement system,
which in turn may form membrane attack presented by specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
complexes to lyse pathogens. with MHC class II proteins on their surface.
• While there are three different types of T cells, each has a
D) Any of the above may be triggered by antibodies.
unique T-cell receptor (TCR) that can recognize and antigen
Answer: D; The end-point of antibody-mediated immunity is fragment in combination with an MHC molecule.
destruction and elimination of all specific pathogens in the
• Cytotoxic T cells recognize and respond only to antigens
humors (fluids) of the body. Any and all of the actions listed
presented by various cell types with the MHC class I proteins
above are a part of the elimination process.
on their surface. Additionally, Tc cells contain storage vacuoles
10. Cells communicate with each other through that are filled with perforin and enzymes.
direct contact with other cells. Explain this Explanation of differentiated function as a result of molecular
phenomenon using TWO examples found unit variation (1 point each)
between immune cells. Be sure to include in • These cells contain antimicrobial peptides and enzymes that
your explanation which cells are communicating, can kill and digest bacteria, allowing these cells to engulf and
and the result of the interaction. digest relatively large particles, such as viruses and bacteria.

Teacher Manual 169

 • The extensive rough ER allows for the mass production and Unfortunately, the side effects and increasing
secretion of specific antibodies. prevalence of drug-resistant viruses create a
• The BCRs are very specific and will recognize specific antigens need for additional therapies. One area being
and promote immediate recognition and response in case of studied is passive immune therapy. The graph
future infection. shows HIV patient responses to passive
• The variable regions allow antigens to bind only to particular immune therapy. The number of viral copies/mL
antigens as they combine at the antibody's antigen-binding site is a measure of the amount of virus in the
in a lock-and-key manner. This also allows the body to have a patient's blood.
specific response to pathogens, instead of only relying on the
general response of the innate defense system. A) Compare the patient responses to passive
immune therapy.
• Helper T cells regulate adaptive immunity by influencing other
cells and secreting a variety of cytokines and becoming For patient 1, the virus amount sharply decreased but then
memory T cells, while increased to the original measurement. For Patient 2, the virus
amount decreased and stayed down. For Patient 3, the virus
• Cytotoxic T cells attack and kill virus-infected cells and cancer
amount slowly increased.
cells using the perforin to perforate the plasma membrane
of the target and pouring enzymes into the abnormal cell to B) Explain whether the researchers can conclude
force apoptosis. if passive immune therapy is effective.
12. The standard treatment for a patient with More research is necessary. Passive immune therapy was
an HIV infection is antiviral drug therapy. effective for 1 out of 3 patients.

170 CHAPTER 33 | The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

CHAPTER 34
Digestive Systems
and Nutrition
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
34.1 Digestive Tracts
34.2 The Human Digestive System 2 2.3 Cell Size
34.3 Digestive Enzymes
34.4 Nutrition and Human Health
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 34 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 2 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Diet and the Evolution of Salivary Amylase
Investigating the Effect of pH on Amylase
Modeling the Dynamic Digestive System Microbiome

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Chapter 34 presents illustrative examples for Unit 2. The topics to focus on are mechanical vs.
chemical digestion, and surface-area-to-volume ratios. This chapter provides structure and
examples of how the small intestine increases surface area to increase absorption of nutrients
as food travels through the digestive system. Differentiating between mechanical and
chemical digestion can help illustrate how muscles and enzymes/pH amounts can contribute
to each specialized organ and its function. The mechanical activity increases the surface area
for the enzymatic activity to chemically complete the breaks down of food into molecules that
can be used by the animal.
There is no mention of specific organs in the AP curriculum and thus shouldn't be focused on
as much as the overall concepts.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—25 minutes on the human digestive system
Activity 1: Diet and the Evolution of Salivary Amylase—20 minutes
Day 2:  ctivity 2: Investigating the Effect of pH on Amylase OR Activity 3: Modeling
A
the Dynamic Digestive System Microbiome—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students may not realize that accessory organs, such as salivary gland, the liver, the
gallbladder, and the pancreas, are not part of the passage that food takes through the
human body. These accessory organs produce the enzymes that are largely responsible
for digestion. The actual path that food takes through the body should be a focus point
so that students will completely understand the interactions between all of the digestive
organs.

Teacher Manual 171

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Diet and the Evolution of Salivary Amylase: Students analyze real life data on the salivary
amylase gene in different human populations and their diets. Find a link to the activity and
further directions in your online course.
2. Investigating the Effect of pH on Amylase: Students will use an amylase and iodine solution
to measure how long digestive enzymes take to break down starch. Complete directions
and a student worksheet are available in your online course.
3. Modeling the Dynamic Digestive System Microbiome (Estes, 2015): Students will explore
how diet and nutrition affects the gut microbiome. The American Society for Microbiology
hosts this activity, and a link to it can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of a group activity, you may want to introduce this
topic to your entire class at once. Show the NPR short film: The Invisible Universe of the
Human Microbiome, available on Vimeo (a link is available in your online course). After
your students view the film, have them research a particular microbiome of the human
body or microorganism. Your students may work in pairs or small groups to do the
research and present their findings. You may want to assign a topic or let your
students pick from topics.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Comprehension Skill—Intermediate
Ask questions about the lesson content to elicit one or two-word answers: Complete digestive
tracts have a mouth and ? an anus. Amylase, pepsin, and lipase are types of what? digestive
enzymes

Oral Language Development—Advanced

Have students scan the lesson for content vocabulary words in context. Help them pronounce
the vocabulary words correctly. Discuss vocabulary meanings with them.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 34.1, Check Your Progress Section 34.2, Check Your Progress
1. Compare the digestive tract of a planarian with 1. Describe the likely selective pressures that
that of an earthworm. resulted in the evolution of taste buds.
Planarians have an incomplete digestive tract, called the Taste buds enable an animal to discern the difference between
gastrovascular cavity; the complete tract of earthworms nutritious and non-nutritious food that could contain potentially
has a pharynx, crop, gizzard, and intestine. dangerous substances that should not be consumed.
2. Describe some of the limitations of an 2. Explain how villi promote the absorption
incomplete digestive tract. of nutrients in the small intestine.
An incomplete digestive tract has only one opening, with parts that The villi and microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the
are not very specialized because they serve multiple functions. small intestine for absorption of nutrients.
3. Compare the teeth of carnivores to those 3. Discuss how blood sugar regulation is
of herbivores. conducted by the liver.
Carnivores tend to have pointed incisors and enlarged canine The liver maintains steady blood glucose levels, even though a
teeth to tear off pieces of food small enough to quickly swallow. person eats intermittently. When insulin is present, any excess
The molars are jagged for efficient chewing of meat. Herbivores glucose present in blood is removed and stored by the liver as
have reduced canines but sharp and even incisors to clip glycogen. Between meals, glycogen is broken down to glucose,
grasses. The large flat molars grind and crush tough grasses. which enters the hepatic veins.

172 CHAPTER 34 | Digestive Systems and Nutrition

Section 34.3, Check Your Progress 2. Food is mixed mechanically and chemically in
1. Describe the location(s) in the digestive tract the stomach until it becomes a milky liquid
where each of the major types of nutrients is called chyme. Chyme will pass through a
broken down. sphincter into the small intestine in order to
complete digestion. Predict the consequences
Starch digestion begins in the mouth, where salivary amylase
digests starch to maltose. Pancreatic amylase continues this
if the sphincter between the stomach and small
same process in the small intestine. In the small intestine, intestine reacted to a certain medication by
maltase and brush-border enzymes digest maltose to glucose, losing its ability to contract.
which enters a blood capillary. Protein digestion starts in the A) Lack of water will retard digestion in the small
stomach, where pepsin digests protein to peptides, and intestine.
continues in the small intestine, where trypsin carries out this B) Chyme will enter the small intestine continuously,
same process. Lipase breaks down fat droplets also in the small and the small intestine will receive more food
intestine. than it can handle.
2. Explain what final molecule (monomer) results C) Starches in the chyme will never interact with
from the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, salivary amylase.
and fats. D) Fatty material will be unable to leave the stomach
Carbohydrates are digested to simple sugars (monosaccharides), and remain undigested.
proteins are digested to amino acids, and fats are digested to Answer: B; The role of the pyloric sphincter is to regulate how
glycerol plus fatty acids. much chyme enters the small intestine at one time. If it could
not contract properly, too much chyme would likely enter the
Section 34.4, Check Your Progress duodenum at one time. This overload would not get properly
1. State several reasons why a diet that includes mixed with sufficient enzymes and digestion efficiency would
plenty of vegetables is generally better for you be compromised.
than a diet that includes excess protein. 3. The wall of the small intestine is lined with
Vegetables, if properly chosen, can supply limited calories and projections called villi. Each of these projections
all necessary amino acids and vitamins. Much urea results when is covered with epithelial cells that themselves
excess amino acids from proteins are metabolized. The loss of have projections, microscopic extensions called
water needed to excrete urea can result in dehydration and loss microvilli. How would these projections aid in
of calcium ions. performing the function of the small intestine?
2. Describe the relationship among blood A) by increasing the surface area available for
cholesterol, saturated fat intake, and absorption of digested nutrients
cardiovascular disease. B) by increasing the number of muscle fibers
A diet high in saturated fats tends to raise LDL cholesterol, needed to churn food in the intestine
which is associated with atherosclerosis. C) by blocking the absorption of harmful bacteria
3. Define vitamin. into the bloodstream
A vitamin is an organic molecule that is required in the diet D) by blocking the release of sodium bicarbonate
because it cannot be synthesized. and preventing the neutralization of the chyme
Answer: A; All of the microscopic projections combined provide a
AP Assessment tremendous amount of surface area. The folding of tissues, and
1. While most of the human body has a pH of the effective “folding” the cell surface is a common approach to
about 7.4, the pH of the stomach is around 2, increasing surface area in a small space.
due to the presence of HCl. How is such a low 4. A student in the cafeteria eats nothing but
pH beneficial to digestion? a giant plate of French fries every day, and
A) A low pH is necessary to convert pepsinogen to explains that he is “going vegetarian.” What's
pepsin. wrong with this diet?
B) A low pH is necessary to convert trypsinogen to A) does not contain the 8 essential amino acids
trypsin. B) does not contain sufficient fiber
C) Killer cells of the immune system are inactivated C) does not contain a variety of vitamins
by HCl. and minerals
D) Salty conditions are needed to separate fatty D) all of the above
acids.
Answer: D; A well-thought out vegetarian diet is quite healthy,
Answer: A; Pepsinogen is produced in an inactive form by the but requires some planning to make sure it contains adequate
chief cells of the gastric glands. It does not become active as the nutrition, particularly the 8 essential amino acids humans cannot
protease pepsin until it hits the HCl of the stomach, preventing manufacture in their bodies.
any digestion of the proteins in the glands it is traveling through.

Teacher Manual 173

 5. The liver performs many different functions. Explanations for how cell size and shape affect the overall
Among these is the production of bile, a function of the intestine may include: Descriptions of villi and
yellowish-green substance that will be stored microvilli (1 point each)
in the gall bladder. Bile contains bile salts that • The wall of the small intestine contains fingerlike projections
will emulsify fat in the small intestine. This called villi. The vessels of a villus contain blood capillaries and
emulsification breaks fats up into droplets. a lymphatic capillary, called a lacteal.
How does emulsification contribute to digestion? • Each villus has an outer layer of columnar epithelial cells, and
A) Once in droplet form, fats can more easily be each of these cells has thousands of microscopic extensions
increased in temperature. called microvilli. Microvilli contain intestinal enzymes.
B) Once in droplet form, fats can be absorbed Explanation of related function (1 point each)
directly across the wall of the small intestine. • By projecting from the intestinal wall The surface of the
C) Pulling fats apart into droplets provides a larger small intestine is increased. Essential molecules (e.g. sugars
surface area on which digestive enzymes can act. and amino acids) from digested materials enter the capillaries
of a villus.
D) Pulling fats apart into droplets is the first step in
• More microvilli means more enzymes that complete the
rearranging fats into larger molecules for storage.
process of food digestion, which means a greater rate
Answer: C; The larger surface area provided by emulsification of food digestion.
allows digestive enzymes to combine with their substrates more
easily. 8. Organisms exhibit complex properties due
to interactions between their constituent
6. In recent years scientists have become
parts. Cooperation between the stomach and
very interested in the microbiome, all the
small intestine ensures an effective digestive
microorganisms living in or on the body. The
process.
bacterium Helicobacter pylori, for example, has
A) Describe the mechanism by which the food from
been associated with the development of
the stomach enters the small intestine.
stomach ulcers. In a recent study, it was found
that humans who were infected with H. pylori B) Predict the effect on the digestive process if
something were to malfunction in the action
displayed much less diversity in their stomach
of the pyloric sphincter which separates the
microbiome than did uninfected individuals. What
stomach from the duodenum.
claim can be justified from this observation?
Predicted effects of a change in a component of the digestive
A) Individuals with H. pylori infections are healthier system may include:
than those without such infections.
Descriptions of mechanism (1 point each)
B) A diverse stomach microbiome may protect
• The connection between the stomach and the duodenum of
against the growth of H. pylori.
the small intestine is regulated by the actions of a sphincter
C) It is a good idea to eliminate bacteria from the (pyloric sphincter can be retrieved from the prompt) which
stomach environment. contracts and relaxes.
D) H. pylori grows best in the presence of other • In the stomach, food mixes with gastric juices to become
bacteria. chyme. The opening and closing of the sphincter slows the
Answer: B; This data showed that when H. pylori flourished, flow of chyme into the small intestine, which allows for more
other bacteria did not. Conversely, a low H. pylori count was thorough digestion. In other words, when the sphincter is
associated with more diverse microbiomes. H. pylori has been contracted, it holds food in the stomach, allowing digestion
squarely implicated in stomach ulcers and stomach cancer. to continue to process.
However, there is some thought that low populations of Predicted effects of change (1 point each)
H. pylori are harmless.
• If the sphincter is unhealthy and not contracting when needed,
7. The small intestine mixes chime with digestive food may reenter the stomach from the intestines (also known
enzymes for final breakdown, absorbs nutrient as reflux or regurgitation).
molecules into the body, and secretes digestive • If the sphincter is unhealthy and not contracting when needed,
hormones into the blood. food may enter the intestines before digestion is fully completed.
A) Describe the specialized structures of the villi and • If the sphincter thickens, it can block the channel, preventing
microvilli of the intestine. the passage of food (chyme) from the stomach to the small
B) Explain how cell size and shape affect the overall intestine, blocking the absorption of nutrients into the
rate of nutrient absorption and waste elimination. capillaries of the villi.

174 CHAPTER 34 | Digestive Systems and Nutrition

9. In a study conducted at the U.S. Department C) Compare the trend in the percent differences.
of Agriculture Human Nutrition Research Center, Accept all answers which accurately represent the data
scientists measured the mass of 99 single-
serving food products. The table compares the
mass listed on the food package label with the
actual mass of the food in five single-serving
packages.
A) Calculate the percent difference in mass
between the label mass and the actual mass
of the cookies.
See table under part b.
B) Calculate the standard deviation and standard
error between the label mass and actual mass.
Standard
Label Mass Actual Mass % Difference Deviation
Cereal, bran flakes with raisins (1 box) 39 54.2 28% 10.75
Cereal, toasted grains with supplement (1 box) 23 39.6 42% 11.74
Cookie, chocolate sandwich (1 pkg) 57 67 15% 7.07
Mini danish, apple (1 per serving) 35 44.8 22% 6.93
Mini donut (chocolate covered 4 per serving) 100 116.5 14% 11.67

Teacher Manual 175

CHAPTER 35
Respiratory Systems

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

35.1 Gas-Exchange Surfaces 2 2.5 Membrane Permeability
35.2 Breathing and Transport
of Gases
35.3 Respiration and Human
Health
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 35 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 2 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Gas Exchange
Modeling Respiration

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Like the other body systems, students are not required to memorize specific organs and their
functions; however, it can be beneficial to use the system as a model for gas exchange in
addition to stomata and photosynthesis.
As with most topics, a mix of hands on experience and the use of models and lectures
increases concept understanding. To demonstrate how a human lung works, a model may
be purchased or borrowed from as association like the American Lung Association, the
Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, or local pulmonary physician.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—35 minutes on gas exchange across animal phyla
Activity 1: How Lungs Work OR Activity 2: Gas Exchange
Day 2: Activity 3: Modeling Respiration—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Most students do not make the connection between metabolism, energy requirements for life,
and respiration. The connection can be made clearer as students learn about the simple gas
exchange of planarians that are so small and have small energy needs. Movement across land
takes more energy than movement in the water due to buoyancy. Most students have
experienced this.

176 CHAPTER 35 | Respiratory Systems

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. How Lungs Work: Students will observe how lungs work. For this activity, you will want to
talk to your local butcher and see if you can obtain a lung. You can then use a bicycle pump
and demo to students how lungs inflate and deflate.

Differentiated Instruction: If it is not possible to obtain a lung, show the TEDEd Talk by
Emma Bryce, “How Do Lung Works,” as an introduction to your lesson. This TEDEd talk
could also be shown prior to the activity Modeling Respiration. A link to the video is
available in your online course.

2. Gas Exchange: Students will observe an animated infographic of gas exchange in different
organisms and explain the differences. A link to the infographic is available in your online
course.
3. Modeling Respiration: Students will build a model human lung. They will use their model
to answer questions about the human respiratory system. You can locate the student
worksheet in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Making Connections—Beginning
Help students’ access text by using a diagram or an illustration to demonstrate key points.
For example, label the parts of a diagram. Before reading, explain the diagram and labels to
students using gestures and short phrases. As you read, point out each labeled item on the
diagram to show students how the information in the diagram connects to information in the
text.

Oral Language Development—Advanced High

After reading each paragraph of the lesson, use an Interactive Question-Response to discuss
its main idea and supporting details. Have students record the main idea and details of the
paragraphs in a two-column chart.

Main Idea Details

paragraph 1
paragraph 2
paragraph 3
paragraph 4

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 35.1, Check Your Progress higher percentage of oxygen is transferred than if both flowed in
the same direction. The highest value a concurrent mechanism
1. List some features common to all animals that
could achieve would be 50% of the oxygen content in the water
are able to exchange gases directly with their because equilibrium would occur.
environment.
Air has a drying effect, and respiratory surfaces have to be moist, Section 35.2, Check Your Progress
thin, and large in relation to the size of the body. 1. Describe how the mechanism of ventilation in
2. Explain why the countercurrent flow that occurs reptiles and mammals relates to Boyle’s law.
in the gills of fish is much more efficient than Boyle’s law states that at a constant temperature the pressure
concurrent flow would be. of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
When blood containing a low oxygen level flows in an opposite During inspiration, the rib cage moves up and out, and the
direction than the oxygen-rich water passing over the gills, a diaphragm contracts and moves down. As the thoracic cavity

Teacher Manual 177

 expands like a flexible container, air flows into the lungs due to Answer: D; Larger aquatic animals tend to have gills. Because
decreased air pressure in the lungs. During expiration, the rib water is innately low in dissolved oxygen, these animals typically
cage moves down and the diaphragm relaxes and moves up to have mechanisms to pump water over the gills, in order to
its former position. Air flows out as a result of increased pressure constantly renew the supply.
in the lungs. 2. Insects possess an open circulatory system
2. Explain how the carotid bodies and aortic enclosed within a rigid exoskeleton. Openings in
bodies affect the rate of respiration. the exoskeleton called spiracles are connected
The carotid bodies and aortic bodies contain chemoreceptors to a series of tubes. How does oxygen get from
that send stimulatory messages to the respiratory center if the outside the exoskeleton to the internal tissues?
pH or oxygen levels are too low. A) Air travels from the spiracle directly into the
3. Define the role of oxyhemoglobin, reduced hemolymph that is circulating in the sinuses
hemoglobin, and carbaminohemoglobin in of the insect.
homeostasis. B) Air travels from the spiracle to a series of ever-
In the lungs, oxygen entering pulmonary capillaries combines smaller tubes, ending in fine tubes which indent
with hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin the plasma membrane of cells.
(HbO2). In the tissues, Hb gives up oxygen, which carbon dioxide C) Oxygen is picked up at the spiracles by a series
enters the blood and the red blood cells. Some carbon dioxide of carrier molecules that diffuse through the tube
combines with Hb to form carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2). Most system.
carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which D) Oxygen is taken up into specialized vacuoles that
dissociates into H+ and HCO3-. The H+ is absorbed by the globin travel the respiratory tubes delivering oxygen to
portions of hemoglobin to form reduced hemoglobin (HbH+). tissues.
This helps stabilize the pH of the blood.
Answer: B; The tubes change size as they travel through the
organism, ending in a series of very fine closed tubules. Gas
Section 35.3, Check Your Progress
exchange of O2 and CO2 occurs directly between the tube
1. Explain why antibiotic drugs such as penicillin system and the tissues.
are ineffective at treating the common cold.
3. Humans possess a closed circulatory system
Penicillin is an antibiotic that kills bacteria, but most colds are which works closely with the respiratory system
caused by viruses. to allow gas exchange to occur. As in insects,
2. Name two disorders of the lower respiratory the human respiratory system is built on a
tract that mainly cause a narrowing of the series of tubes: trachea, bronchi, and
airways and two that restrict the lungs’ ability bronchioles, which end in closed sacs called
to expand. alveoli. In which part of the respiratory system
Narrowing of the airways is seen in bronchitis and asthma; does gas exchange actually occur?
reduced lung expansion is seen in pulmonary fibrosis and A) alveoli
emphysema.
B) bronchi
3. List six illnesses associated with smoking C) bronchioles
cigarettes.
D) all of the above
Smoking causes or contributes to acute and chronic bronchitis,
Answer: A; The alveoli consist of a tiny sacs surrounded by
asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, and lung cancer (along
capillary beds. The small size and large number of alveoli
with many cardiovascular disorders).
provide about 70 m2 of surface area across which gases can
AP Assessment diffuse between the alveoli and the blood stream.

1. Aquatic animals have no problems with 4. At any given temperature, water tends to have
respiratory surfaces drying out. However, they a relatively low quantity of dissolved oxygen. In
still have to face certain innate problems that bony fishes, a countercurrent exchange system
result from using water as a source of oxygen. has evolved to maximize the amount of oxygen
Choose the example that describes a problem that can be taken from water passing over the
animals must conquer in order to get oxygen gills. Which describes the mechanics of such a
from water. system?
A) Cold water is very low in oxygen. A) Water flows over the gills in the same direction
as blood flowing through the gills.
B) Splitting water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen uses a lot of energy. B) Water flows over the gills in the opposite
direction as blood flowing through the gills.
C) Water must be heated in order to release its
oxygen. C) Oxygen flows in the same direction as carbon
dioxide in the bloodstream.
D) The density of water requires more energy to get
it to move through respiratory systems. D) Oxygen flows in the opposite direction as carbon
dioxide in the bloodstream.

178 CHAPTER 35 | Respiratory Systems

 Answer: B; The water that passes over the gills is running Answer: D; A small amount of the CO2 remains in the blood
counter, or opposite, to the direction of the blood flowing plasma as a dissolved gas, but most diffuses into red blood cells
through capillaries in the gills. and forms H2CO3. This in turn dissociates into H+ and HCO3-. The
5. How does the countercurrent exchange system bicarbonate ion diffuses back into the plasma and is transported
to the lung, where the process reverses and CO2 is reformed and
described above maximize the uptake of
diffuses into the alveoli.
oxygen from water flowing over the gills?
8. The rate of respiration in humans is controlled
A) It creates a constant diffusion gradient for
oxygen, such that oxygen constantly diffuses by a respiratory center in the brain. This
passively from the water into the bloodstream. respiratory center monitors certain nervous and
chemical factors. For example, if the pH of the
B) It creates a series of membrane-bound pumps
that work to counter the movement of oxygen blood lowers, the respiratory center increases
out of the bloodstream. the rate and depth of breathing. Which would
be likely to decrease blood pH?
C) It speeds up the flow of water over the gills,
allowing more water to pass in a given amount A) increased exercise rate
of time. B) increased digestive activity
D) It slows the flow of water over the gills, giving C) decreased rate of cellular respiration
time for thorough diffusion of oxygen out of any D) decreased rate of protein synthesis
given parcel of water.
Answer: A; When exercise increases, cellular respiration
Answer: A; As a fresh parcel of water strikes the gills, it is 100% increases. This puts out more CO2 byproduct, which diffuses
oxygenated. The blood it is flowing by at that point is something into the bloodstream to form carbonic acid. The lowering of the
less than 100% (about 90%), so oxygen moves from high to low blood acidity encourages more and deeper breathing, bringing
concentration. By the time that this parcel of water reaches the in more oxygen needed for the increase in cellular respiration.
end of the gill, its oxygen concentration has been depleted,
perhaps down to 15%. However, at that place on the gill, it is 9. Animal respiratory systems achieve maximum
flowing alongside the lease oxygenated blood, so there is still surface area for gas exchange. For example,
a favorable diffusion gradient. human lungs have a total surface area which
6. In humans, oxygen is carried in the bloodstream is about 50 times the surface area of the skin.
by hemoglobin (Hb) molecules located in red A) Describe the specialized structure of the alveoli
blood cells. Each Hb has 4 polypeptide chains, of lungs.
each of which has a single heme group. It is B) Explain how cell size and shape affect the overall
the iron in the heme group that actually attracts rate of nutrient absorption and waste elimination.
an oxygen molecule. If the average red blood Explanations for how cell size and shape affect the
cell has about 250 million Hb molecules, overall function of the lungs may include:
calculate how many oxygen molecules would Descriptions of villi and microvilli (1 point each)
be carried by a single red blood cell. • Alveoli are numerous air pockets located at the terminus of
A) 1,000,000 bronchioles in the internal region of the lungs.
B) 100,000,000 • Alveoli are surrounded by a capillary network.
C) 1,000,000,000 Explanation of related function (1 point each)
D) 1,000,000,000,000 • Through the multitude of alveoli, the surface area of the lungs
Answer: C; Each Hb molecule carries has 4 heme groups. Each is increased, increasing the capacity of the lung to perform gas
heme group carries one oxygen molecule. Each red blood cell exchange across membranes.
carries about 1 billion oxygen molecules: 250, 000, 000 Hb • Ventilation causes the alveoli of the lungs to have a different
molecules X 4 oxygen/Hb = 1,000,000,000 molecules of oxygen. partial pressure than the nearby capillary. This accounts for
7. Respiration involves the exchange of oxygen the exchange of gases between the alveoli and surrounding
capillary network as the gasses diffuse from higher to lower
and carbon dioxide. CO2 is produced as a
pressure.
by-product of cellular respiration in cells, and
then diffuses into the tissues. What happens to 10. Organisms exhibit complex properties due to
this CO2 once it diffuses into the bloodstream? interactions between their constituent parts.
Cooperation between the respiratory and
A) Some re-enters the cell and triggers muscle
contractions. circulatory systems ensures an effective gas
exchange. Predict the effect on the circulatory
B) Some is taken into contractile vacuoles and
system for each of the following malfunctions
removed to the kidney.
of the respiratory system:
C) Most combines with water to form glucose
(C6H12O6). A) Alveoli fill with pus and fluid.

D) Most combines with water to form carbonic acid B) Airways are inflamed due to irritation or infection.
(H2CO3).

Teacher Manual 179

 Predicted effects of a malfunction in the respiratory system may A) Which subject might be suffering from a dietary
include (1 point each): iron deficiency? Explain your choice.
A) The surface area for gas exchange with capillaries most likely Subject C because his or her hemoglobin content
is reduced, and less oxygen reaches the heart and of the blood is the lowest
brain. B) Which subject might have lived at a high altitude
B) This makes breathing more difficult for the individual, where the atmospheric oxygen is low? Explain
making gas exchange with capillaries more difficult and your choice.
often leading to cardiac disease. most likely Subject B because the oxygen content of Subject B’s
This makes gas exchange with capillaries more difficult and blood in the arteries is the lowest (except for Subject C, whose
often leads to cardiac disease. low oxygen content is due to another reason)
11. The following data compare the state of five C) Which subject might have been poisoned by
subjects whose circulation was monitored. The carbon monoxide that prevents tissue cells
weight, age, and sex of all five subjects were from using oxygen? Explain your choice.
the same. All of Subject A’s data were within most likely Subject E because the difference between the
normal limits; the other four were not. oxygen content of his or her arteries and veins is the smallest

180 CHAPTER 35 | Respiratory Systems

CHAPTER 36
Body Fluid Regulation
and Excretory Systems
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
36.1 Animal Excretory System 1 2.8 Tonicity and Osmoregulation
36.2 The Human Urinary System 1 2.8 Tonicity and Osmoregulation
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 36 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 2 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Kidney Function
Osmoregulation Poster Session

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The content may serve as illustrative examples for students, and could tie into homeostasis;
however, this connection could be better strengthened with other topics that are within the
scope of the curriculum. Unless students are particularly interested, this chapter can be
breezed over.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—30 minutes on bodily fluid regulation and excretory systems
Activity 1: Kidney Function OR Activity 2: Regulation of Water
Day 2: Activity 3: Osmoregulation Poster—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students get confused about the excretory system and believe that the excretory system is
responsible for the production of feces. They have a hard time understanding the concept
that a buildup of nitrogen wastes within an animal is toxic.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Kidney Function: Students will watch a clip from the Holiday Lecture Series, Of Hearts and
Hypertension: Blazing Genetic Traits on HHMI’s website to explore how kidneys remove
waste from the human body and describe the model shown in the film. A link to the lecture
and further directions can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of having students watch this clip, ask your students
to come up with a model of their own to explain how human kidneys work. This provides
a greater challenge for your students.

Teacher Manual 181

2. Regulation of Water: Students will create graphic organizers comparing and contrasting the
secretion of ADH and ANH in the human body.
Students can complete this individually or in pairs. Provide students with a list of keywords
about the regulation of the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and the atrial natriuretic hormone
(ANH). Students should create a graphic organizer or a spider map showing how the
different concepts and words relate to each other and the regulation of water within
the human body.
Encourage students to write down brief notes or any quick memory tips to be able
to differentiate between the different key words.
3. Osmoregulation Poster Session: Students will research osmoregulation in an organism
and create a poster to present in a poster session. See your online course for additional
directions and suggested animal models.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Making Connections—Beginning
Help students access text by using a diagram or an illustration to demonstrate key points.
Before reading, explain the diagram and labels to students using gestures and short phrases.
As you read, point out each labeled item on the diagram to show students how the
information in the diagram connects to information in the text.

Summarizing—Advanced/Advanced High
Tell students summarizing what they have read will allow them to keep track of important
concepts and focus on the important information. Have students summarize the section.
Ask volunteers to present their summary.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 36.1, Check Your Progress solely by the kidneys, and which are shared
1. Distinguish between osmoregulation and with other body systems.
excretion. The kidneys alone secrete nitrogenous wastes, but share
responsibility for regulating blood pressure, pH, and water-salt
Osmoregulation involves the balance between salts and water;
balance.
metabolic wastes are removed by excretion.
2. Explain the control of the human body’s
2. Describe two advantages of excreting urea
water-salt balance.
instead of ammonia or uric acid.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) absorbs more water (blood volume
Urea is less toxic than ammonia, and requires less water to
and blood pressure rise), and results in a small amount of
excrete; uric acid takes more energy to prepare than urea.
concentrated urine. Aldosterone (triggered ultimately by renin)
3. Summarize the strategies used by kangaroo promotes the excretion of potassium ions and the reabsorption
rats to conserve water. of sodium ions, which triggers the reabsorption of water. Atrial
Kangaroo rats are active at night, have convoluted nasal natriuretic hormone inhibits the secretion of renin, and thus the
passages to capture moisture in air, have fur to prevent water secretion of aldosterone.
loss, secrete a hypertonic urine, and produce dry feces. 3. Describe how the kidneys contribute to the
maintenance of normal blood pH.
Section 36.2, Check Your Progress
The kidneys maintain blood pH by secreting H+ ions and
1. Describe which of the four major functions of reabsorbing bicarbonate ions as needed.
the human urinary system are accomplished

182 CHAPTER 36 | Body Fluid Regulation and Excretory Systems

AP Assessment 4. Environmental conditions determined what
1. Breaking down molecules such as amino adaptations have evolved to regulate water
acids and nucleic acids creates waste products balance in different fishes. Which adaptation(s)
containing the amino group, which can be toxic are found in freshwater fish?
at high levels. The amino groups are converted A) drinking water
into various waste products to be excreted. It B) release large amounts hypotonic urine
takes the least energy to produce ammonia C) active secretion of salt by gills
(NH3). Why do animals such as mammals and D) all of the above
adult amphibians process the ammonia further
Answer: B; Freshwater fish are constantly gaining water by
into urea?
osmosis. To solve the problem of excess water, they do not drink
A) Mammals and amphibians can utilize the urea water, and they release a very dilute urine.
as an energy source before excretion.
5. Nephrons are the functional units of the human
B) Mammals and amphibians can modify urea into kidney. Water and various small molecules are
high-value proteins at a low energy cost.
filtered out of the blood into the tubules of the
C) Ammonia’s toxicity can only be tolerated if the nephron. As it moves through the nephron,
animal has access to enough water to dilute it. this filtrate is adjusted, eventually producing
D) Ammonia is only toxic in mammals and urine. The tubules of the nephron are highly
amphibians. convoluted. What is the most likely advantage
Answer: C; Ammonia is typically produced by fishes and other of this convolution?
aquatic animals, who have access to abundant water which is A) Convolutions result in increased surface area for
used to flush the ammonia away. secretion into and reabsorption out of the filtrate.
2. Uric acid is the form of nitrogenous waste B) Convolutions produce multiple hiding spots for
excreted by insects. In insects, the excretory beneficial bacteria.
system consists of a series of long thin tubes C) Because the tubules are convoluted, more
attached to the gut. Uric acid and K+ are both tension is placed on their walls.
actively transported from the hemolymph into
D) Because the tubules are convoluted, the filtrate
the excretory tubules. Predict the path that has a chance to cool down before exiting the
water would take to excrete water. kidney.
A) Water is actively transported from the Answer: A; The twists and turns of the nephron allow for a long
hemolymph into the excretory tubules. tube to be packed into a smaller space. The longer the tube, the
B) Water follows a favorable concentration gradient more opportunities there are for the filtrate to be adjusted.
and diffuses passively into the tubules. 6. One primary function of the kidney is to
C) Water diffuses passively out of the hemolymph reabsorb precious water so that it does not
and across the chitinous exoskeleton. get eliminated in the urine. To that end, the
D) Water is translocated into the tracheae, and exits nephron is divided into various regions with
at the spiracles. differing cellular structures. Which region of
Answer: B; It costs energy to actively transport uric acid and K+ the loop of Henle is correctly paired with its
into the excretory tubules, but once there, these substances characteristics?
contribute to a higher solute concentration than is found in A) ascending limb . . . walls have few aquaporin
the hemolymph. channels
3. Since conquering land, terrestrial mammals B) ascending limb . . . walls have many aquaporin
have radiated into many different habitats. channels
Some of them have even moved back into C) descending limb . . . walls have few aquaporin
aquatic habitats, where their land-evolved channels
excretory systems face new challenges. Predict
D) descending limb . . . walls have many aquaporin
the type of urine released by a marine mammal channels
such as a baleen whale.
Answer: D; The descending limb of the loop of Henle has
A) dilute urine abundant aquaporin channels. The ascending limb lacks
B) dilute protein-rich urine aquaporins, but does have channels to release NaCl. Once
C) concentrated urine released from the ascending limb, these Na+ and Cl- ions will
establish a favorable osmotic gradient around the descending
D) concentrated protein-rich urine
limb. As a result, water moves passively out of the descending
Answer: C; Marine mammals gain water from metabolic water limb through the aquaporins, into the tissue, and is then
and food. In order to conserve water, marine mammals resorb reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries.
much of the water in their filtrate, producing concentrated urine.

Teacher Manual 183

 7. Two students have both spent the day studying • The development of a kidney also prevents dehydration as it
in the library. Student A has been drinking produces a concentrated (hypotonic) urine.
water constantly, while Student B has had 9. Within multicellular organisms, specialization of
almost nothing to drink. Anti-diuretic hormone organs contributes to the overall functioning of
(ADH) is released in response to an increased the organism. Within vertebrates, the kidneys,
concentration of salts in the blood. Which circulatory system, and other organs work
student’s pituitary gland is more likely to together to promote efficiency in excreting
start releasing ADH, and why? waste and maintaining homeostasis.
A) Student A, in order to release excess water A) Draw or describe a model representing the
B) Student A, in order to conserve what water connections between the kidneys and at least
they have TWO other organs or systems of the body. Label
the organs, and include descriptions of their
C) Student B, in order to release excess water
contributing functions.
D) Student B, in order to conserve what water
B) Answer the following question: how would the
they have
body be impacted in the case of kidney failure
Answer: D; Student B has not been taking in water. As time goes in each of the connections you drew in part (a)?
by, the kidney has been removing water from the blood, causing
Note: Examples for models may include images similar to Figure
it to be more concentrated. That will signal the release of ADH,
36.6, Figure 36.9, or Figure 36.11. Models and explanations
which will initiate measures to conserve water, such as inserting
of their contributions may include:
extra aquaporins into the distal convoluted tubule and the
collecting duct, allowing additional water to leave the filtrate and • In the urinary system, kidneys produce urine, ureters transport
be reabsorbed into the bloodstream. the urine, the bladder stores the urine, and the urethra passes
urine to the outside. They work together to filter a large
8. Homeostatic mechanisms reflect adaptations
amount of water and solutes out of the blood (then reabsorb
in different environments across vertebrate the water and materials needed to conserve) and excrete out
animals. Proper salt balance has a critical effect of the body the waste.
on cellular functions, and many adaptations • The nephrons of kidneys are closely associated with capillaries
have evolved to maintain it. of the circulatory system in order to filter water and solutes in
A) Describe the osmoregulation of excretory and out of the blood stream.
systems of aquatic animals and those of • Kidneys produce hormones and enzymes that contribute to
terrestrial organisms. the water/salt and pH balance in blood. The pituitary gland
B) Explain how each is an adaptation for its interacts with the kidneys through hormones to stimulate the
environment. retention or loss of water, and the adrenal cortex is stimulated
Descriptions of excretory systems (1 point each): by signals from products of the kidneys and the liver to
• Most fishes and other aquatic animals excrete ammonia as increase blood pressure.
their nitrogenous waste. Marine and freshwater bony fishes • Drawings should include labels and directional arrows, as well
use different mechanisms to osmoregulate their body fluids, as be legible and clear as to the inclusion of each part.
including using their gills. • With the loss of kidney function, waste would no longer be
• Vertebrates in both aquatic and terrestrial environments have removed from the blood. Holding in solutes would also cause
kidneys. Kidneys perform several functions critical to the body to hold in too much fluid, leading to swelling due to
homeostasis, including maintaining the balance between water electrolyte imbalance and other issues. Changes will occur in
and several types of salts. urination frequency.
• Most terrestrial animals excrete urea or uric acid as their • With the loss of kidney function, anemia can result in the
nitrogenous waste. blood, calcium can be drawn from bones, blood pressure
can falter, and heart disease can occur.
Explanation of adaptation (1 point each):
• Ammonia requires less energy to produce than the waste of 10. The table shows the average daily water
terrestrial animals, but requires more water to excrete - which loss in humans (in mL), collected for normal
is available in abundance in the aquatic environment. temperatures, for high temperatures, and
• Some marine animals have developed specialized glands for during rigorous exercise.
excreting excess salts. A) Identify what the major source of water loss
• Freshwater species tend to gain water by osmosis, so these is during normal temperatures.
species never drink water, and eliminate excess water by Urine
producing large quantities of dilute (hypotonic) urine. B) Hypothesize why more water is lost in sweat
• Urea and uric acid require more energy to produce than the during rigorous exercise than in urine.
waste of aquatic animals, but requires less water to excrete,
which helps to prevent dehydration.

184 CHAPTER 36 | Body Fluid Regulation and Excretory Systems

The body sweats to cool itself and maintain a constant Normal High Rigorous
temperature. During rigorous exercise, the body Source Temps Temps Exercise
sweats heavily to counteract the heat generated
in the muscles. Urine 62% 39% 12%

C) Calculate the percent of water loss for Sweat 19% 51% 78%
each of the three conditions. Lungs 19% 10% 10%

Teacher Manual 185

CHAPTER 37
Neurons and Nervous
Systems
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
37.1 Evolution of the Nervous
System
4.1 Cell Communication
37.2 Nervous Tissue 2 4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction
Pathways
37.3 The Central Nervous System
37.4 The Peripheral Nervous
System
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 37 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Action Potential Cards
Understanding Neurobiology

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Details about neurons are not covered in the new AP curriculum; however, it might be
helpful to teach some basic concepts of this with other sections. One section in particular
is signal transduction pathways, IST-3 (all parts). While teaching this you can compare how
signals are sent through a transduction pathway vs. neurons. Another piece to connect
to is cell specialization and the structure/function relationship. Neurons are structured and
function very differently than other cells, so reinforcing that with this chapter is all you really
need to do.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—25 minutes on how neurons send and receive signals
Activity 1: Action Potential Cards—20 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—15 minutes on reflex arcs and how the brain integrates signals
Activity 2: Understanding Neurobiology—30 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Some students may believe that we only use 10% of our brain while research has shown that
we use our entire brain. While most students have heard of neurons before, many students
have never encountered glial cells and all of their supportive functions.

186 CHAPTER 37 | Neurons and Nervous Systems

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Action Potential Cards: Students will order cards to form an action potential.
Print 15 sets of the cards found on your online guide, and cut out each piece within the sets.
Place an entire set of cut out pieces into 15 separate small bags.
Give each pair of students a bag and ask them to place the pictures in order of an action
potential and match the description with each picture.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of having students complete this activity in pairs,

you can lead this as a whole classroom activity and discussion. Use the same cards but
display them digitally so that everyone can follow along.

2. Understanding Neurobiology: The NIH website has several activities which will allow
students to better understand how the brain integrates information and produces a
response. Links are provided in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Sequencing—Beginning
To enhance and confirm students’ understanding, provide images that represent each step in
an action potential Use word walls to post the word and matching image for each step in an
action potential. Have students copy the word into their interactive notebook and draw their
own image to represent the step.

Oral Development—Intermediate
Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 37.1, Check Your Progress Section 37.2, Check Your Progress
1. Define the terms nerve net, ganglion, and brain. 1. Explain why a nerve impulse travels more
A nerve net is a simple nervous system consisting of quickly down a myelinated axon than down
interconnected neurons, with no central nervous system. A an unmyelinated axon.
ganglion is a cluster of neuron (nerve cell) bodies. In animals Nerve impulses travel more quickly down myelinated axons due
with a CNS and a PNS, it is a cluster of neurons located outside to salutatory conduction (“jumping”) of action potentials from
the CNS. A centrally located brain controls the ganglia and one node of Ranvier to the next.
associated nerves.
2. Describe the movement of specific ions during
2. Describe the major functions of the hindbrain, the generation of a nerve impulse.
midbrain, and forebrain. Na+ moves from the outside of the axon membrane to the
The hindbrain controls essential functions like breathing, heart inside; K+ moves from the inside of the axon membrane to
functions, and basic motor activity; the midbrain is a relay station the outside.
connecting the hindbrain with the forebrain; the forebrain, which
3. Describe how the bite of a black widow spider,
receives sensory input, includes the hypothalamus (involved with
homeostasis) as well as the cerebrum (involved with higher which contains a powerful AChE inhibitor, might
functions). cause the common symptoms of muscle
cramps, salivation, fast heart rate, and high
3. Identify the specific location of the more
blood pressure.
recently evolved parts of the brain.
Inhibition of AChE, the enzyme that normally breaks down
The more recently evolved parts of the brain are the outer
acetylcholine (Ach), would result in the increased activity
portions, such as the cerebral cortex, and (in mammals) the
of nerves that use Ach as a neurotransmitter.
neocortex.

Teacher Manual 187

Section 37.3, Check Your Progress B) Less K+ would leave the cell, making resting
potential more negative.
1. Trace the path of a nerve impulse from a
stimulus in an internal organ (such as food in C) More K+ would leave the cell, making resting
potential more positive.
the large intestine stimulating peristalsis) to the
brain and back. D) Less K+ would leave the cell, making resting
potential more positive.
Sensory information from internal organs travels via spinal
nerves, through the dorsal root ganglia, to synapses on spinal Answer: D; The reduction of leakage channels would reduce the
cord interneurons, whose axons travel in tracts to the brain. pathways which allow K+ to leave the cell. With more of the
These then send motor impulses through tracts, to the ventral positively-charged K present, the interior of the cell would
root ganglia, and then to the effector organ (such as the smooth become less negative, more positive, compared to the outside.
muscle in the intestine). 2. A nerve impulse arises from a series of
2. Name the four major lobes of the human brain. changes in membrane potential. Which
The four major lobes of the human brain are the frontal, parietal, statement has the correct order of the events
temporal, and occipital. leading to an impulse, starting at rest?
3. List at least two common diseases of the CNS, A) resting potential, depolarization, stimulus,
threshold, action potential
and describe their symptoms and causes.
B) resting potential, stimulus, depolarization,
Parkinson disease, with symptoms such as tremors, difficult
threshold, action potential
speech, and trouble walking or standing, is associated with
a loss of dopamine-producing cells in the basal nuclei of the C) action potential, stimulus, depolarization, resting
forebrain; multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease that potential, threshold
damages the myelin sheaths of neurons in the CNS, resulting in D) action potential, threshold, resting potential,
fatigue and in problems with visual and muscular function. depolarization, stimulus
Answer: B; The neuron has a particular ion balance at rest.
Section 37.4, Check Your Progress A stimulus allows some Na+ to leak in, which depolarizes
1. Review the neurological explanation for the the neuron (i.e., making it less polar, more positive). If the
observation that, after you touch a hot stove, depolarization is great enough, it reaches the threshold level.
you withdraw your hand before you feel any At threshold, Na+ gates open and Na+ floods in, causing the
pain. neuron to reach action potential levels.
A reflex arc can travel from the sensory receptor, synapse on 3. Researchers trying to investigate the physiology
interneurons in the spinal cord, then travel back to the effector of neurons in the mid-20th century were
(muscle) without being perceived by the brain first. challenged by the small size of neurons.
2. Apply your knowledge of the autonomic Eventually they found that the giant axons of the
nervous system to explain why your stomach squid solved that problem, allowing them to insert
may ache if you exercise after a meal. micropipettes into the neurons to study their
Eating a big meal mainly stimulates the parasympathetic branch potentials. These so-called “giant” axons found in
of the autonomic nervous system, diverting blood supply to the invertebrates have what selective advantage?
digestive tract and away from the muscles. Exercising will A) Larger axons increase the amplitude of an
engage the sympathetic system, reducing blood flow to the electrical charge.
stomach and inhibiting its function, causing it to ache. B) Larger axons contain a larger variety of charged
3. Describe the shift in autonomic system activity ions.
that occurs when you are startled from your C) Larger axons increase the velocity of a nerve
sleep. impulse.
The parasympathetic (“rest and digest”) division dominates D) Larger axons allow for saltatory conduction to
as you sleep, but being startled causes a sudden increase in mute a nerve impulse.
sympathetic (“fight or flight”) activity. Answer: C; Invertebrates utilize giant axons for rapid
movements. For example, the giant axon allows the squid to
AP Assessment rapidly contract its mantle, forcing water from its siphon, and
1. Due to ion imbalances, there is a difference in producing a fast jetting movement. This sudden rapid movement
electrical potential across the plasma membrane can remove it from harm’s way.
of a neuron. As a result, the inside of a neuron 4. In vertebrate animals, most synapses are
at rest is slightly negative in comparison to the chemical in nature. Which statement is not
outside. Predict the immediate change in resting true of a chemical synapse?
potential that would occur if a toxin closed the A) Neurotransmitters diffuse from one neuron
leakage channels for K+. to another.
A) More K+ would leave the cell, making resting B) Neurotransmitters pass along gap junctions from
potential more negative. one neuron to another.

188 CHAPTER 37 | Neurons and Nervous Systems

 C) Chemical synapses require Ca²+to trigger fusion 8. As many neurons develop, their axon becomes
of synaptic vesicles with pre-synaptic membrane. sheathed in fatty material as Schwann cells wrap
D) Chemical synapses require cleanup of around the axon. Spaces between individual
neurotransmitters to stop transmission. Schwann cells leave unmyelinated gaps called
Answer: B; Gap junctions are used in electrical synapses. They nodes of Ranvier. How does the presence of
provide a direct connection between pre- and post-synaptic myelin lead to amplification of the nerve impulse?
neurons. Electrical synapses are used for rapid and unvarying A) The impulse can jump down the axon from node
behaviors, such as the impulses produced by the giant axon of to node, skipping spaces in between nodes.
the squid.
B) The impulse moves more quickly in Schwann
5. An action potential is described as being all cells than in the axon.
or none. That is, either its dendrites receive C) The fatty material of the Schwann cell stores and
enough excitatory post-synaptic potentials releases Na+ ions.
(EPSPs) to fire or they don’t; there is no D) Axons with myelin sheaths are protected from the
“partial” firing. What determines whether retarding effect of extracellular fluid.
or not a post-synaptic neuron will fire?
Answer: A; The nodes of Ranvier have a higher concentration of
A) spatial summation produced by many different gated channels that produce action potentials. Once an action
EPSPs potential has formed, it induces the formation of a new action
B) temporal summation produced by one rapidly potential in the next node, skipping over the area in between.
repeated EPSP 9. In humans, the cerebrum is the largest part of
C) thermal summation produced by heat build-up the brain. It is the “end of the line” for receiving
of many EPSPs sensory input. A person getting ready to eat a
D) either A or B may initiate firing of post-synaptic meal will be receiving information about the
neuron food’s appearance, smell, temperature, etc., and
Answer: D; In spatial summation, all the potentials (both will use all that information to decide whether
excitatory and inhibitory) sum up to reach threshold voltage. In to eat the meal, whether to eat it quickly, etc.
temporal summation, one dendrite is receiving rapidly repeated What is the process used by the cerebrum to
EPSPs, close enough in time to allow threshold to be reached. put this information together?
6. The central nervous system consists of the A) coordination
brain and spinal cord. Which bodily actions B) recapitulation
are directly controlled by the spinal cord?
C) defenestration
A) reflexes
D) integration
B) memory
Answer: D; Integration refers to the process of taking all the
C) integration of sound, sight, and smell sensory inputs and putting them together, and analyzing each in
D) regulation of breathing relation to the other. Once this is done, analysis will result in a
Answer: A; Reflexes are operated out of the spinal cord. Reflexes decision about what to do.
are rapid, relying on only a few neurons, and occurring before 10. Pufferfish contain a potentially lethal neurotoxin
higher level processing in the brain takes place. For example, called tetrodotoxin in their liver and gonads. If
if you drop a brick on your foot, you jerk your foot away from the fish is not properly prepared, ingestion of
danger before you can say “ouch!” the toxin leads to rapid weakening and paralysis
7. The simplest animals, the sponges, lack of the muscles, causing death if the respiratory
neurons and a nervous system. The first tract is affected. The toxin plugs sodium
nervous systems show up in cnidarians, and channels in neurons. Why would this action
became increasingly complex as animals cause loss of nerve function leading to paralysis?
evolved. What trends can be seen when A) If Na+ cannot flow across the nerve’s membrane,
comparing early animals, such as cnidarians, energy cannot be generated by chemiosmosis.
to later-evolving animals, such as mammals? B) Excess Na+ outside the neuron increases acidity,
A) less central organization damaging the neuron.
B) less reliance on neurotransmitters C) Blocked Na+ channels prevent the conversion
C) more pronounced cephalization of resting potential to action potential.
D) more elongated brains D) Blocked Na+ channels prevent the conversion
of action potential to resting potential.
Answer: C; Cephalization refers to the concentration of sense
organs in the anterior end of the body. This is considered a Answer: D; If Na+ channels are blocked, the Na+ imbalance of
selective advantage because it helps fast-moving animals to the resting state cannot be reversed by flooding Na+ into the
quickly assess the conditions in the territory they are about to cell. If RP cannot be converted to AP, then no nerve impulse will
move into. be generated. Tetrodotoxin remains in the channels for several
seconds, an eternity in neuronal time.

Teacher Manual 189

11. Organisms must be able to respond to their • For scenario a: reduction in blood flow to the brain will reduce
environments for survival. Explain how the the ability to delivery oxygen and remove CO2 from the organ.
nervous system of animals does each of This can lead to cell death, as is seen in strokes and other
the following: ischemic attacks. Damage to the various quadrants of the brain
can reduce the ability to generate responses to various stimuli.
A) detects external and internal signals,
• For scenario b: without myelination axons cannot transmit
B) transmits and integrate information, and signals along their response chains.
C) generates responses. • For scenario c: neurotransmitters allow neurons to transfer
Explanations may include the following (1 point each): signals across synaptic clefts. Without them, signals cannot
• sensory receptors receive information from the external be transmitted up to the brain.
environment 13. Two groups of students, ages 15–16, were
• this information is transmitted through neurons to the given memory tasks to perform. Group 1
appropriate response center in the brain, where it is included heavy drinkers. Group 2 were
integrated and processed nondrinkers. The graph shows a comparison
• the center then generates a response via motor neurons between both groups. The bar graph shows
• for internal signals, interneurons communicate the upward the retention rate of verbal and nonverbal
path to the brain. information in groups of alcohol-dependent
12. Interactions and coordination between systems and control teens.
provide essential biological activities for the A) Describe the difference between the brain
body. The nervous system provides information activity of heavy drinkers and the brain activity
which the other body systems rely upon for of nondrinkers.
their operation. Predict the effects each of the The amount of brain activity is lower in the heavy drinkers than
following changes upon the functionality of an in the nondrinkers.
organism: B) Analyze what long-term consequences might
A) damage to the circulatory system decreases result from drinking as a teen. Base your answer
blood flow to the brain on these results.
B) demyelination of axons There could be long-term damage to areas of the brain that
involve memory.
C) inhibition of neurotransmitters
Predictions may include (1 point each):

190 CHAPTER 37 | Neurons and Nervous Systems

CHAPTER 38
Sense Organs

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

4.1 Cell Communication
38.1 Sensory Receptors 1
8.1 Responses to the Environment
38.2 Chemical Senses 1 4.1 Cell Communication
38.3 Sense of Vision
38.4 Senses of Hearing and
Equilibrium
38.5 Somatic Senses
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 38 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 and Unit 8

Online Activities
What color do you see?
Mystery of the Senses – Smell

Teaching Strategy and Approach

All of the sensory organs and their evolution and function are illustrative examples. It can be
helpful to have students learn more in depth about these organs, but if you are running out of
time at the end of the year it isn’t worth covering as the AP exam won’t assess any specific
information about it.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on sensory organs
Activity 1: What color do you see? OR Activity 2: Mystery of the Senses—Smell
Day 2: Activity 3: Evolution of Sensory Organs OR Cow Eye Dissection—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Some students may think that each sense organ receives, processes, interprets, and responds
to signals. Students do not tend to perceive that the brain must interpret these sensory
signals and provide the stimulus for appropriate action.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. What color do you see?: This activity is hosted by the National Institutes of Health, and asks
students to sort different colored candies under colored lights and record their results. A
link to the activity and further directions are available in your online course.

Teacher Manual 191

2. Mystery of the Senses—Smell: In this activity, students will explore connections between
smells and memory. A link to this NOVA classroom activity is available in your online course.
3. Evolution of Sensory Organs: Students will research how sense organs evolved.
Have students pick one sensory organ and explain how this organ originated in its simplest
form, trace it through several animals, and explain how that organ functions in humans. After
your students are done with their research, have them present their findings to the class.
This activity can be done in pairs or small groups.
4. Cow Eye Dissection: The dissection of a cow eye is an informative lab that you could
incorporate into your syllabus to coordinate with this chapter. A cow eye is similar to a
human eye. There are many commercial kits available with step-by-step instructions for
cow eye dissections.

Differentiated Instruction: If your classroom set up does not allow for a dissection,
provide students with modeling clay and a diagram of a cow eye. Instead of dissecting
an eye, have students build an eye model using the clay.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Vocabulary Preteaching—Beginning
Define the vocabulary words in English and provide examples and explanations. Say the
terms out loud and have students repeat the words. Then have students write the word in
their interactive notebooks.

Comprehension Skill—Intermediate
Have partners make and use flashcards to check each other’s pronunciation and
understanding of vocabulary.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 38.1, Check Your Progress Section 38.3, Check Your Progress
1. Define sensory transduction. 1. Compare rods and cones in terms of their main
Sensory transduction is the conversion of some type of functions, their light sensitivity, and the
environmental stimulus into a nerve impulse. excitation of ganglion cells.
2. List three examples of sensory capabilities Rods are located in the peripheral region of the retina and are
found in animals that are lacking in humans. very sensitive to light. They function in night vision, peripheral
vision, and the perception of motion. Cones are concentrated in
Some snakes can perceive infrared radiation; bats, dolphins,
the fovea centralis and make color perception and fine detail
and whales perceive very high- or low-frequency sound waves
possible. They are best suited for bright light. Many rods may
(echolocation); sharks can perceive electrical pulses
excite a single ganglion cell, but much smaller numbers of
(e.g. heartbeats). Answers will vary.
cones excite individual ganglion cells.
Section 38.2, Check Your Progress 2. List the three layers of cells in the human
1. Compare and contrast the senses of smell retina.
and taste. Sclera, choroid, retina. Light must pass through the ganglion
and bipolar cell layers before reaching the photoreceptor cells.
Both are chemical senses that use chemoreceptors to detect
molecules in the air (smell) and food and liquids (taste). 3. Summarize how the shape of the eye can result
2. Discuss what could account for how a nerve in nearsightedness or farsightedness, and
impulse would be interpreted by the different describe the cause of astigmatism.
sense organs. An eyeball that is too long results in nearsightedness; an eyeball
that is too short results in farsightedness; an uneven cornea
Neurons transmit signals from different sensory organs to
results in astigmatism.
different areas of the brain, where they are interpreted as
different types of information.

192 CHAPTER 38 | Sense Organs

Section 38.4, Check Your Progress 2. Humans have eyes facing forward, while
1. Determine whether each of the following rabbits have eyes facing to either side. How
belongs to the outer, middle, or inner ear: does this affect their different views of the
a. ossicles, b. pinna, c. semicircular canals, world?
d. cochlea, e. vestibule, f. auditory canal. A) Rabbits have panoramic vision, with a very wide
visual field.
a. middle; b. outer; c. inner; d. inner; e. inner; f. outer.
B) Humans have stereoscopic vision, strongly three-
2. List, in order, the structures that must conduct a
dimensional.
sound wave from the time it enters the auditory
C) The visual fields of humans overlap, while those
canal until it reaches the cochlea.
of rabbits do not.
Auditory canal, tympanic membrane (eardrum), ossicles (malleus,
D) all of the above
incus, and stapes), oval window, cochlea.
Answer: D; Panoramic vision is useful to prey animals such as
3. Identify which structures of the inner ear are
rabbits, while binocular vision is useful to predators.
responsible for gravitational equilibrium and for
rotational equilibrium 3. The human eye can be thought of as an
opaque bag of fluid with a clear patch in the
The utricle and saccule are responsible for gravitational
equilibrium; the semicircular canals for rotational
front; the lens is located in that clear patch. The
equilibrium. lens is attached by ligaments to small muscles
that control its focus. As a normal part of aging,
Section 38.5, Check Your Progress people typically lose their ability to focus on
1. Identify the problems that would likely near objects and require reading glasses.
occur if a person lacked muscle spindles or Which would cause this change in ability to
nociceptors. focus?
A person lacking muscle spindles would have trouble walking, A) The lens shrinks and becomes permanently
sitting, or doing other activities due to a lack of muscle tone. A rounded, focused on far objects.
person lacking nociceptors would be prone to injury due to an B) The lens becomes less flexible and cannot round
absence of warning signs associated with pain. up to focus on near objects.
2. In evolutionary terms, assess why cutaneous C) The aqueous humor thickens and becomes
receptors quickly become adapted to stimuli gelatinous.
(e.g., why we don’t continue to feel a chair D) The retina develops plaques, covering over
once we settle in), whereas the sense of pain random regions of its surface.
seems to be much less adaptable (e.g., many Answer: B; In normal vision, the ciliary muscles contract when
people suffer from chronic pain). viewing close objects. This takes tension off the suspensory
Pain is generally associated with potential harm (i.e. something ligaments and allows the naturally elastic lens to round up. With
to be avoided). An animal that quickly adapted to pain would age, the lens becomes less elastic, probably due to changes in
have an increased chance of being injured or killed by a its proteins, and does not round up properly.
potentially dangerous stimulus. We don’t continue to feel a 4. In humans, the outer ear, middle ear, and inner
chair because doing so does not increase our chances of ear combine to convey vibrations from the air
survival. (i.e. sound) into a location where transduction
can occur. Which statement(s) best describes
AP Assessment the action that initiates transduction of sound
1. The nervous system must receive information into an electrical signal?
from outside the body in order to make the A) Earwax picks up the vibration in the auditory
adjustments the body needs to survive. For canal of the outer ear.
example, visual data comes into the eye, and B) The tympanic membrane begins to vibrate in
then transduced (converted) into a nerve the middle ear.
impulse. What type of sensory receptors would
C) Hair cells bend in the inner ear when sound
be found in the eye? waves are received in the cochlea.
A) mechanoreceptors D) all of the above
B) chemoreceptors Answer: C; The hair, or stereocilia, of hair cells will bend
C) electromagnetic receptors when the basilar membrane they are attached to begins to
D) thermoreceptors vibrate in response to sound waves. Auditory nerve fibers
resting below the hair cells are stimulated to produce signals
Answer: C; Electromagnetic receptors are sensitive to
which are sent to the brain, signifying that a sound has
electromagnetic energy. Photoreceptors are the specific
been heard.
receptor that is sensitive to visible light.

Teacher Manual 193

 5. While most people suffer some hearing loss as 7. A rare species of bat lives in two discreet
they age, musicians have a higher rate of loss populations in neighboring countries. Karst
than most. Loud concerts and loud headphones landscape evidence suggests that the two
contribute to this loss. Which scenario is most populations were at one time connected but are
likely to be caused by loud music? now isolated from one another. While the two
A) Certain auditory nerves are overused when species look similar, they each have developed
processing loud music, and stop sending their own echolocation call which influences
information to the brain. communication within each population.
B) Constant vibration due to loud music damages A) Describe which data could be used as evidence for
and tears the tympanic membrane. the two bat populations diverging into two species.
C) The bones of the middle ear become brittle and B) Explain how the data about these small bats
unresponsive. would provide a direct answer to the question,
D) The hair cells become damaged by moving in how do scientists know that an organism is
response to loud music; once damaged, they currently experiencing the process of evolution?
cannot regrow. Explanations for how the data supports the idea of evolution as
Answer: D; Sounds louder than 90 decibels can cause temporary an ongoing process may include:
damage to hair cells; they are flattened but can recover. Description of data as evidence for speciation (1 point each)
Prolonged exposure to loud sounds, however, eventually • Scientists are able to know the history of a species by looking
damages them too extensively. at the history of its habitat through geographic and geologic
6. Light waves with electric fields vibrating in data, and are able to gain understanding of past behaviors.
the same direction are said to be polarized. One example of this is seen in the karst landscape between
Scientists hypothesized that the iridescent wing the two bat populations. Scientists can then compare the
scales in some butterflies create polarized light geologic and geographic history to what is observed presently.
to attract certain males to females. The graph • If the organisms within the original larger population were no
shows the response of males to polarized light longer able to communicate with echolocation, this could be a
versus nonpolarized light from female iridescent mating and reproductive barrier. The biological species
concept would say that the two populations could become
butterfly wings.
separate species if they are no longer able to reproduce.
A) Determine which view of wings the male butterfly
Explanation of evidence for evolution as ongoing process
respond more often.
(1 point each)
Males respond more to polarized light from female wings than
• Scientists may not know whether it was the geographic isolation
they do to nonpolarized light.
or the divergence in their sensory systems that was the original
B) Researchers have noted that forest-dwelling barrier to gene flow, but either way, the two populations no
butterflies tend to have iridescent wings, longer experience gene flow, which is a contributor to evolution.
while meadow-dwelling butterflies do not.
• Scientists are able to observe and document current
Hypothesize what might underlie this
competition and mating behaviors within and between
difference.
populations, as well as analyzing genotypes, in order to
Possible answer: Forest-dwelling butterflies have iridescent determine discreet species or they can evaluate the similarities
wings to reflect any light that filters through the tree leaves. and differences between populations. This could be done with
Meadow dwelling butterflies are exposed to large amounts of the bat populations with intensive trapping, sampling and
light and iridescent wings are not useful. acoustic recording of their echolocation calls.

194 CHAPTER 38 | Sense Organs

CHAPTER 39
Locomotion and Support
Systems
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
39.1 Diversity of Skeletons
39.2 The Human Skeletal System
39.3 The Muscular System 2 4.2 Introduction to Signal Transduction
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 39 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Burn Baby Burn!

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Specifics about muscle contraction and the sliding filament theory are not assessed on the
AP exam; however, it can be beneficial to use as reinforcement to teaching concentration
gradients. I find that going over this concept helps review what we have learned in the
beginning of the year with ATP production and diffusion.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture—20 minutes on the muscle cells and the interactions between the
L
muscular and nervous systems
Activity 1: Burn Baby Burn!—25 minutes
Day 2: Activity 2: Modeling the Sliding Filament Theory—45 minutes

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Many students have never considered how a muscle functions. The sliding filament theory will
be new to them and they will need concentrated effort to understand this process. Students
have also not considered the innervation of muscles that allow and direct human movement.
This close interaction between the muscular and nervous system will be new to most
students.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Burn Baby Burn!: In this activity students will gain a more thorough understanding of the
function of skeletal muscles and the effects of fatigue. A link to the activity and full teacher
directions are available in your online course.
2. Modeling the Sliding Filament Theory: In this activity, students will build their own models to
demonstrate the sliding filament theory.

Teacher Manual 195

 Divide students into groups of 4 or 5.
Have each group of students build a model of the sarcomere movement via the sliding
filament theory. Each group should demonstrate how this movement occurs using their
model.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of having students build a model, you can provide
students with an unlabeled diagram of the sliding filament theory. Have your students
work in pairs to label the parts of the diagram, using the textbook as a reference. Then,
after they have finished, have your students check their work with another pair. This
allows for group collaboration.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Listening and Speaking—Beginning

Read aloud a paragraph one sentence at a time. At the end of each sentence, ask students
to say a word or short phrase that describes an important concept or example from the
sentence. Model recording the concept in the left column of their notes table. Have students
use your model to record information in their own chart.

Comprehension Skill—Intermediate
Ask questions about the lesson content to elicit one or two-word answers: A bundle of muscle
of fibers are called what? Microfibrils. What do actin filaments slide past? Myosin filaments

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 39.1, Check Your Progress 3. Determine whether each of the following bones
1. List the types of skeletons found in animals. belongs to the axial or appendicular skeleton:
sacrum, frontal bone, humerus, tibia, vertebra,
Hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, endoskeleton
coxal bone, temporal bone, scapula, and
2. Describe the type of support system that makes sternum.
it possible to stick out your tongue.
sacrum – axial; frontal – axial; humerus – appendicular; tibia –
The tongue is a muscular hydrostat. appendicular; vertebra – axial; coxal – axial; temporal – axial;
3. Explain why an earthworm loses its cylindrical scapula – appendicular; sternum – axial.
shape when it dies.
Section 39.3, Check Your Progress
Because the muscle layers surrounding the coelom no longer
contract, the hydrostatic skeleton cannot provide support for 1. Define an antagonistic pair of muscles.
the body. A pair of muscles that work opposite to one another, for
example, if one muscle flexes (bends) the joint, the other
Section 39.2, Check Your Progress extends (straightens) it.
1. Describe the functions of osteoblasts, 2. Describe the microscopic levels of structure in
osteoclasts, and osteocytes. a skeletal muscle.
Osteoblasts build bone, and osteoclasts break it down. Myofibrils are tubular contractile units that are divided into
Osteocytes live within the lacunae where they affect the timing sarcomeres. Each sarcomere contains actin (thin filaments) and
and location of bone remodeling. myosin (thick filaments).
2. Distinguish between the structure and function 3. Discuss the specific role of ATP in muscle
of spongy bone and those of compact bone. contraction.
Compact bone, which serves mainly to support the body, Cleavage of ATP allows myosin heads to bind to actin filaments,
contains many osteons, in which central canals are surrounded pulling them toward the center of the sarcomere.
by a hard matrix with lacunae. Spongy bone is lighter, with
numerous bars and plates, as well as spaces filled with red bone
marrow, which produces the blood cells.

196 CHAPTER 39 | Locomotion and Support Systems

AP Assessment C) Actin molecules consist of repeated subunits of
myosin molecules.
1. The phenomenon of muscles working against
each other to provide movement evolved early D) Actin is connected to myosin permanently.
in the animal kingdom. An example of this can Answer: B; It is the sliding of actin and myosin past each other
be seen even in relatively slow-moving that causes the muscle cell to contract, as the myosin head pull
organisms like earthworms. How do earthworm myosin toward the center of the sarcomere.
muscles display antagonism? 5. After death, ATP production stops. With respect
A) Short and long muscles cause short- and long- to the musculature, rigor mortis sets in and the
distance movements. muscles remain contracted. How does ATP
B) Short and long muscles cause short- and long- relate to rigor mortis?
term movements. A) Without ATP, myosin heads cannot detach
C) Contraction of circular muscles extend the from actin.
animal, while longitudinal muscles shorten the B) Without ATP, new filaments cannot be built.
animal. C) ATP is required to pump troponin molecules out
D) Contraction of circular muscles shorten the of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
animal, while longitudinal muscles lengthen the D) Excessive amounts of ATP inhibit the production
animal. of ADP.
Answer: C; Earthworms in motion display areas that are Answer: A; Muscle contractions require myosin heads to attach to
extended due to contraction of circular muscles; these areas use actin, detach, and attach again in a different spot, in a repetitive
setae (bristles) to anchor themselves. Contraction of longitudinal process that has the effect of dragging actin to the center of the
muscles then cause that area to pull up, moving the earthworm sarcomere. Without a constant supply of ATP, myosin cannot
forward. detach, and thus can’t reattach, etc.; the muscles are frozen in a
2. Which statement about muscle action is contracted state. Eventually enzymes leaking from lysosomes
correct? will cause the fibers to deteriorate and rigor will wear off.
A) Muscle on its own can only contract. 6. A skeletal muscle and a motor neuron interact
B) Muscle on its own can contract and extend. at neuromuscular junctions. When the motor
neuron fires, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
C) Muscle action is always a reflex reaction.
(ACh) will be released. How does ACh trigger
D) Muscle action is always under conscious control. muscle contraction?
Answer: A; Individual muscles can only be contracted. To extend, A) ACh flows through pores in the muscle cell’s
the muscle must be pulled out by an antagonistic muscle. plasma membrane and reaches the nucleus,
3. Vertebrate animals generally have three distinct where it turns on contraction genes.
types of muscles: smooth, cardiac, and striated. B) ACh and calcium ions bind together in the
Which type is INCORRECTLY paired with its synaptic cleft, triggering muscle contraction
function? when they bind to the muscle cell.
A) smooth . . . stomach C) ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and is then
B) striated . . . attached to bone pumped into the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the
muscle cell, triggering contraction.
C) cardiac . . . heart
D) ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds
D) cardiac . . . dorsal aorta
to receptors in the muscle cell’s plasma
Answer: D; Cardiac muscle is limited exclusively to the heart membrane, causing the release of calcium ions
region. It has characteristics of both smooth and striated which initiate contraction.
muscle.
Answer: D; Calcium ions in turn will bind to troponin, which
4. The contraction of a muscle depends on an initiates a series of physical changes in proteins that causes
intricate series of interactions that occur at the actin and myosin to slide past each other.
level of individual muscle cells. The architecture 7. A patient visits her doctor after experiencing
of the molecules making up the muscle cell is muscle weakness that impacts eyelid
such that small changes in these molecules add movement, vision, and facial expressions. Her
up to large-scale movement. Which statement doctor recognizes the symptoms and diagnoses
describes the relationship between actin a disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction,
molecules and myosin molecules? which is the junction between a nerve fiber
A) Actin and myosin are twined around each other, and muscle fiber that resembles the synapse
initiating contraction when they expand. between two nerve cells. Based on your
B) Actin and myosin slide past each other when knowledge of the neuromuscular junction,
the heads of myosin attach to actin and then what might have happened in this junction to
bend. warrant the doctor’s diagnosis?

Teacher Manual 197

 Prediction of cause of symptoms at a cellular level (1 point each): 8. The human body contains over 600 muscles,
• The muscular and nervous systems are interconnected and are which perform a variety of tasks. Some muscles
able to communicate over short distances using cell-to-cell must do fine scale, small movements, while
communication similar to the communication that occurs others are responsible for maintaining posture or
between two nerve cells at the synapse. lifting heavy limbs. The proportion of slow-twitch
• In the neuromuscular junction, the signal (neurotransmitter) is to fast-twitch muscle fibers can be determined by
sent from the axon terminal of a motor nerve fiber to the target removing a small piece of a muscle and staining
cell, which is the muscle fiber. the cells with a dye called ATPase stain. Fast-
• If there is an issue in the synapse, it could be caused by twitch muscle fibers with a high amount of ATP
change to the signaling cell or the signal molecule activity stain dark brown. Scientists conducted a
(neurotransmitter acetylcholine) or on the target cell with the study to determine how the percentage of slow-
receptor. twitch muscle related to the action of a muscle.
• Perhaps the signal molecule was removed, or if the signal A) Form a hypothesis to explain why a muscle such
molecules were released normally, perhaps the binding to the as the soleus has more slow-twitch muscle fibers
receptor was affected, or the receptor was damaged or than a muscle such as the orbicularis oculi.
removed.
The soleus must sustain a contraction for long periods of time.
• Note, that it is most likely that students will not recognize the The orbicularis oculi have more fast-twitch fibers because they
disorder myasthenia gravis described in the prompt. If they are not endurance muscles but require quick movements.
do, they may describe it as an autoimmune disease caused
B) Classify muscles by giving examples of muscles
by blocking of or damage to the acetylcholine receptor on the
that have a high proportion of fast-twitch muscle
target muscle fiber. This example brings about further layers
fibers.
of interconnected systems within organisms, as it involves
the immune system alongside the nervous and muscular Fast-twitch muscles would be those that move the head, neck,
systems. and face.

198 CHAPTER 39 | Locomotion and Support Systems

CHAPTER 40
Hormones and
Endocrine Systems
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
4.3 Signal Transduction
40.1 Animal Hormones 1
4.4 Signal Transduction Pathways
40.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary
Gland
40.3 Other Endocrine Glands and
2 4.5 Feedback
Hormones
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 40 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4

Online Activities
Endocrine Organ Charts
scienceNOW: Obesity
Becoming the Endocrine System

Teaching Strategy and Approach

The main topics to focus on from this chapter are positive and negative feedback, and signal
transduction and chemical communication. Having students be able to describe each type of
feedback loop and be able to differentiate between examples can be sufficient enough for
the AP exam. Cell communication is a very in-depth topic, and students only need to understand
a general overview of it for the exam. The relationship between signal hormones and signal
receptors, and then the reasons why changes could occur due to that interaction are the main
focal points.
Students should recognize positive and negative feedback mechanisms and both will be
represented in the project work. The first part of Activity 1 provides generic template for
feedback mechanisms that students should use to help explain the functioning of their
assigned organ.
There are many adrenal glands and even more hormones that are produced to regulate
metabolism and maintain homeostasis. Students should not memorize all of this information.
Have students participate in group work to become knowledgeable about one endocrine
organ. Activity 1 provides the details for this.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—20 minutes on positive and negative feedback mechanisms
Activity 1: Endocrine Organ Charts—25 minutes
Day 2: Finish Activity 1, student presentations
Day 3:  ctivity 2: scienceNOW: Obesity, OR Activity 3: Becoming the Endocrine
A
System—45 minutes

Teacher Manual 199

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Students often intuitively understand negative feedback but not positive feedback. Using
visuals and graphic organizers to emphasize the steps in positive feedback can help.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Endocrine Organ Charts: Students will work in groups to map out hormones and their
associated organs. Find an example map and student research questions in your online course.
2. scienceNOW: Obesity: Students will use the hormone leptin to model how hormones bind
to receptors in order to elicit specific responses using string and signs. A link to the activity
and worksheet can be found in your online course.
3. Becoming the Endocrine System: Students will role play a feedback system within the
endocrine system following an American Biology Teacher publication. A link to the activity
can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Alternatively, instead of using this publication, which

requires everyone in the class to participate as a whole, you could break your class
into small groups, and assign a feedback mechanism to each group. Then, the students
must come up with their own play or role play to perform to the rest of the class. This
allows you to cover more than one feedback system within the endocrine system. You
could choose to assign both positive and negative systems so students can see the
differences. You may want to provide props or pieces of paper with key words to help
students lay the foundation for their performances.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Sequencing—Beginning
To enhance and confirm students’ understanding, provide images that represent each step in
the sequence of Figure 40.16. Use word walls to post the word and matching image for each
step in the sequence. Have students copy the word into their interactive notebook and draw
their own image to represent the step.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Intermediate

Before reading, have students take a close look at the visual support. Have them use the
image as they work in pairs to form questions about the selection. After reading, have partners
compare their original predictions with questions they answered no. Have them discuss how
their ideas changed or stayed the same. Move around the room to monitor progress.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 40.1, Check Your Progress 2. Compare the location of the receptors for
1. Compare and contrast the nervous and peptide and steroid hormones.
endocrine systems with regard to their function Peptide hormones have receptors in the plasma membrane.
and the types of signals they use. Steroid hormones have receptors that are generally in the
nucleus, sometimes in the cytoplasm.
The nervous system responds rapidly to both external and
internal stimuli, while the endocrine system responds more 3. Explain why second messengers are needed
slowly, but often has longer-lasting effects. Both systems use for most peptide hormones.
chemicals to communicate with other body systems; the nervous Because peptide hormones usually bind to receptors on the
system at synapses, the endocrine system via hormones outside of the cell, they must communicate with the inside of the
secreted mainly into the bloodstream. cell via second messengers.

200 C H A P T E R 4 0 | Hormones and Endocrine Systems

Section 40.2, Check Your Progress Answer: B; Lipid soluble, or lipophilic hormones, can move easily
across the plasma membrane. As they are not hydrophilic, they
1. Explain how the hypothalamus communicates
are carried by a protein through the bloodstream.
with the endocrine system.
Refer to Figure 40.11 on p. 736 to answer 2 and 3
The hypothalamus communicates with the endocrine system via
the pituitary gland. Two hormones produced by the 2. Figure 40.11 displays the regulation of blood
hypothalamus are stored in the posterior pituitary. Several others calcium (Ca2+) by the parathyroid hormone
are produced by the anterior pituitary in response to (PTH) and calcitonin. Blood calcium must be
hypothalamic-releasing factors that reach the anterior pituitary maintained at a set point in order to ensure
via a portal system. enough Ca2+ for proper function of nerves,
2. List the hormones produced by the posterior muscles, and other systems. Regulation involves
pituitary and describe a function of each. both positive and negative feedback. Which
ADH conserves body water by causing reabsorption of water by action would be considered negative feedback?
the kidneys; oxytocin causes uterine contractions during labor A) increased absorption of Ca2+ from intestines
and milk letdown during nursing. B) reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidneys
3. List the hormones produced by the anterior C) release of Ca2+ from the bone
pituitary and describe a function of each. D) reduction of PTH release in response to
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates release of thyroid increased Ca2+
hormones; adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the Answer: D; Negative feedback mechanisms reduce or turn off a
adrenal glands to produce glucocoriticoids; prolactin (PRL) causes process. In this case, the release of PTH would be shut down,
breast development and milk production; growth hormone (GH) once blood calcium has been increased to the set point. Release
promotes bone and muscle growth; the gonadotropic hormones of PTH will turn on again, should Ca2+ levels fall.
FSH and LH stimulate the testes or ovaries to produce gametes
and sex hormones; melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) 3. Which action would result in the lowering of
causes skin color changes in some animals. blood calcium?
A) release of calcitonin from the thyroid
Section 40.3, Check Your Progress B) release of parathyroid hormone from the
1. Explain how the angiotensin-aldosterone system parathyroid glands
raises blood pressure. C) release of calcium from the bones
Angiotensin II causes arterioles to constrict; aldosterone causes D) all of the above
reabsorption of Na+, accompanied by water, in the kidneys.
Answer: A; The hormone calcitonin is targeted to the bones. It
2. List the endocrine gland that secretes each of reduces the number and activity of osteoclasts, resulting in more
the following hormones: aldosterone, melatonin, deposition of calcium.
epinephrine, EPO, leptin, glucagon, ANH, 4. In temperate climates, people sometimes do
cortisol, and calcitonin. not get enough vitamin D, as vitamin D
Aldosterone – adrenal cortex; melatonin – pineal gland; production requires interaction with UV light in
epinephrine – adrenal medulla; EPA – kidneys; leptin – adipose the skin. Also necessary for vitamin D activation
tissue; glucagon – pancreas; ANH – heart; cortisol – adrenal is the presence of an enzyme stimulated by
cortex; calcitonin – thyroid gland. PTH. Which is a likely outcome for a person
3. Name one hormone that stimulates the activity with severe vitamin D deficiency?
of osteoclasts and one that inhibits them. A) vision problems
PTH stimulates osteoclasts and calcitonin inhibits them. B) poor bone formation
C) loss of hair
AP Assessment
D) heart murmur
1. The hormone thyroxine is a thyroid hormone
important in metabolism. Like all hormones, it Answer: B; Without sufficient vitamin D, Ca2+ absorption in the
intestines is inadequate. Without enough Ca2+, bones will not
only affects target cells. It is carried through the
form their mineral crystals properly, producing bones lacking
bloodstream by a protein carrier. At the target
hardness and rigidity.
cell, it is released from its carrier and slips
easily across the plasma membrane to enter 5. Hydrophilic, or water-soluble hormones, cannot
the cell. Based on this description, what can be pass across the plasma membranes of their
concluded about the chemical nature of target cells. Such hormones bind to receptors
thyroxine? in the membrane, which then initiates a signal
transduction pathway. A second messenger
A) it is water soluble.
may be involved in this pathway. What is the
B) it is lipid soluble. usual role of a second messenger?
C) it is a protein. A) to amplify the strength of response to the
D) it is a carbohydrate. signaling hormone

Teacher Manual 201

 B) to mute the response to the signaling hormone • Too many salts concentrated in the bloodstream because there
C) to enter the nucleus and activate transcription is no signal to dilute the blood could lead to changes in blood
pressure, kidney failure, seizures and in extreme cases, death
D) to enter the nucleus and inactivate transcription
because the blood stream is connected to all body tissues.
Answer: A; Amplification occurs as each molecule in the system
8. Insulin from the pancreas lowers blood glucose
interacts with many other molecules. For example, the ligand/
receptor complex may activate 100 second messenger levels by stimulating the uptake of glucose by
molecules in the cytosol, each of those may activate 100 target cells in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue,
proteins, and so on. making it a strong example of a chemical signal
that travels a long distance to the target cell.
6. Insulin is a peptide hormone that promotes
Create a representation that depicts how cell-
the uptake of glucose from the blood into the
to-cell communication occurs from a distance
tissues. Individuals with Type I diabetes lack the
through chemical signaling in the case of insulin.
insulin-secreting β cells of the pancreas. How is
Type I diabetes usually treated? Representations of cell-to-cell communication through the
chemical signal insulin may include (1 point each):
A) Patients ingest extra glucose supplements.
• Any images are clearly labeled, the path traveled by insulin is
B) Blood sugar levels are controlled by diet and
clearly depicted, and explanations are included.
exercise.
• In the presence of high blood glucose, such as is present after
C) injection of insulin into the bloodstream
eating, the pancreas (in the abdomen) secretes insulin into
D) Supplemental insulin is taken orally. the blood. Students may even acknowledge that the Islets
Answer: C; Insulin is injected directly into the bloodstream. As it of Langerhans in the pancreas produce the hormone.
is a peptide hormone, it would be digested if taken orally. Extra • Then insulin goes to the liver (in the abdomen), signaling it to
glucose would be useless, as there is insufficient insulin to signal store glucose as glycogen. Insulin can go to muscle cells
the uptake of glucose in the first place. (throughout the body) which store glycogen and build protein.
7. Typically, when blood becomes too concentrated Insulin can go into adipose (fat) tissue where glucose from
with salt, ADH (antidiuretic hormone) signals the blood can be used to form fat.
kidneys to reabsorb water instead of losing it in • Due to the functioning of these three targets, blood glucose
urine in order to conserve water in the body. As level lowers.
a negative feedback mechanism, ADH release 9. Cushing disease affects people with tumors of
by the pituitary gland is stopped as the blood the pituitary gland, causing the gland to release
becomes dilute. In some people with excess adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, mutations ACTH is highly conserved among mammals,
in the ADH receptor gene have been found. and acts as the principal regulator of cortisol
Based on the information above, support the (a stress hormone) production, stimulating its
claim that alterations in the mechanisms of production and release. Cortisol controls the
negative feedback can affect biological systems body’s use of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins,
at the molecular and organismal level using at and also helps reduce the immune system’s
least two pieces of evidence from the ADH response to inflammation.
scenario and what you know about negative Clinical researchers encounter the following
feedback systems. case: A child is brought to an endocrinologist’s
Evidence for how alterations in the mechanisms of negative office who presented the following symptoms:
feedback can affect biological systems at the molecular level upper body obesity, slow growth rate, fatigue
(1 point each): and muscle soreness, acne, thin skin with easy
• If the ADH receptor gene has a mutation, this could mean that bruising, and depression. The physician
the receptor could not form and fold properly and may be suspects Cushing disease.
discarded, or it may be denatured and not able to function A) Examine the model of the signal transduction
properly. Even if ADH is released by the pituitary gland, the pathway of ACTH. Explain, using words or
ADH signal will not be received and the kidneys will not diagrams, what happens to this pathway in the
reabsorb water. case of Cushing disease.
• If the kidneys do not reabsorb water, the blood will not become Student representations may resemble the pathway illustrated in
dilute and the ADH signal will not be shut off by the negative the figure, but should include labels for the hormones depicted
feedback mechanism. in the Cushing disease scenario. ACTH is the steroid hormone
Evidence for how alterations in the mechanisms of negative signal that passes through the membrane of the target cell. It
feedback can affect biological systems at the organismal level then binds with a specific receptor in the cytoplasm, and then
may include (1 point each): travels into the nucleus to bind to another specific receptor on
• If the ADH signal is not received and the blood is not reabsorbed the chromatin. The hormone-receptor complex stimulates the
by the kidneys, much water will be lost in excessive urine production of messenger RNA that codes for the production of
production. This could lead to dehydration of the organism. the cortisol hormone. In the case of Cushing disease, many

202 C H A P T E R 4 0 | Hormones and Endocrine Systems

molecules of ACTH at the start of the pathway and of cortisol at • Confirm that the hormone that stimulates the pathway is
the end of the pathway should be represented as opposed to present in excess, that too much ACTH is being produced.
only one as in the given figure. (Doctors can confirm this with a blood test.) If greater
B) Based on your model and what you know than normal amounts of ACTH are present, this could be
about Cushing disease, determine what the resulting in too much cortisol and Cushing disease could
endocrinologist could test for in order to verify be present.
a diagnosis. • Use MRI to determine the presence of a pituitary
Student answers may include: adenoma (tumor). If there is a tumor present, it could
impact hormone regulation of all hormones impacted
• Confirm that the end product of the pathway is being produced
by the pituitary gland.
in excess, that too much cortisol being produced. (Doctors can
confirm this with a 24-hour urine cortisol or by checking The most thorough answers will recognize that these three
salivary cortisol levels in the early morning and late at night.) tests would be most effective in determine the presence
If there is more cortisol than is considered normal, Cushing of Cushing disease if conducted together, as they test for
disease could be present. potential causes of the results of the other tests.

Teacher Manual 203

CHAPTER 41
Reproductive Systems

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

41.1 How Animals Reproduce
41.2 Human Male Reproductive
½ 4.1 Cell Communication
System
41.3 Human Female Reproductive
½ 4.1 Cell Communication
System
41.4 Control of Human
Reproduction
41.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 41 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
The Advantage of Sex
Investigating Reproductive Strategies

Teaching Strategy and Approach

This chapter goes over positive and negative feedback again which is important for students
to differentiate between. The reproductive strategies are interesting and should be taught in
light of evolution and reproductive success. Animals have many strategies to ensure they are
the ones who reproduce, and not their competitors. Genetic variability should also be
discussed here again in light of sexual reproduction and sexual selection as well.
The various reproductive strategies that are present in animals are amazing and you will have
the attention of students. The exact nature of each of these reproductive cycles is beyond the
scope of the AP curriculum. Students should focus on those processes that add genetic
variability into the species.
Class time: one 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture—20 minutes on reproductive strategies and cell communication in
L
reproduction
 ctivity 1: The Advantage of Sex OR Activity 2: Investigating Reproductive
A
Strategies

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Students may not consider the advantage of sexual reproduction from a genetic perspective.

204 C H A P T E R 4 1 | Reproductive Systems

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. The Advantage of Sex: Students will read and discuss an essay from PBS. A link to the
essay is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Before your lecture, ask your students to create a pro and
con list for both sexual and asexual reproduction. They must work on these lists as you
talk. After your lecture, divide your students into pairs. Within pairs, your students must
compare their lists. This allows your students to summarize their findings in a
collaborative manner. Instead of independently summarizing findings after reading an
essay, this method provides a more active method of learning.

2. Investigating Reproductive Strategies: Students will work in pairs to research how different
organisms reproduce. Student directions and a link to the activity are available in your
online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Sequencing—Intermediate
Use an IWB to project the text and mark text during reading to reinforce key terms and
concepts. Use different colors to represent the different steps in the sequences.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Advanced High

Have students write a paragraph explaining and evaluating the image used in relation to the
content of the text. What was its purpose? How effective was it? Did the caption contribute
useful information? Have volunteers share their evaluations with the group.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 41.1, Check Your Progress Section 41.2, Check Your Progress
1. List one advantage of asexual reproduction and 1. Trace the pathway a sperm must follow from
one advantage of sexual reproduction. its origin to its exit from the male reproductive
Asexual reproduction allows organisms to reproduce rapidly and tract.
colonize favorable environments quickly. Sexual reproduction Seminiferous tubule, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory
produces offspring with a new combination of genes that may be duct, urethra
more adaptive to a changed environment.
2. List the glands that contribute fluids to the
2. Distinguish among oviparous, ovoviviparous, semen.
and viviparous. Seminiferous vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands
An oviparous animal lays eggs that hatch outside the body. A
3. Describe the effects of FSH and LH in males.
viviparous animal give birth after the offspring have developed
within the mother’s body. Ovoviviparous animals retain fertilized In males, FSH stimulates spermatogenesis and LH stimulates
eggs within a parent’s body until they hatch; the parent then testosterone production.
gives birth to the young.
Section 41.3, Check Your Progress
3. Explain how a shelled egg allows reproduction
1. Name the structures of the female reproductive
on land.
system that (a) produce the egg, (b) transport
A shelled egg contains extraembryonic membranes that keep the egg, (c) house a developing embryo, and
the embryo moist, carry out gas exchange, collect wastes, and
(d) serve as the birth canal.
provide yolk as food.
a) ovary; b) oviduct; c) uterus; d) cervix, vagina

Teacher Manual 205

 2. Explain the effects of FSH and LH on the 3. Identify a serious condition that can occur in
ovarian cycle. women due to both chlamydia and gonorrhea.
During the follicular phase, FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to Chlamydia and gonorrhea are associated with pelvic
produce primarily estrogen. A surge of LH (and FSH) also triggers inflammatory disease and infertility.
ovulation. During the luteal phase, LH stimulates the corpus
luteum to produce primarily progesterone. AP Assessment
3. Summarize the roles of estrogen and 1. While the reproductive pattern found in humans
progesterone in the ovarian and uterine cycles. involves sexual reproduction, other vertebrates
Estrogen secreted by the developing follicle inhibits FSH have been known to reproduce asexually.
secretion by the anterior pituitary, ending the follicular phase. For example, parthenogenesis has been
Progesterone secreted by the developing corpus luteum inhibits observed in some reptiles, fishes, and birds.
LH secretion by the anterior pituitary, ending the luteal phase. In parthenogenesis, a female gives birth to
Rising estrogen levels cause the endometrium to thicken young that have not been fertilized by a male.
(proliferative phase), and progesterone causes uterine glands to Suggest an advantage of this type of
mature (secretory phase). If no pregnancy occurs, low levels of reproductive pattern.
estrogen and progesterone initiate menstruation.
A) Haploid offspring are stronger than diploid
Section 41.4, Check Your Progress offspring.
B) Diploid offspring cost more to produce than
1. Identify which birth control methods discussed
haploid offspring.
in this section physically block sperm from
entering the uterus. C) Parthenogenesis allows for reproduction when
individuals are widely separated from each other.
Male and female condoms and the diaphragm prevent sperm
from coming in contact with the egg. D) Parthenogenesis produces more diverse
offspring than sexual reproduction.
2. Rank these birth control methods regarding
Answer: C; In cases of parthenogenesis, individuals are often
their effectiveness at preventing pregnancy: widely separated. This reproductive style allows for a next
abstinence, female birth control pill, condoms, generation to be produced, without the energy expenditure a
and vasectomy. female would need to find a male partner.
Abstinence (100%) and vasectomy (nearly 100%) are the most 2. Hormone levels are typically controlled by
effective. The birth control pill and condoms are the next most
feedback systems. In human males, level of
effective.
testosterone in the blood is controlled by a
3. Briefly describe the following processes: negative feedback system involving gonadotropin-
artificial insemination by donor (AID), in vitro releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing
fertilization (IVF), gamete intrafallopian transfer hormone (LH). Which statement accurately
(GIFT), and intracytoplasmic sperm injection explains why this is a negative feedback system?
(ICSI). A) Rising testosterone levels increase the release
In AID, sperm are placed in the vagina or sometimes in the of LH from the anterior pituitary.
uterus. In IVF, fertilization takes place outside of the body, and
B) Rising testosterone levels inhibit release of LH
the embryos are transferred to the woman’s uterus. In GIFT,
from the anterior pituitary.
eggs and sperm are brought together in laboratory glassware,
and then placed in the uterine tubes immediately afterward. C) Release of the ejaculate increases the release
In ICSI, one sperm is injected directly into an egg. of testosterone from the testis.
D) GnRH stimulates the release of LH from the testis.
Section 41.5, Check Your Progress Answer: B; A negative feedback system slows down or shuts off
1. Describe four classes of antiretroviral drugs and a process. In this case, the rise of testosterone shuts off the
the specific stage of the HIV reproduction cycle release of GnRH and LH, which inhibits the release of more
targeted by each class. testosterone. As testosterone levels fall, this inhibitory effect
wears off, and GnRH will again be released, stimulating LH
Antiretroviral drug categories include entry inhibitors (viral
release, stimulating testosterone release.
attachment to host receptor), reverse transcriptase inhibitors
(production of DNA from viral RNA), integrase inhibitors (insertion 3. In human females, complex interactions
of viral DNA into host DNA), and protease inhibitors (processing between the pituitary, the uterus, and the
of viral proteins). ovaries result in a monthly cycle preparing the
2. Describe the medical complications in women body for fertilization of an egg. Which structure
that are associated with HPV infection. is incorrectly paired with its function?
HPV induced genital warts can be painful and disfiguring, and A) endometrium . . . reception and nourishment of
some strains cause cancer of the cervix, vagina, vulva, anus, and implanted blastocyst
mouth and throat. B) follicle . . . receptacle containing egg cell

206 C H A P T E R 4 1 | Reproductive Systems

 C) corpus luteum . . . secretes progesterone Answer: A; Whale milk can have from 30-50% fat, as compared
D) anterior pituitary . . . release of egg cells to the 4-5% fat found in human milk or cow’s milk. Fat is not
water soluble, so this high fat content causes the milk to stay
Answer: D; The anterior pituitary, located in the brain, is a
together and not break up in the water as the young are nursing.
hormone-releasing structure. Among the hormones it releases
High fat also helps the baby quickly develop their insulating
are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
blubber layer.
(FSH), both of which are important in the maturation and release
of the egg from the follicle. 7. Lactation is one of the few positive-feedback
systems found in humans. The suckling of an
4. As a part of the ovarian cycle, a maturing
infant stimulates the release of prolactin,
follicle produces more and more estrogen. This
stimulating milk production. More suckling
estrogen is interpreted by the endometrium as
releases more prolactin, which stimulates more
a signal to enter the proliferative phase. What
milk production, and so on. When the infant
occurs during this phase?
stops breastfeeding, prolactin levels will drop.
A) Endometrium thickens, with increasing
How does this illustrate positive feedback?
vasculature.
A) When prolactin is released, the effect to the
B) Endometrium is shed.
infant is beneficial.
C) Ovulation occurs.
B) When prolactin is released, the effect to the
D) Corpus luteum forms. infant is harmful.
Answer: A; Cells in the endometrium proliferate, generating a C) A stimulus (suckling) causes a process to slow
thicker endometrium with more blood vessels and glands. down.
5. In humans, fertilization typically occurs in the D) A stimulus (suckling) causes a process to speed
oviduct. The fertilized cell divides several times up.
as it travels down the oviduct, becoming an Answer: D; Positive feedback cycles operate when a stimulus
embryo once it has implanted in the increases the response to the stimulus.
endometrium. Hormones released by the 8. Follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH) are released
embryonic tissues include human chorionic from the pituitary and travel to the testes to
gonadotropin (HCG), which maintains the stimulate spermatogenesis, as well as the
corpus luteum for the first few months of release of inhibin, which provides negative
pregnancy. Why is it important to maintain the feedback to the pituitary to decrease FSH
corpus luteum? secretion. Blood tests reveal the following data
A) The corpus luteum releases a rich mix of on two adult male patients whose partners
polysaccharides to nourish the embryo. have had trouble getting pregnant: Patient 1 has
B) Deterioration of the corpus luteum stops release 10.0 mlU/ml (milli-international units per milliliter)
of progesterone and estrogen, triggering the FSH in their bloodstream, which is considered
shedding of the endometrium. normal. Patient 2 has 15.9 mlU/ml, which is
C) Loss of the corpus luteum would shut down considered high.
testosterone production. A) Describe how too much or too little FSH
D) The corpus luteum produces yellowish brown could impact this negative feedback system
fats which are oxidized to increase uterine in males.
temperature. B) Explain how the data about FSH levels given
Answer: B; Clearly, shedding the endometrium with the would provide a direct answer to the question,
implanted embryo would be disastrous. Eventually, the mature could FSH levels be a reason for either patient’s
placenta will release progesterone and estrogen, and the corpus partner having trouble getting pregnant?
luteum is no longer necessary Explanations for how the data supports the idea that high
6. Stimulated by the hormone prolactin, mammals FSH levels could be a contributor to infertility in a patient
produce milk as food for newborns. All milk may include:
contains fat, protein, and lactose, but the Description of changes to FSH feedback system in males
proportions vary widely by species. Whales (1 point each)
produce a highly viscous milk that does not • If levels of FSH are low, this could be the result of trouble in
dissolve in the water surrounding nursing baby the brain with the pituitary gland or the hypothalamus not
whales. Which substance found in milk is likely producing normal amounts of some or all of the hormones.
to be in high quantity in whale milk? This means the signal to the testes to produce sperm make
A) fat not be conveyed and spermatogenesis will not occur.
• If levels of FSH are high, this could be the result of the testes
B) protein
not functioning correctly. Perhaps they are receiving the FSH
C) lactose signal, but they do not produce inhibin that then signals the
D) The substances are in equal proportions. pituitary to cease FSH production.

Teacher Manual 207

 Explanation of evidence for high FSH levels contributing to represents data from a group of women who
infertility (1 point each) did no exercise during the a menstrual cycle,
• Patient 1 exhibits normal FSH levels (10.0 mlU/ml), which and the dashed line represents data from
means that he is producing sperm and this is most likely not women who exercised at least 150 minutes
the cause for infertility for the couple. Other tests should be per week during the study period.
performed.
A) Compare the total estradiol exposure between
• The data for Patient 2 shows increased levels of FSH, which women who did no exercise and those who
means the testes are likely not functioning properly since the exercised for 150 minutes or more per week.
negative feedback loop has been disrupted. If sperm is not
The women exercising at least 150 minutes per week have lower
produced, this is likely the cause for infertility.
estradiol exposure at every point of the menstrual cycle, from
9. It is thought that estrogens can increase a day 0-28 (shown along the x-axis).
woman’s risk of developing breast cancer with B) Infer the effect of exercise on estradiol exposure.
prolonged and elevated exposure. Estradiol is Exercise of more than 150 minutes per week appears to lower
the main form of estrogen produced by the exposure to estradiol.
ovaries. A number of lifestyle modifications—
C) Explain the pattern of rising and falling estradiol
including regular exercise—have been proposed levels shown in both groups.
as protective measures for estradiol exposure.
The rising and falling levels of estradiol seen in both groups
The graph shows estradiol levels measured
represent the menstrual or ovarian cycle.
during a menstrual cycle. The solid line

208 C H A P T E R 4 1 | Reproductive Systems

CHAPTER 42
Animal Development
and Aging
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression
42.1 Early Developmental Stages 1
6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization
4.3 Signal Transduction

42.2 Developmental Processes 1 6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression

6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization

42.3 Human Embryonic and Fetal
Development
42.4 The Aging Process
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 42 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 4 (Illustrative Examples) and AP Unit 6 (Illustrative Examples)

Online Activities
Cytoplasmic Factors
Spry Worms

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Gene expression is extremely complicated, and for the AP exam students only need to
understand an overview. Focus on cell specialization and how certain cells develop different
components to serve different functions, despite all somatic cells containing the same genetic
material. Hox genes are an interesting topic to explore here (if not already covered when
teaching evidence of evolution). The specific details about fertilization and menstruation are
not assessed in the AP exam and only merit a brief overview. Cell signaling is another concept
to continue reinforcing during this chapter.
A classroom discussion about the types of genes that need to be turned on in different cell
types would prompt students to think about variable gene expression. Students should
recognize that some genes are turned on in every cell. It is not necessary that students
remember the exact names of these genes but rather the gene function itself. Provide
students with a prompt such as facial skin cells do not produce bile yet liver cells do produce
bile. Follow the prompt with a classroom discussion concerning the types of genes that
should be active in each type of specialized cell. Have students provide examples of cell
signaling that occurs to promote the developmental process.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—30 minutes on cell differentiation and development
Activity 1: Spry Worms—15 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—20 minutes on cell signals that promote the developmental process
Activity 2: Cytoplastic Factors and classroom discussion—25 minutes

Teacher Manual 209

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Students may forget that every cell in their body contains all of the same genetic information.
Cell specialization is controlled by the regulation of gene expression and this is a difficult
concept for students to grasp.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Spry Worms: This activity asks students to view a video from Virginia Commonwealth
University about a 10-year-long study on aging in roundworms. A link to the video and
accompanying lesson plan is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of using the Spry Worm activity to study aging, allow
students to research the topic of aging using primary literature. Pose the question: Do
you think it’s possible humans will live to 200 in the future? Either working independently
or in pairs, students must then look at scientific studies to answer the question.

2. Cytoplasmic Factors: This HHMI video and interactive can be shown in class or as a
homework assignment, and makes an excellent starting point for class discussions. A link to
the video and discussion questions is available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Sequencing—Intermediate
Use an IWB to project the text and mark text during reading to reinforce key terms and
concepts. Use different colors to represent the different steps in the sequences.

Making Connections—Advanced/Advanced High

Have students make connections between the text and their prior knowledge using a Think/
Pair/ Share activity. Ask students to complete the following statement: This text reminds me of
because . Have ELL students and English proficient students pair up to share
their connections.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 42.1, Check Your Progress skeletal muscle – mesoderm; kidneys – mesoderm; bones –
1. Outline the process of tissue specialization from mesoderm; pancreas – endoderm.
germ layer to organ system.
3. Identify the stage(s) of embryonic development
The organs of an animal’s body develop from the three
in which cross sections of all chordate embryos
embryonic germ layers. The mesoderm forms the notochord,
closely resemble one another.
which becomes the vertebral column in most animals. The
ectoderm forms the neural plate, neural tubes, and then the Neurula stage.
brain and spinal cord. The ectoderm also forms the neural crest
which forms the skin, muscles, adrenal medulla, and ganglia of Section 42.2, Check Your Progress
the peripheral nervous system. The endoderm forms a primitive 1. Name and define two mechanisms of cellular
gut tube, which become the digestive tract. For full list of organs differentiation.
created by each germ layer see Table 42.1.
Cytoplasmic segregation is the parceling out of maternal
2. Name the germ layer of the gastrula that gives determinants as mitosis occurs. Induction is the influence of one
rise to the notochord, thyroid and parathyroid embryonic tissue on the development of another.
glands, nervous system, epidermis, skeletal 2. Define the term morphogen.
muscles, kidneys, bones, and pancreas.
Morphogens are proteins that diffuse away from the areas of
Notochord – mesoderm; thyroid and parathyroid glands – high concentration in the embryo, forming gradients that
endoderm; nervous system – ectoderm; epidermis – ectoderm; influence patterns of tissue development.

210 CHAPTER 42 | Animal Development and Aging

 3. Describe the function of the homeobox C) Some cells of the blastula push inward, and
sequence in a homeotic gene. others migrate, forming a double layer of cells.
The homeobox encodes the homeodomain region of the protein D) Cells differentiate and elongate into skin, nerve
product of the gene. The homeodomain is the DNA-binding and muscle tissue.
region of the protein, which is a transcription factor. Answer: C; This double layer of cells will become the endoderm
and the ectoderm. The location where the layers have pinched
Section 42.3, Check Your Progress together forms an opening called the blastopore.
1. Identify the location where fertilization usually 2. By the end of the gastrulation stage, three
occurs in the human female. distinct tissue layers are typically formed:
Oviduct endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. The
2. Name the extraembryonic membrane that gives mesoderm gives rise to circulatory, excretory
rise to each of the following: umbilical blood and reproductive systems. Predict which animal
vessels, the first blood cells, and the fetal half group would NOT form a mesoderm layer.
of the placenta. A) cnidarians
Umbilical blood vessels – allantois; first blood cells – yolk sac; B) mollusks
fetal half of the placenta – chorion.
C) annelids
3. Describe the major changes that occur in the D) amphibians
human embryo between the third and fifth Answer: A; Cnidarians such as jellyfish and sea anemones lack
weeks of development. complex systems. Their development only includes formation of
Structures that begin to develop between the third and fifth endoderm and ectoderm.
weeks include the nervous system, heart, chorionic villi,
3. Chordate animals are defined by the possession
umbilical cord, and limb buds.
of a notochord at some point in their life. During
Section 42.4, Check Your Progress development, it plays an important signaling role
in coordinating early activity. In most animals,
1. Describe how involution of the thymus can lead
however, it is eventually replaced before birth
to decreased responses to vaccines in older
by what structure?
people.
A) spinal cord
The thymus is the site where T cells finish their development.
T cells are needed to stimulate other types of immune cells, B) vertebral column
including B cells that produce antibodies. C) coelom
2. Define menopause, and explain why it occurs. D) dorsal aorta
Menopause is the time when ovarian and uterine cycles cease. Answer: B; In most vertebrates, the cartilaginous notochord is
The ovaries become unresponsive to the gonadotropic replaced by either cartilaginous or bony vertebrae.
hormones from the anterior pituitary, and estrogen and 4. It might seem surprising that the nervous system
progesterone secretion stops. arises from ectoderm tissue, which is mostly
3. Distinguish between the two hypotheses associated with external structures. This occurs
regarding aging, and give examples of each. after formation of the notochord. The notochord
Preprogrammed theories suggest aging is partly genetically signals ectoderm cells lying above it to go
programmed; single gene mutations influence aging in through several changes which eventually form
C. elegans. Damage accumulation theories suggest aging is the neural tube. Which statement explains how
due to an accumulation of cellular damage (e.g. DNA mutations, the neural tube is formed from ectodermal cells?
cross-linking of proteins, or oxidation by free radicals). A) The notochord migrates upward, becomes
encased in ectodermal cells, forming the neural
AP Assessment tube.
1. A fertilized animal egg cell will begin dividing, B) The notochord receives signals from the endoderm,
forming a hollow ball of cells called a blastula. causing its cells to transform to nerve cells.
At this stage all cells are more or less the C) A coelomic space opens up above the
same. Differentiation begins after the formation notochord, which makes room for the ectodermal
of the tissue layers in gastrulation. Which cells to dip down and form the neural tube.
describes the beginning of gastrulation? D) Ectodermal cells above the notochord form a
A) Rapid division of cells fills the inner blastocoel of groove whose sides pinch together to form the
the blastula. neural tube.
B) Cells develop flagella and begin moving toward Answer: D; A neural plate forms along the dorsal surface of the
the center of the blastula. embryo. Neural folds develop on each side of a neural groove,
which becomes the neural tube when these folds fuse.

Teacher Manual 211

 5. As development continues past the first A) Describe the role of programmed cell death in
divisions, newly developing tissues begin to development and differentiation of animals.
influence the development of other embryonic B) Predict how a disruption in the timing of
tissues. What is this influence called? programmed cell death would impact the reuse
A) retrogression of molecules and the maintenance of dynamic
homeostasis.
B) introgression
Descriptions of the role and impacts of programmed
C) induction cell death in development and differentiation of
D) preduction animals may include:
Answer: C; Only some tissues will be influenced by induction, Description of apoptosis (1 point each):
and then only for a certain amount of time. • Apoptosis is the name for programmed cell death. It is a
6. Certain homeotic genes produce transcription genetically determined and orderly process of self-destruction
factors which ultimately control the fate of that begins with the fragmentation of nuclear DNA that aids in
removing damaged or unnecessary cells.
different segments of the body. Close study of
these genes has demonstrated that there is a Examples of benefits of apoptosis include:
shared coding region found in the DNA • aiding in metamorphosis (such as tadpoles losing their tails as
sequence of almost all animals, and in fact they become frogs)
nearly all eukaryotes. What conclusion can • aiding in pattern formation for how tissues and organs are
reasonably be drawn from this observation? arranged in the body (such as when digits develop from the
A) Basic life functions are controlled by homeotic webbing on primates)
genes. • destroying cells with damaged DNA targeted by immune cells
B) Homeotic genes arose early in living things, and Prediction of disruption impacts:
have been highly conserved. • Because apoptosis is genetically determined, DNA mutations
C) DNA sequencing is not a reliable method of or disruptions in coding and translation can trigger untimely
studying development. apoptotic events.
D) Developmental patterns in fruit flies and • Cancer cells may avoid properly-timed apoptosis using
mammals are not similar. mechanisms to block, inhibit or inactivate signals, thus
Answer: B; Genes that are highly conserved; that is, have stayed allowing cancer cells to proliferate quickly.
much the same over evolutionary history, are thought to serve • Excessive apoptosis could results in excessive cell death,
important functions. leading to diseases and lose of certain functions (seen with
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases).
7. Webbing forms between the digits of humans as
• Excessive apoptosis may help some infections to spread more
the embryo develops. Around Day 38, fingers
easily as they persuade immune cells to kill themselves (AIDS
and toes begin to separate as a result of virus may do this).
apoptosis of the web tissue. What explanation is
• Malformations may occur, such as lingering webbing between
there for the embryo making the webbing at all,
digits, or the remains of unnecessary organs and tissues.
if it is only going to be destroyed?
9. The predictable development of nematode
A) The original webbing keeps the limb buds lined
up and oriented properly.
C. elegans has been widely studied and
mapped by scientists. Certain experiments
B) Energy conserved from the breakdown of the
have shown the following:
web is necessary for further digit development.
i. Typically, a chemical signal is released by an
C) It is not possible to turn off the transcription
anchor cell in the middle of the length of the
factors that control web development in fish fins.
developing nematode.
D) At the time in the past that amphibians, birds and
ii. This chemical signal received from the anchor cell
mammals began to diverge, the directions for
is in greatest concentration in the cell directly
making webbing were deeply embedded in the
below the anchor cell, and in lower concentration
developmental pattern.
in each of the cells on either side of the primary
Answer: D; Conserved regions of genes are not always acted target cell.
upon by evolution, and these vestigial traits carry on.
iii. The primary target cell responds through the
8. Timing and coordination of specific events are activation of cell divisions and development of
necessary for the normal development of an vulva-specific traits in the daughter cells. The cells
organism, and these events are regulated by a with a lower concentration of the chemical signal
experience a single cell division and become
variety of mechanisms. One such mechanism is
epidermal cells.
programmed cell death.
iv. If the anchor cell is destroyed, no vulva develops
and the primary target cell behaves as the cells

212 CHAPTER 42 | Animal Development and Aging

 with lower concentrations of signals do signal influences the pattern of development for
and becomes epidermal cells. the vulva.
v. If most of the target cells are destroyed, 10. Researchers were interested in studying
an outer cell will move to the position if there was a correlation between head
beneath the anchor cell and act as the size, level of education, and the risk of
original target cell (it can also move into developing dementia. To study this,
the adjacent position and adopt the role
they conducted a ten-year study, where
of dividing into epidermal cells).
294 Catholic nuns were assessed
Explain how the scientists have shown that C. annually for severe loss of mental
elegans is utilizing the morphogens in signal
function, or dementia. Data were
transmission over short distances to activate
recorded for each participant regarding
cell differentiation, using the experiment
results as evidence. head circumference—a measure of
brain size— and level of education
Explanations of evidence for morphogens activating
completed. The graph shows the
cell differentiation over short distances in C. elegans
may include (1 point each): overall results of the study.
• Understanding of the role of morphogens in A) Analyze how the risk of dementia is
general: Protein products (morphogens) of specific correlated with brain size and level of
genes in developing cells diffuse away from the education.
areas of their highest concentration, forming The data shows that the nuns who had lower levels of
gradients that influence patterns of tissue education and smaller head circumference were more
development. likely to suffer from dementia.
• Scientists know that the chemical signal for vulvar B) Explain how the graph shows that the
development is released by the anchor cell because difference in education level affects the
if the anchor cell is destroyed, no vulva develops. risk of dementia.
• The chemical signal is a morphogen because it is in Low education attainment might be related to
greatest concentration in the cell closest to where exposures that increase the risk of dementia later in
the signal originates, and then decreases in life; greater education might be related to greater
concentration over distance. If this cell does not neuron.
have a particularly great concentration, then no C) Infer why the researchers chose a group
vulva will develop. Therefore, the signal influences of nuns as their study group.
the pattern of development for the vulva.
Nuns live stable, relatively similar lives without factors
• Additionally, any cell within the closest proximity that contribute to illness, such as smoking cigarettes
can differentiate into a vulva (for example, if the or using alcohol or other drugs. Also, they do not
original target cell was removed). Therefore, the experience physical changes related to pregnancy.

Teacher Manual 213

CHAPTER 43
Behavioral Ecology

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

43.1 Inheritance Influences
Behavior
43.2 The Environment Influences
1 8.1 Responses to the Environment
Behavior
43.3 Animal Communication 1 8.1 Responses to the Environment

43.4 Behaviors that Increase 3.7 Fitness

3
Fitness 8.1 Responses to the Environment
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 43 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 3 and Unit 8

Online Activities
Case Studies in Behavioral Ecology

Teaching Strategy and Approach

This chapter is full of interesting behaviors that students usually enjoy learning about, and is
recommended to teach this alongside evolution. The angle to take is that these behaviors are
boosting the fitness of those organisms which is why they still exist today. Giving students
several examples and having them explain or differentiate between a learned behavior or a
fixed-action-pattern is a helpful exercise for students to fully understand the concept.
Students should be provided with scientific research that supports our present understanding
of animal behavior. This is an important way for students to consider these behaviors. An
evolutionary advantage was presumably provided by each of these behaviors or they would
not persist into the present day. Students analyze behaviors to determine the advantage that
is provided by a behavior.
Class time: five 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture—35 minutes on animal behavior, including the genetic basis of
L
behavior, environmental influences, and learning
 ctivity 1: Case Studies in Behavioral Ecology—the Ecology of Fear, OR
A
classroom discussion on how you would design an experiment to test if a
behavior is learned or innate—10 minutes
Day 2:  ecture—35 minutes on social interactions, migration, communication, and
L
courtship behaviors
 ctivity 1: Case Studies in Behavioral Ecology—Schooling Behavior of
A
Stickleback Fish—10 minutes

214 CHAPTER 43 | Behavioral Ecology

Day 3:  ecture—35 minutes on defensive behaviors, territoriality, foraging, sexual
L
selection, living in a society, and altruism
 ctivity 1: Case Studies in Behavioral Ecology—Conversations with
A
Fireflies—10 minutes
Day 4: College Board AP Biology Laboratory Manual, Investigation 12–45 minutes
Day 5: College Board AP Biology Laboratory Manual, Investigation 12–45 minutes
Teaching Tip: An ecologist at the University of Michigan, Megan Duffy, curates a list of
fantastic Behavioral Ecology videos about halfway down on her list of Videos for Teaching
Ecology. A link is provided in your online course. Students absolutely love to watch these.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

It will be surprising to many students that animals other than humans show signs of learning.
Students have not previously considered the advantages that behaviors of animals, other than
humans, would provide.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Case Studies in Behavioral Ecology: Students will review case studies of different animal
behaviors: schooling in stickleback fish, the femme fatale firefly, or the ecology of fear. Links
to all three case studies are available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Behavioral ecology is an excellent topic for students to

investigate a subject that interests them. Instead of assigning a case study, you may
elect to have students write a short paper on an organism’s behavioral response to the
environment.
 ou may have students use the textbook or videos from the curated list on the Dynamic
Y
Ecology website (link in your online course) to come up with an idea or you may provide
a list of subjects. Many of the illustrative examples listed in the AP manual for Topic 8.1
are excellent topics. These include:
• Predator warnings
• Plant response to herbivory
• Bird songs
• Pack behavior
• Kin selection
• Schooling and flock behaviors
• Courtship and mating behaviors
• Foraging in bees
 e sure to have students include the evolutionary pressures that relate to the response
B
as well as what the response type is in their paper. This will integrate many aspects of
biology at one time.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Comprehension Skill—Intermediate
Ask questions about the lesson content to elicit one or two-word answers: The optimal
foraging model states that it is adaptive for foraging behavior to be energetically efficient as?
possible. A form of natural selection that favors features that increase an animal’s chances of
mating is called? sexual selection.

Teacher Manual 215

Listening and Speaking—Advanced
Tell students to listen without taking notes while you read aloud a content area paragraph.
After you have finished, have students write down what they remember from your reading.
Have students work in small groups to compare their notes. Then have each group write a
summary of their understanding.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 43.1, Check Your Progress 2. Compare and contrast reproductive strategies
1. Compare the studies that show how behavior and forms of sexual selection.
has a genetic basis. Animal reproductive strategy include polygamy, polyandry, or
monogamy. Most often, sexual selection is due to female choice,
The gene for egg-laying hormone in Aplysia was isolated and its
which forces males to compete.
protein product was found to control egg-laying behavior. The
gene fosB has been found to control maternal behavior in mice. 3. Describe examples of how altruistic behavior
2. Identify the body systems that influence behavior. increases an individual’s fitness.
nervous and endocrine Altruistic behavior is supposed to be selfless, but the helper may
be increasing the presence of their own genes in the next
Section 43.2, Check Your Progress generation (for example, an offspring helps raise its siblings).
1. Name the type of learning that occurs when an
AP Assessment
animal no longer tries to eat bumblebees after
being stung by one. 1. Some bird species, such as cuckoos, are brood
parasites. These birds lay their eggs in the
associative learning
nests of other species, so their young are
2. Give an example that shows how instinct and raised around birds that sing differently than
learning may interact as behavior develops. cuckoos. Nonetheless, adult cuckoos will sing
Laughing gull chicks instinctively peck at their parents’ bill to be cuckoo songs, not the songs of their foster
fed, but their accuracy improves after a few days. parents. This suggests that bird song is:
3. Discuss evidence that shows how the A) innate
environment influences behavior. B) learned
Parents of chicks shape their begging behavior. Animals or even C) not important evolutionarily
objects can imprint behaviors in birds during sensitive periods.
Social interactions can influence the songs white-crowned sparrows D) inflexible
learn. Macaques learn to wash potatoes by imitating others. Answer: A; Cuckoos know their own song, despite never hearing
it as they mature. Behaviors that seem to be instinctive or inborn
Section 43.3, Check Your Progress are referred to as innate.
1. Describe examples of how communication is 2. A student is concentrating on taking a test in a
meant to affect the behavior of the receiver. classroom. Outside the window, workers are
Pheromones are used to mark a territory so other individuals of using a loud mower to cut the grass. Eventually,
that species will stay away; honeybees do a waggle dance to the student becomes habituated to the mower.
guide other bees to a food source; vervet monkeys have calls Which statement describes the habituated
that make other vervets run away. student?
2. Give an advantage and disadvantage of each A) She becomes drowsier and drowsier, and falls
type of communication. asleep.
Chemical: effective all the time, not as fast as auditory; auditory: B) She becomes more and more agitated by the
can be modified but the recipient has to be present when the mower noise.
message is sent; visual: need not be accompanied by chemical C) She stops responding to the mower and no
or auditory, needs light in order to receive; tactile: permits longer notices it.
bonding, recipient must be close. D) She stops responding to the mower but writes
about it on the test.
Section 43.4, Check Your Progress
Answer: C; Habituation is a simple form of learning that prevents
1. Explain how territoriality is related to foraging animals from paying attention to everything in their environment.
for food. If a stimulus is not affecting the animal, it is useful to ignore it
Defending a territory is often done in order to obtain a reliable and concentrate that things that are having an effect.
source of food.

216 CHAPTER 43 | Behavioral Ecology

3. Scientists have found that there are innate 6. Scientists hypothesize that the timing and
limits to what an animal can be trained to do. coordination of behaviors, such as migration,
For example, pigeons can learn to associate are regulated by various mechanisms. Justify
seed-like food items with colors, but not with this claim by completing the following:
sounds. Which best explains why this pattern A) Describe TWO examples of behavioral events in
evolved? organisms.
A) Pigeons have poor hearing and cannot B) Explain the mechanisms regulating each of the
distinguish sounds. events described in (a).
B) Pigeons do not communicate with sound, so they Description of behavioral event (1 point each)
cannot learn sounds. • Phototropism and photoperiodism in plants to respond to
C) Pigeons do not have color vision. seasonal changes, and maximize photosynthesis
D) Pigeons use color to find seeds in nature, but • Hibernation of polar bears, estivation of snails, migration of
seeds do not make sounds. sea turtles and butterflies
Answer: D; As seeds are silent, there is no evolutionary • Food/prey selection by predators
advantage to associating sound with seeds. However, being able • Courtship routines of amphibians or birds
to remember good food sources by color would be
advantageous. Explanation of regulating mechanism (1 point each)
• Innate behaviors that are triggered by environmental cues—
4. Fireflies, or lightning bugs, are actually changes in length of night or in the light source regulates
beetles in the family Lampyridae. There are flowering, differential growth and leaf exposure.
about 2000 species found worldwide. Each • Innate behaviors that are triggered by environmental cues.
species has a distinctive flashing pattern.
• Genetic differences may result in physiological differences in
What is the evolutionary advantage of the
the nervous system, influencing physiological differences, such
flashing pattern? as receptors for recognizing and differentiating prey
A) Flashes allow intraspecific communication about • Courtship routines are innate behaviors, but these might be
food supply. influenced by physiological differences in body structure,
B) The flash of light releases toxic substances the coloring, or call length which may impact an individual fitness.
insect has eaten.
7. Communication signals can change behavior to
C) Specific patterns help maintain reproductive
the advantage of the signal sender and/or
isolation.
receiver.
D) The unpredictable nature of the different patterns
confuse predators. A) Describe TWO ways organisms exchange
information in response to internal changes or
Answer: C; Specific flash patterns help males and females of the environmental cues.
same species recognize each other. This isolating mechanism
reduces the chances of mating between species. B) Explain how either the organisms or the
populations benefit from the examples of
5. A variety of products on the market promise communication exchange described in (a).
that they contain pheromones to help you Description and examples of communication (1 point each)
attract members of the opposite sex. However, • Visible avoidance/aggression—a cat arching its back to appear
the question of whether or not humans actually larger when frightened; an individual bird taking flight when
utilize pheromones is disputed. Which startled inspiring the bird population to take flight
observation would support the lack of • Courtship/mating—a healthy bird with an elaborate feather
pheromones in humans? display, an amphibian well-timed call, or reptile with a precise
A) Humans have an inferior sense of smell courtship dance attracts a healthy mate
compared to other mammals. • Cooperative behaviors of packs, herds, flocks, colonies, and
B) Many humans bathe frequently, washing off schools in next building, migration, and care of young
odors. • Parent/offspring teaching in a variety of animal species
C) The vomeronasal organ is not found in humans. Explanation of benefits (1 point each)
D) The vomeronasal organ in humans lacks sensory • Visual signals can benefit the individual and the population in
neurons. that the individual may escape danger unharmed, and in the
Answer: D; The vomeronasal organ is built during development, bird example, the population may as well when they mimic the
but never fully develops. behavior of the individual

Teacher Manual 217

 • This type of communication may be chemical, auditory, visual compared the feeding rates of territorial
or tactile and can benefit the individual in finding a mate, but surgeonfish to those of nonterritorial
also can benefit the population as increased reproductive and surgeonfish.
survival success are favored by natural selection.
A) Explain the relationship between feeding rate
• Benefit both the individual and the population in that the and time of day.
individuals survive and thrive while the population can divide
Each set of data shows the feeding rate of the fishes over time.
roles and thereby distribute energy and resources
• Benefits the offspring by increasing their survival, which in turn B) Interpret the advantage of the surgeonfishes’
territorial behavior.
benefits the parent as their genes are likely to continue on.
The fishes that engage in territorial behavior feed more often
8. Surgeonfish are algae-eating fishes that than fishes that do not.
vigorously defend their territory against other C) Hypothesize why this behavior has evolved.
algae-eating fishes. They maintain a territory of
Fishes that defend territories have more success at reproducing.
about 2–3 m². Scientists were interested in Their genes are passed on to future generations. Fishes that do
studying what the advantages of maintaining a not defend territories are not as successful at reproducing; their
territory might be for the surgeonfish. The genes are not passed on.
graph shows the results of a study that

218 CHAPTER 43 | Behavioral Ecology

CHAPTER 44
Population Ecology

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

44.1 Scope of Ecology
44.2 Demographics of Populations
8.3 Population Ecology
44.3 Population Growth Models 1
8.4 Effects of Density of Populations
8.1 Responses to the Environment
44.4 Regulation of Population Size 1
8.4 Effects of Density of Populations
44.5 Life History Patterns 8.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
44.6 Human Population Growth 8.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
44.7 A Sustainable Future
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 44 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 8

Online Activities
The Lesson of the Kaibab
Tragedy of the Commons Simulation
Hubbard Brook Migratory Bird Population Ecology Module

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Working with students to make sure they can calculate the different population growth rates is
the most important takeaway from this chapter. Providing real examples for these problems
will help ground students’ understanding about these mathematical concepts. In addition, it is
important to discuss density-dependent vs. density-independent factors and relate them to
ecological phenomena.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture—45 minutes on population growth models, population size, and
L
density dependent and independent regulations
Day 2: Review of logistic and exponential equations and computations—15 minutes
Activity 1, 2, or 3, whichever best matches student interests
Teaching Tips: Practice with the exponential and logarithmic growth equations will allow
students to become comfortable with the mathematical procedures. Time should be allowed
for equation practice.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Many students may still forget that a population consists of all individuals of the same species
living in the same area. The interactions described in this chapter will enable remembering a
population.

Teacher Manual 219

Students may not understand life histories and age distribution graphs. These graphical
representatives can demonstrate useful information about a population and can be easily
mastered.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. The Lesson of the Kaibab: Students will analyze biotic and abiotic factors that affect a
population. Full directions and a student worksheet are available online.
2. The Tragedy of the Commons: Students will demonstrate the effect of exploitation in
fisheries. This activity is available on the College Board website, and a link is available in
your online course.
3. Hubbard Brook Migratory Bird Population Ecology Module: This activity was developed by
the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem avian research group. Students will study datasets relating to
the reproductive success of the Black-throated Blue Warbler. A link to the dataset and
student worksheets are available in your online course

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Word Origins—Beginning or Intermediate

Have students find cognates, or words that have come from a common ancestor, for
vocabulary terms, which can help them understand new vocabulary.

Oral Language Development—Advanced

Have students scan the lesson for content vocabulary words in context. Help them pronounce
the vocabulary words correctly. Discuss vocabulary meanings with them.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 44.1, Check Your Progress 2. Describe the differences among type I, II, and
1. Distinguish between a population and a III survivorship curves.
community. In a type I survivorship curve, most individuals survive well past
A population is all the members of one species that inhabit a the midpoint of the lifespan. In type II, survivorship decreases at
particular area. A community is all the populations that interact a constant rate throughout the lifespan. In type III, most
within that area. individuals die young.
2. Explain what is meant by abiotic variables. 3. Explain why a pyramid-shaped age diagram
Abiotic variables in an ecosystem are those that are nonliving, indicates a growing population.
such as sunlight, temperature, wind, and terrain. In a pyramid-shaped age diagram, the pre-reproductive
3. Describe the central goal of modern ecological members represent the largest portion of the population. In the
studies. near future, this group will enter the reproductive years and
cause the population to grow.
To develop models that explain and predict the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
Section 44.3, Check Your Progress
Section 44.2, Check Your Progress 1. Explain how carrying capacity (K) limits
1. Distinguish between population density and exponential growth.
population distribution. Exponential growth ceases when the environment cannot
support a larger population size; that is, the point at which the
Population density is the number of individuals per unit area.
size of the population has reached the environment’s carrying
Population distribution is the pattern of dispersal of individuals
capacity, so exponential growth ceases.
across an area of interest.

220 C H A P T E R 4 4 | Population Ecology

2. Explain the conditions that would cause a 3. Explain how an increase in the consumption of
population to undergo logistic growth. resources by LDCs would affect consumption
Logistic growth occurs when some environmental factors, such by MDCs.
as food and space, become limited. The scarce resources lead to Because resources are in limited supply, an increase in
increased competition and predation. consumption by the LDCs will cause more competition for
resources in all countries.
Section 44.4, Check Your Progress
1. Describe the effect that population density can Section 44.7, Check Your Progress
have on competition and predation. 1. Identify which nonrenewable energy sources
As population density increases, competition and predation are environmentally harmful.
become more intense. the fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, oil
2. Provide examples that show how a density- 2. List ways in which we can conserve water to
independent factor can act as a selective minimize negative environmental impacts.
agent. Crops that are salt- and drought-tolerant can be planted.
If a flash flood occurs, mice that can stay afloat will survive and Other ways include drip irrigation, the reduction and recycling
reproduce, whereas those that quickly sink will not survive and of home water, minimizing yard irrigation, and using water-
will not reproduce. In this way, the ability to stay afloat will be efficient toilets.
more prevalent in the next generation.
3. Discuss two alternative agricultural practices
3. Identify various intrinsic factors that influence that are environmentally friendly.
population size and growth. Crop rotation helps maintain nutrients in the soil (alternating
Intrinsic factors such as anatomy, physiology, behaviors such as nitrogen-fixing crops, such as legumes). Both organic farming
territoriality, dominance hierarchies, recruitment, and migration and biological pest control remove or reduce the use of pesticides
can cause population size to change. and herbicides. Contour farming, terrace farming, planting cover
crops, and natural fences all help reduce soil erosion.
Section 44.5, Check Your Progress
1. Compare and contrast the general AP Assessment
characteristics of a K-strategist and an 1. Before Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans in
r-strategist. 2005, the city had a population of about
K-strategist species: allocate energy to their own growth and 485,000. Population dipped drastically
survival and to the growth and survival of their limited number immediately after the hurricane, but recovered
of offspring. r-strategist species: allocate energy to producing to about 386,000 by 2015. What kind of limiting
a large number of offspring; little or no energy goes into factor resulted in these changes?
parental care. A) clumped
2. Explain why a population may vary between K B) random
and r strategies, using energy requirements in C) density-dependent
your answer. D) density-independent
Populations may vary between K and r strategies based upon Answer: D; Hurricanes and other natural disasters are
environmental conditions. For example, if density is not a factor, considered density-independent. That is, their effect is what it is,
a population may use the r strategy and invest their energy into no matter what size the population; small communities are just
producing a lot of offspring. When density is an issue, investing as devastated as large ones.
energy into a few offspring that are more likely to survive might
be a better strategy. 2. A population’s growth pattern depends on that
species, biotic potential and environmental
Section 44.6, Check Your Progress circumstances. In nature, populations tend to
1. Compare the population growth of the LDCs display either logistic or exponential growth. In
with that of the MDCs. a temperate climate, which species below
Less-developed countries have a high rate of population growth, would be most likely to display exponential
while more-developed countries have a low rate of population growth?
growth. A) oak trees
2. Describe why replacement reproduction still B) humans
leads to continued population growth. C) insects
If the age structure of the population is such that there are more D) alligators
young women entering their reproductive years, then the Answer: C; Many insects die off at the end of the season, leaving
population will continue to grow even if it is experiencing eggs behind for the next season. Thus, their population is small at
replacement reproduction. the beginning of the summer, grows explosively due to high biotic
potential, and then drops off to almost zero as winter sets in.

Teacher Manual 221

 3. Population growth rates can be affected by living there. Given a growth rate for chipmunks
the size of the population itself. Some limiting of 0.2, calculate the growth rate of the current
factors have a greater effect when a population population.
is large than when it is small. Which limiting A) 80 chipmunks/year
factors listed below would be density- B) 220 chipmunks/year
dependent?
C) 480 chipmunks/year
A) predation
D) 800 chipmunks/year
B) competition for food
Answer: B
C) competition for mates
dN (K-N) (5000-4000)
D) all of the above = rN = 0.2(2000) = 80 chipmunks/year
dt K 5000
Answer: D; The more individuals there are, the more likely it is
7. The global human population stood at 4 billion
that predators notice them and select them as prey. Competition
for food and mates is clearly more intense when there are more in 1974, but by 2017, it was 7 billion. There is
individuals around. However, if the population is very small, it no question that this rapid increase in
may be difficult to find mates at all. population strains the planet’s resources.
However, having a relatively small population
4. Population biologists describe the reproduction does not mean that a nation is not impacting
strategy of a given species as either r-selected the environment. How do more-developed,
or K-selected. The K refers to carrying capacity smaller population nations increase their
and the r to intrinsic rate of growth. Whether or environmental impact?
not a species emphasizes r or K results in life
A) higher consumption of oil and coal
history adaptations affecting the number and
type of offspring the species has. Under what B) higher per capita income
circumstances is “r” selection beneficial? C) lower production of CO2 emissions
A) Population is above carrying capacity. D) all of the above
B) Population is below carrying capacity. Answer: A; Persons in a more-developed country may consume 8
times as much fuel as those in less-developed nations. Therefore
C) Environmental conditions are stable and
the nation as a whole is making a much greater contribution to
unvarying.
pollution such as carbon dioxide emissions.
D) Threats of predation are nonexistent.
Answer: B; So-called “r-strategists” are organisms that produce 8. Students set up an experiment to observe the
large numbers of small offspring. They have short life spans, and impacts of changing pH levels on populations
may take advantage of the abundant resources present when of arctic pteropods. The students chose
populations are below capacity. pteropods because they knew that these
marine molluscs have shells made of a crystal
5. Population pyramids, or age-structure graphs, form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which might
display how many people are found in each be sensitive to a shifting pH. In addition,
age division of a particular country’s population. pteropods are at the bottom of marine food
Pyramids for countries that are experiencing chains and are consumed by zooplankton,
rapid growth would have what characteristic? juvenile salmon, whales, and birds. Not only
A) The top of the pyramid is smallest. was the rate of calcium carbonate precipitation
B) Ages are distributed fairly evenly, giving good different between the group at normal ocean
support for reproductive individuals. pH and the more acidic sample, but the shells
C) There are more females than males in each age of the pteropods in the acidic test dissolved
group. completely after forty-five days.
D) The base is largest, indicating large numbers of A) Describe the results of the students’
pre-reproductive individuals. investigation.
Answer: D; The large base indicates there are more reproductive B) Explain how the results described in (a) would
than non-reproductive individuals. This is typical of less- influence the exchange of matter within oceanic
developed nations, who have poorer survivorship than more- communities or ecosystems.
developed nations (which tend to have more evenly divided Description of the evidence to justify the claim that timing and
age groups). coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms:
6. A particular section of forest provides good Descriptions of results (1 point each)
habitat for chipmunks. While the estimated • The pteropods exposed to pH 8.1 showed a greater rate of
carrying capacity of this forest is 5000 calcium carbonate precipitation than those exposed to the
chipmunks, there are currently 4000 chipmunks lower, more acidic, pH 7.8 at each two-hour interval.

222 C H A P T E R 4 4 | Population Ecology

 • The shells immersed in the pH 7.8 environment also percentage of the live oak population affected does
had their shells completely dissolved after 45 days, increase as the density of the population increases.
but the description implied that this was not the This is likely due to: the amount of contact between
case for those under normal conditions. individual trees due to their connected root system
• While the rate of precipitation changed the most allows easy spread of the fungus from tree to tree,
from hour 2 to hour 6 in the shells under normal and the lack of genetic diversity due to vegetative
conditions when compared to those in more acidic reproduction within the live oak population means
conditions (.21 change compared to .1), the rate was that there is lower stability within the population to
still slower throughout for the more acidic sample. sustain or recover from a disturbance.
Explanations (1 point each) • If it was density independent, then as the population
of live oak increased, there would not necessarily
• If pteropods are the base of many oceanic food
be an increase in the incidence of oak wilt.
webs, then the loss of these molluscs would have a
far-reaching impact because it would mean the loss Explanation of further investigation (1 point each)
of a major food source for many marine creatures, • More surveys of the same 119 ha, conducted
who may also be the prey of other consumers. periodically at regular intervals, could be used to
• Pteropods may also play a geochemical role in see if the number of living live oaks is the same, or
oceans based on the fact that they have calcium greater or less than the original survey. If they have
carbonate shells and the ocean is a major reservoir increased, then the disease is not impacting species
of carbon. The decrease in pteropods may then also distribution. If the number of live oaks has
impact biogeochemical cycles, which could, in turn, decreased, then there is a decrease in abundance.
have global impacts. Measurements would have to be done in number of
trees per hectare and mapped in order to see if
9. Live oak trees dominate much of central species distribution has changed. Trees should
Texas. They are able to reproduce typically be found in clumps as a result of vegetative
asexually by forming root sprouts, reproduction.
allowing these shade trees to connect • Additional surveys could be done to see how live
to one another and colonize former oaks are thriving in areas surrounding the original
grasslands following environmental survey of 119,000 ha, or to see.
disturbances like fires and overgrazing. 10. In 1994, the first signs of a serious eye
Because clonal reproduction allows for disease caused by the bacterium
rapid spread of species, live oak can Mycoplasma gallisepticum were
take over an area and limit species observed in house finches that were
diversity. Live oaks in central Texas are eating in backyard bird feeders.
threatened by a fungal disease called Volunteers collected data for three
oak wilt (Ceratocystis fagacearum), different years on the number of
which is transmitted to oak trees finches infected with the parasite and
aboveground through a beetle vector the total number of finches present.
and underground through the roots. The graph shows the abundance of
In one survey of 119,000 ha in central house finches in areas where the
Texas, one oak wilt disease center was infection rate was at least 20 percent
found for every 150 ha. of the house finch population.
A) Describe whether infection by the oak
A) Explain the data in terms of infection
wilt pathogen is a density-dependent
rate versus house finch abundance.
or density-independent factor.
In 1994, the population size decreased rapidly after
B) Explain what additional measurements
infection. In 1995 and 1996, the population did not
and observations could be used to
change much after the infection rate reached 20
determine the impact of the interactions
percent.
between the fungus, the beetle, and the
tree on species distribution and B) Hypothesize why the house finch
abundance. abundance stabilized in 1995 and 1996.
Description of the appropriate kind of data and the As the populations decline to a particular density, the
appropriately linked explanation of its selection may parasite’s effect decreases because it is not as easily
include: transmitted when the population is smaller.
Description of oak wilt (1 point each) C) Infer whether the parasite, Mycoplasma
gallisepticum, is effective in limiting the
• Though populations could grow exponentially,
size of house finch populations. Explain.
various limiting factors typically keep size at a
sustainable level. In this case, infection by oak wilt Yes, the parasite appears to limit the population size
is a density-dependent factor because the of house finches in a density-dependent manner.

Teacher Manual 223

CHAPTER 45
Community and Ecosystem
Ecology
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
45.1 Ecology of Communities ½ 8.1 Responses to the Environment
45.2 Community Development 1 8.1 Responses to the Environment
45.3 Dynamics of an Ecosystem 1 8.1 Responses to the Environment

8.2 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

8.5 Community Ecology

45.4 Ecological Consequences of ½ 7.2 Natural Selection
Climate Change
8.1 Responses to the Environment

8.5 Community Ecology

Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 45 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7 and Unit 8

Online Activities
Predator-Prey Interactions Simulation
Community Ecology Case Study

Teaching Strategy and Approach

With the new changes to the curriculum, there is no specific mention of the biogeochemical
cycles; however, it wouldn’t be a bad idea to tie those concepts into the bigger picture of
energy cycling and organism interactions. The cycles are a good way to help connect food
webs and human impact to the rest of the content. Teaching this at the end of the year would
help serve as a natural review of concepts taught earlier. It isn’t hard to incorporate the
carbon cycle with the SYI-2.B, which deals with human’s impact on the environment, and the
nitrogen cycle with ENE-1.N, which deals with food webs and energy transfer.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture—30 minutes on community structure and interactions within
L
communities
 lass discussion on the importance of energy and material inputs in
C
ecosystems—15 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—15 minutes on how populations interact within a community
Activity 1: Predator-Prey Interactions Simulation—30 minutes
Day 3: Activity 2: Community Ecology Case Studies—45 minutes

224 C H A P T E R 4 5 | Community and Ecosystem Ecology

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Many students fail to recognize that food webs are established according to the movement of
energy. Students instinctively want to develop food webs depicting the arrow head going from
the organisms that is consuming rather than as the flow of energy goes from the consumed
organism to the consumer. In ecological pyramids, because most individual tertiary consumers
are very large, students tend to want to build an ecological pyramid upside down and based
on the size of each organism rather than the total biomass in a trophic level. Point out both of
these misconceptions and indicate the correct depictions.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Predator-Prey Interactions Simulations: Students will simulate a predator-prey cycle using an
online tool. Directions and a link to the activity can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: The Cornell Institute for Biology Teachers hosts an

alternative activity centered around deer populations, which involves a whole class
kinetic activity. A link is available in your online course.

2. Community Ecology Case Studies: Students will read and analyze the results of an ecology
case study. Links to several options are available in the online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Comprehension Skill—Beginning
Ask questions about the lesson content to elicit yes/no answers: “Do species richness and
diversity allow us to compare communities?” yes “Do decomposers obtain nutrients through
breaking down organic matter? yes Are all symbiotic relationships mutual? no

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Advanced

Have student pairs take turns reading the text to one another. Remind that they are reading for an
audience, and that they need to maintain the audience’s interest with their voices. Move around
the room, correcting pronunciation as necessary. Ask students what information they learn from
the title and how the title makes them approach the text. Have pairs discuss their opinions. Then
have them share their thoughts with the class. Record their contributions on the board.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 45.1, Check Your Progress 3. Describe the two factors that can cause
1. Explain the difference between species predator and prey populations to cycle in a
richness and diversity. predictable manner.
Species richness is a list of all species found in the community. The two factors are 1) the predator causes the prey population to
Species diversity includes species richness and the relative decline, which leads to a decline in the predator population; later
abundance of each species. when the prey population recovers, so does the predator
population; 2) lack of food causes the prey population to decline,
2. Identify the difference between an organism’s followed by a decline in the predator population; later, when
habitat and its niche. food is available to the prey population, they both recover.
An organism’s habitat is the place where it lives and reproduces.
The niche is the role it plays in its community, such as whether it
Section 45.2, Check Your Progress
is a producer or consumer. 1. Identify the events that occur during succession.
Primary succession, during which soil is formed, occurs first.
Secondary succession occurs as one species is replaced by
another, usually progressing from grasses to shrubs to trees.

Teacher Manual 225

 2. Compare and contrast the various models used AP Assessment
to explain succession. 1. Communities have many species, but limited
The facilitation model predicts that a community will grow resources. In G.F. Gause’s classic experiments,
toward becoming a climax community. The inhibition model he combined different of species of paramecia
predicts that colonists will inhibit the growth of a community. The together to investigate their competition. Which
tolerance model predicts that various plants can colonize an
answer best states his conclusion, known as
area at the same time.
the competitive exclusion principle?
Section 45.3, Check Your Progress A) No two species can live in the same community.
1. Identify the various types of populations that B) Many species can live in the same community.
are at the base of an ecological pyramid and C) If two species compete for the same resource,
the start of a food chain. one species will eventually gain access to that
resource.
Producers of food (photosynthesizers) such as cyanobacteria
and algae are at the base of an ecological pyramid. D) If two species compete for the same resource,
the resource will be overused, and both species
2. Compare the flow of energy to the flow of
will die out.
chemicals through an ecosystem.
Answer: C; Two species cannot occupy the same niche;
Energy passes from one population to the next, and at each step eventually, one species gains exclusive access to it. If they appear
more is converted to heat until all of the original input has to use the same resource, closer examination should show that
become heat. Thus, energy flows through an ecosystem. they have partitioned or split the resource in some way.
Chemicals pass from one population to the next, and then
recycle back to the producer population again. 2. A large family of plants called Brassicaceae is
known to produce chemicals called mustard
3. Provide examples of how human activities can
oils. These oils are secondary compounds that
alter the biogeochemical cycles.
are defensive due to their toxicity. However, the
Return of CO2 to the atmosphere because humans burn fossil larvae of cabbage white butterflies feed almost
fuels and destroy forests that take up CO2; increase phosphate
exclusively on these plants and have apparently
in surface water by runoff of applied fertilizer to croplands.
evolved the ability to break down and detoxify
Section 45.4, Check Your Progress these oils. This situation illustrates what
evolutionary process?
1. List three different factors contributing to
climate change. A) allopatric speciation

Factors that are contributing to climate change include modern B) coevolution

agricultural practices that produce large amounts of nitrous C) resource partitioning
oxide, the alteration of landscapes such as in deforestation, and D) convergent evolution
industrial activities that produce large amounts of CO2.
Answer: B; At some point, brassica evolved mustard oils and for a
2. Identify the impacts of climate change on time were “untouchable.” But at some later point, chance favored
plants, including crops. mutations in the cabbage white that protected them from the oils.
The oils thus acted as a selection agent on the butterflies. One
In some regions, the growing season will begin earlier, which
species has influenced the evolution of the other.
can increase harvests. Precipitation patterns may change in
certain areas—increasing droughts in some places and 3. Species in communities have rich relationships
increasing precipitation in others. Sea level rise can drown with other species. For example, coral reef
wetlands, and increased flooding can drown upland plants. communities may feature cleaning stations. At
3. Describe a simple plan that can be these stations, small cleaner fish will clean
implemented in your own home to help dead skin or parasites off of larger fish. Which
decrease your impact on climate change. term describes this relationship?
Small steps can be taken in the home to help decrease our A) mutualism
personal impact on climate change. We can do things like B) parasitism
switching to efficient appliances, using low-flow water fixtures, C) commensalism
and insulating drafty areas of our home to save on energy
D) niche partitioning
consumption for heating and cooling.
Answer: A; Both fishes benefit from this relationship. Mutual
benefit defines this type of symbiotic relationship.

226 C H A P T E R 4 5 | Community and Ecosystem Ecology

4. Beavers are known to alter their habitats by would support the idea that species richness
felling trees and building dams. They feed on leads to stability?
young trees like aspen and willow. Beavers A) Plots with more species had fewer survivors after
themselves serve as prey for wolves, lynx, and harsh winters.
humans. Predict the result if beavers were B) Plots with more species were less affected by
removed from a particular ecosystem. drought.
A) Aspen and willow populations would go up. C) Plots with fewer species were less affected by
B) Wolf and lynx populations would go down. predation.
C) Flooding in the area could intensify. D) Plots with fewer species had lower rates of
D) all of the above reproduction.

Answer: D; Beavers are considered a keystone species. In Answer: B; Plots that had higher species richness survived
addition to affecting their food sources and to being a food drought better. They also showed less year-to-year variation in
source, the ponds provide habitat for many species. These biomass.
ponds can also trap and slow flood waters. Use the following information for questions 8 and 9.
The Shannon diversity index is commonly used
5. Primary succession occurs after some kind of
by ecologists to determine the diversity of a
bare and lifeless substrate is exposed, as might community. The higher the calculated value, the
happen after formation of a glacial moraine. greater the diversity. A group of ecologists
Lichens are usually the first pioneer species to studied the diversity of birds at three sites in the
move into such a bare area. After some years, Andes, and compared the diversity in two habitat
mosses will move in. Why can’t mosses types: off trail (which was undisturbed by humans)
colonize at the same time as lichens? and on trail (which was disturbed by humans).
A) Mosses cannot tolerate acids the lichens 8. Determine the highest average bird diversity
produce, so must wait for them to die out.
recorded.
B) Lichens attract large herbivores, which crush
Accept answers between 1.1 and 1.2, depending on where
mosses.
students approximate the bar.
C) Mosses require more soil; lichens help to build it.
9. Calculate the difference between the average
D) Lichens can tolerate full sunlight, but mosses bird diversity found On-Trail and Off-Trail at the
need shade.
Gigantes Study area. Explain the factors that
Answer: C; The acidic secretions released by lichens help to may account for this difference.
break down bare rock, but not quickly. Some years are needed
0.99-0.7= 0.29; Depending on where students approximate
until pockets of soil exist that mosses can exploit.
the bars, answers should be in this range. Accept explanations
6. All organisms require nitrogen to make proteins that students defend with evidence.
and nucleic acids. However, nitrogen is a 10. Human activities can impact the cycling of
limiting nutrient in many ecosystems. Which matter on Earth, and as a result, can impact
would be a good sign that a community had interactions within ecosystems.
plentiful supplies of usable nitrogen?
A) Describe two ways carbon travels within the
A) high N2 gas in the air carbon cycle on Earth.
B) plants with yellow, brittle leaves B) Predict how an increase in specific human
C) unusually low populations of denitrifying activities may impact each of the aspects of the
bacteria carbon cycle described in (a).
D) the presence of many leguminous plants in the Description of aspects of the carbon cycle (1 point each)
community • Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the exchange pool with
Answer: D; Leguminous plants, such as clover and beans, are terrestrial ecosystems. Terrestrial plants take up carbon
known for having colonies of symbiotic N-fixing bacteria living on dioxide through photosynthesis and it is incorporated into their
their roots. These bacteria make N available for their hosts, and biomass and used by autotrophs and heterotrophs. Carbon
then release N into the soil when they die. dioxide is returned to the atmosphere through respiration.
7. Species richness refers to the number of • Biomass is a major reservoir for carbon. Living and dead
species present in a community. It is generally organisms contain organic carbon (especially trees) and the
decomposition of organisms returns carbon dioxide to the
thought that the higher the species richness,
atmosphere.
the more stable the community. In an
• Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the exchange pool with
experiment, scientists observed a number of
aquatic ecosystems, although indirectly as a bicarbonate ion
small plots of land in a natural area over the
used by algae and respired by aquatic organisms. The amount
course of several years. Which observation of bicarbonate in the water is in equilibrium with the carbon
dioxide in the air.

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 Prediction of impact (1 point each) 11. An experiment was performed by adding soil
• If the burning of fossil fuels increases, or if deforestation invertebrates to controlled grassland
increases, more carbon dioxide will be released to the communities. The growth of various plants
atmosphere because the amount absorbed by primary was measured at four months, six months, and
producers will not be able to keep up. This increases additional 12 months. Growth was measured by recording
greenhouse gases that allow penetration of solar radiation but shoot biomass—the mass of the grass stems.
hinder the escape of infrared rays (heat) back into space The bars on the graph indicate the change in
(greenhouse effect). This can change the overall climate on
the biomass of the plants over time.
Earth and impact the biosphere. Additionally sea levels may
rise due to the melting of land ice as temperatures increase. A) Infer what a negative value of change in shoot
biomass indicates.
• If the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases,
much of the excess may be absorbed by another large A negative value of change in shoot mass indicates that the
reservoir—the ocean. This can change the chemistry of the amount of shoot mass has decreased over time.
marine environment (formation of too much carbonic acid), B) Generalize which communities were most
harming the balance and destroying fragile life that reside positively and most negatively affected by the
there, such as corals. addition of soil invertebrates.
The late-succession plants were the most positively affected
plants, and the early succession plants were the most negatively
affected by the addition of soil organisms.

228 C H A P T E R 4 5 | Community and Ecosystem Ecology

CHAPTER 46
Major Ecosystems
of the Biosphere
Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics
46.1 Climate and the Biosphere
46.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems 1
46.3 Aquatic Ecosystems 1 8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 46 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 8

Online Activities
Global Desert Outlook
BiomeViewer

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Details about biomes will not be on the AP exam, but they can be useful in supporting student
understanding of evolution and natural selection. Having students understand the different
attributes of each biome (climate, vegetation, range of latitudes its found in) and relate it to
the organisms that live there can be helpful. This strategy helps contextualize convergent
evolution, natural selection, and coevolution. The environmental factors each biome presents
is a good way to tie several concepts together in a nice and neat way. As you talk about the
different terrestrial and aquatic biomes, focus on the evolutionary pressures that selected for
the traits of the organisms that live in each of these different biomes.
Class time: two 45-minute class periods.
Day 1: Lecture—15 minutes on the definition of biome and environmental changes
Activity 1: Global Desert Outlook—30 minutes
Assign Activity 2: Bioramas (optional)
Day 2: Activity 2: Bioramas OR Activity 3: BiomeViewer

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

We all can consider that when the environment changes all organisms will be affected.
Students generally jump to the end condition of death rather than to consider the slow
changes that could occur that will impede the health of some organisms and result in the
death of others. A prediction should consist of one outcome. A prediction does not entail
giving options rather a prediction gives one condition that will occur.

Teacher Manual 229

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Global Deserts Outlook: Students read about deserts on the United Nations Environmental
Program, discuss their research, and answer discussion questions. A link to the data and
discussion questions is available on your online course.
2. Bioramas: Students will research and build a 3D diorama of a biome.
For this activity, students build a 3-D diorama of one of the biomes discussed in this
Chapter. This activity work wells in pairs. Assign each pair of students a biome from the
list found in Fig. 46.4. Students must research their biome before building their diorama.
You may want to include rules of specific objects they must display in their diorama.
Example: All bioramas must display two key types of vegetation and at least one
representative organism. Or, to make this activity slightly more challenging, explain that
their diorama must include some sort of mobile element, such as a squirt bottle to simulate
rain or a fan to indicate high wind conditions.
Provide materials for the students to build their dioramas, such as: boxes, paper, old
National Geographic magazines for photos, cotton balls, a handful of plastic toy animals,
a handful of grass, some succulents, moss, string, etc.
After all the dioramas have been created, you may set the bioramas up around your
classroom with numbers or letters and have students walk around and try to guess which
each one represents.
3. BiomeViewer: Students use an interactive global map to examine how biodiversity is
impacted by biome, human impact, and climate. A link to the website and student
worksheet is available in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: The globe can also be very interesting to explore

independently. Instead of assigning the worksheet, you could have students pick
a biome they are interested in learning more about. Using the BiomeViewer, have
your students work in small groups to collect information about their biome and the
biodiversity within it. Be sure to have your students compare how it has changed over
time. When your students are finished collecting their information, they can present
their information to the class in either a PowerPoint or informal manner.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Using Visual and Contextual Support—Beginning

Reinforce the use of visual context to derive meaning through examples of environmental
print. Pantomime or elicit one-word responses to the meaning derived from such images as a
stop sign, exit sign, or safety symbols and other cautionary or explanatory labels used in the
classroom. Then provide students with enlarged copies of the image that supports the
reading. Discuss different parts of the image, pointing to each as you say it.

Making Connections—Advanced
Have students make connections between the text and their prior knowledge using a Think/
Pair/ Share activity. Ask students to complete the following statement: This text reminds me
of because . Have ELL students and English proficient students pair up to share
their connections.

230 C H A P T E R 4 6 | Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition
Section 46.1, Check Your Progress C) adequate sunshine, low nutrients
1. Identify the conditions that account for a warm D) excessive current activity, adequate sunshine
climate at the equator.
Answer: C; There is adequate sunlight for photosynthesis down
The tilt of the Earth as it orbits the sun, along with the amount of to about 200 m. However, ocean “desert” regions are too low in
direct solar radiation that the equator receives, plays a role in nutrients to sustain a large producer population.
producing the climate of the equator. The circulation patterns of
air will also influence the climate of the equator. 2. Some coastal seas are unusually rich in
nutrients, due to upwelling currents that bring
2. Name two physical features that can affect nutrients from the sea floor up to the surface.
rainfall. One such area off the coast of Peru is known
The windward side of a mountain receives more rainfall than the for a rich anchovy fishery. However, this fishery
other side. Wind blowing over bodies of water collect moisture collapses every few years, due to El Niño. What
that they lose when they reach land.
effect of El Niño causes this fishery collapse?
Section 46.2, Check Your Progress A) A change in the trade winds weakens the
upwelling currents.
1. Identify the progression of biomes, starting at
B) Warming of the water destroys anchovy eggs.
the equator and moving toward the North Pole.
C) Changes in the wind direction make fishing too
Tropical rain forest, temperate grassland, semidesert, tropical
hazardous.
seasonal forest, desert, shrubland, tropical deciduous forest,
temperate deciduous forest, mountain zone, taiga, tundra, polar ice. D) Toxins are brought up from the ocean floor due
to changes in wind direction.
2. Contrast the vegetation of the tropical rain
Answer: A; Ordinarily, winds blow away from the coast, which
forest with that of a temperate deciduous forest. thins the upper layers of warm water and encourages upwelling
A tropical rain forest has a canopy (tops of a great variety of tall of deep cold water. In an El Niño, the weakening of the Trade
evergreen hardwood trees) with buttressed trunks at ground Winds weakens the offshore wind pattern. The upper layers of
level. Long lianas (hanging vines) climb into the canopy. warm ocean get thicker, which discourages upwelling.
Epiphytes grow on the trees. The understory consists of
smaller plants, and the forest floor is very sparse. A temperate 3. For most of the 20th century, scientists
deciduous forest contains trees (oak, beech, sycamore, and believed that the cold and dark ocean floor
maple) that lose their leaves in the fall. Enough light penetrates was virtually devoid of life. Discovery of
the canopy to allow a layer of understory trees. Shrubs, mosses, hydrothermal vents on the floor of the
and ferns grow at ground level. Pacific Ocean in 1977 drastically changed that
viewpoint. To their surprise, scientists found
Section 46.3, Check Your Progress that ecosystems did not need photosynthesis
1. Explain the causes and the effects of for production. These vent communities are
eutrophication. based on the chemosynthesis of what material?
Eutrophication is caused by a large supply of nutrients in a A) glucose
short period of time and results in high productivity. The high B) water
productivity encourages a large population of decomposers,
which use up much of the oxygen and leave little oxygen for C) hydrogen cyanide
fishes and other aquatic animals. D) hydrogen sulfide
Answer: D; Hydrothermal vent communities rely on bacterial
2. Describe what happens in the ocean during an
chemosynthesis. Bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide and obtain
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event. energy in a manner analogous to photosynthesis. Other
During an ENSO event, the Humboldt Current is not as cool as organisms in the community feed on the bacteria, or feed on
usual, upwelling does not occur, stagnation results, the fisheries bacteria-eaters.
decline, and climate patterns change globally.
4. Global temperature has fluctuated many times in
AP Assessment the course of Earth’s history. However, scientists
1. The open oceans include waters beyond the are concerned that the current rise in global
continental shelves, but above the deep ocean. temperature may have more severe effects on
Large stretches of these open oceans are natural ecosystems than historic fluctuations.
referred to as biological “deserts.” What answer What concern has led to this conclusion?
best describes conditions in these areas? A) Rapidly melting glaciers cause rapid current
changes.
A) excessive sunshine, excessive nutrients
B) Humans may not be able to adjust crops they
B) adequate sunshine, excessive wind
grow.

Teacher Manual 231

 C) The short time span gives only a few generations rotifers. In one artificial ecosystem, Sample A,
for evolutionary adaptation. the scientists limited the species of phytoplankton
D) Sudden increases in temperature may trigger to one (monoculture) but allowed the population
Ice Ages. to grow large in number. In another artificial
Answer: C; In most cases, the process of natural selection takes system, Sample B, there was greater species
many many generations to adapt a population to changing richness (larger number of species) cultured.
environmental conditions. Two or three hundred years would The species in Sample B varied in both the
unlikely be enough time for most species to adapt. size of the individuals and in the size of the
5. In temperate climates, deep lakes experience populations present.
a phenomenon called fall and spring overturn. A) Predict what happened to Sample A and to
Lakes become stratified in the summer, with Sample B when rotifers were added and
warm water at the surface providing a suitable permitted to graze freely in each sample.
habitat for phytoplankton. Predict the outcome B) Explain the influence of species richness on the
as winter approaches and the water at the stability of these communities.
surface cools. Predictions about how species diversity within an ecosystem
A) Bottom water rises, mixing the layers, and killing influences ecosystem stability may include:
deep water fish. Prediction of impact of grazing (1 point each)
B) Bottom water freezes, stratifying layers and killing • Sample A has lower species richness and could have trouble
estivating fish. recovering after grazing by rotifers if the rotifers have a
C) Surface water freezes, forcing out oxygen, and preference for the type of phytoplankton present because
phytoplankton die. all of the phytoplankton will be consumed.
• Sample B has greater species richness and should recover
D) Surface water cools and sinks, bottom water
rises, and mixing results. more quickly after the addition of rotifers, particularly if the
rotifers have a preference for only one or two of the species
Answer: D; Water sinking as it cools in fall produces the fall of phytoplankton present.
overturn. This results in mixing of oxygen and nutrients
throughout the basin. As winter proceeds, the surface layer Explanation of influence of biodiversity on stability (1 point each)
may freeze, insulating the lower layers and providing suitable • Greater species richness means that there are more species of
winter conditions for aquatic organisms to survive. phytoplankton present in Sample B. When rotifers are added,
even if one species is decimated, there will be other species
6. The average annual rainfall in Brevard, NC, present to fill the role of primary producer for the ecosystem
west of the Appalachian Mountains, is 168 cm. and the ecosystem will have a faster recovery time.
Prevailing winds from the Gulf of Mexico cross • Greater species richness could also have slowed rotifer grazing
the Appalachians from west to east. Is it likely as they located the correct prey, and this could aid in recovery
that the natural vegetation in Asheville, NC, as there will be less damage done in this case.
east of the Appalachians, will closely resemble 8. Some corals have ejected their symbiotic algae
that of Brevard? and become bleached, or lost their coloring.
A) Yes, they are both in the mountains at similar Coral reef bleaching is a common response to
elevations. reef ecosystem damage. However, some corals
B) Yes, they likely both receive about the same rain appear to be recovering from bleaching. The
each year. graph indicates the percentage of the damage
C) No, Asheville is likely in a rain shadow, making that has occurred to specific reefs.
a drier climate. A) Interpret which parts of the world have suffered
D) No, Brevard is likely in a rain shadow, making the most damage to its coral reef, and which
a drier climate. parts have suffered the least damage.
Answer: C; Asheville averages 119 cm of rain/year. Both towns In western Panama and Jamaica reefs have suffered the most
are at similar elevations, but as Asheville is in a rain shadow, it damage. The Great Barrier reefs have suffered the least damage.
has less precipitation. Natural vegetation will be similar, but the B) Using a map, create a model to locate the coral
drier location will not be able to support truly moisture loving reefs noted in the graph. Color code the map
plants. based on the percent of degradation.
7. Scientists studying the influence of biodiversity Color coding shows the most degradation in Jamaica and
on ecosystem stability investigated phytoplankton Western Panama and trend toward the least degradation on
communities made up of several species of the Great Barrier Reef.
phytoplankton (producers) and their predators,

232 C H A P T E R 4 6 | Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere

CHAPTER 47
Conservation of Biodiversity

Section Pacing (class periods) AP Topics

47.1 Conservation Biology and
1 8.6 Biodiversity
Biodiversity
8.6 Biodiversity
47.2 Value of Biodiversity 1
8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems
7.11 Extinction

47.3 Causes of Extinction 1 8.6 Biodiversity

8.7 Disruptions to Ecosystems

47.4 Conservation Techniques 8.6 Biodiversity
Chapter Resources
Practice Questions and Exams
Chapter 47 Test Bank
Additional AP Practice Questions
Unit Review: AP Unit 7 and Unit 8

Online Activities
Invasive Species
The Human Impact
What is the future of Earth’s climate?

Teaching Strategy and Approach

Discussion of biodiversity and conversation biology can easily be combined with human
impact and environmental pressures in light of natural selection. While the AP exam does not
assess specific items about those changes, it does help to understand relationships between
the environment and humans. Providing opportunities where students can make predictions
about how an ecosystem would respond to various types of human influence (negative and
positive) can also help ground their understanding of these relationships. This is also a good
time to integrate food webs, energy dynamics, and niches.
Conservation biology is inextricably connected to global climate change. The focus of
teaching should be on discussing the facts of global change rather than a treating it as a
disputed topic. Present scientific material that supports how human activity is changing Earth.
Students should be able to make predictions about the effect of human activity and be able to
analyze data about population interactions.
Class time: three 45-minute class periods.
Day 1:  ecture—20 minutes on conservation biology, biodiversity, hotspots, and
L
ecological services
Activity 1: Invasive species—25 minutes
Day 2: Lecture—15 minutes on human impacts on ecosystems
Activity 2: The Human Impact—30 minutes
Day 3: Activity 3: What is the future of Earth’s climate?—45 minutes

Teacher Manual 233

Teaching Tips: The AP exam does not cover conservation biology directly. Instead, it focuses
students’ awareness on ‘disruptions to ecosystems.’ When covering conservation, stress why
habitats and ecosystems change as a result of human activities.

Student Misconceptions and Pitfalls

Humans do not set out to cause environmental damage yet we do so as we are meeting
our own needs. Many students think that global warming and the damage caused by human
activities have been exaggerated by the media. Students may not have considered some
of the underlying reasons for overexploitation of certain endangered animals.

Suggested Activities
These activities can be found in the teacher resources section of your online course.
1. Invasive Species: Students will work in pairs or small groups to research and present their
findings about an invasive species. Your online course contains a link to the Center for
Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health’s website, which maintains a list of known invasive
species by state. This may make a good starting point for student research.
2. The Human Impact: Students navigate an HHMI interactive website that shows how human
impact the environment. A link to the website and interactive can be found in your online course.

Differentiated Instruction: Instead of using the interactive website, hold an informal

discussion or white board session with your class to brainstorm human impact on the
environment. To jump start your conversation, first spilt your class into groups and
assign a topic such as: ocean, atmosphere, soil, etc. Have your students first talk
within their groups, then bring their ideas to the table.

3. What is the future of Earth’s climate?: Students will use an interactive website to explore the
impacts of climate change. A link to the website is available in your online course.

EL Strategies
These activities are designed for those students in need of language support.

Comprehension Skill—Intermediate
Ask questions about the lesson content to elicit one or two-word answers: Places on Earth
that contain the largest concentration of species are called? Hot Spots. The number one
cause of species extinctions is? Habitat loss

Listening and Speaking—Advanced

Tell students to listen without taking notes while you read aloud a content area paragraph.
After you have finished, have students write down what they remember from your reading.
Have students work in small groups to compare their notes. Then have each group write a
summary of their understanding.

Answers to Questions in the Student Edition

Section 47.1, Check Your Progress 3. Explain what is meant by a biodiversity hotspot.
1. Define biodiversity. A hotspot is a specific region with a large amount of biodiversity.
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth.
Section 47.2, Check Your Progress
2. Distinguish genetic diversity from community 1. Explain the difference between a direct value
diversity. and an indirect value of biodiversity.
Genetic diversity refers to genetic variations among the Direct value is a service that provides an economic benefit to
members of a population. Community diversity is dependent humans, while indirect value may not be immediately noticeable but
on the interactions between species in a community. contributes to biodiversity and the overall health of an ecosystem.

234 C H A P T E R 4 7 | Conservation of Biodiversity

2. Recognize the benefit of biodiversity to natural extinction. Which states the most likely reason
ecosystems. why this is true?
Research is ongoing to measure how high biodiversity helps A) Island species have higher likelihood of genetic
ecosystems function more efficiently. Rates of photosynthesis, disease.
response to elevated carbon dioxide levels, degree of resource B) Island species are closely coevolved to their
acquisition and retention within an ecosystem, and the ability to historic predators.
withstand environmental changes and invasions of pathogens
C) Humans have introduced diseases that island
are thought to be correlated with levels of biodiversity.
species cannot escape.
Section 47.3, Check Your Progress D) On islands, species have relatively few niches
to occupy.
1. Identify the five main causes of extinction.
Answer: C; Human travel has inadvertently spread not only
Habitat loss, introduction of exotic species, pollution, climate
human disease, but also diseases that attack non-human
change, overexploitation.
species.
2. Explain how human activity contributes
3. As late as the mid-20th century, coal miners
to extinction.
carried canaries into mines. These canaries
Humans contribute to all five main causes of extinction: humans would call out in distress if dangerous gases
cause deforestation and coastal degradation; they introduce began to accumulate, and thus warn miners to
new species to areas (on purpose and accidentally) when
get out. Today, some refer to amphibians as
they travel, colonize, and farm; they cause acid deposition,
eutrophication, ozone depletion, and introduce organic global “canaries,” alluding to their potential for
chemicals and heavy metals into the environment; they burn warning of pollution. What makes scientists
fossil fuels and take part in other activities that drive climate think amphibians have potential for being a
change; and they overharvest, overfish and overhunt, and sentinel?
poach organisms. A) They take up environmental pollutants easily, due
to moist skin.
Section 47.4, Check Your Progress B) They have easily-manipulated genomes.
1. Explain why it is more important to preserve C) They will call out in environmental distress, like
hotspots than other areas. canaries did.
Hotspots contain high levels of endemic species not found D) Their physiology is similar to canaries, and
elsewhere. Preserving areas that are hotspots would be most sensitive to similar toxins.
effective at preserving biodiversity.
Answer: A; The global decline of amphibians is shockingly
2. Identify examples of keystone species. extensive. Many causes have been suggested, most of which are
Keystone species include bats in tropical forests of the Old based on the presence of man-made pollutants that may lead to
World, grizzly bears in the northwestern United States and vulnerability to disease and/or reproductive failure.
Canada, beavers in wetlands, bison in grasslands, alligators 4. As humans roam the world, they provide an
in swamps, and elephants in grasslands and forests. avenue for molluscs, fish, plants, and mammals
to invade new habitats. An example of an
AP Assessment
invasive or exotic plant is kudzu, a fast-growing,
1. Mass extinctions have occurred throughout the N-fixing vine. A native of Japan, kudzu was
history of life on earth. While these are due to widely planted across the southeastern United
large-scale climatic changes, humans have States as erosion control for roadsides. It now
been responsible for local extinctions. Which grows in most of the eastern US and
extinction is generally attributed to the Mississippi basin. Which answer does not
presence of humans? describe a typical problem generated by
A) loss of dinosaurs 65 mya invasive plant species such as kudzu?
B) loss of 96% of all species 250 mya A) outcompeting native species for nutrients and/or
C) loss of 75% of North American megafauna water
12,000 years ago B) covering and shading out native plants
d) all of the above C) providing new food sources for native animals
Answer: C; Large mammals such as mammoths, camels and D) enriching soil with nitrogen and attracting
saber-toothed cats were found in North America before humans additional N-hungry plants
moved in. The primary cause of their loss was hunting, though Answer: C; Animals in the US are not familiar with kudzu and do
clearing of forests contributed to overall stress on megafauna. not eat it. If they did, then kudzu would probably not have gotten
2. In historic times, we have seen that species as out of control as it has. Goats and cattle will eat kudzu, and
living on islands are particularly vulnerable to can be used to control it, but these are not native animals.

Teacher Manual 235

 5. The links between species in a food web 8. Tropical rain forests appear are dense and rich
means that the fate of one species can be with vegetation. They have proven to be very
drastically affected by another, even one that is attractive to humans for farming purposes, but
distantly linked. In a case study off the Alaskan agriculture can be disappointing in such
coast, overharvesting of whales set off a chain ecosystems. What characteristic(s) of tropical rain
of events that led to a drastic decline in sea forests often produces poor agricultural land?
otters, which eventually resulted in a drastic A) Soils tend to be poor; native plants turn nutrients
decline in kelp beds. In this case study, the over quickly, and rain leaches what nutrients
loss of sea otters is believed to have had there are out of the soil.
the strongest effect on the structure of the B) Temperatures are too high to grow any
community. Which term applies to sea otters? conventional crops.
A) invasive species C) Fields in rain forests are too far from markets to
B) keystone species be profitable.
C) pendulum species d) Introduced non-native plants have changed the
nutrient content of soils.
D) vulnerable species
Answer: A; Plants that have evolved in these habitats grow
Answer: B; As a keystone species, the fate of sea otters has
quickly and take up nutrients from soil quickly. Plants that have
an effect out of proportion to their role as a consumer. Their
not evolved under these conditions and which seek nutrients in
preferred food is sea urchins; without otters, sea urchin
the soil are disappointed, as rain washes decaying material off
populations exploded. Sea urchins overgrazed kelp, thinning it
before nutrients can build in to the soil.
to the point that there was not enough to support the diverse
fish populations it normally contains. The loss of sea otters 9. Design a scientific plan for collecting data to
had a cascading effect. determine if speciation and extinction events
have occurred at a constant rate throughout
6. Solving the problem of biodiversity loss
Earth’s history.
requires many approaches. Captive breeding
programs directly intervene when a particular While details for plans may vary, descriptions of plans for
collecting data to answer the question regarding speciation
species has been reduced to very low
and extinction may include (1 point each):
numbers. Scientists gather up remaining
• Examine the fossil record for evidence of species that no
members of the species, and try to keep the
longer exist but existed in the past
species going by breeding them in captivity.
What goal(s) do these breeding programs • Examine the fossil record for similar morphologies, geographic
hope to achieve? locations, and other clues as to relatedness between species
that existed in the past.
A) prevent the species from dying out
• Examine records kept on threatened and endangered species
B) restore the species to the wild for a look at recent history.
C) restore their original ecosystem to its original state • Use DNA sequencing to examine and evaluated related
d) all of the above between current species and use phylogenetic trees to
Answer: D; In an ideal result, all of these goals would be met. determine last common ancestors for speciation events.
Animals such as condors and wolves have been reintroduced in 10. Human actions impact both local and global
some areas. It is a very challenging set of projects. Challenges ecosystems.
include the very low diversity typically found in these animals,
A) Describe TWO human actions that threaten
the effort of training naïve young to live in the wild, and
ecosystems and life on Earth.
overcoming the resistance of humans who have become
accustomed to an area free of predators such as wolves. B) Predict specific consequences that could occur
if no changes are made to the actions described
7. In South America, regions in the Andes, the in part (a).
Brazilian rain forest, and the central savannah Description of human activities and predictions about their
have all been described as hotspots. What consequences may include:
would these regions have in common? Description of activities
A) high average temperatures in each season • Agriculture (slash and burn and monocropping), logging and
B) high amount of biodiversity in a relatively small grazing
area • Urbanization and habitat fragmentation
C) low incidence of human interference with • Infrastructure development (dams, transmission lines, roads,
ecosystems
lights)
d) low average transmission of viral disease in animals • Introduced species (such as mussels traveling in the ballasts
Answer: B; Hotspots such as these are sometimes targeted for of ships)
priority in preserving species. It is difficult, however, to separate • Global climate change
out a hotspot from its surroundings.

236 C H A P T E R 4 7 | Conservation of Biodiversity

Predicted consequences 11. The distribution of birds, like that of other
• Disruption of regular biogeochemical cycles due to fertilizer species, is not even. Perching birds appear to
runoff, soil degradation due to overgrazing, loss of food source be more concentrated in some areas of the
due to decimation of a crop in monocropping, cutting down Americas than others. Use the map to answer
trees faster than they can grow in logging can result in the following questions about the biodiversity
ecosystem collapse due to loss of habitat, soil erosion and of perching birds.
food/energy source AND disruption of the water cycle
A) Determine the location of the highest
• Loss of species and ecosystem stability as a result of lowered concentration of perching birds.
biodiversity
The northern half of South America (Amazonia) and Central
• Soil erosion, light pollution impacting animal and plant behavior America
(responding incorrectly to daily and seasonal changes typically
B) Generalize the trend in the number of perching
indicated by lengthening nights, for example)
birds as you move from Canada to South
• Introduced species would experience a population explosion in America.
their new community because they lack competitors or natural
Biodiversity of perching birds increases from Canada to
predators. Native species may be devastated by introduction
South America.
of new species as a result of competitive exclusion, or
destruction by a new pathogen. Overall, this lowers C) Infer why the number of perching birds changes
biodiversity and therefore decreases ecosystem stability. as you move toward the southern tip of South
• Destruction of plant species unable to migrate to keep up with America.
changing climates such as changes in temperature and rainfall, Responses will vary, but can include abiotic factors such as
ocean warming and ocean acidification decreased temperature or biotic factors such as decreasing
availability of food.

Teacher Manual 237