Vectors 1

ˆj

x
k̂
î
z
Fig. 0.1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (7) Orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ are called orthogonal unit
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vectors. These vectors must form a Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate
vector algebra are called vectors. system such that when we Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y then
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, we must get the direction of z along thumb). The
impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it does ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z
not always imply that it is a vector. For it to be a vector the third condition x y z
of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.  x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  zkˆ
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude and
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of application .
direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the laws of vector algebra.
Example displacement and force etc.
Types of Vector (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are always
along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are example of physical
have equal magnitudes and same direction. quantities of this type.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel Axial vector Axis of rotation
when
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another
vector. Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation

(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be Axis of rotation Axial vector
Fig. 0.2
anti-parallel when
(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called
(i) Both have opposite direction.
coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free) vectors are always
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another coplanar.
vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration can Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
share the same support or have a common support then the considered If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a
vectors are collinear. triangle taken in same order then
B
the resultant is given by the
(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary closing side of triangle in opposite R  AB
direction (not known to us) is a zero vector.
order. i.e. R  A  B
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. Unit B
vector for A is A ˆ (read as A cap or A hat).  OB  OA  AB O A
A
Fig. 0.3
ˆ  A  A AA
Since, A ˆ .
(1) Magnitude of resultant
A
vector
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
 2 Vectors

AN (2) Direction
In  ABN , cos   AN  B cos
B CN B sin
tan   
BN ON A  B cos
sin   BN  B sin
B Polygon Law of Vector Addition
In OBN , we have OB  ON  BN 2 2 2 If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n – 1)
B sides of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by the closing side or
the n side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
th

R
B B sin R  ABCD E
 
O A A N OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE
B cos D D C
2Fig. 0.4
 R  ( A  B cos  )  (B sin )
2 2

E C
 R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos   B 2 sin2 
 R 2  A 2  B 2 (cos 2   sin2  )  2 AB cos  E B

 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
R B
 R A 2  B 2  2 AB cos
O A
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between A and A
Note :  Resultant
Fig.of0.6
two unequal vectors can not be zero.
B, then
 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not be
| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos zero
 Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN ,
zero.
BN BN
tan    Subtraction of vectors
ON OA  AN
B sin Since, A  B  A  ( B) and
tan  
A  B cos
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent sides of
 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )
a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the two vectors. Since, cos (180   )   cos
(1) Magnitude
Since, R 2  ON 2  CN 2  | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
 R 2  (OA  AN )2  CN 2
R sum  A  B
 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B
 R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B C  1
2 A
180 – 
R  AB B
B B sin
B
 

R diff  A  ( B )
O A N
A B cos Fig. 0.7
Fig. 0.5 B sin
tan 1 
Special cases : R  A  B when  = 0 o
A  B cos
R  A  B when  = 180 o

B sin(180   )
and tan  2 
A  B cos (180   )
R A 2  B 2 when  = 90 o
 Vectors 3
But sin(180   )  sin and cos(180   )   cos Ry Ry
 cos    m
R R x2  R y2  R z2
B sin
 tan  2 
A  B cos
Rz Rz
 cos    n
Resolution of Vector Into Components R R x2  R y2  R z2
Consider a vector R in X-Y plane as
Y Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R and
shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors
R x and R y along x and y axes respectively, R x2  R y2  R z2
l 2  m 2  n 2  cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
by law of vector addition, R  R x  R y
Ry R R x2  R y2  R z2


Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, Rx
X Note : When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z)

R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y Fig. 0.8 then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ
 When a particle moves from point (x , y , z ) to (x , y ,
so R  ˆi R x  ˆjRy
1 1 1 2 2

…(i) z ) then its displacement vector

2


But from figure R x  R cos  …(ii)
r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 )kˆ
and R y  R sin …(iii)
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the (1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is
defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle
magnitude of the components of R along x and y-axes respectively.
between them.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the components themselves can be used to specify the vector Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle  between
as
them, then their scalar product written as A . B is defined as A . B
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and  AB cos 
adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar B
R R x2  R y2 which is positive if angle between the vectors is
acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if angle between

(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
(iii) by (ii), i.e.
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A
tan   (Ry / R x ) or   tan 1 (Ry / R x ) (iii) It is distributive, i.e.
A
Fig. 0.10

Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C

R  R x  R y  R z q or R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ (iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 

Y  A. B 
The angle between the vectors   cos 1  
 AB 

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when

R
Ry
Rx cos  max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors are parallel

X ( A . B)max  AB
Rz

Z (vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when

Fig. 0.9 | cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o
If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis,
( A . B)min  0
then
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the vectors
Rx Rx are orthogonal.
 cos    l
R R x2  R y2  R z2 (vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot
product and is given by ( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2
 4 Vectors

i.e. A  A . A

(viii) In case of unit vector n̂

nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ ,

ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  1  1 cos 90  0 Fig. 0.12

(x) In terms of components The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane

A . B  (iAx  jAy  k Az ). (iBx  jBy  k Bz )  [ Ax Bx  Ay By  AZ Bz ] containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work is handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector) through
defined as, W  Fs cos  …(i) the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is rotated from A to B
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, F. s  Fs cos  through the smaller angle between them, then the direction of advancement
…(ii) of the screw gives the direction of A  B i.e. C
So from eq (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar product of
n

(2) Properties
force with displacement.
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
(ii) Power P : perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to
dW ds both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and B may or may
As W  F . s or  F. [As F is constant]
dt dt not be orthogonal.

or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with (ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,
A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
 dW ds 
velocity.  As  P and  v 
 dt dt  Here it is worthy to note that
ds 
B
(iii) Magnetic Flux  : | A  B | | B  A |  AB sin

Magnetic flux through an area is i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but

given by d  B ds cos …(i) directions are opposite.
But by definition of scalar O (iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors
is strictly maintained, i.e.
product B . d s  Bds cos ...(ii)
Fig. 0.11
So from eq (i) and (ii) we have
n
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when
d  B . d s or    B.ds sin  max  1, i.e.,   90 o
(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of moment [ A  B]max  AB nˆ
p is situated in an electric field E or a magnetic dipole of moment M
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given by : (v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when
U E   p . E and U B   M . B | sin |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0 o or 180 o

Vector Product of Two Vectors [ A  B]min  0

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two vectors i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the
is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product of the vectors are collinear.
magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in (vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself
accordance with right hand screw rule. vanishes, i.e., is null vector A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0

C  AB (vii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that

Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0

written as A  B is a vector C defined by

(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, kˆ in accordance with
C  A  B  AB sin nˆ right hand screw rule :
 Vectors 5

ˆj ˆj  a  b  c …(ii)

Pre-multiplying both sides by a

k̂ a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c
î î
 ab  ca …(iii)
k̂
Fig. 0.13 Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c
And as cross product is not commutative,
ˆj  ˆi  kˆ , kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj   a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c …(iv)

(x) In terms of components From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a

ˆi ˆj kˆ Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a |
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz  ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180   )  ca sin(180   )

 ab sin  bc sin  ca sin 

 ˆi ( Ay Bz  Az By )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
Dividing through out by abc, we have
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector, vector
physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects) like torque, sin sin  sin
  
angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a magnetic field a b c
and can be expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is well –
established in physics that : Relative Velocity
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a particle, we
(i) Torque   r  F assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in motion. For
example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is
(ii) Angular momentum L  r  p running with a speed v, we mean that these all are relative to the earth
(which we have assumed to be fixed).
(iii) Velocity v    r
Y
Y P
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a
magnetic field B is given by F  q(v  B)
r
PS '
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and  B  M  B r
PS
X
S
Lami's Theorem rS ' S
S X
In any  A B C with sides a, b, c
Fig. 0.15
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another
sin sin  sin moving object, consider a particle P whose position relative to frame S is
 
a b c  
rPS while relative to S  is rPS  .
180 – 

 If the position of frames S  relative to S at any time is r S S then
  
c b from figure, rPS  rPS   rS S
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
  180 – 
  
drPS drPS  drS S
180 –  a  
dt dt dt
i.e. for any triangle the ratioFig.of0.14
the sine of the angle containing the
    
side to the length of the side is a constant. or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ]
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we establish
  
the Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the triangle shown or v PS   v PS  v S S
a  b  c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)
 6 Vectors
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P moving 1
(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim relative to
 
with velocity v1 with respect to another particle P moving with velocity
2
water with velocity v and water is flowing relative to ground with velocity
     
v 2 is given by, v r1 2 = v1 – v 2 v R velocity of man relative to ground v M will be given by:

     
v1 v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R
v2
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
P2
vM  v  vR
Fig. 0.16 P1
And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water, v M  v  v R
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then :
r12  1 –  2 
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with velocity

 r . A man can swim in still water with velocity  m . He is standing on one
(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction, then :
bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two cases arise.
r12  1   2
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually perpendicular (i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross the
directions, then: river straight, the man should swim making angle  with the upstream as
shown.
r12  12   22 
A vr B
  
(iv) If the angle between 1 and 2 be , then
 


r12  12   22 – 21 2 cos  
1/2
. w 
vm
v
vr


(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in equatorial

 
plane with velocity v s and a point on the surface of earth with v e Upstream O Downstream
relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface Fig. 0.18    
of earth Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which OA  vm , AB  r .
 
  
Their resultant is given by OB   . The direction of swimming makes
vse  v s  v e
angle  with upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find,
So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of
r 
rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity relative to earth's surface will be cos   Also sin  r
v se  v s  ve m m

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the Where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming with the
motion of earth, v se  v s  (ve )  v s  ve shortest distance (OB) across the river.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river, then
(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically with a time taken to cross the river will be given by
 
velocity v R and an observer is moving horizontally with speed v M the w w
t1  
    m2 –  r2
velocity of rain relative to observer will be v RM  v R  v M

which by law of vector addition has magnitude (ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man should
swim perpendicular to the bank.
v RM  v R2  v M
2 The time taken to cross the river will be:

w
direction   tan 1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in fig. t2 
m

A vr B

– vM 

vR vR  
vR w vr
   vm
vM vM

Fig. 0.17 Upstream O Downstream

Fig. 0.19
 Vectors 7
     
Because A  A  A and A  A is collinear with A
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a distance AB
down stream. This distance will be given by:  Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its direction.
 
w r If A  B , then A = B and Aˆ Bˆ .
AB  r t 2 r or AB  w
m m   
ˆ  B
If A  B  0 , then A = B but A ˆ .

 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can be zero

is two.
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose resultant is zero is
three.

 All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For  Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose resultant is zero
is four.
example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a scalar
quantity because it can not be added or multiplied according to the rules  
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if A.B  0 .
of vector algebra.
 
 A vector can have only two rectangular components in plane and  Two vectors are parallel to each other if A  B  0.
only three rectangular components in space.  Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and force are polar
 A vector can have any number, even infinite components. vectors.
(minimum 2 components)  Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular
 Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars : Relative momentum are axial vectors.
density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is not possible to
elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia, specific heat, latent heat,
divide with a direction.
spring constant loudness, resistance, conductance, reactance, impedance,
permittivity, dielectric constant, permeability, susceptibility, refractive  Distance covered is always positive quantity.
index, focal length, power of lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant,
Gas constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, Planck’s constant  The components of a vectors can have magnitude than that of the
etc. vector itself.

 Distance covered is a scalar quantity.  The rectangular components cannot have magnitude greater than
that of the vector itself.
 The displacement is a vector quantity.
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product becomes a null
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided algebraically. vector.
 Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.  The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never be a
 Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be divided. null vector.

 Unit vector gives the direction of vector.  Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null
vector.
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not necessarily a
 Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of an object is 5 ms –1

vector. For example, time and electric current. These quantities have
due East. magnitude and direction but they are scalar. This is because they do not
 obey the laws of vector addition.
i.e. v  5ms 1 due east.
  A physical quantity which has different values in different
v 5 ms 1 (East) directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has
vˆ     East
| v| 5 ms 1 different values in different directions. Hence moment of inertia is a
tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,
So unit vector v̂ has no unit as East is not a physical quantity. density etc.
 Unit vector has no dimensions.  The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is always less
than the magnitude of the vector
 ˆi . ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1  
  If A  B , then Ax  Bx , Ay  By and Az  Bz .
 ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0          
 If A  B  C . Or if A  B  C  0 , then A, B and C lie in
 ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
one plane.
ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  0      
  If A  B  C , then C is perpendicular to A as well as B .
               
 A  A  0 . Also A  A  0 But A  A  A  A  If | A  B | | A  B | , then angle between A and B is 90°.
 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when  = 0° i.e. vectors
 8 Vectors
are parallel.
Rmax  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 0 | P  Q |
 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when  = 180° i.e.
vectors are anti-parallel.
Rmin  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 180 | P  Q |
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to the
difference of their magnitude.
 Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to
the sum of their magnitude.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then
Rmin  P  Q  0
 
[| P | | Q |]
 
Thus, two vectors P and Q having different magnitudes can never be
combined to give zero resultant. From here, we conclude that the
minimum number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose resultant can
be zero is three. On the other hand, the minimum number of vectors of
equal magnitude whose resultant can be zero is two.
 
 Angle between two vectors A and B is given by
 
A.B
cos   
| A| | B|
 
 Projection of a vector A in the direction of vector B
 
A. B
 
| B|
 
 Projection of a vector B in the direction of vector A
 
A. B
 
| A|
  
 If vectors A, B and C are represented by three sides ab, bc and
ca respectively taken in a order, then
  
| A| | B| | C|
 
ab bc ca
 The vectors ˆi  ˆj  kˆ is equally inclined to the coordinate axes at
an angle of 54.74 degrees.
     
 If A  B  C , then A . B  C  0 .
     
 If A . B  C  0 , then A . B and C are coplanar.
 
 If angle between A and B is 45°,
   
then A . B | A  B |
    
 If A1  A2  A3  ......  An  0 and A1  A2  A3  ......  An
then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at angle 2 / n .
   
 If A  B  C and A 2  B 2  C 2 , then the angle between A

and B is 90°. Also A, B and C can have the following values.
(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
(iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 35

Chapter

1
Units, Dimensions and Measurement
Physical Quantity (3) Vector (magnitude and direction) : These quantities have
magnitude and direction both and can be added or subtracted with the help
A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical of laws of vector algebra e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
happenings can be explained and expressed in the form of laws is called a
physical quantity. For example length, mass, time, force etc. Fundamental and Derived Quantities
On the other hand various happenings in life e.g., happiness, sorrow (1) Fundamental quantities : Out of large number of physical
etc. are not physical quantities because these can not be measured. quantities which exist in nature, there are only few quantities which are
independent of all other quantities and do not require the help of any other
Measurement is necessary to determine magnitude of a physical physical quantity for their definition, therefore these are called absolute
quantity, to compare two similar physical quantities and to prove physical quantities. These quantities are also called fundamental or basic quantities,
laws or equations. as all other quantities are based upon and can be expressed in terms of
A physical quantity is represented completely by its magnitude and these quantities.
unit. For example, 10 metre means a length which is ten times the unit of (2) Derived quantities : All other physical quantities can be derived by
length. Here 10 represents the numerical value of the given quantity and suitable multiplication or division of different powers of fundamental
metre represents the unit of quantity under consideration. Thus in quantities. These are therefore called derived quantities.
expressing a physical quantity we choose a unit and then find that how
many times that unit is contained in the given physical quantity, i.e. If length is defined as a fundamental quantity then area and volume
are derived from length and are expressed in term of length with power 2
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u and 3 over the term of length.
Where, n represents the numerical value and u represents the unit.
Thus while expressing definite amount of physical quantity, it is clear that Note :  In mechanics, Length, Mass and Time are arbitrarily
as the unit(u) changes, the magnitude(n) will also change but product ‘nu’ chosen as fundamental quantities. However this set of fundamental
will remain same. quantities is not a unique choice. In fact any three quantities in mechanics
1 can be termed as fundamental as all other quantities in mechanics can be
i.e. n u = constant, or n1u1  n2u2  constant ;  n  expressed in terms of these. e.g. if speed and time are taken as fundamental
u quantities, length will become a derived quantity because then length will be
i.e. magnitude of a physical quantity and units are inversely expressed as Speed  Time. and if force and acceleration are taken as
proportional to each other .Larger the unit, smaller will be the magnitude. fundamental quantities, then mass will be defined as Force / acceleration
(1) Ratio (numerical value only) : When a physical quantity is the and will be termed as a derived quantity.
ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit. Fundamental and Derived Units
e.g. Relative density = Density of object/Density of water at 4 C
o

Normally each physical quantity requires a unit or standard for its

Refractive index = Velocity of light in air/Velocity of light in medium specification so it appears that there must be as many units as there are
Strain = Change in dimension/Original dimension physical quantities. However, it is not so. It has been found that if in
(2) Scalar (magnitude only) : These quantities do not have any mechanics we choose arbitrarily units of any three physical quantities we
direction e.g. Length, time, work, energy etc. can express the units of all other physical quantities in mechanics in terms
Magnitude of a physical quantity can be negative. In that case of these. Arbitrarily the physical quantities mass, length and time are chosen
negative sign indicates that the numerical value of the quantity under for this purpose. So any unit of mass, length and time in mechanics is called
consideration is negative. It does not specify the direction. a fundamental, absolute or base unit. Other units which can be expressed in
Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted with the help of ordinary terms of fundamental units, are called derived units. For example light year
laws of addition or subtraction. or km is a fundamental unit as it is a unit of length while s , m or kg/m are
–1 2

derived units as these are derived from units of time, mass and length.
 36 Units, Dimensions and Measurement
System of units : A complete set of units, both fundamental and 103 kilo k
derived for all kinds of physical quantities is called system of units. The
common systems are given below 102 hecto h

(1) CGS system : This system is also called Gaussian system of units. 101 deca da
In this length, mass and time have been chosen as the fundamental 10 –1
deci d
quantities and corresponding fundamental units are centimetre (cm), gram
–2
(g) and second (s) respectively. 10 centi c
–3
(2) MKS system : This system is also called Giorgi system. In this 10 milli m
system also length, mass and time have been taken as fundamental –6
quantities, and the corresponding fundamental units are metre, kilogram
10 micro 
and second. 10 –9
nano n
(3) FPS system : In this system foot, pound and second are used 10 –12
pico p
respectively for measurements of length, mass and time. In this system force
–15
is a derived quantity with unit poundal. 10 femto f
–18
(4) S. I. system : It is known as International system of units, and is 10 atto a
extended system of units applied to whole physics. There are seven
fundamental quantities in this system. These quantities and their units are Standards of Length, Mass and Time
given in the following table
(1) Length : Standard metre is defined in terms of wavelength of
Table 1.1 : Unit and symbol of quantities light and is called atomic standard of length.
Quantity Unit Symbol The metre is the distance containing 1650763.73 wavelength in
vacuum of the radiation corresponding to orange red light emitted by an
Length metre m
atom of krypton-86.
Mass kilogram kg
Now a days metre is defined as length of the path travelled by light
Time second s in vacuum in 1/299,7792, 45 part of a second.
Electric Current ampere A (2) Mass : The mass of a cylinder made of platinum-iridium alloy
Temperature Kelvin K kept at International Bureau of Weights and Measures is defined as 1 kg.

Amount of Substance mole mol On atomic scale, 1 kilogram is equivalent to the mass of 5.0188  10 25

atoms of C (an isotope of carbon).

12

Luminous Intensity candela cd 6

(3) Time : 1 second is defined as the time interval of 9192631770

Besides the above seven fundamental units two supplementary units vibrations of radiation in Cs-133 atom. This radiation corresponds to the
are also defined – transition between two hyperfine level of the ground state of Cs-133.

Radian (rad) for plane angle and Steradian (sr) for solid angle. Practical Units
(1) Length
Note :  Apart from fundamental and derived units we also use (i) 1 fermi = 1 fm = 10 m
–15

practical units very frequently. These may be fundamental or derived units (ii) 1 X-ray unit = 1XU = 10 m –13

e.g., light year is a practical unit (fundamental) of distance while horse power is a
practical unit (derived) of power. (iii) 1 angstrom = 1Å = 10 m = 10 cm = 10 mm = 0.1 mm
–10 –8 –7

 Practical units may or may not belong to a system but can be (iv) 1 micron = m = 10 m –6

expressed in any system of units (v) 1 astronomical unit = 1 A.U. = 1. 49  10 m 11

e.g., 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1.6 × 10 m.3

 1.5  10 m  10 km
11 8

S.I. Prefixes (vi) 1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46  10 m 15

(vii) 1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year

In physics we deal from very small ( micro ) to very large
(2) Mass
(macro ) magnitudes, as one side we talk about the atom while on the
other side of universe, e.g., the mass of an electron is 9.1  10 kg –3 1
(i) Chandra Shekhar unit : 1 CSU = 1.4 times the mass of sun = 2.8 
10 kg
30

while that of the sun is 2  10 kg . To express such large or small

30

(ii) Metric tonne : 1 Metric tonne = 1000 kg

magnitudes we use the following prefixes :
(iii) Quintal : 1 Quintal = 100 kg
Table 1.2 : Prefixes and symbol (iv) Atomic mass unit (amu) : amu = 1.67  10 kg –27

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Mass of proton or neutron is of the order of 1 amu

10 18
exa E
(3) Time
(i) Year : It is the time taken by the Earth to complete 1 revolution
15
10 peta P around the Sun in its orbit.
10 12
tera T (ii) Lunar month : It is the time taken by the Moon to complete 1
9
revolution around the Earth in its orbit.
10 giga G
1 L.M. = 27.3 days
6
10 mega M
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 37

(iii) Solar day : It is the time taken by Earth to complete one Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid
rotation about its axis with respect to Sun. Since this time varies from day [M L T ]
0 0 0
angle, distance gradient, relative permittivity
to day, average solar day is calculated by taking average of the duration of (dielectric constant), relative permeability etc.
all the days in a year and this is called Average Solar day.
1 Solar year = 365.25 average solar day [M L T ]
0 2 –2
Latent heat and gravitational potential
1 Thermal capacity, gas constant, Boltzmann constant
or average solar day  the part of solar year [ML T  ]
2 –2 –1

365.25 and entropy

(iv) Sedrial day : It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation
about its axis with respect to a distant star. l g , m k , R g , where l = length
1 Solar year = 366.25 Sedrial day [M L T ]
0 0 1

g = acceleration due to gravity, m = mass, k =

= 365.25 average solar day
spring constant, R = Radius of earth
Thus 1 Sedrial day is less than 1 solar day.
(v) Shake : It is an obsolete and practical unit of time. L/R, LC , RC where L = inductance, R=
[M L T ]
0 0 1

1 Shake = 10 sec –8

resistance, C = capacitance
Dimensions
V2 q2
When a derived quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental I 2 Rt, t, VIt, qV , LI 2 , , CV 2 where I =
R C
quantities, it is written as a product of different powers of the fundamental [ML T ]2 –2

current, t = time, q = charge,

quantities. The powers to which fundamental quantities must be raised in
order to express the given physical quantity are called its dimensions. L = inductance, C = capacitance, R = resistance
To make it more clear, consider the physical quantity force
Force = mass × acceleration Important Dimensions of Complete Physics
mass  velocity
 Heat
time
mass  length/time Quantity Unit Dimension

time Temperature (T) Kelvin [M L T  ]
0 0 0 1

= mass × length × (time) –2

… (i) Heat (Q) Joule [ML T ] 2 –2

Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and – 2 in

Specific Heat (c) Joule/kg-K [M L T  ]
0 2 –2 –1

time.
Here the physical quantity that is expressed in terms of the basic Thermal capacity Joule/K [M L T  ]
1 2 –2 –1

quantities is enclosed in square brackets to indicate that the equation is Latent heat (L) Joule/kg [M L T ]
0 2 –2

among the dimensions and not among the magnitudes.

Gas constant (R) Joule/mol-K [M L T  ]
1 2 –2 –1

Thus equation (i) can be written as [force] = [MLT ]. –2

Such an expression for a physical quantity in terms of the Boltzmann constant (k) Joule/K [M L T  ]
1 2 –2 –1

fundamental quantities is called the dimensional equation. If we consider Coefficient of thermal

only the R.H.S. of the equation, the expression is termed as dimensional Joule/m-s-K [M L T  ]
1 1 –3 –1

conductivity (K)
formula.
Thus, dimensional formula for force is, [MLT ]. –2 Stefan's constant () Watt/m -K 2 4
[M L T  ]
1 0 –3 –4

Wien's constant (b) Metre-K [M L T  ]

0 1 0 1

Quantities Having same Dimensions

Planck's constant (h) Joule-s [M L T ]
1 2 –1

Dimension Quantity Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Kelvin –1
[M L T  ]
()
0 0 0 –1

Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity,

[M L T ]
0 0 –1

Mechanical equivalent of Heat

velocity gradient and decay constant Joule/Calorie [M L T ]
0 0 0

(J)
Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic [ML T ]
[M L T ]
1 2 –2
Vander wall’s constant (a) Newton-m 4 5 –2

energy, torque, moment of force

Vander wall’s constant (b) m 3
[M L T ]
0 3 0

Pressure, stress, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus,

[M L T ]
1 –1 –2

modulus of rigidity, energy density Electricity

[M L T ]
1 1 –1
Momentum, impulse Quantity Unit Dimension
Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field Electric charge (q) Coulomb [M L T A ]
0 0 1 1

[M L T ]
0 1 –2

intensity Electric current (I) Ampere [M L T A ]

0 0 0 1

[M L T ]
1 1 –2
Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient Capacitance (C) Coulomb/volt or Farad [M L T A ]
–1 –2 4 2

Electric potential (V) Joule/coulomb [M L T A ]

1 2 –3 –1

[M L T ]
1 2 –1
Angular momentum and Planck’s constant
Permittivity of free Coulomb 2
[M L T A ]
space ( )
–1 –3 4 2

Newton - metre 2
Surface tension, Surface energy (energy per unit 0

[M L T ]
1 0 –2

Dielectric constant (K) Unitless [M L T ]

area) 0 0 0

Resistance (R) Volt/Ampere or ohm [M L T A ]

1 2 –3 –2
 38 Units, Dimensions and Measurement

Quantity Unit Dimension (i) Gravitational constant : According to Newton’s law of gravitation
Resistivity or Specific m 1m 2 Fr 2
Ohm-metre [M L T A ] FG or G 
resistance ()
1 3 –3 –2

2
r m1m 2
volt  second Substituting the dimensions of all physical quantities
Coefficient of Self- or henry
[M L T A ]
ampere [MLT 2 ][L2 ]
1 2 –2 –2

induction (L)
or ohm-second [G]   [M 1 L3 T  2 ]
[M ][M ]
Magnetic flux () Volt-second or weber [M L T A ]
1 2 –2 –1

E
newton (ii) Plank constant : According to Planck E  h or h 

ampere  metre
Substituting the dimensions of all physical quantities
Joule
Magnetic induction (B) [M L T A ]
1 0 –2 –1

ampere  metre [ML2 T 2 ]

2
[h]   [ML2 T 1 ]
volt  second [T 1 ]
or Tesla
metre 2
(iii) Coefficient of viscosity : According to Poiseuille’s formula
Magnetic Intensity (H) Ampere/metre [M L T A ]
0 –1 0 1

dV pr 4 pr 4
Magnetic Dipole Ampere-metre [M L T A ]  or  
8l
2 0 2 0 1

Moment (M) dt 8 l(dV / dt)

Newton Substituting the dimensions of all physical quantities
ampere 2 1
[ML T 2
][L ] 4
[]   [ML1 T 1 ]
Joule 3
[L][L / T ]
or
ampere 2  metre (3) To convert a physical quantity from one system to the other : The
Permeability of Free Volt  second [M L T A ]
measure of a physical quantity is nu = constant
or
1 1 –2 –2

Space ( ) 0 ampere  metre If a physical quantity X has dimensional formula [M L T ] and if a b c

Ohm  sec ond (derived) units of that physical quantity in two systems are [M 1a Lb1 T1c ]
or
metre
and [M 2a Lb2 T2c ] respectively and n and n be the numerical values in the
1 2

henry
or two systems respectively, then n1 [u1 ]  n 2 [u 2 ]
metre
Surface charge density
Coulomb metre 2 [M L T A ]
0 –2 1 1
 n1 [M 1a Lb1 T1c ]  n 2 [M 2a Lb2 T2c ]
()
Electric dipole moment [M L T A ]
Coulomb  metre  M  L  T 
a b c
0 1 1 1

(p)
 n 2  n1  1   1   1 
Conductance (G) (1/R) ohm 1 [M L T A ]
–1 –2 3 2

 M 2   L 2   T2 
Conductivity () (1/) ohm 1metre 1 [M L T A ]
–1 –3 3 2

where M , L and T are fundamental units of mass, length and time

1 1 1

Current density (J) Ampere/m 2

ML TA
0 –2 0 1
in the first (known) system and M , L and T are fundamental units of mass,
2 2 2

Intensity of electric Volt/metre, length and time in the second (unknown) system. Thus knowing the values
MLT A
1 1 –3 –1

of fundamental units in two systems and numerical value in one system, the
field (E) Newton/coulomb
numerical value in other system may be evaluated.
Rydberg constant (R) m –1
ML T
0 –1 0

Example : (i) conversion of Newton into Dyne.

Application of Dimensional Analysis The Newton is the S.I. unit of force and has dimensional formula
(1) To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units [MLT ].
–2

: To write the definition or formula for the physical quantity we find its So 1 N = 1 kg-m/ sec 2

dimensions. Now in the dimensional formula replacing M, L and T by the

a b c
fundamental units of the required system we get the unit of physical  M  L  T 
quantity. However, sometimes to this unit we further assign a specific name, By using n 2  n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
e.g., Work = Force  Displacement
1 1 2
So [W] = [MLT ]  [L] = [ML T ]  kg   m   sec 
 1    
–2 2 –2


So its unit in C.G.S. system will be g cm /s which is called erg while
2 2  gm   cm   sec 
in M.K.S. system will be kg-m /s which is called joule.
2 2
1 1
 10 3 gm   10 2 cm   sec  2
(2) To find dimensions of physical constant or coefficients : As  1       10
5

dimensions of a physical quantity are unique, we write any formula or  gm   cm   sec 

equation incorporating the given constant and then by substituting the
dimensional formulae of all other quantities, we can find the dimensions of  1 N = 10 Dyne 5

the required constant or coefficient. (ii) Conversion of gravitational constant (G) from C.G.S. to M.K.S.
system
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 39

The value of G in C.G.S. system is 6.67  10 C.G.S. units while its –8 If the above relation is dimensionally correct then by substituting
dimensional formula is [M L T ] –1 3 –2 the dimensions of quantities –
[T] = [M] [L] [LT ] or [M L T ] = [M L T ]
So G = 6.67  10 cm /g s
x y –2 z 0 0 1 x y+z –2 z

–8 3 2

Equating the exponents of similar quantities x = 0, y = 1/2 and z = –

a b c
 M  L  T  1/2
By using n 2  n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2  l
So the required physical relation becomes T  K
1 3 2 g
 gm   cm   sec 
 6 .67  10 8    m   sec 
 kg      The value of dimensionless constant is found (2 ) through

2 1 l
8  gm   cm   sec 
3 experiments so T  2
 6 .67  10  3   2    g
 10 gm   10 cm   sec 
(ii) Stoke’s law : When a small sphere moves at low speed through a
11 fluid, the viscous force F, opposes the motion, is found experimentally to
 6.67  10
depend on the radius r, the velocity of the sphere v and the viscosity  of
 G = 6.67  10 M.K.S. units –11

the fluid.
(4) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation
: This is based on the ‘principle of homogeneity’. According to this principle So F = f (, r, v)
the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be the
If the function is product of power functions of , r and v,
same.
F  K x r y v z ; where K is dimensionless constant.
If X  A  (BC)2  DEF ,
If the above relation is dimensionally correct
then according to principle of homogeneity
[MLT 2 ]  [ML1T 1 ]x [L]y [LT 1 ]z
[X] = [A] = [(BC) ]  [ DEF] 2

If the dimensions of each term on both sides are same, the equation or [MLT 2 ]  [M x L x y  z T  x z ]
is dimensionally correct, otherwise not. A dimensionally correct equation Equating the exponents of similar quantities
may or may not be physically correct.
x = 1; – x + y + z = 1 and – x – z = – 2
Example : (i) F  mv 2 / r 2 Solving these for x, y and z, we get x = y = z = 1
By substituting dimension of the physical quantities in the above
So equation (i) becomes F = Krv
relation, [MLT 2 ]  [M ][LT 1 ]2 /[L]2
On experimental grounds, K = 6; so F = 6rv
2 2
i.e. [MLT ]  [MT ] This is the famous Stoke’s law.
As in the above equation dimensions of both sides are not same; this Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
formula is not correct dimensionally, so can never be physically.
Although dimensional analysis is very useful it cannot lead us too far
(ii) s  ut  (1 / 2)at 2 as,
By substituting dimension of the physical quantities in the above (1) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as
relation many physical quantities have same dimensions. For example if the
[L] = [LT ][T] – [LT ][T ]
–1 –2 2
dimensional formula of a physical quantity is [ML2 T 2 ] it may be work or
i.e. [L] = [L] – [L] energy or torque.
As in the above equation dimensions of each term on both sides are (2) Numerical constant having no dimensions [K] such as (1/2), 1 or
same, so this equation is dimensionally correct. However, from equations of 2 etc. cannot be deduced by the methods of dimensions.
motion we know that s  ut  (1 / 2)at 2 (3) The method of dimensions can not be used to derive relations
(5) As a research tool to derive new relations : If one knows the other than product of power functions. For example,
dependency of a physical quantity on other quantities and if the dependency
s  u t  (1 / 2) a t 2 or y  a sin t
is of the product type, then using the method of dimensional analysis,
relation between the quantities can be derived. cannot be derived by using this theory (try if you can). However, the
Example : (i) Time period of a simple pendulum. dimensional correctness of these can be checked.
Let time period of a simple pendulum is a function of mass of the bob (4) The method of dimensions cannot be applied to derive formula
(m), effective length (l), acceleration due to gravity (g) then assuming the if in mechanics a physical quantity depends on more than 3 physical
function to be product of power function of m, l and g quantities as then there will be less number (= 3) of equations than the
unknowns (>3). However still we can check correctness of the given
i.e., T  Km x l y g z ; where K = dimensionless constant
equation dimensionally. For example T  2 I mgl can not be derived by
theory of dimensions but its dimensional correctness can be checked.
 40 Units, Dimensions and Measurement
(5) Even if a physical quantity depends on 3 physical quantities, out Example : x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off,
of which two have same dimensions, the formula cannot be derived by again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off.
theory of dimensions, e.g., formula for the frequency of a tuning fork
(5) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the
f  (d / L2 ) v cannot be derived by theory of dimensions but can be preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
checked. Example : x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8,
again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.
Significant Figures
Significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity tell Significant Figures in Calculation
the number of digits in which we have confidence. Larger the number of In most of the experiments, the observations of various
significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the measurements are to be combined mathematically, i.e., added, subtracted,
measurement. The reverse is also true. multiplied or divided to achieve the final result. Since, all the observations in
measurements do not have the same precision, it is natural that the final
The following rules are observed in counting the number of
result cannot be more precise than the least precise measurement. The
significant figures in a given measured quantity.
following two rules should be followed to obtain the proper number of
(1) All non-zero digits are significant. significant figures in any calculation.
Example : 42.3 has three significant figures. (1) The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having
243.4 has four significant figures. different precisions should be reported to the same number of decimal places
24.123 has five significant figures. as present in the number having the least number of decimal places. The rule
is illustrated by the following examples :
(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between two non-
zero digits. (i) 33.3  (has only one decimal place)

Example : 5.03 has three significant figures. 3.11

+ 0.313
5.604 has four significant figures.
4.004 has four significant figures. 36.723  (answer should be reported to
one decimal place)
(3) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are
never significant. Answer = 36.7
Example : 0.543 has three significant figures. (ii) 3.1421
0.045 has two significant figures. 0.241
0.006 has one significant figure. + 0.09  (has 2 decimal places)
(4) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are 3.4731  (answer should be reported
significant. to 2 decimal places)
Example : 4.330 has four significant figures. Answer = 3.47
433.00 has five significant figures. (iii) 62.831  (has 3 decimal places)
343.000 has six significant figures. – 24.5492
(5) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number
38.2818  (answer should be reported to 3
of significant figures.
decimal places after rounding off)
Example : 1.32  10 has three significant figures.
–2

Answer = 38.282
1.32  10 has three significant figures.
4

(2) The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the

Rounding Off same number of significant figures as possessed by the least precise term
While rounding off measurements, we use the following rules by used in the calculation. The rule is illustrated by the following examples :
convention: (i) 142.06
(1) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit  0.23  (two significant figures)
is left unchanged.
32.6738  (answer should have two
Example : x  7.82 is rounded off to 7.8,
significant figures)
again x  3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
Answer = 33
(2) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding
digit is raised by one. (ii) 51.028
Example : x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9,  1.31  (three significant figures)
again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8. 66.84668
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, Answer = 66.8
then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example : x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, 0 .90
(iii)  0 .2112676
again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8. 4 .26
(4) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then preceding Answer = 0.21
digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 41

Order of Magnitude x = absolute error in calculation of x

i.e. sum of a and b.
In scientific notation the numbers are expressed as, Number
The maximum absolute error in x is x  (a  b)
 M  10 x . Where M is a number lies between 1 and 10 and x is integer.
Order of magnitude of quantity is the power of 10 required to represent the (a  b)
Percentage error in the value of x   100%
quantity. For determining this power, the value of the quantity has to be ab
rounded off. While rounding off, we ignore the last digit which is less than (2) Error in difference of the quantities : Suppose x = a – b
5. If the last digit is 5 or more than five, the preceding digit is increased by
one. For example, Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
b = absolute error in measurement of b
(1) Speed of light in vacuum
x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. difference of a and b.
 3  10 8 ms 1  10 8 m / s (ignoring 3 < 5) The maximum absolute error in x is x  (a  b)
(2) Mass of electron  9.1  10 31 kg  10 30 kg (as 9.1 > 5). (a  b)
Percentage error in the value of x   100%
ab
Errors of Measurement
(3) Error in product of quantities :
The measuring process is essentially a process of comparison. Inspite
of our best efforts, the measured value of a quantity is always somewhat Suppose x = a  b
different from its actual value, or true value. This difference in the true Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
value and measured value of a quantity is called error of measurement. b = absolute error in measurement of b
(1) Absolute error : Absolute error in the measurement of a physical
quantity is the magnitude of the difference between the true value and the x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. product of a and b.
measured value of the quantity. x  a b 
The maximum fractional error in x is    
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured value x  a b 
be a , a , a , ….. a . The arithmetic mean of these value is
1 2 3 n
Percentage error in the value of x
a  a2  ......  an
am  1 = (% error in value of a) + (% error in value of b)
n
a
Usually, a is taken as the true value of the quantity, if the same is
m
(4) Error in division of quantities : Suppose x 
unknown otherwise. b
By definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
are b = absolute error in measurement of b
a1  am  a1 x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. division of a and b.
a2  am  a2 x  a b 
The maximum fractional error in x is    
…………. x  a b 
an  am  an Percentage error in the value of x
The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in = (% error in value of a) + (% error in value of b)
certain other cases. an
(2) Mean absolute error : It is the arithmetic mean of the (5) Error in quantity raised to some power : Suppose x 
magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements of the quantity. It is bm
represented by a. Thus Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
| a1 |  | a2 | ..... | an | b = absolute error in measurement of b
a  x = absolute error in calculation of x
n
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as x  a b 
The maximum fractional error in x is   n m 
a  am  a x  a b 
This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie Percentage error in the value of x
between (am  a) and (am  a). = n (% error in value of a) + m (%error in value of b)
(3) Relative error or Fractional error : The relative error or
fractional error of measurement is defined as the ratio of mean absolute
error to the mean value of the quantity measured. Thus
Mean absolute error a
Relative error or Fractional error  
Mean value am
(4) Percentage error : When the relative/fractional error is expressed
in percentage, we call it percentage error. Thus  The standard of Weight and Measures Act was passed in India in
1976. It recommended the use of SI in all fields of science, technology,
a
Percentage error   100% trade and industry.
am
 The dimensions of many physical quantities, especially those in
Propagation of Errors heat, thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism in terms of mass,
length and time alone become irrational. Therefore, SI is adopted which
(1) Error in sum of the quantities : Suppose x = a + b
uses 7 basic units.
Let a = absolute error in measurement of a
 The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which
b = absolute error in measurement of b
 42 Units, Dimensions and Measurement
basic units (not fundamental units alone) should be raised to represent
the derived unit of that physical quantity.
 A measurement of a physical quantity is said to be accurate if the
systematic error in its measurement is relatively very low. On the other
 The dimensional formula is very helpful in writing the unit of a hand, the measurement of a physical quantity is said to be precise if the
physical quantity in terms of the basic units. random error is small.
 The dimensions of a physical quantity do not depend on the system  A measurement is most accurate if its observed value is very close
of units. to the true value.
 A physical quantity that does not have any unit must be
dimensionless.  Errors are always additive in nature.
 The pure numbers are dimensionless.  For greater accuracy, the quantity with higher power should have
least error.
 Generally, the symbols of those basic units, whose dimension
(power) in the dimensional formula is zero, are omitted from the  The absolute error in each measurement is equal to the least count
dimensional formula. of the measuring instrument.
 It is wrong to say that the dimensions of force are MLT . On the
–2

 Percentage error = relative error × 100.

other hand we should say that the dimensional formula for force is MLT –2

and that the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and –2 in  The unit and dimensions of the absolute error are same as that of
time. quantity itself.
 Physical quantities defined as the ratio of two similar quantities are  Absolute error is not dimensionless quantity.
dimensionless.
 The physical relation involving logarithm, exponential,
 Relative error is dimensionless quantity.
trigonometric ratios, numerical factors etc. cannot be derived by the value of 1 part on main scale (s)
method of dimensional analysis.  Least Count =
Number of parts on vernier scale (n)
 Physical relations involving addition or subtraction sign cannot be
derived by the method of dimensional analysis.  Least count of vernier callipers
 If units or dimensions of two physical quantities are same, these value of 1 part of  value of 1 part of 
need not represent the same physical characteristics. For example torque =   
and work have the same units and dimensions but their physical  main scale (s)   vernie r scale (v)
characteristics are different.  Least count of vernier calliper = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
 The standard units must not change with space and time. That is where MSD = Main Scale Division
why atomic standard of length and time have been defined. Attempts are
being made to define the atomic standard for mass as well.
VSD = Vernier Scale Division
Pitch(p)
 The unit of time, the second, was initially defined in terms of the  Least count of screw guaze =
rotation of the earth around the sun as well as that about its own axis. No. of parts on circular scale (n)
This time standard is subjected to variation with time. Therefore, the
atomic standard of time has been defined.
 Smaller the least count, higher is the accuracy of measurement.

 Any repetitive phenomenon, such as an oscillating pendulum,  Larger the number of significant figures after the decimal in a
measurement, higher is the accuracy of measurement.
spinning of earth about its axis, etc can be used to measure time.
 The product of numerical value of the physical quantity (n) and its  Significant figures do not change if we measure a physical quantity
in different units.
unit (U) remains constant.
That is : nU = constant or nU = n U .  Significant figures retained after mathematical operation (like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) should be equal to the
1 1 2 2

 The product of numerical value (n) and unit (U) of a physical minimum significant figures involved in any physical quantity in the
quantity is called magnitude of the physical quantity. given operation.
Thus : Magnitude = nU  Significant figures are the number of digits upto which we are sure
 Poiseuille (unit of viscosity) = pascal (unit of pressure) × second. about their accuracy.
That is : Pl : Pa- s.  If a number is without a decimal and ends in one or more zeros,
 The unit of power of lens (dioptre) gives the ability of the lens to then all the zeros at the end of the number may not be significant. To
converge or diverge the rays refracted through it. make the number of significant figures clear, it is suggested that the
number may be written in exponential form. For example 20300 may be
 The order of magnitude of a quantity means its value (in suitable expressed as 203.00×10 , to suggest that all the zeros at the end of 20300
2

power of 10) nearest to the actual value of the quantity. are significant.

 Angle is exceptional physical quantity, which though is a ratio of  1 inch = 2.54 cm

two similar physical quantities (angle = arc / radius) but still requires a 1 foot = 12 inches = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
unit (degrees or radians) to specify it along with its numerical value.
1 mile = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
 Solid angle subtended at a point inside the closed surface is 4
steradian.  1 yard = 0.9144 m
 Units, Dimensions and Measurement 43

 1 slug = 14.59 kg
 1 barn = 10 m –28 2

 1 liter = 10 cm = 10 m
3 3 –3 3

5
 1 km/h = m/s
18
1 m/s = 3.6 km/h
 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m
3 3

 1 atm. = 76 cm of Hg = 1.013 × 10 N/m 5 2

1 N/m = Pa (Pascal)
2

 When we add or subtract two measured quantities, the absolute

error in the final result is equal to the sum of the absolute errors in the
measured quantities.
 When we multiply or divide two measured quantities, the relative
error in the final result is equal to the sum of the relative errors in the
measured quantities.
 Motion in One Dimension 73

Chapter

2
Motion In One Dimension
Position A passenger standing on platform observes that a tree on a platform is
at rest. But the same passenger passing away in a train through station,
Any object is situated at point O and three observers from three
observes that tree is in motion. In both conditions observer is right. But
different places are observations are different because in first situation observer stands on a
looking at same N O
W platform, which is reference frame at rest and in second situation observer
object, then all three E moving in train, which is reference frame in motion.
S
observers will have
B So rest and motion are relative terms. It depends upon the frame of
different
C
observations about 4m references.
5m
the position of point 3m A
Table 2.1 : Types of motion
O and no one will
be wrong. Because Fig. 2.1
they are observing One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional
the object from different positions.
Motion of a body in a Motion of body in a Motion of body in a
Observer ‘A’ says : Point O is 3 m away in west direction. straight line is called plane is called two space is called three
Observer ‘B’ says : Point O is 4 m away in south direction. one dimensional dimensional motion. dimensional motion.
motion.
Observer ‘C’ says : Point O is 5 m away in east direction.
Therefore position of any point is completely expressed by two When only one When two coordinates When all three
factors: Its distance from the observer and its direction with respect to coordinate of the of the position of a coordinates of the
observer. position of a body body changes with position of a body
changes with time then time then it is said to changes with time then
That is why position is characterised by a vector known as position
it is said to be moving be moving two it is said to be moving
vector. Y
P(x,y,z) one dimensionally. dimensionally. three dimensionally.
Consider a point P in xy plane and its
 
r Ex.. (i) Motion of car on a Ex. (i) Motion of car on Ex.. (i) Motion of flying
coordinates are (x, y). Then position vector (r ) of
X straight road. a circular turn. kite.
point will be xˆi  yˆj and if the point P is in space
and its coordinates are (x, y, z) then position vector (ii) Motion of freely (ii) Motion of billiards (ii) Motion of flying
Z
 falling body. ball. insect.
can be expressed as r  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ .
Rest and Motion Particle or Point Mass or Point object
If a body does not change its position as time passes with respect to The smallest part of matter with zero dimension which can be
frame of reference, it is said to be at rest. described by its mass and position is defined as a particle or point mass.
If the size of a body is negligible in comparison to its range of motion
And if a body changes its position as time passes with respect to
then that body is known as a particle.
frame of reference, it is said to be in motion.
A body (Group of particles) can be treated as a particle, depends
Frame of Reference : It is a system to which a set of coordinates are upon types of motion. For example in a planetary motion around the sun
attached and with reference to which observer describes any event. the different planets can be presumed to be the particles.
 74 Motion in one Dimension
In above consideration when we treat body as particle, all parts of (i) It is a scalar quantity having symbol  .
the body undergo same displacement and have same velocity and (ii) Dimension : [M L T ] 0 1 –1

acceleration.
(iii) Unit : metre/second (S.I.), cm/second (C.G.S.)
Distance and Displacement (iv) Types of speed :
(1) Distance : It is the actual length of the path covered by a moving (a) Uniform speed : When a particle covers equal distances in equal
particle in a given interval of time. intervals of time, (no matter how small the intervals are) then it is said to
(i) If a particle starts from A and reach to C through point B as shown be moving with uniform speed. In given illustration motorcyclist travels
in the figure. equal distance (= 5m) in each second. So we can say that particle is moving
C
with uniform speed of 5 m/s.
Then distance travelled by particle
 AB  BC  7 m
4m
(ii) Distance is a scalar quantity.
(iii) Dimension : [M L T ]
0 1 0

5m 5m 5m 5m 5m 5m
(iv) Unit : metre (S.I.) A 3m B
1 sec 1 sec 1 sec 1 sec 1 sec 1m/s
(2) Displacement : Displacement is the change in Fig.
position vector i.e., A Time
2.2
vector joining initial to final position. 5m/s 5m/s 5m/s 5m/s 5m/s 5m/s
Uniform Speed
(i) Displacement is a vector quantity (b) Non-uniform (variable) speed : In non-uniform speed particle
Fig. 2.4
covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time. In the given illustration
(ii) Dimension : [M L T ]
0 1 0

motorcyclist travels 5m in 1 second, 8m in 2 second, 10m in 3 second, 4m

st nd rd

(iii) Unit : metre (S.I.) in 4 second etc.

th

(iv) In the above figure the displacement of the particle

Therefore its speed is different for every time interval of one second.
AC  AB  BC  | AC | This means particle is moving with variable speed.

 ( AB) 2  (BC) 2  2( AB) (BC) cos 90 o = 5 m

    Distance
(v) If S 1 , S 2 , S 3 ........ S n are the displacements of a body then the 5m 8m 10m 4m 6m 7m

total (net) displacement is the vector sum of the individuals. Time 1 sec 1 sec 1 sec 1 sec 1 sec 1 sec
    
S  S 1  S 2  S 3  ........  S n Variable Speed 5m/s 8m/s 10m/s 4m/s 6m/ s 7m/ s
(3) Comparison between distance and displacement : Fig. 2.5of a particle for a given ‘Interval
(c) Average speed : The average speed
(i) The magnitude of displacement is equal to minimum possible of time’ is defined as the ratio of total distance travelled to the time taken.
distance between two positions. Total distance travelled s
Average speed  ; v av 
So distance  |Displacement|. Time taken t
(ii) For a moving particle distance can never be negative or zero while  Time average speed : When particle moves with different uniform
displacement can be. speed  1 ,  2 ,  3 ... etc in different time intervals t1 , t 2 , t 3 , ... etc
(zero displacement means that body after motion has came back to respectively, its average speed over the total time of journey is given as
initial position) Total distance covered
i.e., Distance > 0 but Displacement > = or < 0 vav 
Total time elapsed
(iii) For motion between two points, displacement is single valued
d 1  d 2  d 3  ......  t   2 t 2   3 t 3  ......
while distance depends on actual path and so can have many values.  = 11
t1  t 2  t 3  ...... t1  t 2  t 3  ......
(iv) For a moving particle distance can never decrease with time while
 Distance averaged speed : When a particle describes different
displacement can. Decrease in displacement with time means body is
moving towards the initial position. distances d 1 , d 2 , d 3 , ...... with different time intervals t1 , t 2 , t 3 , ......

(v) In general, magnitude of displacement is not equal to distance. with speeds v1 , v 2 , v 3 ...... respectively then the speed of particle averaged
However, it can be so if the motion is along a straight line without change over the total distance can be given as
in direction. Total distance covered d  d 2  d 3  ......
Y  av   1
  Total time elapsed t1  t 2  t 3  ......
(vi) If rA and rB are the position
B d 1  d 2  d 3  ......
vectors of particle initially and finally. s 
P d1 d 2 d 3
Then displacement of the particle     ......
    rAB 1 2 3
rAB  rB  rA rB A
and s is the distance travelled if the  If speed is continuously changing with time then

particle has gone through the path APB. rA
Speed and Velocity X v av 
 vdt
(1) Speed : The rate of distance
Fig. 2.3  dt
covered with time is called speed.
 Motion in One Dimension 75

(d) Instantaneous speed : It is the speed of a particle at a particular For the given value of t, we can find out the instantaneous velocity.
instant of time. When we say ‚speed‛, it usually means instantaneous speed. 
e.g for t  0 ,Instantaneous velocity v   A1 and Instantaneous
The instantaneous speed is average speed for infinitesimally small time 
speed | v |  A1
interval (i.e., t  0 ). Thus
(vi) Comparison between average speed and average velocity
s ds
Instantaneous speed v  lim  (a) Average speed is a scalar while average velocity is a vector
t
t 0 dt
both having same units ( m/s) and dimensions [LT 1 ] .
(2) Velocity : The rate of change of position i.e. rate of displacement
with time is called velocity. (b) Average speed or velocity depends on time interval over which it is
 defined.
(i) It is a vector quantity having symbol v . (c) For a given time interval average velocity is single valued while
(ii) Dimension : [M L T ]
0 1 –1

average speed can have many values depending on path followed.

(iii) Unit : metre/second (S.I.), cm/second (C.G.S.) (d) If after motion body comes back to its initial position then
 
(iv) Types of velocity : vav  0 (as r  0 ) but vav  0 and finite as (s  0) .
(a) Uniform velocity : A particle is said to have uniform velocity, if (e) For a moving body average speed can never be negative or zero
magnitudes as well as direction of its velocity remains same and this is 
(unless t  ) while average velocity can be i.e. v av  0 while v a = or <
possible only when the particles moves in same straight line without
0.
reversing its direction.
(f) As we know for a given time interval
(b) Non-uniform velocity : A particle is said to have non-uniform
Distance  |displacement|
velocity, if either of magnitude or direction of velocity changes or both of
 Average speed  |Average velocity|
them change.
(c) Average velocity : It is defined as the ratio of displacement to time Acceleration
taken by the body The time rate of change of velocity of an object is called acceleration

Displacement  r of the object.
Average velocity  ; v av 
Time taken t (1) It is a vector quantity. It’s direction is same as that of change in
(d) Instantaneous velocity : Instantaneous velocity is defined as rate of velocity (Not of the velocity)
change of position vector of particles with time at a certain instant of time.
  Table 2.2 : Possible ways of velocity change
 r dr
Instantaneous velocity v  lim 
t  0 t dt When only direction of When only magnitude When both magnitude
(v) Comparison between instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity changes of velocity changes and direction of
velocity velocity changes
(a) instantaneous velocity is always tangential to the path followed by Acceleration Acceleration parallel or Acceleration has two
the particle. perpendicular to anti-parallel to velocity components one is
When a stone is thrown from point O then at point of projection the velocity perpendicular to
 velocity and another
instantaneous velocity of stone is v1 , at point A the instantaneous velocity
   parallel or anti-parallel
of stone is v 2 , similarly at point B and C are v 3 and v 4 respectively. to velocity
Y
Ex.. Uniform circular Ex.. Motion under Ex.. Projectile motion
 motion gravity
 v3
v2 
B v4 (2) Dimension : [M L T ]
0 1 –2

A
C
 (3) Unit : metre/second (S.I.); cm/second (C.G.S.)
2 2

v1
X (4) Types of acceleration :
O
Direction of these velocities can beFig.found
2.6 out by drawing a tangent on
the trajectory at a given point. (i) Uniform acceleration : A body is said to have uniform
(b) A particle may have constant instantaneous speed but variable acceleration if magnitude and direction of the acceleration remains constant
instantaneous velocity. during particle motion.
Example : When a particle is performing uniform circular motion then
for every instant of its circular motion its speed remains constant but (ii) Non-uniform acceleration : A body is said to have non-uniform
velocity changes at every instant. acceleration, if either magnitude or direction or both of them change during
(c) The magnitude of instantaneous velocity is equal to the motion.
instantaneous speed.   
(d) If a particle is moving with constant velocity then its average  v v 2  v1
(iii) Average acceleration : aa  
velocity and instantaneous velocity are always equal. t t
(e) If displacement is given as a function of time, then time derivative
of displacement will give velocity. The direction of average acceleration vector is the direction of the
 
 v
Let displacement x  A0  A1 t  A2 t 2 change in velocity vector as a 
 t
 dx d
Instantaneous velocity v   ( A0  A1 t  A2 t 2 )  
dt dt  v d v
 (iv) Instantaneous acceleration = a  lim 
v   A1  2 A2 t t 0 t dt
 76 Motion in one Dimension
(v) For a moving body there is no relation between the direction of (xii) For motion of a body under gravity, acceleration will be equal
instantaneous velocity and direction of acceleration. to ‚g‛, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Its value is 9.8 m/s 2 or
 Y 980 cm/s 2 or 32 feet/s 2 .
a
2 Position time Graph
 1
  During motion of the particle its parameters of kinematical analysis
a a
 g (v, a, s) changes with time. This can be represented on the graph.
g g  3
O
X Position time graph is plotted by taking time t along x-axis and
 position of the particle on y-axis.
Fig. 2.7 y
Ex.. (a) In uniform circular motion  = 90º always
(b) In a projectile motion  is variable for every point of trajectory.

Position
y2 D B

(vi) If a force F acts on a particle of mass m, by Newton’s 2 law, nd

 y1 
 F C
acceleration a  A
m
   O x
 dv d 2 x   dx  t1 t2
(vii) By definition a   2  As v 
dt dt  dt  Time
Let AB is a position-time graph for any moving particle
Fig. 2.8
i.e., if x is given as a function of time, second time derivative of
displacement gives acceleration Change in position y 2  y 1
As Velocity =  …(i)
(viii) If velocity is given as a function of position, then by chain rule Time taken t 2  t1
dv dv dx d  dx 
a    v. as v  dt  BC AD y 2  y 1
dt dx dt dx   From triangle ABC, tan     ….(ii)
AC AC t 2  t1
(xi) Acceleration can be positive, zero or negative. Positive
By comparing (i) and (ii) Velocity = tan
acceleration means velocity increasing with time, zero acceleration means
velocity is uniform constant while negative acceleration (retardation) means v = tan
velocity is decreasing with time.
It is clear that slope of tangent on position-time graph represents
the velocity of the particle.
Table 2.3 : Various position -time graphs and their interpretation
 Motion in One Dimension 77

P
 = 0° so v = 0
i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the particle is at rest.

O T

P
 = 90° so v = 
i.e., line perpendicular to time axis represents that particle is changing its position but time does not changes it
means the particle possesses infinite velocity.
O T
Practically this is not possible.

P
 = constant so v = constant, a = 0
i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform velocity of the particle.
O T

P
 is increasing so v is increasing, a is positive.
i.e., line bending towards position axis represents increasing velocity of particle. It means the particle possesses
acceleration.
O T

P
 is decreasing so v is decreasing, a is negative
i.e., line bending towards time axis represents decreasing velocity of the particle. It means the particle possesses
retardation.
O T

P
 constant but > 90o so v will be constant but negative
i.e., line with negative slope represent that particle returns towards the point of reference. (negative displacement).

O T
P
A B
C Straight line segments of different slopes represent that velocity of the body changes after certain interval of time.

O T
S
P
This graph shows that at one instant the particle has two positions, which is not possible.
T
O

P
The graph shows that particle coming towards origin initially and after that it is moving away from origin.

T
O
along x-axis and velocity of the particle on y-axis.
Note :  If the graph is plotted between distance and time then
Calculation of Distance and displacement : The area covered
it is always an increasing curve and it never between the velocity time graph and time axis gives the displacement and
comes back towards origin because distance distance travelled by the body for a given time interval.
never decrease with time. Hence such type A Total distance | A1 | | A2 | | A3 |
Distance

of distance time graph is valid up to point A

only, after point A, it is not valid as shown = Addition of modulus of different area. i.e. s  |  | dt
in the figure. Total displacement  A1  A2  A3
O Time
Velocity-time Graph = Addition of different area considering their sign.
The graph is plotted by taking time t Fig. 2.9
 78 Motion in one Dimension

i.e. r    dt
Area above time axis is taken as positive, while area below time axis
is taken as negative
Change in velocity
+ As Acceleration =
Time taken
1 3 v 2  v1
 …(i)
t t2  t1
2
BC AD
– From triangle ABC, tan   
AC AC
Fig. 2.10
here A and A are area of triangle 1 and 2 respectively and A is the v 2  v1
1 2 3
 ….(ii)
area of trapezium . t2  t1
Calculation of Acceleration : Let AB is a velocity-time graph for any By comparing (i) and (ii)
moving particle Acceleration (a) = tan 
y It is clear that slope of tangent on velocity-time graph represents the
acceleration of the particle.
v2 D
Velocity

v1 
C
A

Table x
O t1 t2 2.4 : Various velocity -time graphs and their interpretation
Time

Fig. 2.11
 = 0°, a = 0, v = constant
Velocity

i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the particle is moving with constant velocity.

 = 90o, a = , v = increasing
Velocity

i.e., line perpendicular to time axis represents that the particle is increasing its velocity, but time does
not change. It means the particle possesses infinite acceleration. Practically it is not possible.

O
Time

 = constant, so a = constant and v is increasing uniformly with time

Velocity

i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform acceleration of the particle.

O Time

 increasing so acceleration increasing

Velocity

i.e., line bending towards velocity axis represent the increasing acceleration in the body.
O Time

 decreasing so acceleration decreasing

Velocity

O Time
 Motion in One Dimension 79

i.e. line bending towards time axis represents the decreasing acceleration in the body
Velocity

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o but initial velocity of the particle is
negative.
O
Time

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o but initial velocity of particle is positive.
Velocity

O
Time

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o but initial velocity of the particle is
Velocity

positive.

O
Time

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o but initial velocity of the particle is zero.
Velocity

O
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o but initial velocity of the particle is
negative.
O
Time

Equation of Kinematics (2) When particle moves with constant acceleration

These are the various relations between u, v, a, t and s for the particle (i) Acceleration is said to be constant when both the magnitude and
moving with uniform acceleration where the notations are used as : direction of acceleration remain constant.

u = Initial velocity of the particle at time t = 0 sec (ii) There will be one dimensional motion if initial velocity and
acceleration are parallel or anti-parallel to each other.
v = Final velocity at time t sec
(iii) Equations of motion Equation of motion
a = Acceleration of the particle
(in scalar from) (in vector from)
s = Distance travelled in time t sec   
  u  at v  u  at
s = Distance travelled by the body in n sec
n
th

(1) When particle moves with zero acceleration 1 2   1

s  ut  at s  u t  at 2
2 2
(i) It is a unidirectional motion with constant speed.
  
(ii) Magnitude of displacement is always equal to the distance  2  u 2  2as v .v  u.u  2a.s
travelled.
u v   1  
(iii) v = u, s=ut [As a = 0] s t s  (u  v ) t
 2  2
 80 Motion in one Dimension
 (2) If a body is projected vertically downward with some initial
a   a
sn  u  (2n  1) sn  u  (2n  1) velocity
2 2
Equation of motion :  u  gt
Motion of Body Under Gravity (Free Fall)
1 2
The force of attraction of earth on bodies, is called force of h  ut  gt
2
gravity. Acceleration produced in the body by the force of gravity, is
called acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by the symbol g .  2  u 2  2 gh
In the absence of air resistance, it is found that all bodies g
(irrespective of the size, weight or composition) fall with the same hn  u  (2n  1)
2
acceleration near the surface of the earth. This motion of a body falling
(3) If a body is projected vertically upward
towards the earth from a small altitude (h << R) is called free fall.
(i) Equation of motion : Taking initial position as origin and
An ideal example of one-dimensional motion is motion under gravity direction of motion (i.e., vertically up) as positive
in which air resistance and the small changes in acceleration with height are a = – g [As acceleration is downwards while motion upwards]
neglected.
So, if the body is projected with velocity u and after time t it
(1) If a body is dropped from some height (initial velocity zero) reaches up to height h then
(i) Equations of motion : Taking initial position as origin and 1 2 2 g
direction of motion (i.e., downward direction) as a positive, here we have   u  g t ; h  ut  g t ;   u 2  2 gh ; hn  u  (2n  1)
2 2
(ii) For maximum height v = 0
u=0
So from above equation u = gt,
2h v
t   1 2
g g h gt
2
h v  2 gh and u 2  2 gh v=0

2 2h u
v t  
h  g g
2g h
u
v u  2 gh
u=0 [As body starts from rest]
a = +g [As acceleration is in the direction of motion]
Fig. 2.12 2
u
v=gt …(i) h
2g
1 2
h gt …(ii)
2
 2  2 gh …(iii) (iii) Graph of displacement,
Fig.velocity
2.14 and acceleration with respect to
time (for maximum height) :
g
hn  (2n  1) ...(iv)
2 s (u2/2g) v
(ii) Graph of distance, velocity and acceleration with respect to time
+
: (u/g) (2u/g)
O t
s v a
–
(u/g) –v
g
t
tan = g a

+
t t t
O t

(iii) As h = (1/2)gt , i.e., h  Fig.

2
2.13
t , distance covered in time t, 2t, 3t, etc.,
2
g
will be in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 3 , i.e., square of integers.
2 2 2

–a
1
(iv) The distance covered in the nth sec, hn  g (2n  1) Fig. 2.15
2 It is clear that both quantities do not depend upon the mass of the
So distance covered in 1 , 2 , 3 sec, etc., will be in the ratio of 1 : 3 :
st nd rd
body or we can say that in absence of air resistance, all bodies fall on the
5, i.e., odd integers only. surface of the earth with the same rate.
 Motion in One Dimension 81

(4) The motion is independent of the mass of the body, as in any vdv v vdv
equation of motion, mass is not involved. That is why a heavy and light a = f (v) then t   u f (v) and x  x 0  u f (v)
body when released from the same height, reach the ground simultaneously
and with same velocity i.e., t  (2h / g) and v  2 gh .

(5) In case of motion under gravity, time taken to go up is equal to

the time taken to fall down through the same distance. Time of descent ( t ) 2

= time of ascent (t ) = u/g

1

 Total time of flight T = t + t 

2u  During translational motion of the body, there is change in the
1 2

g location of the body.

(6) In case of motion under gravity, the speed with which a body is  During rotational motion of the body, there is change in the
orientation of the body, while there is no change in the location of the
projected up is equal to the speed with which it comes back to the point of
body from the axis of rotation.
projection.
 A point object is just a mathematical point. This concept is
As well as the magnitude of velocity at any point on the path is same introduced to study the motion of a body in a simple manner.
whether the body is moving in upwards or downward direction.
 The choice of the origin is purely arbitrary.
(7) A body is thrown vertically upwards. If air resistance is to be
taken into account, then the time of ascent is less than the time of descent.  For one dimensional motion the angle between acceleration and
t >t velocity is either 0° or 180° and it does not change with time.
2 1

 For two dimensional motion, the angle between acceleration and

u
Let u is the initial velocity of body then time of ascent t1  velocity is other than 0° or 180° and also it may change with time.
ga  
 If the angle between a and v is 90°, the path of the particle is a
u2 circle.
and h 
2(g  a)
 The particle speed up, that is the speed of the particle increases when
 
where g is acceleration due to gravity and a is retardation by air the angle between a and v lies between –90° and +90°.
resistance and for upward motion both will work vertically downward.
 The particle speeds down, that is the speed of the particle
 
For downward motion a and g will work in opposite direction decreases, when the angle between a and v lies between +90° and
because a always work in direction opposite to motion and g always work 270°.
vertically downward.
 The speed of the particle remains constant when the angle between
 
1 a and v is equal to 90°.
So h  (g  a) t22
2  The distance covered by a particle never decreases with time, it
2
always increases.
u 1
  (g  a) t22  Displacement of a particle is the unique path between the initial
2(g  a) 2
and final positions of the particle. It may or may not be the actually
u travelled path of the particle.
 t2 
(g  a)(g  a)  Displacement of a particle gives no information regarding the
nature of the path followed by the particle.
Comparing t and t we can say that t > t
1 2 2 1
 Magnitude of displacement  Distance covered.
since (g + a ) > (g – a)
 Since distance  |Displacement|, so average speed of a body is equal
Motion with Variable Acceleration or greater than the magnitude of the average velocity of the body.

(i) If acceleration is a function of time  The average speed of a body is equal to its instantaneous speed if
the body moves with a constant speed
a  f (t) then v  u   0 f (t) dt
t
 No force is required to move the body or an object with uniform
velocity.

   f (t) dt dt
and s  ut 
t  Velocity of the body is positive, if it moves to the right side of the
0 origin. Velocity is negative if the body moves to the left side of the
origin.
(ii) If acceleration is a function of distance
 When a particle returns to the starting point, its displacement is
x zero but the distance covered is not zero.
a  f (x ) then v  u  2  x f (x ) dx
2 2

 When a body reverses its direction of motion while moving along a

0

(iii) If acceleration is a function of velocity straight line, then the distance travelled by the body is greater than the
magnitude of the displacement of the body. In this case, average speed of
 82 Motion in one Dimension
the body is greater than its average velocity.
u2
 Speedometer measures the instantaneous speed of a vehicle. As  2  u 2  2as  0  u 2  2as  s  , s  u2
2a
 When particle moves with speed v upto half time of its total [since a is constant]
1

v1  v 2 So we can say that if u becomes n times then s becomes n times that of

motion and in rest time it is moving with speed v then v av 
2

previous value.
2

2
 When particle moves the first half of a distance at a speed of v and 1  A particle moving with uniform acceleration from A to B along a
second half of the distance at speed v then 2
straight line has velocities  1 and  2 at A and B respectively. If C is
2v1v 2 the mid-point between A and B then velocity of the particle at C is equal
v av 
v1  v 2 to

 When particle covers one-third distance at speed v, next one third at 1

 12   22
speed v and last one third at speed v, then
2 3

2
3 v1 v 2 v 3
v av 
v1 v 2  v 2 v 3  v 3 v1  The body returns to its point of projection with the same
magnitude of the velocity with which it was thrown vertically upward,
 For two particles having displacement time graph with slopes  1 provided air resistance is neglected.
1 tan 1
and  possesses velocities v and v respectively then   All bodies fall freely with the same acceleration.
2 1 2

 2 tan  2

 Velocity of a particle having uniform motion = slope of  The acceleration of the falling bodies does not depend on the mass
displacement–time graph. of the body.

 Greater the slope of displacement-time graph, greater is the  If two bodies are dropped from the same height, they reach the
velocity and vice-versa. ground in the same time and with the same velocity.
 Area under v – t graph = displacement of the particle.  If a body is thrown upwards with velocity u from the top of a
 Slope of velocity-time graph = acceleration. tower and another body is thrown downwards from the same point and
with the same velocity, then both reach the ground with the same speed.
 If a particle is accelerated for a time t with acceleration a and for
 When a particle returns to the starting point, its average velocity is
1 1

time t
with acceleration
2
a 2
then average acceleration is
a1 t1  a2 t2 zero but the average speed is not zero.
aa 
t1  t2

If both the objects A and B move along parallel lines in the
 If same force is applied on two bodies of different masses m1 and same direction, then the relative velocity of A w.r.t. B is given by v = AB

v –v
A B

m 2 separately then it produces accelerations a1 and a 2 respectively.

and the relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is given by v = v – v
Now these bodies are attached together and form a combined system BA B A

and same force is applied on that system so that a be the acceleration of

the combined system, then
 If both the objects A and B move along parallel lines in the
opposite direction, then the relative velocity of A w.r.t. B is given by v =
AB

a a v – (– v ) = v + v
a 1 2
A B A B

a1  a 2 and the relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is given by v = – v – v

BA B A

 If a body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration  Suppose a body is projected upwards from the ground and with
then distance covered by the body in t sec is proportional to t (i.e. 2

the velocity u. It is assumed that the friction of the air is negligible. The
s  t 2 ). characteristics of motion of such a body are as follows.
So we can say that the ratio of distance covered in 1 sec, 2 sec (i) The maximum height attained = H = u /2g. 2

2 2 2
and 3 sec is 1 : 2 : 3 or 1 : 4 : 9. (ii) Time taken to go up (ascent) = Time taken to come down (descent)
= t = u/g.
 If a body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration (iii) Time of flight T = 2t = 2u/g.
then distance covered by the body in nth sec is proportional to (2n  1)
(iv) The speed of the body on return to the ground = speed with which
(i.e. s n  (2n –1)) it was thrown upwards.
So we can say that the ratio of distance covered in 1 , 2 and 3 is 1 : 3 : 5.
st nd rd

(v) When the height attained is not large, that is u is not large, the mass,
the weight as well as the acceleration remain constant with time. But its
 A body moving with a velocity u is stopped by application of
speed, velocity, momentum, potential energy and kinetic energy change
brakes after covering a distance s. If the same body moves with
with time.
velocity nu and same braking force is applied on it then it will come
to rest after covering a distance of n s. 2 (vi) Let m be the mass of the body. Then in going from the ground to
the highest point, following changes take place.
 Motion in One Dimension 83

(a) Change in speed = u

(b) Change in velocity = u
(c) Change in momentum = m u
(d) Change in kinetic energy = Change in potential energy =
(1/2) mu .
2

(vii) On return to the ground the changes in these quantities are as

follows
(a) Change in speed = 0
(b) Change in velocity = 2u
(c) Change in momentum = 2mu
(d) Change in kinetic energy = Change in potential energy = 0
(viii) If, the friction of air be taken into account, then the motion of the
object thrown upwards will have the following properties
(a) Time taken to go up (ascent) < time taken to come down (descent)
(b) The speed of the object on return to the ground is less than the
initial speed. Same is true for velocity (magnitude), momentum
(magnitude) and kinetic energy.
(c) Maximum height attained is less than u /2g.
2

(d) A part of the kinetic energy is used up in overcoming the friction.

 A ball is dropped from a building of height h and it reaches after t
seconds on earth. From the same building if two balls are thrown (one
upwards and other downwards) with the same velocity u and they reach
the earth surface after t and t seconds respectively then
1 2

t  t1 t 2

 A particle is dropped vertically from rest from a height. The time

taken by it to fall through successive distance of 1m each will then be in
the ratio of the difference in the square roots of the integers i.e.
1 , ( 2  1 ), ( 3  2 ).......( 4  3 ),........ .
 Motion in Two Dimension 125

Chapter

3
Motion In Two Dimension
The motion of an object is called two dimensional, if two of the (i) A bomb released from an aeroplane in level flight
three co-ordinates required to specify the position of the object in space, (ii) A bullet fired from a gun
change w.r.t time. (iii) An arrow released from bow
In such a motion, the object moves in a plane. For example, a (iv) A Javelin thrown by an athlete
billiard ball moving over the billiard table, an insect crawling over the
floor of a room, earth revolving around the sun etc. Assumptions of Projectile Motion
Two special cases of motion in two dimension are (1) There is no resistance due to air.
1. Projectile motion 2. Circular motion (2) The effect due to curvature of earth is negligible.

Introduction of Projectile Motion (3) The effect due to rotation of earth is negligible.

A hunter aims his gun and fires a bullet directly towards a (4) For all points of the trajectory, the acceleration due to gravity ‘ g’
monkey sitting on a distant tree. If the monkey remains in his position, is constant in magnitude and direction.
he will be safe but at the instant the bullet leaves the barrel of gun, if Principle of Physical Independence of Motions
the monkey drops from the tree, the bullet will hit the monkey because
the bullet will not follow the linear path. (1) The motion of a projectile is a two-dimensional motion. So, it can
be discussed in two parts. Horizontal motion and vertical motion. These two
motions take place independent of each other. This is called the principle of
physical independence of motions.
(2) The velocity of the particle can be resolved into two mutually
perpendicular components. Horizontal component and vertical component.
(3) The horizontal component remains unchanged throughout the
flight. The force of gravity continuously affects the vertical component.
(4) The horizontal motion is a uniform motion and the vertical motion is
a uniformly accelerated or retarded motion.

Types of Projectile Motion

The path of motion of a bullet will be parabolic and this motion of (1) Oblique projectile motion
bullet is defined as projectile motion.
Fig : 3.1 (2) Horizontal projectile motion
If the force acting on a particle is oblique with initial velocity then the (3) Projectile motion on an inclined plane
motion of particle is called projectile motion.

Projectile Y X
A body which is in flight through the atmosphere under the effect of
gravity alone and is not being propelled by any fuel is called projectile.
Example:

X
Y
Y
X


 126 Motion in Two Dimension


r  xˆi  yˆj …(i)
The horizontal distance covered during time t is given as
x  v x t  x  u cos t …(ii)
The vertical velocity of the particle at time t is given as
v y  (v 0 )y  gt, …(iii)
Oblique Projectile
Now the vertical displacement y is given as
In projectile motion, horizontal component of velocity (u cos),
acceleration (g) and mechanical energy remains constant while, speed, y  u sin t  1 / 2 gt 2 …(iv)
velocity, vertical component of velocity (u sin ), momentum, kinetic energy Putting the values of x and y from equation (ii) and equation (iv) in
and potential energy all changes. Velocity, and KE are maximum at the point equation (i) we obtain the position vector at any time t as
of projection while minimum (but not zero) at highest point.
  1 
(1) Equation of trajectory : A projectile is thrown with velocity u at r  (u cos  ) t ˆi   (u sin ) t  gt 2  ˆj
 2 
an angle  with the horizontal. The velocity u can be resolved into two
2
rectangular components.  1 2
 r  (u t cos  )2   (u t sin )  gt 
Y  2 
2
 gt  gt sin
x P r ut 1   and   tan 1 (y / x )
 
2u u
u y
u sin   1 2
  ut sin  gt 
 or   tan 1  2u sin  gt 
1   
O u cos   tan 2
X  
Fig : 3.3  (u t cos  ) 
   2u cos  
v cos  component along X–axis and u sin  component along Y–  
axis.
x Note :  The angle of elevation  of the highest
For horizontal motion x = u cos  t  t  … (i)
u cos  point of the projectile and the angle of projection  are related to each
other as
1 2
For vertical motion y  (u sin ) t  gt …(ii) 1
Y
2 tan   tan 
From equation (i) and (ii) 2

 x  1  x2 
y  u sin    g   u
 
 u cos   2  u cos 
2 2
 H
 
1 gx 2
(3) Instantaneous velocity
O v : In projectile motion, X vertical
y  x tan   R
2 u 2 cos 2  component of velocity changes but horizontal component of velocity
remains always constant. Fig : 3.5
This equation shows that the trajectory of projectile is parabolic
because it is similar to equation of parabola Example : When a man jumps over the hurdle leaving behind its
skateboard then vertical component of his velocity is changing, but not the
y = ax – bx 2

horizontal component which matches with the skateboard velocity.

Note : Equation of oblique projectile also can be As a result, the skateboard stays underneath him, allowing him to land on
written as it.

 x u 2 sin 2
y  x tan  1   (where R = horizontal range = )
 R g

(2) Displacement of projectile ( r ) : Let the particle acquires a
position P having the coordinates (x, y) just after time t from the instant of

projection. The corresponding position vector of the particle at time t is r
as shown in the figure.
Fig : 3.6
Y Let v be the instantaneous velocity of projectile at time t, direction
i

vx of this velocity is along the tangent to the trajectory at point P.

 P (x, y)  
v  vx vi  v x i  v y ˆj  v i  v x2  v y2
y r  

 vy

O
X
x
vi
Fig : 3.4
 Motion in Two Dimension 127

 u 2 cos 2   (u sin  gt)2

(ii) For complementary angles of projection  and 90 –  o

T1 2u sin / g
(a) Ratio of time of flight = 
v i  u  g t  2u gt sin
2 2 2 T2 2u sin(90   ) / g
T1
vy u sin  gt = tan    tan 
Direction of instantaneous velocity tan    T2
vx u cos
2u sin 2u cos
(b) Multiplication of time of flight = T1 T2 
1  gt 
or   tan tan   sec   g g
 u 
2R
(4) Change in velocity : Initial velocity (at projection point)  T1 T2 
g
u i  u cos ˆi  u sin ˆj (iii) If t is the time taken by projectile to rise upto point p and t is
1 2

the time taken in falling from point p to ground level then

Final velocity (at highest point) u f  u cos ˆi  0 ˆj 2u sin g(t 1  t 2 )
t1  t 2   time of flight or u sin 
(i) Change in velocity (Between projection point and highest point) g 2

u  u f  u i  u sin ˆj Y P
t1
When body reaches the ground after completing its motion then t2
h
final velocity u f  u cos ˆi  u sin ˆj
X
O
(ii) Change in velocity (Between complete projectile motion) Fig : 3.8 1 2
and height of the point p is given by h  u sin t1  gt 1

u  u  u  2u sin ˆi
f i
2
(t1  t 2 ) 1
(5) Change in momentum : Simply by the multiplication of mass in the hg t1  gt12
2 2
above expression of velocity (Article-4).
g t1 t 2
(i) Change in momentum (Between projection point and highest by solving h 
2

point) p  p f  p i   mu sin ˆj (iv) If B and C are at the same level on trajectory and the time
difference between these two points
(ii) Change in momentum (For the complete projectile motion) Y
is t , similarly A and D are also at

p  p f  p i   2mu sin ˆj
1

the same level and the time

t1
difference between these two h B C
(6) Angular momentum : Angular momentum of projectile at t2
positions is t then A D
highest point of trajectory about the point of projection is given by 2

8 h
 u 2 sin2   t 22  t12  O X
L  mvr Here r  H   g Fig : 3.9
 2 g 
(8) Horizontal range : It is the horizontal distance travelled by a
u 2 sin2  m u 3 cos sin2  body during the time of flight.
 L  m u cos 
2g 2g So by using second equation of motion in x-direction
Y R  u cos   T Y

P = mv  u cos   (2u sin / g)

u 2 sin 2 u
u r 
 X g
 X
O Fig : 3.7 u 2 sin 2 O Horizontal range
(7) Time of flight : The total time taken by the projectile to go up R
g Fig : 3.10
and come down to the same level from which it was projected is called time
of flight. (i) Range of projectile can also be expressed as :
For vertical upward motion 0 = u sin  – gt 2u sin
R = u cos × T = u cos 
 t = (u sin /g) g
Now as time taken to go up is equal to the time taken to come 2 u cos  u sin 2u x u y
 
down so g g
2u sin
Time of flight T  2 t  2u xuy
g  R (where u and u are the horizontal and vertical
g
x y

2 .u y component of initial velocity)

(i) Time of flight can also be expressed as : T  (where u is
g (ii) If angle of projection is changed from  to   = (90 – ) then
y

the vertical component of initial velocity). range remains unchanged.

60o
30o
Blast
 128 Motion in Two Dimension

 tan   [4 / n] or   tan 1[4 / n]

The angle of projection is given by   tan 1 [4 / n]

Note : If R = H then   tan 1 (4 ) or   76 o .

If R = 4H then   tan 1 (1) or   45 o .

(9) Maximum height : It is the maximum height from the point of
projection, a projectile can reach.
So, by using v 2  u 2  2as Y

0  (u sin )2  2 gH
u 2 sin 2 ' u 2 sin[2(90 o   )] u 2 sin 2 u 2 sin2  u
R'    R H

Max. height
g g g 2g
 X
So a projectile has same range at angles of projection  and (90 – (i) Maximum height can also be expressed
O as
Fig : 3.13
), though time of flight, maximum height and trajectories are different. u y2
H  (where u y is the vertical component of initial velocity).
These angles  and 90 –  are called complementary angles of
o
2g
projection and for complementary angles of projection, ratio of range
u2
R1 u 2 sin 2 / g R1 (ii) H max  (when sin = max = 1 i.e.,  = 90 )
2 o

 2 1  1 2g
R 2 u sin[2 (90 o   )] / g R2
i.e., for maximum height body should be projected vertically upward.
(iii) For angle of projection  = (45 – ) and  = (45 + ), range
1 2
So it falls back to the point of projection after reaching the maximum
will be same and equal to u cos 2/g. 2

height.
 and  are also the complementary angles.
1 2
(iii) For complementary angles of projection  and 90 –  o

(iv) Maximum range : For range to be maximum Ratio of maximum height

d  u 2 sin 2  H1 u 2 sin2  / 2 g sin2 

dR
0    0 =  2   tan 2 
d d   H 2 u sin2 (90 o   ) / 2 g cos 2 
g 
H1
 cos 2 = 0 i.e. 2 = 90   = 45 o o
  tan 2 
H2
and R = (u /g)
max
2

i.e., a projectile will have maximum range when it is projected at an (10) Projectile passing through two different points on same height
at time t and t : If the particle passes two points situated at equal height y
angle of 45 to the horizontal and the maximum range will be (u /g).
o 2 1 2

at t  t 1 and t  t2 , then
When the range is maximum, the height H reached by the projectile
(i) Height (y): y  u sin t1 
Y 1 2
gt1 …(i)
2

y  u sin  t 2 
1 2
u and gt2 …(ii)
H 2
45o Y
O R = 4 H2 X
2 max
u 2 sin2  u 2 sin 45 u R
H  
Fig : 3.12  max
2g 2g 4g 4
t = t1 t = t2
i.e., if a person can throw a projectile to a maximum distance R , u
max

y
R  
y
The maximum height during the flight to which it will rise is  max  .
 4  O
X
Fig : 3.14
(v) Relation between horizontal range and maximum height : Comparing equation (i) with equation (ii)
u sin 2
2
u sin  2 2
g t 1  t 2 
R and H  u sin 
g 2g 2
Substituting this value in equation (i)
R u 2 sin 2 / g
  2  4 cot   R  4 H cot   t  t2  1 gt t
H u sin2  / 2 g y  g 1  t1  gt12  y  1 2
(vi) If in case of projectile motion range R is n times the maximum  2  2 2
height H 1 2
(ii) Time (t and t ): y  u sin t 
1 2
gt
u sin 2
2
u sin  2 2 2
i.e. R = nH  n
g 2g
 Motion in Two Dimension 129

 2   K sin2 
2u sin u sin   2 gy  
1 1 
2y
t 
2
t 0 t   (iii) Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
g g g   u sin  
  
  1 1
 mu 2 cos 2   mu 2 sin2 
 2 
2 2
u sin   2 gy  
t1   
g 1  1   u sin   =
1
mu 2 = Energy at the point of projection.
    2
 
This is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
 2 
u sin   2 gy  
and t 2    Horizontal Projectile
1  1   
g  u sin  
  When a body is projected horizontally from a certain height ‘y’
 
(11) Motion of a projectile as observed from another projectile : vertically above the ground with initial velocity u. If friction is considered to
Suppose two balls A and B are projected simultaneously from the origin, be absent, then there is no other horizontal force which can affect the
with initial velocities u and u at angle  and  , respectively with the horizontal motion. The horizontal velocity therefore remains constant and
so the object covers equal distance in horizontal direction in equal intervals
1 2 1 2

horizontal.
of time.
Y
The horizontal velocity therefore remains constant and so the
A
object covers equal distance in horizontal direction in equal intervals of
u1
time.
y1 – y2
u2 (1) Trajectory of horizontal projectile : The horizontal displacement x
1 B is governed by the equation
2
X
u X
O x O
Fig : 3.15
The instantaneous positions of the two balls are given by x = ut  t  …. (i)
u
1 2 y
Ball A : x = (u cos )t, y 1  (u 1 sin 1 ) t 
1 1 1
gt The vertical displacement y is
P(x, y)
2 governed by x
1 2
Ball B : x = (u cos )t, y 2  (u 2 sin 2 ) t 
2 2 2
gt y
1
gt 2
…. (ii) Y
2 2
Fig : 3.17
The position of the ball A with respect to ball B is given by
(since initial vertical velocity is
x  x 1  x 2  (u1 cos  1  u 2 cos  2 ) t zero)
y  y 1  y 2  (u1 sin 1  u 2 sin 2 ) t 1 g x2
By substituting the value of t in equation (ii) y 
y  u 1 sin 1  u 2 sin 2  2 u2
Now    constant
x  u 1 cos  1  u 2 cos  2 

(2) Displacement of Projectile (r ) : After time t, horizontal displacement
Thus motion of a projectile relative to another projectile is a straight line. 1 2
x  ut and vertical displacement y  gt .
(12) Energy of projectile : When a projectile moves upward its 2
kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases but the total energy
 1
always remain constant. So, the position vector r  ut ˆi  gt 2 ˆj
2
If a body is projected
Y
with initial kinetic energy K(=1/2 2
u cos  gt   gt 
mu ), with angle of projection 
2

K = Kcos2 Therefore r  ut 1    and   tan 1  

u  2u   2u 
with the horizontal then at the
highest point of trajectory 
K X  gy   2y 
(i) Kinetic energy Fig : 3.16   tan 1  u  as t  
 2   g 
1 1    
 m (u cos  )2  mu 2 cos 2 
2 2 (3) Instantaneous velocity : Throughout the motion, the horizontal
component of the velocity is v = u. x

 K '  K cos 2  The vertical component of velocity increases with time and is given
by
u 2 sin2 
(ii) Potential energy  mgH  mg v =0+gt=gt (From v = u + g t)
2g y


  So, v  v x ˆi  v y ˆj = u ˆi  g t ˆj
 As H  u sin 
2 2
1 
 mu 2 sin2   
2  2g 
 130 Motion in Two Dimension

2 (i) They strike the ground with same speed at different times
 gt 
i.e. v  u  gt
2 2
u 1    irrespective of their initial direction of velocities.
u  (ii) Time would be least for particle E which was thrown vertically
downward.

Again v  uˆi  2 gy ˆj (iii) Time would be maximum for particle A which was thrown
vertically upward.
i.e. v  u 2  2 gy Projectile Motion on An Inclined Plane
x Let a particle be projected up with a speed u from an inclined
O u X plane which makes an angle  with the horizontal and velocity of

y projection makes an angle  with the inclined plane.

r P (x,y) We have taken reference x-axis in the direction of plane.

vx
Hence the component of initial velocity parallel and perpendicular to
vy v the plane are equal to u cos and u sin respectively i.e. u||  u cos 
and u  u sin .
Y vy
Fig : 3.18
Direction of instantaneous velocity : tan   The component of g along the plane is g sin and perpendicular
vx
to the plane is g cos  as shown in the figure i.e. a||   g sin and
 vy   2 gy 
   tan 1    tan 1   or   tan 1  gt  a  g cos  .
  u  u 
 vx    Therefore the particle decelerates at a rate of g sin as it moves
Where  is the angle of instantaneous velocity from the horizontal. from O to P.
(4) Time of flight : If a body is projected horizontally from a height (1) Time of flight : We know for oblique projectile motion
h with velocity u and time taken by the body to reach the ground is T, then 2u sin 2u
1 T or we can say T  
h  0  gT 2 (for vertical motion) g a
2 Y

2h 
T u
g P X
(5) Horizontal range : Let R is the horizontal distance travelled by a x=–g sin  t =T
the body   a y= g cos 
 g
1 O t =0
R  uT  0 T 2 (for horizontal motion)
2 Fig : 3.21 2u sin
 Time of flight on an inclined plane T 
g cos 
2h
R u (2) Maximum height : We know for oblique projectile motion
g
(6) If projectiles A and B are projected horizontally with different u 2 sin2  u 2
H or we can say H 
initial velocity from same height and third particle C is dropped from same 2g 2a
point then
(i) All three particles will take equal time to reach the ground. u 2 sin2 
 Maximum height on an inclined plane H 
(ii) Their net velocity would be different but all three particle 2 g cos 
possess same vertical component of velocity.
1 2
(iii) The trajectory of projectiles A and B will be straight line w.r.t. (3) Horizontal range : For one dimensional motion s  ut  at
particle C. 2
1
Horizontal range on an inclined plane R  u|| T  a|| T 2
h 2
B
C A
1
R  u cos  T  g sin T 2
2
2
 2u sin  1  2u sin 
(7) If various particles thrownFigwith
: 3.19 same initial velocity but in R  u cos     g sin  
different direction then  g cos   2  g cos  
A
2u 2 sin cos(   )
By solving R
g cos 2 
u u
u  
(i) Maximum range occurs when   
A B C D E 4 2
u u (ii) The maximum range along the inclined plane when the projectile
h is thrown upwards is given by
A E
Fig : 3.20
 Motion in Two Dimension 131

u2 d r
R max  (iii) Ratio of distance and displacement : 
g (1  sin ) r 2r s i n / 2
(iii) The maximum range along the inclined plane when the 
projectile is thrown downwards is given by  cosec ( / 2)
2
u2 (2) Angular displacement () : The angle turned by a body moving
R max 
g (1  sin ) in a circle from some reference line is called angular displacement.
Circular Motion (i) Dimension = [M L T ] (as  = arc / radius) .
0 0 0

Circular motion is another example of motion in two dimensions. To (ii) Units = Radian or Degree. It is some time also specified in terms
create circular motion in a body it of fraction or multiple of revolution.

must be given some initial velocity and v2
a force must then act on the body  (iii) 2 rad  360 o  1 Revolution
which is always directed at right angles v3
(iv) Angular displacement is a axial vector quantity.
to instantaneous velocity. F F Its direction depends upon the sense of rotation of the object and
Since this force is always at  can be given by Right Hand Rule; which states that if the curvature of the
right angles to the displacement F
F fingers of right hand represents the sense of
therefore no work is done by the force 
v1 rotation of the object, then the thumb, held
on the particle. Hence, its kinetic S
 perpendicular to the curvature of the fingers, 
energy and thus speed is unaffected. v4
represents the direction of angular displacement O r
But due to simultaneous action of the Fig : 3.22 vector.
force and the velocity the particle
follows resultant path, which in this case is a circle. Circular motion can be (v) Relation between linear displacement
classified into two types – Uniform circular motion and non-uniform Fig : 3.25
and angular displacement s    r
circular motion.
or s  r
Variables of Circular Motion
(1) Displacement and distance : When particle moves in a circular (3) Angular velocity () : Angular velocity of an object in circular
motion is defined as the time rate of change of its angular displacement.
path describing an angle  during time t (as shown in the figure) from the
position A to the position B, we see that the magnitude of the position angle traced  d 
 (i) Angular velocity  =  Lt 
time taken t  0 t dt
vector r (that is equal to the radius of the circle) remains constant. i.e.,
 
r1  r2  r and the direction of the position vector changes from time to d
 
time. dt
(i) Displacement : The change of position vector or the displacement (ii) Dimension : [M L T ]0 0 –1


r of the particle from position A to the position B is given by referring (iii) Units : Radians per second (rad.s ) or Degree per second.
–1

the figure. 
v2  (iv) Angular velocity is an axial vector.
     v1
 r  r2  r1  r  r  r2  r1
Its direction is the same as that of . For anticlockwise rotation of
 B
r  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos  r2 the point object on the circular path, the direction of , according to Right
 hand rule is along the axis of circular path directed upwards. For clockwise
Putting r1  r2  r we obtain O A

r1 rotation of the point object on the circular path, the direction of  is along
r  r 2  r 2  2r.r cos the axis of circular path directed downwards.

 r  2r 2 1  cos   Fig : 3.23 B (v) Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity v    r
  (vi) For uniform circular motion  remains constant where as for non-
  r2 r
 2r 2  2 sin2  uniform motion  varies with respect to time.
 2 

 r  2r sin
 O  r1
A Note : It is important to note that nothing actually
2 Fig : 3.24
moves in the direction of the angular velocity vector  . The direction of
(ii) Distance : The distanced covered by the particle during the time
t is given as  simply represents that the circular motion is taking place in a plane
d = length of the arc AB = r  perpendicular to it.
(4) Change in velocity : We want to know the magnitude and
direction of the change in velocity of the particle which is performing
uniform circular motion as it moves from A to B during time t as shown in
figure. The change in velocity vector is given as
 132 Motion in Two Dimension
  with respect to the other (i.e., time in which B completes one more or less
v  v 2  v1 
  v1 revolution around O than A)
v2  v2
v1
2 2 TT  2 
 T   1 2 as T   
B  rel  2  1 T1  T2  

Special case : If  B   A ,  rel  0 and so T = ., particles will
 A
O maintain their position relative to each other. This is what actually happens
  in case of geostationary satellite ( =  = constant)
v  v 2  v1
1 2


v 1 (7) Angular acceleration () : Angular acceleration of an object in
Fig : 3.26 Fig : 3.27 circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its angular velocity.
  
or v  v 2  v1  v  v12  v 22  2v1v 2 cos
(i) If  be the change in angular velocity of the object in time
For uniform circular motion v1  v 2  v interval t, while moving on a circular path, then angular acceleration of
the object will be

So v  2v 2 1  cos    2v sin
2 

The direction of v is shown in figure that can be given as


180 o  
2

 90 o   / 2 
Fig : 3.28
(5) Time period (T) : In circular motion, the time period is defined
 d  d 2
as the time taken by the object to complete one revolution on its circular   Lt   2
t 0 t dt dt
path.
(i) Units : second. (ii) Units : rad. s –2

(ii) Dimension : [M L T] 0 0
(iii) Dimension : [M L T ] 0 0 –2

(iii) Time period of second’s hand of watch = 60 second. (iv) Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration
(iv) Time period of minute’s hand of watch = 60 minute
a  r
(v) Time period of hour’s hand of watch = 12 hour
(6) Frequency (n) : In circular motion, the frequency is defined as (v) For uniform circular motion since  is constant so
the number of revolutions completed by the object on its circular path in a d
 0
unit time. dt
(i) Units : s or hertz (Hz).
(vi) For non-uniform circular motion   0
–1

(ii) Dimension : [M L T ] 0 0 –1

Centripetal Acceleration
Note : Relation between time period and frequency (1) Acceleration acting on the object undergoing uniform circular
: If n is the frequency of revolution of an object in circular motion, then the motion is called centripetal acceleration.
object completes n revolutions in 1 second. Therefore, the object will (2) It always acts on the object along the
complete one revolution in 1/n second. v
radius towards the centre of the circular path. ac
T  1 / n (3) Magnitude of centripetal acceleration,
 Relation between angular velocity, frequency and time period : v2 4 2
Consider a point object describing a uniform circular motion with frequency a   2 r  4 2 n 2 r  2 r
r T Fig : 3.29
n and time period T. When the object completes one revolution, the angle
(4) Direction of centripetal acceleration : It is always the same as
traced at its axis of circular motion is 2 radians. It means, when time t = T,

 2 that of  . When t decreases,  also decreases. Due to which 
  2 radians. Hence, angular velocity     2n ( T
t T becomes more and more perpendicular to  . When  t  0, 
= 1/n) becomes perpendicular to the velocity vector. As the velocity vector of the
2 particle at an instant acts along the tangent to the circular path, therefore
  2n
T  and hence the centripetal acceleration vector acts along the radius of
the circular path at that point and is directed towards the centre of the
 If two particles are moving on same circle or different coplanar
circular path.
concentric circles in same direction with different uniform angular speeds
 and  respectively, the angular velocity of B relative to A will be
A B
Centripetal force
 rel   B   A According to Newton's first law of motion, whenever a body moves
in a straight line with uniform velocity, no force is required to maintain this
So the time taken by one to complete one revolution around O with velocity. But when a body moves along a circular path with uniform speed,
respect to the other (i.e., time in which B complete one revolution around O its direction changes continuously i.e. velocity keeps on changing on account
 Motion in Two Dimension 133
of a change in direction. According to Newton's second law of motion, a line motion but to observer B it appears that a real force has actually acted
change in the direction of motion of the body can take place only if some on the body and is responsible for throwing the body radially out-wards.
external force acts on the body. This imaginary force is given a name to explain the effects of inertia to the
Due to inertia, at every point of the circular path; the body tends to observer who is sharing the circular motion of the body. This inertial force
move along the tangent to the circular path is called centrifugal force. Thus centrifugal force is a fictitious force which
at that point (in figure). Since every body has v has significance only in a rotating frame of reference.
directional inertia, a velocity cannot change v
Work Done by Centripetal Force
by itself and as such we have to apply a force.
But this force should be such that it changes F The work done by centripetal force is S
the direction of velocity and not its F F always zero as it is perpendicular to velocity and
magnitude. This is possible only if the force F hence instantaneous displacement.
90o
acts perpendicular to the direction of velocity. Work done = Increment in kinetic energy
Because the velocity is along the tangent, this v of revolving body F
force must be along the radius (because the v
Fig : 3.30 Work done = 0
radius of a circle at any point is perpendicular
to the tangent at that point). Further, as this force is to move the body in a Fig : 3.31
Also W = F. S = F  S cos = FS cos
circular path, it must acts towards the centre. This centre-seeking force is
90 = 0
o

called the centripetal force.

Hence, centripetal force is that force which is required to move a Example : (i) When an electron revolves around the nucleus in
body in a circular path with uniform speed. The force acts on the body hydrogen atom in a particular orbit, it neither absorb nor emit any energy
means its energy remains constant.
along the radius and towards centre.
(ii) When a satellite established once in a orbit around the earth and
Formulae for centripetal force :
it starts revolving with particular speed, then no fuel is required for its
mv 2 m 4 2 r circular motion.
F  m  2 r  m 4 2 n 2 r 
r T2 Skidding of Vehicle on A Level Road
Table 3.1 : Centripetal force in different situation When a vehicle takes a turn on a circular path it requires centripetal
Situation Centripetal Force force.
A particle tied to a string and Tension in the string If friction provides this centripetal force then vehicle can move in
whirled in a horizontal circle circular path safely if
Vehicle taking a turn on a level Frictional force exerted by the Friction force  Required centripetal force
road road on the tyres
A vehicle on a speed breaker Weight of the body or a
component of weight
Revolution of earth around the Gravitational force exerted by the
sun sun
Electron revolving around the Coulomb attraction exerted by the mg m2r
nucleus in an atom protons in the nucleus mv 2
A charged particle describing a Magnetic force exerted by the  mg 
r
circular path in a magnetic field agent that sets up the magnetic
field  v safe  rg
Fig : 3.32
This is the maximum speed by which vehicle can take a turn on a
Centrifugal Force circular path of radius r, where coefficient of friction between the road and
It is an imaginary force due to incorporated effects of inertia. When tyre is .
a body is rotating in a circular path and the centripetal force vanishes, the Skidding of Object on A Rotating Platform
body would leave the circular path. To an observer A who is not sharing the
motion along the circular path, the body appears to fly off tangentially at On a rotating platform, to avoid the skidding of an object (mass m)
the point of release. To another observer B, who is sharing the motion along placed at a distance r from axis of rotation, the centripetal force should be
the circular path (i.e., the observer B is also rotating with the body with the provided by force of friction.
same velocity), the body appears to be stationary before it is released. When Centripetal force  Force of friction
the body is released, it appears to B, as if it has been thrown off along the
radius away from the centre by some force. In reality no force is actually m r  mg
2

seen to act on the body. In absence of any real force the body tends to
  max  (g / r) ,
continue its motion in a straight line due to its inertia. The observer A
easily relates this events to be due to inertia but since the inertia of both Hence maximum angular velocity of rotation of the platform is
the observer B and the body is same, the observer B can not relate the
(g / r) , so that object will not skid on it.
above happening to inertia. When the centripetal force ceases to act on the
body, the body leaves its circular path and continues to move in its straight- Bending of A Cyclist
 134 Motion in Two Dimension
A cyclist provides himself the necessary centripetal force by leaning
inward on a horizontal track, while going round a curve. Consider a cyclist In the figure (A) shown reaction R is resolved into two components,
of weight mg taking a turn of radius r with velocity v. In order to provide the component R cos balances weight of vehicle
the necessary centripetal force, the cyclist leans through angle  inwards as
shown in figure.  R cos   mg …(i)

The cyclist is under the action of the following forces : and the horizontal component R sin  provides necessary
centripetal force as it is directed towards centre of desired circle
The weight mg acting vertically downward at the centre of gravity of
cycle and the cyclist. mv 2
Thus R sin   …(ii)
The reaction R of the ground on cyclist. It will act along a line- r
making angle  with the vertical. Dividing (ii) by (i), we have
The vertical component R cos of the normal reaction R will balance v2
the weight of the cyclist, while the horizontal component R sin  will tan   …(iii)
rg
provide the necessary centripetal force to the cyclist.
 2r v
mv 2 R or tan    …(iv) [As v = r ]
R sin  …(i) g g
r
R cos If l = width of the road, h = height of the outer edge from the
and R cos  = mg …(ii)  ground level then from the figure (B)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we have
h h
R sin m v2 r mv2/r R sin  tan    …(v) [since  is very small]
 x l
R cos  mg
From equation (iii), (iv) and (v)
v2 v2  2r v  h
or tan   …(iii) tan     
rg mg rg g g l

Therefore, the cyclist should bend through

Fig : 3.33
an angle
Note : If friction is also present between the tyres

v2  v 2
  tan 
  tan 1   and road then 
 rg 1   tan 
 rg 
It follows that the angle through which cyclist should bend will be  Maximum safe speed on a banked frictional road
greater, if rg(  tan  )
v
(i) The radius of the curve is small i.e. the curve is sharper 1   tan 
(ii) The velocity of the cyclist is large.
Overturning of Vehicle
Note : For the same reasons, an ice skater or an
When a car moves in a circular path with speed more than a certain
aeroplane has to bend inwards, while taking a turn. maximum speed then it overturns even if friction is sufficient to avoid
skidding and its inner wheel leaves the ground first
Banking of A Road
For getting a centripetal force, cyclist bend towards the centre of
circular path but it is not possible in case of four wheelers.
Therefore, outer bed of the road is raised so that a vehicle moving
on it gets automatically inclined towards the centre.
R cos  R1 G R2
R
h

2a
F
R sin 
Weight of the car = mg mg
 Speed of the car = v Fig : 3.35

Radius of the circular path = r
mg Fig. (A) Distance between the centre of wheels of the car = 2a
Height of the centre of gravity (G) of the car from the road level = h
Reaction on the inner wheel of the car by the ground = R 1

l Reaction on the outer wheel of the car by the ground = R 2

h When a car move in a circular path, horizontal friction force F

provides the required centripetal force

x
Fig. (B)
Fig : 3.34
 Motion in Two Dimension 135

mv 2 (2) When car moves on a convex bridge

i.e., F  …(i)
R R
For rotational equilibrium, by taking the moment of forces R , R and 1 2
v
F about G  mg cos

Fh  R1a  R2 a …(ii) mg

As there is no vertical motion so R + R = mg …(iii)
1 2

By solving (i), (ii) and (iii) Convex bridge

mv 2
1  v 2h  Centripetal force = mgFig
cos: 3.38
 R 
R1  M  g   …(iv) r
2  ra 
mv 2
and reaction R  mg cos  
1  v 2h  r
and R 2  M g   …(v)
2  ra  Non-Uniform Circular Motion
It is clear from equation (iv) that if v increases value of R decreases 1
If the speed of the particle in a horizontal circular motion changes
and for R = 0 1
with respect to time, then its motion is said to be non-uniform circular
motion.
2
v h gra
 g or v  Consider a particle describing a circular path of radius r with centre
ra h
at O. Let at an instant the particle be at P and  be its linear velocity and
i.e. the maximum speed of a car without overturning on a flat road is given
 be its angular velocity.
gra   
by v  Then,    r …(i)
h Differentiating both sides of w.r.t. time t we have
  
Motion of Charged Particle In Magnetic Field d  d    dr
  r   …(ii)
When a charged particle having mass m , charge q enters dt dt dt
perpendicularly in a magnetic field B with velocity v then it describes a 
dv 
circular path. Here,  a, (Resultant acceleration)
dt at
Because magnetic force (qvB) works in the perpendicular direction of      a
a    r   
v and it provides required centripetal force
 
Magnetic force = Centripetal force d  O ac P
         (Angular acceleration)
dt
mv 2      
v    
qvB = a  a t  ac …(iii)
r        Fig : 3.39

 radius of the circular path      q  dr 
F   (Linear velocity)
       dt
mv
r        Thus the resultant acceleration of the particle at P has two
qB B component accelerations
      

Fig : 3.36 (1) Tangential acceleration : a t    r

It acts along the tangent to the circular path at P in the plane of
Reaction of Road On Car circular path.
 
(1) When car moves on a concave bridge then According to right hand rule since  and r are perpendicular to
each other, therefore, the magnitude of tangential acceleration is given by
R
 | a t | |   r |   r sin 90 o   r.

(2) Centripetal (Radial) acceleration : a c    v

It is also called centripetal acceleration of the particle at P.
 v It acts along the radius of the particle at P.
mg cos
mg
Concave bridge According to right hand rule since  and  are perpendicular to
Fig : 3.37
each other, therefore, the magnitude of centripetal acceleration is given by
  
| ac | |   |    sin90 o =    ( r)   2 r   2 / r
mv 2
Centripetal force = R  mg cos   Table 3.2 : Tangential and centripetal acceleration
r
Centripetal Tangential Net acceleration Type of motion
mv 2 acceleration acceleration
and reaction R  mg cos  
r ac = 0 at = 0 a=0 Uniform
 136 Motion in Two Dimension
translatory (1) Velocity at any point on vertical loop : If u is the initial velocity
motion imparted to body at lowest point then velocity of body at height h is given
ac = 0 at  0 a = at Accelerated by
translatory
motion v  u 2  2 gh  u 2  2 gl(1  cos  )
ac  0 at = 0 a = ac Uniform
[As h = l – l cos = l (1 – cos)]
circular motion
where l is the length of the string
ac  0 at  0 Non-uniform
a  ac2  at2 circular motion C

Note : Here a governs the magnitude of v while

t
l O B
D
 v
a c its direction of motion.
h P
(3) Force : In non-uniform circular motion the particle u
simultaneously possesses two forces A

mv 2 (2) Tension at any point onFig : 3.40 loop : Tension at general point
vertical
Centripetal force : Fc  ma c   mr 2 P, According to Newton’s second law of motion.
r
Net force towards centre = centripetal force
Tangential force : Ft  ma t C
mv 2
T  mg cos  
l
Net force : Fnet  ma = m ac2  at2
mv 2 l
or T  mg cos   D B
Note : In non-uniform circular motion work done l O

T
P
  m 2
by centripetal force will be zero since Fc  v T [u  gl(2  3 cos  )]  mg cos
l + mv2/r
 In non uniform circular motion work done by A mg
tangential force will not be zero since F  0 [As v  u 2  2 gl(1  cos  ) ]
t Fig : 3.41
 Rate of work done by net force in non-uniform
circular motion = rate of work done by tangential force Table 3.3 : Velocity and tension in a vertical loop
dW   Position Angle Velocity Tension
i.e. P   Ft .v
dt
0o mu 2
A u  mg
Equations of Circular Motion l

90o mu 2
For accelerated motion For retarded motion B u 2  2 gl  2mg
l
2  1   t 2  1   t
180o mu 2
1 1 C u 2  4 gl  5 mg
  1t   t 2   1t   t2 l
2 2
 22   12  2   22   12  2  270o mu 2
D u 2  2 gl  2mg
l
 
n  1  (2n  1) n  1  (2n  1) It is clear from the table that : TA  TB  TC and T = T
2 2 B D

TA  TB  3mg,
Where
TA  TC  6mg
 = Initial angular velocity of particle
1

 = Final angular velocity of particle and TB  TC  3mg

2

 = Angular acceleration of particle Table 3.4 : Various conditions for vertical motion
 = Angle covered by the particle in time t Velocity at lowest Condition
 = Angle covered by the particle in n second
n
th
point
Motion in vertical circle Tension in the string will not be zero at any of the
u A  5 gl
This is an example of non-uniform circular motion. In this motion point and body will continue the circular motion.
body is under the influence of gravity of earth. When body moves from Tension at highest point C will be zero and body will
u A  5gl ,
lowest point to highest point. Its speed decrease and becomes minimum at just complete the circle.
highest point. Total mechanical energy of the body remains conserved and
Particle will not follow circular motion. Tension in
KE converts into PE and vice versa. 2 gl  u A  5 gl ,
string become zero somewhere between points B and
C whereas velocity remain positive. Particle leaves
circular path and follow parabolic trajectory.
 Motion in Two Dimension 137

u A  2 gl
Both velocity and tension in the string becomes zero at u 2  gl
B and particle will oscillate along semi-circular path. Height at which the tension vanishes is h 
3g
velocity of particle becomes zero between A and B but (3) Critical condition for vertical looping : If the tension at C is zero,
u A  2 gl
tension will not be zero and the particle will oscillate then body will just complete revolution in the vertical circle. This state of
about the point A.
body is known as critical state. The speed of body in critical state is called
as critical speed.
Note : K.E. of a body moving in horizontal circle is
mu 2
same throughout the path but the K.E. of the body moving in vertical circle From the above table 3.3 T = C
 5 mg  0
is different at different places. l
 If body of mass m is tied to a string of length l and is  u  5 gl
projected with a horizontal velocity u then : It means to complete the vertical circle the body must be projected
u2
Height at which the velocity vanishes is h  with minimum velocity of 5 gl at the lowest point.
2g
Table 3.5 : Different variables in vertical loop
Quantity Point A Point B Point C Point D Point P
Linear velocity (v)
5 gl 3 gl gl 3 gl gl (3  2 cos )

Angular velocity () 5g 3g g 3g g

(3  2 cos )
l l l l l
Tension in String (T) 6 mg 3 mg 0 3 mg 3mg (1  cos )
Kinetic Energy (KE) 5 3 1 3 mu 2
mgl mgl mgl mgl  5 mg  0
2 2 2 2 l
Potential Energy (PE) 0 mgl 2 mgl mgl mgl (1  cos )
Total Energy (TE) 5 5 5 5 5
mgl mgl mgl mgl mgl
2 2 2 2 2

(4) Motion of a block on frictionless hemisphere : A small block of mass m 2

slides down from the top of a frictionless hemisphere of radius r. The component i.e. the block lose contact at the height of r from the ground.
3
of the force of gravity (mg cos) provides required centripetal force but at point B
h 2
it's circular motion ceases and the block lose contact with the surface of the sphere. and angle from the vertical can be given by cos  
r 3
2
A    cos 1 .
B (r – h ) 3

 h r Conical Pendulum

This is the example of uniform circular motion in horizontal plane.
mg
For point B, by equating theFigforces, A bob of mass m attached to a light and in-extensible string rotates
: 3.42
in a horizontal circle of radius r with constant angular speed  about the
mv 2 vertical. The string makes angle  with vertical and appears tracing the
mg cos   …(i)
r surface of a cone. So this arrangement is called conical pendulum.
For point A and B, by law of conservation of energy The force acting on the bob are tension and weight of the bob.
Total energy at point A = Total energy at point B
mv 2
K.E. + P.E. = K.E. + P.E.
( A) ( A) ( B) ( B)
From the figure T sin  ….(i)
r
1
0 + mgr = mv 2  mgh  v  2 g(r  h) …(ii) and T cos   mg ….(ii)
2
S
and from the given figure h  r cos  …(iii)
By substituting the value of v and h from eq (ii) and (iii) in eq (i)
n n


 2 g (r  h)  
l
h m 2 2 h
mg    h  2 (r  h)  h  r
r r 3

O r P

Fig : 3.43
 138 Motion in Two Dimension

(f) Change in the direction of motion  

2
 v2  (ii) On return to the ground, that is in going from O to G, the following
(1) Tension in the string : T  mg 1   
changes take place
 rg 
(a) Change in speed = zero
mg mgl h l2  r2 (b) Change in velocity = 2 u sin
T  [As cos    ]
cos  l r
2 2 l l
(c) Change in momentum = 2 mu sin
S
(d) Change in kinetic energy = zero
 (e) Change in potential energy = zero
T
T cos (f) Change in the direction of motion = 2
  (i) At highest point, the horizontal component of velocity is v =u cos x

T sin P mv2/r  and vertical component of velocity v is zero.

O y

(ii) At highest point, linear momentum of a particle

mg 2
Fig : 3.44
(2) Angle of string from the vertical : tan  
v m v = mu cos.
x

rg
1
(iii) Kinetic energy of the particle at the highest point = mv x2
(3) Linear velocity of the bob : v  gr tan  2
1
(4) Angular velocity of the bob :  mu 2 cos 2  .
2


g
tan  
g

g  At highest point, acceleration due to gravity acting vertically
r h l cos  downward makes an angle of 90° with the horizontal component of the
(5) Time period of revolution : velocity of the projectile.
 At the highest point, momentum of the projectile thrown at an
l cos  h
TP  2  2 angle  with horizontal is p cos and K.E. = (K.E.) cos . 2

g g i

 In projectile motion, horizontal component ucos of velocity u

l2  r2 r remains constant throughout, whereas vertical component usin changes
 2  2
g g tan  and becomes zero at the highest point.
 The trajectory of a projectile is parabolic.
 For a projectile, time of flight and maximum height depend on the
vertical component of the velocity of projection.
 The range of the projectile is maximum for the angle of projection
 Consider a projectile of mass m thrown with velocity u making   45 .
angle  with the horizontal. It is projected from the point O and
returns to the ground at G. Also M is the highest point attained by it.  The maximum range of the projectile is :
(See figure). u2
R max 
g
Y
 When the range is maximum, the height attained by the projectile
M is :
P (X,Y)
u u2 R
H  max
H 4g 4
 G
X
O  When the range of the projectile is maximum, the time of flight is :
R
(i) In going from O to M, following changes take place –
2u
(a) Change in velocity  u sin T  2t 
g
(b) Change in speed  u(1  cos )  2u cos 2 ( /2)
 The height attained by a projectile is maximum, when   90 .
(c) Change in momentum  mu sin
u2
(d) Change (loss) in kinetic energy  1 / 2 mu sin  2 2 H max 
2g
(e) Change (gain) in potential energy  1 / 2 mu 2 sin2  It is twice that of height attained, when the range is maximum.
 Motion in Two Dimension 139
the direction of rotation, then the outstretched thumb gives the direction
 The time of flight of the projectile is also largest for   90 .   
of  ,  and 
2u
Tmax    
g   ,  and  are called pseudo vectors or axial vectors.
 The trajectory of the projectile is a symmetric parabola only when  For circular motion we have –
g is constant through out the motion and  is not equal to 0°, 90° or    
(i) r  v (ii) r antiparallel to ac
180°.    
(iii) ac  v (iv) ac  at
 If velocity of projection is made n times, the maximum height       
attained and the range become n times and the time of flight becomes n
2
(v)  , ,  are perpendicular to r , ac , at , v
times the initial value.    
(vi) r , ac , at and v lie in the same plane
 If the force acting on a particle is always perpendicular to the P

velocity of the particle, then the path of the particle is a circle. The
centripetal force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.
 If circular motion of the object is uniform, the object will possess
only centripetal acceleration.
 If circular motion of the object is non-uniform, the object will
possess both centripetal and transverse acceleration.
 When the particle moves along the circular path with constant
speed, the angular velocity is also constant. But linear velocity,
momentum as well as centripetal acceleration change in direction,
although their magnitude remains unchanged.
 For circular motion of rigid bodies with uniform speed, the angular
speed is same for all particles, but linear speed varies directly as the
radius of the circular path described by the particle (v  r) .
 When a body rotates, all its particles describe circular paths about
a line, called axis of rotation.
 The centre of the circle describe by the different particles of the
rotating body lie on the axis of rotation.
 Centripetal force F = ma , m  2r where m = mass of the body.
c c

 Centripetal force is always directed towards the centre of the

circular path.
 When a body rotates with uniform velocity, its different particles
have centripetal acceleration directly proportional to the radius
(ac  r) .

 There can be no circular motion without centripetal force.

 Centripetal force can be mechanical, electrical or magnetic force.
 Planets go round the earth in circular orbits due to the centripetal
force provided by gravitational force of the sun.
 Gravitational pull of earth provides centripetal force for the orbital
motion of the moon and artificial satellites.
 Centripetal force cannot change the kinetic energy of the body.
 In uniform circular motion the magnitude of the centripetal
acceleration remains constant whereas its direction changes continuously
but always directed towards the centre.
 A pseudo force, that is equal and opposite to the centripetal force
is called centrifugal force.
  
 The  ,  and  are directed along the axis of the circular path.
Their sense of direction is given by the right hand fist rule as follows : ‘If
we catch axis of rotation in right hand fist such that the fingers point in
 Newton's Laws of motion 177

Chapter

4
Newton's Laws of Motion
Point Mass (7) If two objects of different masses have same momentum, the
lighter body possesses greater velocity.
(1) An object can be considered as a point object if during motion in
v1 m 2
a given time, it covers distance much greater than its own size. p  m1v1  m 2v 2 = constant  
v 2 m1
(2) Object with zero dimension considered as a point mass.
(3) Point mass is a mathematical concept to simplify the problems. 1
i.e. v 
m
Inertia [As p is constant]
(1) Inherent property of all the bodies by virtue of which they (8) For a given body p  v
cannot change their state of rest or uniform motion along a straight line by
their own is called inertia. (9) For different bodies moving with same velocities p  m
(2) Inertia is not a physical quantity, it is only a property of the p p
body which depends on mass of the body. m = constant v = constant
(3) Inertia has no units and no dimensions
(4) Two bodies of equal mass, one in motion and another is at rest,
possess same inertia because it is a factor of mass only and does not depend
upon the velocity.
Linear Momentum Fig : 4.2 v Fig : 4.3 m
(1) Linear momentum of a body is the quantity of motion contained
in the body. Newton’s First Law
(2) It is measured in terms of the force required to stop the body in A body continue to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion along
unit time. a straight line, unless it is acted upon by some external force to change the
state.
(3) It is also measured as the product of the mass of the body and
its velocity i.e., Momentum = mass × velocity. (1) If no net force acts on a body, then the velocity of the body
cannot change i.e. the body cannot accelerate.
If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v then its linear (2) Newton’s first law defines inertia and is rightly called the law of
inertia. Inertia are of three types :
momentum p is given by p  m v
Inertia of rest, Inertia of motion and Inertia of direction.
(4) It is a vector quantity and it’s direction is the same as the (3) Inertia of rest : It is the inability of a body to change by itself, its
direction of velocity of the body. state of rest. This means a body at rest remains at rest and cannot start
(5) Units : kg-m/sec [S.I.], g-cm/sec [C.G.S.] moving by its own.
Example : (i) A person who is standing freely in bus, thrown
(6) Dimension : [MLT 1 ]
backward, when bus starts suddenly.
When a bus suddenly starts, the force responsible for bringing bus
v
in motion is also transmitted to lower part of body, so this part of the body

p = constant

m
Fig : 4.1
 178 Newton's Laws of Motion
comes in motion along with the bus. While the upper half of body (say (5) Inertia of direction : It is the inability of a body to change by
above the waist) receives no force to overcome inertia of rest and so it stays itself it's direction of motion.
in its original position. Thus there is a relative displacement between the Example : (i) When a stone tied to one end of a string is whirled
two parts of the body and it appears as if the upper part of the body has and the string breaks suddenly, the stone flies off along the tangent to the
been thrown backward. circle. This is because the pull in the string was forcing the stone to move
Note :  (i) If the motion of the bus is slow, the inertia of in a circle. As soon as the string breaks, the pull vanishes. The stone in a
bid to move along the straight line flies off tangentially.
motion will be transmitted to the body of the person uniformly and so the
(ii) The rotating wheel of any vehicle throw out mud, if any,
entire body of the person will come in motion with the bus and the person
tangentially, due to directional inertia.
will not experience any jerk.
(ii) When a horse starts suddenly, the rider tends to fall backward (iii) When a car goes round a curve suddenly, the person sitting
on account of inertia of rest of upper part of the body as explained above. inside is thrown outwards.
(iii) A bullet fired on a window pane makes a clean hole through it, Newton’s Second Law
while a ball breaks the whole window. The bullet has a speed much greater
than the ball. So its time of contact with glass is small. So in case of bullet (1) The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly
the motion is transmitted only to a small portion of the glass in that small proportional to the external force applied on the body and this change
time. Hence a clear hole is created in the glass window, while in case of ball, takes place always in the direction of the applied force.
the time and the area of contact is large. During this time the motion is 
(2) If a body of mass m, moves with velocity v then its linear
transmitted to the entire window, thus creating the cracks in the entire 
 
window. momentum can be given by p  m v and if force F is applied on a body,
then
 d p dp

F FK
dt dt
 dp 
or F  (K = 1 in C.G.S. and S.I. units)
dt
 d 
Cracks by the ball Hole by the bullet  dv 
Fig : 4.4
or F  (m v )  m  ma
(iv) In the arrangement shown in the figure : dt dt
(a) If the string B is pulled with a sudden jerk then it will experience 
dv
tension while due to inertia of rest of mass M this force (As a   acceleration produced in the body)
dt
will not be transmitted to the string A and so the string
A 
B will break. 
 F  ma
(b) If the string B is pulled steadily the force M
applied to it will be transmitted from string B to A Force = mass  acceleration
through the mass M and as tension in A will be greater B Force
than in B by Mg (weight of mass M), the string A will
break. (1) Force is an external effect in the form of a push or pull which
(v) If we place a coin on smooth piece of card Fig : 4.5 (i) Produces or tries to produce motion in a body at rest.
board covering a glass and strike the card board piece (ii) Stops or tries to stop a moving body.
suddenly with a finger. The cardboard slips away and the coin falls into the
(iii) Changes or tries to change the direction of motion of the body.
glass due to inertia of rest.
(vi) The dust particles in a carpet falls off when it is beaten with a Table 4.1 : Various condition of force application
stick. This is because the beating sets the carpet in motion whereas the dust
F
particles tend to remain at rest and hence separate.
Body remains at rest. Here force is
(4) Inertia of motion : It is the inability of a body to change by itself u=0 v=0 trying to change the state of rest.
its state of uniform motion i.e., a body in uniform motion can neither
accelerate nor retard by its own.
Example : (i) When a bus or train stops suddenly, a passenger sitting F
inside tends to fall forward. This is because the lower part of his body Body starts moving. Here force
u=0 changes the state of rest.
comes to rest with the bus or train but the upper part tends to continue its v>0
motion due to inertia of motion.
(ii) A person jumping out of a moving train may fall forward.
In a small interval of time, force
(iii) An athlete runs a certain distance before taking a long jump. F
increases the magnitude of speed and
This is because velocity acquired by running is added to velocity of the u0 v>u
direction of motion remains same.
athlete at the time of jump. Hence he can jump over a longer distance.
 Newton's Laws of motion 179

In a small interval of time, force (9) Out of so many natural forces, for distance 10 15 metre,
F u decreases the magnitude of speed and nuclear force is strongest while gravitational force weakest.
v<u direction of motion remains same. Fnuclear  Felectromagnetic  Fgravitational
v In uniform circular motion only (10) Ratio of electric force and gravitational force between two
F direction of velocity changes, speed
electron’s Fe / Fg  10 43  Fe  Fg
F remains constant. Force is always
perpendicular to velocity. (11) Constant force : If the direction and magnitude of a force is
v
constant. It is said to be a constant force.
In non-uniform circular motion,
v (12) Variable or dependent force :
elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic
motion force acts at an angle to the (i) Time dependent force : In case of impulse or motion of a charged
direction of motion. In all these particle in an alternating electric field force is time dependent.
F = mg motions. Both magnitude and (ii) Position dependent force : Gravitational force between two
direction of velocity changes.
Gm1m 2
bodies
r2
(2) Dimension : Force = mass  acceleration
q1 q 2
or Force between two charged particles  .
[F]  [M ][LT 2 ]  [MLT 2 ] 4 0 r 2
(3) Units : Absolute units : (i) Newton (S.I.) (ii) Dyne (C.G.S) (iii) Velocity dependent force : Viscous force (6rv)
Gravitational units : (i) Kilogram-force (M.K.S.) (ii) Gram-force
Force on charged particle in a magnetic field (qvB sin )
(C.G.S)
(13) Central force : If a position dependent force is directed towards
Newton : One Newton is that force which produces an
or away from a fixed point it is said to be central otherwise non-central.
acceleration of 1 m / s 2 in a body of mass 1 Kilogram.
Example : Motion of Earth around the Sun. Motion of electron in an
1 Newton  1kg m / s 2 atom. Scattering of -particles from a nucleus.
Electron
Dyne : One dyne is that force which produces an acceleration –
F +
of 1cm / s 2 in a body of mass 1 gram . F
Sun F -particle
+ +
 1 Dyne  1gm cm / sec 2 Nucleus Nucleus
Earth
Relation between absolute units of force 1 Newton  10 5 Dyne
Fig : 4.6
Kilogram-force : It is that force which produces an (14) Conservative or non conservative force : If under the action of a
acceleration of 9.8 m / s 2 in a body of mass 1 kg . force the work done in a round trip is zero or the work is path
independent, the force is said to be conservative otherwise non conservative.
 1 kg-f = 9.80 Newton
Example : Conservative force : Gravitational force, electric force,
Gram-force : It is that force which produces an acceleration elastic force.
of 980cm / s 2 in a body of mass 1 gm . Non conservative force : Frictional force, viscous force.
 1 gm-f = 980 Dyne (15) Common forces in mechanics :
  (i) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which earth attracts it.
(4) F  m a formula is valid only if force is changing the state of
It is also called the force of gravity or the gravitational force.
rest or motion and the mass of the body is constant and finite.
 (ii) Reaction or Normal force : When a body is placed on a rigid
 d  dv  dm
(5) If m is not constant F  (m v )  m v surface, the body experiences a force which is perpendicular to the surfaces
dt dt dt in contact. Then force is called ‘Normal force’ or ‘Reaction’.
(6) If force and acceleration have three component along x, y and z
axis, then R
R
 
F  Fxˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ and a  axˆi  ay ˆj  az kˆ

From above it is clear that Fx  ma x , Fy  ma y , Fz  ma z 

mg cos
(7) No force is required to move a body uniformly along a straight mg mg
 of taut string, rope or
(iii) Tension : The force exerted by the end
line with constant speed.
chain againstFigpulling
: 4.7 (applied) force is called the tension.
Fig : 4.8
The direction of
  tension is so as to pull the body.
F  ma  F  0 (As a  0 )
(8) When force is written without direction then positive force T=F
means repulsive while negative force means attractive.
Example : Positive force – Force between two similar charges
Fig : 4.9
Negative force – Force between two opposite charges (iv) Spring force : Every spring resists any attempt to change its
length. This resistive force increases with change in length. Spring force is
 180 Newton's Laws of Motion
given by F  Kx ; where x is the change in length and K is the spring (5) If F AB = force exerted on body A by body B (Action) and F BA =
constant (unit N/m).
force exerted on body B by body A (Reaction)

Then according to Newton’s third law of motion F AB   F BA

(6) Example : (i) A book lying on a table exerts a force on the table
which is equal to the weight of the book. This is the force of action.
F = – Kx
R

mg
x
Fig : 4.10Force
Equilibrium of Concurrent The table supports the book, by exerting an equal force on the book.
(1) If all the forces working on a body are acting on the same point, This is the force of reaction. Fig : 4.13
then they are said to be concurrent. As the system is at rest, net force on it is zero. Therefore force of
(2) A body, under the action of concurrent forces, is said to be in action and reaction must be equal and opposite.
equilibrium, when there is no change in the state of rest or of uniform (ii) Swimming is possible due to third law of motion.
motion along a straight line. (iii) When a gun is fired, the bullet moves forward (action). The gun
(3) The necessary condition for the equilibrium of a body under the recoils backward (reaction)
action of concurrent forces is that the vector sum of all the forces acting on (iv) Rebounding of rubber ball takes place due to third law of
the body must be zero. motion.

(4) Mathematically for equilibrium  Fnet  0 or  Fx  0 ;

 Fy  0 ; ,  Fz  0
(5) Three concurrent forces will be in equilibrium, if they can be
R sin 
represented completely by three sides of a triangle taken in order.
R
F2 C 
B R cos
(v) While walking a person Fig :presses
4.14 the ground in the backward
F1 F3
direction (action) by his feet. The ground pushes the person in forward
direction with an equal force (reaction). The component of reaction in
(6) Lami’s Theorem : For three
A concurrent forces in equilibrium horizontal direction makes the person move forward.
F1 F2 F3 Fig : 4.11 (vi) It is difficult to walk on sand or ice.
 
sin sin  sin (vii) Driving a nail into a wooden block without holding the block is
F1 difficult.
 F2
 Frame of Reference

(1) A frame in which an observer is situated and makes his
observations is known as his ‘Frame of reference’.
F3 (2) The reference frame is associated with a co-ordinate system and
a clock to measure the position and time of events happening in space. We
Fig : 4.12
Newton’s Third Law can describe all the physical quantities like position, velocity, acceleration
etc. of an object in this coordinate system.
To every action, there is always an equal (in magnitude) and
opposite (in direction) reaction. (3) Frame of reference are of two types : (i) Inertial frame of
reference (ii) Non-inertial frame of reference.
(1) When a body exerts a force on any other body, the second body
(i) Inertial frame of reference :
also exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
(a) A frame of reference which is at rest or which is moving with a
(2) Forces in nature always occurs in pairs. A single isolated force is uniform velocity along a straight line is called an inertial frame of reference.
not possible.
(b) In inertial frame of reference Newton’s laws of motion holds
(3) Any agent, applying a force also experiences a force of equal good.
magnitude but in opposite direction. The force applied by the agent is called (c) Inertial frame of reference are also called unaccelerated frame of
‘Action’ and the counter force experienced by it is called ‘Reaction’. reference or Newtonian or Galilean frame of reference.
(4) Action and reaction never act on the same body. If it were so, (d) Ideally no inertial frame exist in universe. For practical purpose a
the total force on a body would have always been zero i.e. the body will frame of reference may be considered as inertial if it’s acceleration is
always remain in equilibrium. negligible with respect to the acceleration of the object to be observed.
 Newton's Laws of motion 181
(e) To measure the acceleration of a falling apple, earth can be I   F dt  Fav . t  p  constant
considered as an inertial frame.
(f) To observe the motion of planets, earth can not be considered as So if time of contact t is increased, average force is decreased (or
an inertial frame but for this purpose the sun may be assumed to be an diluted) and vice-versa.
inertial frame. (i) In hitting or kicking a ball we decrease the time of contact so
Example : The lift at rest, lift moving (up or down) with constant that large force acts on the ball producing greater acceleration.
velocity, car moving with constant velocity on a straight road. (ii) In catching a ball a player by drawing his hands backwards
(ii) Non-inertial frame of reference increases the time of contact and so, lesser force acts on his hands and his
(a) Accelerated frame of references are called non-inertial frame of hands are saved from getting hurt.
reference.
(b) Newton’s laws of motion are not applicable in non-inertial frame
of reference.
Example : Car moving in uniform circular motion, lift which is
moving upward or downward with some acceleration, plane which is taking
off.
Impulse Fig : 4.17
(iii) In jumping on sand (or water) the time of contact is increased
(1) When a large force works on a body for very small time interval,
due to yielding of sand or water so force is decreased and we are not
it is called impulsive force.
injured. However if we jump on cemented floor the motion stops in a very
An impulsive force does not remain constant, but changes first from short interval of time resulting in a large force due to which we are
zero to maximum and then from maximum to zero. In such case we
seriously injured.
measure the total effect of force.
(2) Impulse of a force is a measure of total effect of force. (iv) An athlete is advised to come to stop slowly after finishing a fast
t race, so that time of stop increases and hence force experienced by him
(3) I  t 2 F dt . decreases.
1

(4) Impulse is a vector quantity and its direction is same as that of (v) China wares are wrapped in straw or paper before packing.
force.
Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum
(5) Dimension : [ MLT 1 ]
If no external force acts on a system (called isolated) of constant
(6) Units : Newton-second or Kg-m- s 1 (S.I.)
mass, the total momentum of the system remains constant with time.
1
Dyne-second or gm-cm- s
(C.G.S.)
dp
(7) Force-time graph : Impulse is equal to the area under F-t curve. (1) According to this law for a system of particles F 
If we plot a graph between force and time, the area under the curve dt
 
and time axis gives the value of impulse. In the absence of external force F  0 then p  constant
I  Area between curve and time axis
i.e., p  p 1  p 2  p 3  ....  constant.
1
  Base  Height   
or m1 v1  m 2 v 2  m 3 v 3  ....  constant
Force

2
F
1 This equation shows that in absence of external force for a closed
 Ft system the linear momentum of individual particles may change but their
2
t Time sum remains unchanged with time.
Fig : 4.15
(2) Law of conservation of linear momentum is independent of
(8) If Fav is the average magnitude of the force then frame of reference, though linear momentum depends on frame of
t t reference.
I   t 2 F dt  Fav  t 2 dt  Fav t
1 1
(3) Conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to Newton’s
(9) From Newton’s second law F third law of motion.
 dp For a system of two particles in absence of external force, by law of
F
dt Fav conservation of linear momentum.
t2 p2 Impulse
or  t1 F dt   p1 d p t p 1  p 2  constant.
 t1 t t2  
 I  p 2  p 1  p Fig : 4.16  m1v1  m 2v 2  constant.
i.e. The impulse of a force is equal to the change in momentum. Differentiating above with respect to time
This statement is known as Impulse momentum theorem.  
dv dv  
Examples : Hitting, kicking, catching, jumping, diving, collision etc. m1 1  m 2 2  0  m1a1  m 2 a2  0  F1  F 2  0
dt dt
In all these cases an impulse acts.
 F 2   F1
 182 Newton's Laws of Motion
i.e. for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction which is
Newton’s third law of motion.
(4) Practical applications of the law of conservation of linear
momentum
(i) When a man jumps out of a boat on the shore, the boat is Let m 0  initial mass of rocket,
pushed slightly away from the shore. m = mass of rocket at any instant ‘t’ (instantaneous mass)
(ii) A person left on a frictionless surface can get away from it by
m r  residual mass of empty container of the rocket
blowing air out of his mouth or by throwing some object in a direction
opposite to the direction in which he wants to move. u = velocity of exhaust gases,
(iii) Recoiling of a gun : For bullet and gun system, the force exerted v = velocity of rocket at any instant ‘t’ (instantaneous velocity)
by trigger will be internal so the momentum of the system remains
unaffected. dm
 rate of change of mass of rocket = rate of fuel consumption
dt

vG  = rate of ejection of the fuel.
vB
dm
(a) Thrust on the rocket : F  u  mg
dt
Fig : 4.18 Here negative sign indicates that direction of thrust is opposite to
Let m G  mass of gun, m B  mass of bullet,
the direction of escaping gases.
v G  velocity of gun, v B  velocity of bullet
dm
F  u (if effect of gravity is neglected)
Initial momentum of system = 0 dt
 
Final momentum of system  m GvG  m Bv B u dm
(b) Acceleration of the rocket : a g
By the law of conservation of linear momentum m dt
 
m Gv G  m Bv B  0 u dm
and if effect of gravity is neglected a 
m dt
 m 
So recoil velocity v G   B vB (c) Instantaneous velocity of the rocket :
mG
 m 
(a) Here negative sign indicates that the velocity of recoil v G is v  u log e  0   gt
 m 
opposite to the velocity of the bullet.
m 
1 and if effect of gravity is neglected v  u loge  0 
(b) v G  i.e. higher the mass of gun, lesser the velocity of  m 
mG
recoil of gun. m 
 2 .303u log10  0 
 m 
(c) While firing the gun must be held tightly to the shoulder, this
would save hurting the shoulder because in this condition the body of the m 
shooter and the gun behave as one body. Total mass become large and (d) Burnt out speed of the rocket : vb  v max  u loge  0 

 mr 
recoil velocity becomes too small.
The speed attained by the rocket when the complete fuel gets burnt is
1 called burnt out speed of the rocket. It is the maximum speed acquired by
vG 
mG  m man the rocket.

(iv) Rocket propulsion : The initial momentum of the rocket on its Free Body Diagram
launching pad is zero. When it is fired from the launching pad, the exhaust In this diagram the object of interest is isolated from its
gases rush downward at a high speed and to conserve momentum, the surroundings and the interactions between the object and the surroundings
rocket moves upwards. are represented in terms of forces.

v
Example :
T
a T
a
m
m1 m2

 

R1 T R2
T
m1a
u u m1 m2 a

Fig : 4.19 m2g cos

m1g sin  m1g cos
Free body diagram of
m2g sin
Free body diagram of
 Newton's Laws of motion 183

Apparent Weight of a Body in a Lift

When a body of mass m is placed on a weighing machine which is This acts on a weighing machine which offers a reaction R given by
placed in a lift, then actual weight of the body is mg. the reading of weighing machine. This reaction exerted by the surface of
R contact on the body is the apparent weight of the body.
Table 4.2 : Apparent weight in a lift
Condition Figure Velocity Acceleration Reaction Conclusion

LIFT

R
R – mg = 0 Apparent weight
Lift is at rest v=0 a=0
 R = mg = Actual weight
mg
Spring Balance

Fig : 4.21
mg
LIFT

R
Lift moving upward or v = constant R – mg = 0 Apparent weight
downward with a=0
constant velocity  R = mg = Actual weight
Spring Balance

mg
LIFT

Lift accelerating
R
a v = variable R – mg = ma Apparent weight
upward at the rate of a<g
'a’ R = m(g + a) > Actual weight
Spring Balance

mg
LIFT

Lift accelerating R
g v = variable R – mg = mg Apparent weight
upward at the rate of a=g
‘g’ R = 2mg = 2 Actual weight

Spring Balance

mg
LIFT

Lift accelerating R
a v = variable mg – R = ma Apparent weight < Actual
downward at the rate a<g
of ‘a’  R = m(g – a) weight

Spring Balance

mg
LIFT

Lift accelerating R
g v = variable mg – R = mg Apparent weight
downward at the rate a=g
of ‘g’ R=0 = Zero (weightlessness)
Spring Balance

mg
Lift accelerating v = variable mg – R = ma Apparent weight negative
LIFT a>g
downward at the rate R = mg – ma means the body will rise
R
a>g

Spring Balance

mg
 184 Newton's Laws of Motion
of a(>g) R = – ve from the floor of the lift
and stick to the ceiling of
the lift.
 Newton's Laws of motion 185

Acceleration of Block on Horizontal Smooth Surface Acceleration of Block on Smooth Inclined Plane
(1) When a pull is horizontal R (1) When inclined plane is at rest
R = mg a
Normal reaction R = mg cos
m
F Force along a inclined plane
and F = ma
F = mg sin ; ma = mg sin
 a = F/m mg a = g sin
Fig : 4.22 (2) When a inclined plane given a horizontal acceleration ‘b’
(2) When a pull is acting at an angle () to the horizontal (upward) Since the body lies in an accelerating frame, an inertial force (mb)
F sin acts on it in the opposite direction.
R + F sin  = mg R
F R
 R = mg – F sin m 
a
F cos 
mb
and F cos = ma
b
F cos  mg 
 a
mg cos +mb sin 
m Fig : 4.23  mg
(3) When a push is acting at an angle () to the horizontal Fig : 4.25
Normal reaction R = mg cos + mb sin
(downward)
F R and ma = mg sin  – mb cos 
R = mg + F sin a  a = g sin – b cos

m F cos
and F cos = ma Note :  The condition for the body to be at rest relative to the
F cos  mg inclined plane : a = g sin – b cos = 0
a
m F sin  b = g tan
Fig : 4.24
Motion of Blocks In Contact

Condition Free body diagram Equation Force and acceleration

a
F
F f F  f  m1a a
m1 m1  m 2
B
A
F m2 a
m2F
m1 f  m 2a f
f m1  m 2
m2
a
F
f f  m1a a
m1 m1  m 2
B
A
m2 F a
m1 F
m1 F  f  m 2a f
f F m1  m 2
m2
a
F
f1 F  f1  m1a a
F
m1 m1  m 2  m 3
C
A B
F m3 a (m 2  m 3 )F
m1 m2 f1  f2  m 2a f1 
f1 f2 m1  m 2  m 3
m2

m3 F
a f2  m 3 a f2 
m1  m 2  m 3
f2
m3
a
F
f1 f1  m1a a
m1 m1  m 2  m 3

a m1 F
C f2  f1  m 2a f1 
A B f1 f2 m1  m 2  m 3
m2
m3 F
m1 m2
a

f2 F
m3
 186 Newton's Laws of Motion

(m1  m 2 )F
F  f2  m 3 a f2 
m1  m 2  m 3

Motion of Blocks Connected by Mass Less String

Condition Free body diagram Equation Tension and acceleration

a
F
T T  m1a a
B m1 m1  m 2
A
T m2 F
m1 a m1 F
F  T  m 2a T
m1  m 2
T F
m2
a
F
F  T  m1a a
F
m1
T m1  m 2
B
A a m2F
F T m2 T  m 2a T
m1 T m1  m 2
m2
a
F
T1 T1  m1a a
m1 m1  m 2  m 3

a m1 F
C T2  T1  m 2a T1 
B T1 T2
m1  m 2  m 3
A m2
T1 T2 m3 F
m1 m2
(m1  m 2 )F
a F  T2  m 3 a T2 
m1  m 2  m 3
T2 F
m3
a F
F  T1  m1a a
F
m1
T1 m1  m 2  m 3

a (m 2  m 3 )F
C T1  T2  m 2a T1 
B T1 T2 m1  m 2  m 3
A m2
F T1 T2 m3
m1 m2
m3 F
a T2  m 3 a T2 
m1  m 2  m 3
T2
m3
Motion of Connected Block Over A Pulley

Condition Free body diagram Equation Tension and acceleration

T1
2m 1 m 2
m1 a m1a  T1  m1 g T1  g
m1  m 2
m1g

T2 T1
P m2 a

m2g
T1
T1
a m1

A m2 a
T2
B
 Newton's Law of motion 187

4 m 1m 2
m 2 a  m 2 g  T1 T2  g
m1  m 2

 m  m1 
T2  2T1 a 2 g
 m1  m 2 

T1
2m1 [m 2  m 3 ]
m1 a m1a  T1  m1 g T1  g
m1  m 2  m 3
m1g
T3
p
T1 T1 2m 1 m 3
m2 a m 2 a  m 2 g  T2  T1 T2  g
a m1 T1 m1  m 2  m 3
A m2g + T2
m2
B T2

m3 a 4 m1 [m 2  m 3 ]
T2 m 3 a  m 3 g  T2 T3  g
C m1  m 2  m 3
m3 a

m3 g

[(m 2  m 3 )  m1 ]g
T3 T3  2T1 a
m1  m 2  m 3

T1 T1

Condition Free body diagram Equation Tension and acceleration

When pulley have a finite mass M
and radius R then tension in two T1 m1  m 2
a
segments of string are different m1 a m1a  m1 g  T1 M
m1  m 2 
m1g 2

 M
T2 m1  2m 2  
m2 a m 2a  T2  m 2 g T1   2
g
T2 M
m1  m 2 
M R m2g 2
T2

a m2 T1 
R

B a
m1
A
T2 T1
 188 Newton's Laws of Motion

Torque  (T1  T2 )R  I
a
(T1  T2 )R  I  M
R m 2  2m1  
T2   2
g
1 a
(T1  T2 )R  MR 2 M
2 R m1  m 2 
2
Ma
T1  T2 
2

a m1a
m2
A m1
T P T  m1a a g
m1 T m1  m 2

m2 a T m 1m 2
m 2a  m 2 g  T T g
B m2 a m1  m 2

m2g

T
a
m1  m  m1 sin 
m1g sin  m1a  T  m1 g sin a 2 g
P  m1  m 2 
T 
a T
m1
A m2 a
T m1m 2 (1  sin )
 B m 2a  m 2 g  T T g
a m1  m 2
m2

m2g
T
a
(m 2 sin   m1 sin )
m1 a g
T m1g sin  T  m1 g sin  m1a m1  m 2
a T a

m1 m2
A
B
 
T a m1m 2 (sin  sin  )
m 2a  m 2 g sin   T T g
m2 m1  m 2

m2g sin


Condition Free body diagram Equation Tension and acceleration

T
a
m1 m1 g sin
m1 g sin  T  m1a a
m1g sin  m1  m 2

P
T
a

m1
A
a
m2
 T
B m2
 Newton's Law of motion 189

T  m 2a 2 m 1m 2
T g
4 m1  m 2

a1
A
P a
m1
T T  m1a
m1 T 2m 2 g
T a1  a 
4 m1  m 2

d 2 (x 2 ) m2g
As m2 a2 a2 
dt 2 4 m1  m 2
2 B
1 d (x 1 )
 2T
2 dt 2 a 2m1m 2 g
m2  m 2 g  2T T
a1 2 4 m1  m 2
a2  m2 (a/2)
2
m2g
a1  acceleration of block A
a 2  acceleration of block B

T1
(m1  m 2 )
a m1 a m1a  m1 g  T1 a g
[m1  m 2  M ]
C
T2 T1 m1g
M

T1 T2
T2 m1 (2m 2  M )
m 2a  T2  m 2 g T1  g
a m2 m1 a m2 a [m1  m 2  M ]

B A m2g

m 2 (2m 2  M )
Ma T1  T2  Ma T2  g
[m1  m 2  M ]
T2 M T1

Table 4.3 : Motion of massive string

Condition Free body diagram Equation Tension and acceleration

a
F  (M  m)a F
a
M T1
M m

T1  Ma
F
T1  M
a T1  force applied by the string on the (M  m )
block
m
M F
m/2
M T2
 190 Newton's Laws of Motion

 m
T2   M   a
 2
(2 M  m )
T2  F
T2  Tension at mid point of the rope 2(M  m )

L m
F  ma a  F/m
T F F
x a

m = Mass of string m [(L – x)/L]

Lx 
T = Tension in string at a distance x T Lx  T  F
T m a  L 
from the end where the force is a  L 
applied

A (M/L)x B
F2 L F1 Mxa F1  F2
T F1 F1  T  a
L M
A x B a

F2 M F1  x x
M = Mass of uniform string F1  F2  Ma T  F1  1    F2  
a  L L
L = Length of string

T
M T '  F  Mg
A T'  (L  x )g  T
A L
L–x

L T B
B T T
x T
B
C
F x
M M M
Mass of segment BC    x T F xg T F xg
 L  C L L
F

Spring Balance and Physical Balance (2) Physical balance : In physical balance actually we compare the
mass of body in both the pans. Here we does not calculate the absolute
(1) Spring balance : When its upper end is fixed with rigid support weight of the body.
and body of mass m hung from its lower end. Spring is stretched and the
weight of the body can be measured by the reading a b
of spring balance R  W  mg A B
O
The mechanism of weighing machine is
same as that of spring balance. R

Effect of frame of reference : In inertial

frame of reference the reading of spring balance X Fig : 4.27 Y
shows the actual weight of the body but in non- m Here X and Y are the mass of the empty pan.
inertial frame of reference reading of spring balance
Fig : 4.26 (i) Perfect physical balance :
increases or decreases in accordance with the
direction of acceleration Weight of the pan should be equal i.e. X = Y
and the needle must in middle of the beam i.e. a = b.
 Newton's Law of motion 191
Effect of frame of reference : If the physical balance is perfect then According to Newton, time and space are absolute. The velocity of
there will be no effect of frame of reference (either inertial or non-inertial) observer has no effect on it. But, according to special theory of relativity
on the measurement. It is always errorless. Newton’s laws are true, as long as we are dealing with velocities which are
small compare to velocity of light. Hence the time and space measured by two
a b observers in relative motion are not same. Some conclusions drawn by the
A B special theory of relativity about mass, time and distance which are as follows :
O (1) Let the length of a rod at rest with respect to an observer is
L0 . If the rod moves with velocity v w.r.t. observer and its length is L, then
Y L  L0 1  v 2 / c 2
X
(ii) False balance : When Fig
the: masses
4.28 of the pan are not equal then where, c is the velocity of light.
balance shows the error in measurement. False balance may be of two types Now, as v increases L decreases, hence the length will appear
(a) If the beam of physical balance is horizontal (when the pans are shrinking.
empty) but the arms are not equal (2) Let a clock reads T for an observer at rest. If the clock moves
0

with velocity v and clock reads T with respect to observer, then

X  Y and a  b
T0
For rotational equilibrium about point ‘O’ T 
v2
Xa  Yb …(i) 1 2
c
In this physical balance if a body of weight W is placed in pan X Hence, the clock in motion will appear slow.
then to balance it we have to put a weight W1 in pan Y. (3) Let the mass of a body is m 0 at rest with respect to an
For rotational equilibrium about point ‘O’ observer. Now, the body moves with velocity v with respect to observer and
(X  W )a  (Y  W1 )b …(ii) m0
its mass is m, then m 
Now if the pans are changed then to balance the body we have to v2
1 2
c
put a weight W2 in pan X.
m is called the rest mass.
For rotational equilibrium about point ‘O’
0

Hence, the mass increases with the increases of velocity.

(X  W2 )a  (Y  W )b …(iii)
Note :  If v  c, i.e., velocity of the body is very small w.r.t.
From (i), (ii) and (iii)
velocity of light, then m  m 0 . i.e., in the practice there will be no change
True weight W  W1 W2 in the mass.
(b) If the beam of physical balance is not horizontal (when the pans  If v is comparable to c, then m > m i.e., mass will increase.
0

are empty) and the arms are equal m0 m0

 If v  c, then m  or m   . Hence, the
i.e. X  Y and a  b v 2 0
In this physical balance if a body of weight W is placed in X Pan 1
v2
then to balance it.
mass becomes infinite, which is not possible, thus the speed cannot be equal
We have to put a weight W in Y Pan
1
to the velocity of light.
For equilibrium X  W  Y  W1 …(i)  The velocity of particles can be accelerated up to a certain limit.
Even in cyclotron the speed of charged particles cannot be increased beyond
a b a certain limit.
B
A
O

X
Fig : 4.29  Inertia is proportional to mass of the body.
Now if pans are changed then to balance the body we have to put a
 Force cause acceleration.
weight W2 in X Pan.
 In the absence of the force, a body moves along a straight line path.
For equilibrium X  W2  Y  W …(ii)
 A system or a body is said to be in equilibrium, when the net force
From (i) and (ii) acting on it is zero.
W1  W2   
True weight W   If a number of forces F1 , F2 , F3 , ......... act on the body, then it is
2    
in equilibrium when F1  F2  F3  .........  0
Modification of Newton’s Laws of motion
 192 Newton's Laws of Motion

 A body in equilibrium cannot change the direction of motion. 2l 1 2h

t 
 Four types of forces exist in nature. They are – gravitation (Fg ) , g sin sin g
electromagnetic (Fem ) , weak force (Fw ) and nuclear force (Fn ) . (iv) If the angle of inclination is changed keeping the height constant
(Fg ) : (Fw ) : (Fem ) : (Fn ) : : 1 : 10 : 10 : 10
25 36 38
then
t1 sin 2
 If a body moves along a curved path, then it is certainly acted upon 
by a force. t2 sin 1

 A single isolated force cannot exist.  For an isolated system (on which no external force acts), the total
momentum remains conserved (Law of conservation of momentum).
 Forces in nature always occur in pairs.
 Newton's first law of the motion defines the force.  The change in momentum of a body depends on the
magnitude and direction of the applied force and the period of
 Absolute units of force remains the same throughout the universe time over which it is applied i.e. it depends on its impulse.
while gravitational units of force varies from place to place as they
depend upon the value of ‘g’.  Guns recoil when fired, because of the law of conservation of
momentum. The positive momentum gained by the bullet is equal
 Newton's second law of motion gives the measure of force i.e. F =
to negative recoil momentum of the gun and so the total
ma.
momentum before and after the firing of the gun is zero.
 Force is a vector quantity.  m 
 Absolute units of force are dyne in CGS system and newton (N) in  Recoil velocity of the gun is V  v
M
SI.

 1 N = 10 dyne.5
 where m = mass of bullet, M = mass of gun and v = muzzle
velocity of bullet.
 Gravitational units of force are gf (or gwt) in CGS system and kgf
(or kgwt) in SI.  The rocket pushes itself forwards by pushing the jet of exhaust
gases backwards.
 1 gf = 980 dyne and 1 kgf = 9.8 N
dm
 The beam balance compares masses.  Upthrust on the rocket = u  .
dt
 Acceleration of a horse-cart system is
dm
HF where u = velocity of escaping gases relative to rocket and  rate
a dt
M m
of consumption of fuel.
where H = Horizontal component of reaction; F = force of friction; M =
mass of horse; m = mass of cart.  Initial thrust on rocket = m(g + a), where a is the acceleration of
the rocket.
 The weight of the body measured by the spring balance in a lift is
equal to the apparent weight. u dm
 Upward acceleration of rocket =  .
 Apparent weight of a freely falling body = ZERO, (state of m dt
weightlessness).  
 Impulse, I  F  t  change in momentum
 If the person climbs up along the rope with acceleration a, then
tension in the rope will be m(g+a)  Unit of impulse is N-s.
 If the person climbs down along the rope with acceleration, then  Action and reaction forces never act on the same body. They act on
tension in the rope will be m(g – a) different bodies. If they act on the same body, the resultant force on the
 When the person climbs up or down with uniform speed, tension body will be zero i.e., the body will be in equilibrium.
in the string will be mg.
 Action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in
 A body starting from rest moves along a smooth inclined plane of direction.
length l, height h and having angle of inclination  .
 Action and reaction forces act along the line joining the centres of
(i) Its acceleration down the plane is g sin  . two bodies.
(ii) Its velocity at the bottom of the inclined plane will be
 Newton's third law is applicable whether the bodies are at rest or
2 gh  2 gl sin . in motion.
(iii) Time taken to reach the bottom will be
 The non-inertial character of the earth is evident from the fact that
a falling object does not fall straight down but slightly deflects to the
 228 Friction

Chapter

5
Friction
Introduction (c) Unit : It has no unit.
(d) Value of  depends on material and nature of surfaces in
If we slide or try to slide a body over a surface, the motion is resisted
contact that means whether dry or wet ; rough or smooth polished or non-
by a bonding between the body and the surface. This resistance is represented
polished.
by a single force and is called friction force.
(e) Value of  does not depend upon apparent area of contact.
The force of friction is parallel to the surface and opposite to the
direction of intended motion. (3) Kinetic or dynamic friction : If the applied force is increased
further and sets the body in motion, the friction opposing the motion is
Types of Friction called kinetic friction.
(1) Static friction : The opposing force that comes into play when (i) Kinetic friction depends upon the normal reaction.
one body tends to move over the surface of another, but the actual motion Fk  R or Fk  k R where  k is called the coefficient of kinetic
has yet not started is called static friction.
friction
(i) If applied force is P and the
body remains at rest then static friction F = R (ii) Value of k depends upon the nature of surface in contact.
P. P
F
(iii) Kinetic friction is always lesser than limiting friction Fk  Fl
(ii) If a body is at rest and no
pulling force is acting on it, force of  k   s
friction on it is zero. mg i.e. coefficient of kinetic friction is always less than coefficient of
(iii) Static friction is a self-adjusting Fig. 5.1 static friction. Thus we require more force to start a motion than to
force because it changes itself in accordance with the applied force and is maintain it against friction. This is because once the motion starts actually ;
always equal to net external force. inertia of rest has been overcome. Also when motion has actually started,
(2) Limiting friction : If the applied force is increased, the force of irregularities of one surface have little time to get locked again into the
static friction also increases. If the applied force exceeds a certain irregularities of the other surface.
(maximum) value, the body starts moving. This maximum value of static (iv) Kinetic friction does not depend upon the velocity of the body.
friction upto which body does not move is called limiting friction. (v) Types of kinetic friction
(i) The magnitude of limiting friction between any two bodies in (a) Sliding friction : The opposing force that comes into play when
contact is directly proportional to the normal reaction between them. one body is actually sliding over the surface of the other body is called
sliding friction. e.g. A flat block is moving over a horizontal table.
Fl  R or Fl   s R
(b) Rolling friction : When objects such as a wheel (disc or ring),
(ii) Direction of the force of limiting friction is always opposite to sphere or a cylinder rolls over a surface, the force of friction that comes
the direction in which one body is at the verge of moving over the other into play is called rolling friction.
(iii) Coefficient of static friction : (a)  s is called coefficient of  Rolling friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R)
static friction and is defined as the ratio of force of limiting friction and and inversely proportional to the radius (r) of the rolling cylinder or wheel.
F
normal reaction  s  Frolling   r
R
R r
(b) Dimension : [M 0 L0 T 0 ]
 Friction 229

 r is called coefficient of rolling friction. It would have the dimensions ma   s mg ). If there had been no friction between body and vehicle,
of length and would be measured in metre. the body will not move along with the vehicle.
 Rolling friction is often quite small as compared to the sliding
friction. That is why heavy loads are transported by placing them on carts a
with wheels. smg ma

 In rolling the surfaces at contact do not rub each other.

 The velocity of point of contact with respect to the surface
remains zero all the times although the centre of the wheel moves forward.
Fig. 5.5
Graph Between Applied Force and Force of Friction From these examples it is clear that without friction motion cannot
(1) Part OA of the curve represents static friction (Fs ) . Its value be started, stopped or transferred from one body to the other.
increases linearly with the applied force
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction
(2) At point A the static friction is maximum. This represent
limiting friction (Fl ) . (1) Advantages of friction
A
(3) Beyond A, the force B C (i) Walking is possible due to friction.
Force of friction

of friction is seen to decrease

Fs (ii) Two body sticks together due to friction.
slightly. The portion BC of the
curve represents the kinetic Fl Fk
friction (Fk ) .
(4) As the portion BC O Applied force
of the curve is parallel to x-axis
therefore kinetic friction does Fig. 5.2
not change with the applied force, it remains constant, whatever be the
applied force.
Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7
Friction is a Cause of Motion (iii) Brake works on the basis of friction.
It is a general misconception that friction always opposes the motion. (iv) Writing is not possible without friction.
No doubt friction opposes the motion of a moving body but in many cases
it is also the cause of motion. For example : (v) The transfer of motion from one part of a machine to other part
(1) While moving, a person or vehicle pushes the ground backwards through belts is possible by friction.
(action) and the rough surface of ground reacts and exerts a forward force
due to friction which causes the motion. If there had been no friction there (2) Disadvantages of friction
will be slipping and no motion. (i) Friction always opposes the relative motion between any two
bodies in contact. Therefore extra energy has to be spent in over coming
friction. This reduces the efficiency of machine.
(ii) Friction causes wear and tear of the parts of machinery in
contact. Thus their lifetime reduces.
Friction
(iii) Frictional force result in the production of heat, which
(2) During cycling, the rear wheel moves by the force causes damage to the machinery.
communicated to itAction
by pedalling while front wheel moves by itself. So,
Fig. 5.3 Methods of Changing Friction
when pedalling a bicycle, the force exerted by rear wheel on ground
makes force of friction act on it in the forward direction (like We can reduce friction
walking). Front wheel moving by itself experience force of friction in
backward direction (like rolling of a ball). [However, if pedalling is (1) By polishing.
stopped both wheels move by themselves and so experience force of (2) By lubrication.
friction in backward direction]. (3) By proper selection of material.
(4) By streamlining the shape of the body.
(5) By using ball bearing.
Also we can increase friction by throwing some sand on slippery
ground. In the manufacturing of tyres, synthetic rubber is preferred
because its coefficient of friction with the road is larger.
While pedalling Pedalling is stoped
Angle of Friction
Fig. 5.4
(3) If a body is placed in a vehicle which is accelerating, the force Angle of friction may be defined as the angle which the resultant of
of friction is the cause of motion of the body along with the vehicle limiting friction and normal reaction makes with the normal reaction.
(i.e., the body will remain at rest in the accelerating vehicle until
S R

F P

mg
Fig. 5.8
 230 Friction
By definition angle  is called the angle of friction By resolving P in horizontal and vertical direction (as shown in
Fl figure) R
tan  
R P sin

Fl F P cos
 tan  =  s
[As we know  s ]
R

or   tan 1 ( L ) W
Fig. 5.11
Hence coefficient of static friction is equal to tangent of the angle of For the condition of equilibrium
friction.
F  P cos and R  W  P sin
Resultant Force Exerted by Surface on Block By substituting these value in F  R

In the above figure resultant force S  F 2  R 2 P cos   (W  P sin )

sin
S  (mg )2  (mg )2  P cos   (W  P sin ) [As   tan  ]
cos

S  mg  2  1 W sin
 P
cos (   )
when there is no friction (  0) S will be minimum
(2) Minimum pushing force P at an angle  from the horizontal
i.e. S = mg
P
Hence the range of S can be given by,

mg  S  mg  2  1

Angle of Repose By Resolving P in horizontal and vertical direction (as shown in the
figure) Fig. 5.12
Angle of repose is defined as the angle of the inclined plane with R
horizontal such that a body placed on it is just begins to slide.
By definition,  is called the angle of repose. F P cos

In limiting condition F  mg sin and R  mg cos

R P sin
F W
Fig. 5.13
For the condition of equilibrium
mg sin 
F  P cos and R  W  P sin

mg cos  By substituting these value in F  R
 mg
 P cos    (W  P sin )
F Fig. 5.9
So  tan  sin
R  P cos   (W  P sin ) [As   tan  ]
cos
F F
   s  tan   tan  [As we know   s  tan  ] W sin
R R  P
cos (   )
Thus the coefficient of limiting friction is equal to the tangent of
angle of repose. (3) Minimum pulling force P to move the body up on an inclined
As well as    i.e. angle of repose = angle of friction. plane P
Calculation of Required Force in Different Situation 

If W = weight of the body,  = angle of friction,

  tan   coefficient of friction
Then we can calculate required force for different situation in the 
following manner :
By Resolving P in the direction of the plane and perpendicular to the
Fig. 5.14
(1) Minimum pulling force P at an angle  from the horizontal plane (as shown in the figure)
P R + P sin
P cos


F + W sin

Fig. 5.10 
W cos
 W

Fig. 5.15
 Friction 231
For the condition of equilibrium
R  P sin  W cos 
 R  W cos   P sin and P cos  F  W sin
 F  W sin  P cos
For the condition of equilibrium By substituting these values in F  R and solving we get
R  P sin  W cos 
 sin(   ) 
P W 
 R  W cos   P sin and F  W sin  P cos  cos (   ) 
 F  P cos  W sin (6) Minimum force for motion along horizontal surface and its
direction P
By substituting these values in F  R and solving we get

W sin(   ) 
P
cos (   )
(4) Minimum force to move a body in downward direction along the surface
Fig. 5.20
of inclined plane Let the force P be applied at an angle  with the horizontal.
P By resolving P in horizontal and vertical direction (as shown in
figure)
 R + P sin

F P cos


Fig.the
By Resolving P in the direction of 5.16plane and perpendicular to the
mg
plane (as shown in the figure)
R + P sin Fig. 5.21
For vertical equilibrium
F
P cos R  P sin  mg
+
 R  mg  P sin …(i)
W sin
 and for horizontal motion
W cos
 W P cos  F

Fig. 5.17
i.e. P cos  R …(ii)
For the condition of equilibrium Substituting value of R from (i) in (ii)
R  P sin  W cos  P cos   (mg  P sin )
 R  W cos   P sin and F  P cos  W sin
 mg
By substituting these values in F  R and solving we get P …(iii)
cos    sin
W sin(   )
P For the force P to be minimum (cos   sin ) must be
cos (   ) maximum i.e.
(5) Minimum force to avoid sliding of a body down on an inclined d 2
plane [cos   sin ]  0 1
P d 

  sin   cos  0
 1
 tan   
Fig. 5.22
or   tan 1 ()  angle of friction

i.e. For minimum value of P its angle from the horizontal should be
equal to angle of friction
By Resolving P in the direction
Fig.of5.18
the plane and perpendicular to the

plane (as shown in the figure) As tan    so from the figure, sin 
1 2
R + P sin F + P cos
1
and cos  
1 2

W sin  W cos
By substituting these value in equation (iii)
 W

Fig. 5.19
 232 Friction

 mg  mg Work done = force  distance = F  s =  mg s

P 
1 2 1 2 It is clear that work done depends upon

1 2
1 2
R

mg P
 Pmin  F
1 2

Acceleration of a Block Against Friction s

mg
(1) Acceleration of a block on horizontal surface Fig. 5.27
(i) Weight of the body.
When body is moving under application of force P, then kinetic
friction opposes its motion. (ii) Material and nature of surface in contact.
Let a is the net acceleration of the body R (iii) Distance moved.
ma
From the figure Motion of Two Bodies one Resting on the Other
Fk P
ma  P  Fk When a body A of mass m is resting on a body B of mass M then
two conditions are possible
P  Fk
 a (1) A force F is applied to the upper body, (2) A force F is applied to
m mg the lower body
(2) Acceleration of a block sliding down over a rough inclined plane
Fig. 5.23
m A F
When angle of inclined plane is more than angle of repose, the body
placed on the inclined plane slides down with an acceleration a.
L
From the figure ma  mg sin  F R M B
F
ma
 ma  mg sin  R
Fig. 5.28
 ma  mg sin   mg cos We will discuss above two cases one by one in the following manner
 :
mg sin  mg cos
 Acceleration a  g [sin   cos  ]  mg (1) A force F is applied to the upper body, then following four
situations are possible
Note :  For frictionless inclined plane   0 Fig.
a  g sin .
5.24 (i) When there is no friction
(3) Retardation of a block sliding up over a rough inclined plane (a) The body A will move on body B with acceleration (F/m).
When angle of inclined plane is less than angle of repose, then for aA  F / m
the upward motion ma
R (b) The body B will remain at rest
ma  mg sin  F aB  0
ma  mg sin   mg cos (c) If L is the length of B as shown in figure, A will fall from B after
time t
mg sin  + F  mg cos
Retardation a  g [sin   cos ]  mg 2L 2mL  1 2 
t   As s  2 a t and a  F/m 
a F  
Note :  For frictionless inclined plane   0  a  g sin
Fig. 5.25
(ii) If friction is present between A and B only and applied force is less than
limiting friction (F < F)
l

Work done against friction (F = Applied force on the upper body, F = limiting friction between A and
l

(1) Work done over a rough inclined surface B, F = Kinetic friction between A and B)
k

If a body of mass m is moved up slowly on a rough inclined plane (a) The body A will not slide on body B till F  Fl i.e. F   s mg
through distance s, then (b) Combined system (m + M) will move together with common
Work done = force  distance F
acceleration a A  a B 
= ma  s = mg [sin +  cos ]s  mg s [sin   cos  ] M m
(iii) If friction is present between A and B only and applied force is greater
ma than limiting friction (F > F)
R l

In this condition the two bodies will move in the same direction ( i.e. of
applied force) but with different acceleration. Here force of kinetic friction
s  k mg will oppose the motion of A while cause the motion of B.

mg sin  + F  mg cos
 mg F  Fk  m a A Free body diagram of A

(2) Work done over a horizontalFig.

surface
5.26 maA

In the above expression if we put  = 0 then

A F

Fk
 Friction 233

F  Fk
(where F = Pseudo force on body A and F = limiting friction
l

i.e. aA  between body A and B)

m
(a) Both the body will move together with common acceleration
(F   k mg )
aA  F
m a
M m
Fk  M a B Free body diagram of B
(b) Pseudo force on the body A,
MaB
Fk mF
i.e. aB 
FK F   ma  and Fl   s mg
M mM
B
 k mg mF
 aB  (c) F   Fl    s mg  F   s (m  M ) g
M mM
So both bodies will move together with acceleration
Note :  As both the bodies are moving in the same direction.
a A  aB 
F
if F   s [m  M ] g
mM
Acceleration of body A relative to B will be
(iii) If friction is present between A and B only and F > F
MF  k mg (m  M ) l

a  a A  aB 
mM (where F =  mg = limiting friction between body A and B)
l s

So, A will fall from B after time Both the body will move with different acceleration. Here force of
2L 2 m ML kinetic friction k mg will oppose the motion of B while will cause the
t 
a MF  k mg (m  M ) motion of A.

(iv) If there is friction between B and floor

ma A   k mg Free body diagram of A
(where Fl    (M  m) g = limiting friction between B and floor, F k

= kinetic friction between A and B) i.e. aA  k g A maA

B will move only if Fk  Fl and then Fk  Fl  M aB Fk
MaB F  Fk  MaB Free body diagram of B
FK
MaB
B [F  k mg ]
i.e. aB  FK
Fl M F
Fig. 5.29 B
However if B does not move then static friction will work (not
limiting friction) between body B and the floor i.e. friction force = applied
force (= F ) not Fl .
k

Note :  As both the bodies are moving in the same direction

(2) A force F is applied to the lower body, then following four
situations are possible Acceleration of body A relative to B will be
(i) When there is no friction  F  k g(m  M ) 
(a) B will move with acceleration (F/M) while A will remain at rest a  a A  aB   
 M 
(relative to ground) as there is no pulling force on A.
Negative sign implies that relative to B, A will move backwards
F and will fall it after time
a B    and a A  0
M
2L 2 ML
(b) As relative to B, A will move backwards with acceleration (F/M) t 
a F  k g(m  M )
and so will fall from it in time t.
(iv) If there is friction between B and floor and F > F  : l

A m
(where F =  (m+M)g = limiting friction between body B and
l s

L F surface)
M B
The system will move only if F  Fl' ' then replacing F by F  Fl  .
The entire case (iii) will be valid.
Fig. 5.30
 t
2L

2 ML However if F  F1  the system will not move and friction between
a F B and floor will be F while between A and B is zero.
(ii) If friction is present between A and B only and F < F l
 234 Friction

Motion of an Insect in the Rough Bowl For m 2 T  m2 g …(i)

The insect crawl up the bowl, up to a certain height h only till the For m1 T  m1 g sin  F
component of its weight along the bowl is balanced by limiting frictional
force.  T  m1 g sin  R

r
O  T  m1 g sin  m1 g cos  …(ii)

Fl R From equation (i) and (ii) m 2  m1[sin   cos  ]
y

A this is the minimum value of m 2 to start the motion

mg sin h

mg cos
Note :  In the above condition Coefficient of friction
mg
Let m = mass of the insect, r =Fig. 5.31 of the bowl,  = coefficient of
radius  m2 
friction   tan  
 1
m cos  
for limiting condition at point A
R  mg cos  ......(i) and Fl  mg sin ......(ii) Maximum Length of Hung Chain
Dividing (ii) by (i) A uniform chain of length l is placed on the table in such a manner
that its l' part is hanging over the edge of table without sliding. Since the
F
tan   l   As Fl  R chain have uniform linear density therefore the ratio of mass and ratio of
R
length for any part of the chain will be equal.
r2  y 2 r m mass hanging from the table
  or y We know  2 
y 1  2 m1 mass lyingon the table
 For this case we can rewrite above expression in the following
    manner
1 1
So h  r  y  r 1  ,  h  r 1  
 1  2   1  2  length hanging from the table
     [As chain have uniform linear
length lyingon the table
Minimum Mass Hung from the String to Just ( l – l )
density]
Start the Motion l
 
(1) When a mass m placed on a rough horizontal plane Another mass
1 l  l l
m2 hung from the string connected by frictionless pulley, the tension l
by solving l 
(T) produced in string will try to start the motion of mass m1 . (  1)
Fig. 5.34
R Coefficient of Friction Between a Body and Wedge
T A body slides on a smooth wedge of angle  and its time of descent
Fl m1
is t.
T
m1g
S S

m2 Smooth wedge Rough wedge

At limiting condition T  Fl
 
 m 2 g  R  m 2Fig.  m1 g
g 5.32 m2g

 m 2  m1 this is the minimum value of m 2 to start the Fig. 5.35 Fig. 5.36
If the same wedge made rough then time taken by it to come down
motion. becomes n times more (i.e. nt)
The length of path in both the cases are same.
m2
Note :  In the above condition Coefficient of friction  
m1
1
For smooth wedge, S  u t  at2
2
(2) When a mass m placed on a rough inclined plane Another 1
S  (g sin ) t 2
1

mass m 2 hung from the string connected by frictionless pulley, the …(i)
2
tension (T) produced in string will try to start the motion of mass m 1 . [Asu  0 and a  g sin ]
1 2
T For rough wedge, S  u t  at
R 2
T 1
S  g (sin   cos  ) (nt)2 …(ii)
m1 2
m2
[Asu  0 and a  g (sin   cos  )]
m1g sin  + F  m1g cos m2g From equation (i) and (ii)
At limiting condition
m1g
Fig. 5.33
 Friction 235

1
(g sin ) t 2 =
1
g (sin   cos  ) (nt)2 P2
 FS  [Where P = momentum of block]
2 2 2m
 sin  (sin   cos  ) n 2 P2
 mg  S  [As F =  mg]
 1  2m
   tan  1  2 
 n  P2
 S 
Stopping of Block Due to Friction 2 m 2 g

(1) On horizontal road In the given condition P and  are same for both the blocks.
(i) Distance travelled before coming to rest : A block of mass m is 2
1 S m 
moving initially with velocity u on a rough surface and due to friction, it So, S  ;  1  2
comes to rest after covering a distance S. m2 S 2  m1 
S
v=0 Velocity at the Bottom of Rough Wedge
u
A body of mass m which is placed at the top of the wedge (of height
Fig. 5.37 h) starts moving downward on a rough inclined plane.
Retarding force F  ma  R  ma   mg Loss of energy due to friction = FL (Work against friction)
 a  g PE at point A = mgh u=0
From v 2  u 2  2aS  0  u 2  2  g S A
m
1 L
[As v  0, a  g] KE at point B = mu 2
2 h
u2 P2
 S or S  m B
2 g 2 m 2 g
By the law of conservation ofvenergy
[As momentum P = mu] Fig. 5.40
(ii) Time taken to come to rest 1
From equation v  u  a t  0  u   g t
i.e. mv 2  mgh  FL
2
[Asv  0, a   g]
2
u v (mgh  FL)
 t m
g
(2) On inclined road : When block starts with velocity u its kinetic Sticking of a Block With Accelerated Cart
energy will be converted into potential energy and some part of it goes When a cart moves with some acceleration toward right then a
against friction and after travelling distance S it comes to rest i.e. v = 0. pseudo force (ma) acts on block toward left.
We know that retardation a  g [sin   cos  ] This force (ma) is action force by a block on cart.
By substituting the value of v and a in the following equation a
F
v=0
ma m F M
S R m
CART
u
mg
v 2  u 2  2a S 
Fig. 5.41
Fig. 5.38 Now block will remain static w.r.t. cart. If friction force R  mg
 0  u 2  2 g [sin   cos  ] S
 ma  mg [As R  ma]
2
u
 S  a
g
2 g (sin   cos  ) 
Stopping of Two Blocks Due to Friction g
 amin 
When two masses compressed towards each other and suddenly 
released then energy acquired by each block will be dissipated against This is the minimum acceleration of the cart so that block does not
friction and finally block comes to rest fall.
i.e., F × S = E [Where F = Friction, S = Distance covered and the minimum force to hold the block together
by block, E = Initial kinetic energy of the block] Fmin  (M  m) amin
A B g
Fmin  (M  m )
m1 m1 m2 m2 
Sticking of a Person with the Wall of Rotor
S1 S2
Fig. 5.39
 236 Friction
A person with a mass m stands in contact against the wall of a (a) Less than W (b) Equal to W
cylindrical drum (rotor). The coefficient of friction between the wall and the (c) Greater than W (d) Data is insufficient
clothing is .
4. The maximum static frictional force is
If Rotor starts rotating about its axis, then person thrown away from (a) Equal to twice the area of surface in contact
the centre due to centrifugal force at a particular speed  , the person
(b) Independent of the area of surface in contact
stuck to the wall even the floor is removed, because friction force balances
its weight in this condition. (c) Equal to the area of surface in contact
From the figure. (d) None of the above
5. Maximum value of static friction is called
Friction force (F) = weight of person (mg)
[BHU 1995; RPET 2000]
 R = mg   Fc  mg F (a) Limiting friction (b) Rolling friction
[Here, F = centrifugal force] R
c
FC (c) Normal reaction (d) Coefficient of friction
 m min
2
r  mg mg 6. Pulling force making an angle  to the horizontal is applied on a
block of weight W placed on a horizontal table. If the angle of
g friction is  , then the magnitude of force required to move the
  min  Fig. 5.42
r body is equal to [EAMCET 1987]

W sin W cos 
(a) (b)
g tan(   ) cos(   )

W sin W tan 
(c) (d)
cos(   ) sin(   )
7. In the figure shown, a block of weight 10 N resting on a horizontal
 Force of friction is non-conservative force. surface. The coefficient of static friction between the block and the
 Force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that of the surface s  0.4 . A force of 3.5 N will keep the block in uniform
relative motion between the surfaces. motion, once it has been set in motion. A horizontal force of 3 N is
applied to the block, then the block will
 Rolling friction is much less than the sliding friction. This
knowledge was used by man to invent the wheels.
T
 The friction between two surfaces increases (rather than to
decrease), when the surfaces are made highly smooth.

 The atomic and molecular forces of attraction between the two (a) Move over the surface with constant velocity
surfaces at the point of contact give rise to friction between the surfaces. (b) Move having accelerated motion over the surface
(c) Not move
(d) First it will move with a constant velocity for some time and
then will have accelerated motion
8. Two masses A and B of 10 kg and 5 kg respectively are connected
with a string passing over a frictionless pulley fixed at the corner of
a table as shown. The coefficient of static friction of A with table is
Static and limiting friction 0.2. The minimum mass of C that may be placed on A to prevent it
from moving is
1. The coefficient of friction  and the angle of friction  are related
as [MP PET 1984]
C
(a) sin    (b) cos   
(a) 15 kg
A
(c) tan    (d) tan    (b) 10 kg
2. A force of 98 N is required to just start moving a body of mass 100
(c) 5 kg B
kg over ice. The coefficient of static friction is
(a) 0.6 (b) 0.4 (d) 12 kg
(c) 0.2 (d) 0.1 9. The limiting friction is
3. A block weighs W is held against a vertical wall by applying a (a) Always greater than the dynamic friction
horizontal force F. The minimum value of F needed to hold the
block is [MP PMT 1993] (b) Always less than the dynamic friction
 Electrostatics 253

Chapter

6
Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Introduction Thus work done by a force is equal to the scalar (or dot product) of
the force and the displacement of the body.
The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are frequently used in
If a number of forces F 1 , F 2 , F 3 ...... F n are acting on a body and
everyday language. A farmer clearing weeds in his field is said to be working
hard. A woman carrying water from a well to her house is said to be it shifts from position vector r 1 to position vector r then
2
working. In a drought affected region she may be required to carry it over
large distances. If she can do so, she is said to have a large stamina or W  (F 1  F 2  F 3  .... F n ).( r 2  r 1 )
energy. Energy is thus the capacity to do work. The term power is usually
associated with speed. In karate, a powerful punch is one delivered at great Nature of Work Done
speed. In physics we shall define these terms very precisely. We shall find Positive work
that there is a loose correlation between the physical definitions and the
Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to
physiological pictures these terms generate in our minds.
displacement
Direction of motion
Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces F
the body through a certain distance in the direction of force.

Work Done by a Constant Force s 0 o    90 o

Fig. 6.2
Let a constant force F be applied on the body such that it makes
The positive work signifies that the external force favours the
an angle  with the horizontal and body is displaced through a distance s motion of the body.
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work
By resolving force F into two components :
done by the (upward) lifting force is positive
(i) F cos in the direction of displacement of the body.
(ii) F sin in the perpendicular direction of displacement of the body. F man

F sin
F s

F cos
(ii) When a lawn roller is Fig. 6.3 by applying a force along the
pulled
handle at an acute angle, work done by the applied force is positive.
s
Since body is being displacedFig. the direction of F cos , therefore
in 6.1
work done by the force in displacing the body through a distance s is given F
by
W  (F cos ) s  Fs cos s
(iii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the external
or W  F.s (stretching) force is positive. Fig. 6.4

s
F

Fig. 6.5

s
F
 254 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

Fg

Maximum work : Wmax  F s

s
When cos   maximum  1 i.e.   0 o
It means force does maximum work when angle between force and
displacement is zero. (ii) When a body is made Fig. to 6.7
slide over a rough surface, the work
Negative work done by the frictional force is negative.
Negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to Minimum work : Wmin   F s
displacement i.e.

F Direction of motion F
+ +
s
 90 o    180 o
s Fig. 6.8

When cos  minimum  1 i.e   180 o

Fig. 6.6
The negative work signifies that the external force opposes the It means force does minimum [maximum negative] work when
motion of the body. angle between force and displacement is 180 . o

Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work
done by the (downward) force of gravity is negative. (iii) When a positive charge is moved towards another positive
charge. The work done by electrostatic force between them is negative.

Zero work

Under three condition, work done becomes zero W  Fs cos  0

(1) If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [ F  s ]

Example: (i) When a coolie travels on a horizontal platform with a load on his head, work
done against gravity by the coolie is zero. s

(ii) When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is
always zero. Fg
(iii) In case of motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field as force
[F  q(v  B)] is always perpendicular to motion, work done by this force is
always zero.

(2) If there is no displacement [s = 0]

Example: (i) When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by applying a force and it
F
does not move, then work done is zero.

(ii) A weight lifter does work in lifting the weight off the ground but does not work s 0
in holding it up.

(3) If there is no force acting on the body [F = 0]

Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work Done by a Variable Force The total work done in going from A to B as shown in the figure is
When the magnitude and direction of a force varies with position, W  A F. d s  A (F cos  )ds
B B

the work done by such a force for an infinitesimal displacement is given by

dW  F. d s In terms of rectangular component F  Fx ˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ
B
d s  dxˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ
ds
 W  A (Fx ˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ ).(dxˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ )
B

F
x y z
or W  x B Fx dx  y B Fy dy  z B Fz dz
A A A
A
Fig. 6.9
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 255

Dimension and Units of Work Work Done in Conservative and

Dimension : As work = Force  displacement Non-conservative Field
(1) In conservative field, work done by the force (line integral of the
[W]  [MLT 2 ]  [L]  [ML2 T 2 ]
Units : The units of work are of two types
force i.e.  F.d l ) is independent of the path followed between any two
points.
Absolute units Gravitational units W AB  W AB  W AB
I
Joule [S.I.]: Work done is said to be kg-m [S.I.]: 1 kg-m of work is Path I Path II Path III A B
one Joule, when 1 Newton force done when a force of 1kg-wt. II
displaces the body through 1 metre in displaces the body through 1m
or  F.d l   F.d l   F.d l
its own direction. in its own direction. Path I Path II Path III
III
From, W = F.s From W=Fs
Fig. 6.11
1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 m 1 kg-m = 1 kg-wt  1 m (2) In conservative field work done by the force (line integral of the force
i.e.  F.d l ) over a closed path/loop is zero.
= 9.81 N  1 metre
= 9.81 Joule WAB  WB A  0
 
erg [C.G.S.] : Work done is said to gm-cm [C.G.S.] : 1 gm-cm of or  F.d l  0 A B
be one erg when 1 dyne force work is done when a force of
displaces the body through 1 cm in 1gm-wt displaces the body
its own direction. through 1cm in its own
From W = F s direction. Fig. 6.12
Conservative force : The forces of these type of fields are known as
From W = F s
1 erg  1dyne  1cm conservative forces.
1 gm-cm = 1gm-wt  1cm. = 981 Example : Electrostatic forces, gravitational forces, elastic forces,
Relation between Joule and erg magnetic forces etc and all the central forces are conservative in nature.
dyne  1cm
1 Joule = 1 N  1 m = 981 erg
If a body of mass m lifted to height h from the ground level by
different path as shown in the figure
= 10 dyne  10 cm
5 2

B B B B
= 10 dyne  cm = 10 erg
7 7

Work Done Calculation by Force Displacement

Graph I II III IV
l h
Let a body, whose initial position is x i , is acted upon by a variable h3
 h2
force (whose magnitude is changing continuously) and consequently the h1
body acquires its final position x f .
A A A A
Force
Work done through different
Fig.paths
6.13

F WI  F. s  mg  h  mgh
h
WII  F. s  mg sin  l  mg sin   mgh
sin
O xi xf WIII  mgh1  0  mgh2  0  mgh3  0  mgh4
Displacement
x dx
 mg(h1  h2  h3  h4 )  mgh
Let F be the average value of Fig. 6.10 force within the interval dx
variable
from position x to (x + dx) i.e. for small displacement dx. The work done WIV   F. d s  mgh
will be the area of the shaded strip of width dx. The work done on the body
in displacing it from position x i to x f will be equal to the sum of areas It is clear that WI  WII  WIII  WIV  mgh .
of all the such strips Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, similar
amount of work (energy) is released from the system, it means
dW  F dx
WAB  mgh and WBA  mgh .
xf xf
W  xi
dW  
xi
F dx Hence the net work done against gravity over a round trip is zero.
WNet  WAB  WBA  mgh  (mgh)  0
x
W  x f (Area of stripof widthdx ) i.e. the gravitational force is conservative in nature.
i

W  Area under curve between x i and x f Non-conservative forces : A force is said to be non-conservative if
work done by or against the force in moving a body from one position to
i.e. Area under force-displacement curve with proper algebraic sign another, depends on the path followed between these two positions and for
represents work done by the force. complete cycle this work done can never be zero.
 256 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Example: Frictional force, Viscous force, Airdrag etc. 1 Joule = 10 7 erg
If a body is moved from position A to another position B on a rough
table, work done against frictional force shall depend on the length of the 1 eV = 1.6  10 19 Joule
path between A and B and not only on the position A and B. 1 kWh = 3.6  10 6 Joule
WAB  mgs 1 calorie = 4.18 Joule
Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, work has (4) Mass energy equivalence : Einstein’s special theory of relativity shows that
to be done against the frictional force, which opposes the motion. Hence the material particle itself is a form of energy.
net work done against the friction over a round trip is not zero. The relation between the mass of a particle m and its equivalent
energy is given as
R E  mc 2 where c = velocity of light in vacuum.
s
If m  1 amu  1.67  10 27 kg
F
then E  931 MeV  1.5  10 10 Joule .
WBA  mgs.
Fig. 6.14 If m  1kg then E  9  1016 Joule
WNet  WAB  WBA  mgs  mgs  2mgs  0.
Examples : (i) Annihilation of matter when an electron (e  ) and a
i.e. the friction is a non-conservative force.
positron (e  ) combine with each other, they annihilate or destroy each
Work Depends on Frame of Reference
other. The masses of electron and positron are converted into energy. This
With change of frame of reference (inertial), force does not change energy is released in the form of  -rays.
while displacement may change. So the work done by a force will be
e  e    
different in different frames.
Examples : (1) If a porter with a suitcase on his head moves up a Each  photon has energy = 0.51 MeV.
staircase, work done by the Here two  photons are emitted instead of one  photon to
upward lifting force relative conserve the linear momentum.
to him will be zero (as (ii) Pair production : This process is the reverse of annihilation of
displacement relative to
matter. In this case, a photon ( ) having energy equal to 1.02 MeV interacts
him is zero) while relative
to a person on the ground with a nucleus and give rise to electron (e  ) and positron (e  ) . Thus
will be mgh. energy is converted into matter.
(2) If a person is  (Photon)
pushing a box inside a h
moving train, the work e– + e+
done in the frame of train Fig. 6.15
Fig.nucleus
(iii) Nuclear bomb : When the 6.16 is split up due to mass defect
will F.s while in the (The difference in the mass of nucleons and the nucleus), energy is released
in the form of  -radiations and heat.
frame of earth will be F. (s  s 0 ) where s 0 is the displacement of the
(5) Various forms of energy
train relative to the ground.
(i) Mechanical energy (Kinetic and Potential)
Energy (ii) Chemical energy
The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for doing work. (iii) Electrical energy
(1) Since energy of a body is the total quantity of work done, (iv) Magnetic energy
therefore it is a scalar quantity. (v) Nuclear energy
(2) Dimension: [ML2T 2 ] it is same as that of work or torque. (vi) Sound energy
(3) Units : Joule [S.I.], erg [C.G.S.] (vii) Light energy
Practical units : electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour (KWh), Calories (viii) Heat energy
(cal) (6) Transformation of energy : Conversion of energy from one form
Relation between different units: to another is possible through various devices and processes.
Table : 6.1 Various devices for energy conversion from one form to another

Mechanical  electrical Light  Electrical Chemical  electrical

Light Cathode
N S Anode
– +

Dynamo Photoelectric Primary

A
cell cell
+ –
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 257

Chemical  heat Sound  Electrical Heat  electrical

Fe

Hot Cold

Coal G Cu
Burning Microphone Thermo-couple

Heat  Mechanical Electrical  Mechanical Electrical  Heat

Engine Motor Heater

Electrical  Sound Electrical  Chemical Electrical  Light

Anode Cathode
+ –

Speaker Voltameter Bulb

Electrolyte

Kinetic Energy v2
 v 2  0  2as s 
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion, is called 2a
kinetic energy. Since the displacement of the body is in the direction of the applied
Examples : (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic energy which is used force, then work done by the force is
to run the water mills.
v2
(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy. W  F  s  ma 
2a
(iii) Moving air (i.e. wind) possesses kinetic energy which is used to
1
run wind mills.  W  mv 2
2
(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy which is used to drive the
nails in wood. This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the body
1
(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic energy and due to this KE  W  mv 2
2
energy the bullet penetrates into a target.
v (2) Calculus method : Let a body is initially at rest and force F is
u=0 
F applied on the body to displace it through small displacement d s along its
own direction then small work done

s dW  F.d s  F ds
Fig. 6.17  dW  m a ds [As F = ma]
(1) Expression for kinetic energy :
Let m = mass of the body, dv  dv 
 dW  m ds  As a  dt 
u = Initial velocity of the body (= 0) dt  
F = Force acting on the body,
ds
a = Acceleration of the body,  dW  mdv .
dt
s = Distance travelled by the body,  dW  m v dv …(i)
v = Final velocity of the body
From v 2  u 2  2as
 258 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

 ds   W
1
m[v 2  u 2 ]
 As dt  v 
  2
Therefore work done on the body in order to increase its velocity Work done = change in kinetic energy
from zero to v is given by
W  E
v
v v v  1 2 This is work energy theorem, it states that work done by a force
W  0 mv dv  m 0 v dv  m    mv 2 acting on a body is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
 2  0 2
This theorem is valid for a system in presence of all types of forces
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the body (external or internal, conservative or non-conservative).
1 If kinetic energy of the body increases, work is positive i.e. body
KE  mv 2 .
2 moves in the direction of the force (or field) and if kinetic energy decreases,
work will be negative and object will move opposite to the force (or field).
1
In vector form KE  m (v . v ) Examples : (i) In case of vertical motion of body under gravity when
2 the body is projected up, force of gravity is opposite to motion and so
kinetic energy of the body decreases and when it falls down, force of gravity
As m and v .v are always positive, kinetic energy is always positive
is in the direction of motion so kinetic energy increases.
scalar i.e. kinetic energy can never be negative.
(ii) When a body moves on a rough horizontal surface, as force of
(3) Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference : The kinetic friction acts opposite to motion, kinetic energy will decrease and the
energy of a person of mass m, sitting in a train moving with speed v, is zero decrease in kinetic energy is equal to the work done against friction.
1 (6) Relation of kinetic energy with linear momentum: As we know
in the frame of train but mv 2 in the frame of the earth.
2
1 1 P
(4) Kinetic energy according to relativity : As we know E mv 2    v 2 [As P  mv ]
2 2 v 
1
E  mv 2 .
2 1
 E Pv
But this formula is valid only for (v << c) If v is comparable to c 2
(speed of light in free space = 3  10 8 m / s ) then according to Einstein P2  P
theory of relativity
or E   As v  m 
2m  
mc 2 p2
E  mc 2 So we can say that kinetic energy E 
1 1
mv 2  Pv 
1  (v / c )
2 2
2 2 2m

(5) Work-energy theorem: From equation (i) dW  mv dv . and Momentum P 

2E
 2mE
v
Work done on the body in order to increase its velocity from u to v
is given by From above relation it is clear that a body can not have kinetic energy
without having momentum and vice-versa.
v
v v v 2 
W  u mv dv  m u v dv  m  
 2  u
(7) Various graphs of kinetic energy

E E
E  P2
Ev 2

m = constant
m = constant

v v
E
E
E
1 P E
m m = constant
P = constant
m P

Stopping of Vehicle by Retarding Force (1) Stopping distance : Letm = Mass of vehicle,
v = Velocity, P = Momentum, E = Kinetic energy
If a vehicle moves with some initial velocity and due to some retarding
force it stops after covering some distance after some time. F = Stopping force, x = Stopping distance,
t = Stopping time
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 259

Then, in this process stopping force does work on the vehicle and 1 1
destroy the motion. mv 2 mv 2
2 2 v2
Stopping distance x   
By the work- energy theorem F ma 2 g
1 [As a  g]
W  K  mv 2
2
Initial velocity = v Final velocity = 0 mv mv v
Stopping time t   
F m g g
Potential Energy
x Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces. In the space
occupied by conservative forces every point is associated with certain energy
Fig. 6.18
 Stopping force (F)  Distance (x) = Kinetic energy (E) which is called the energy of position or potential energy. Potential energy
generally are of three types : Elastic potential energy, Electric potential energy
Kineticenergy (E) and Gravitational potential energy.
 Stopping distance (x) 
Stopping force (F) (1) Change in potential energy : Change in potential energy between
any two points is defined in the terms of the work done by the associated
mv 2 conservative force in displacing the particle between these two points
 x …(i)
2F without any change in kinetic energy.
(2) Stopping time : By the impulse-momentum theorem r
 
U 2  U1  r 2 F. dr  W …(i)
F  t  P  F  t  P 1

We can define a unique value of potential energy only by assigning

P
 t some arbitrary value to a fixed point called the reference point. Whenever
F and wherever possible, we take the reference point at infinity and assume
mv potential energy to be zero there, i.e. if we take r1   and r2  r then
or t  …(ii)
F from equation (i)
 
(3) Comparison of stopping distance and time for two vehicles : r
U    F. dr  W
Two vehicles of masses m and m are moving with velocities v and v
1 2 1 2

respectively. When they are stopped by the same retarding force (F). In case of conservative force (field) potential energy is equal to
x1 E m 1 v 12 negative of work done by conservative force in shifting the body from
The ratio of their stopping distances  1  reference position to given position.
x2 E2 m 2 v 22
This is why, in shifting a particle in a conservative field (say
t P m v gravitational or electric), if the particle moves opposite to the field, work
and the ratio of their stopping time 1  1  1 1 done by the field will be negative and so change in potential energy will be
t2 P2 m 2 v 2
positive i.e. potential energy will increase. When the particle moves in the
(i) If vehicles possess same velocities direction of field, work will be positive and change in potential energy will
v=v
1 2
be negative i.e. potential energy will decrease.
(2) Three dimensional formula for potential energy: For only
x1 m t1 m  
 1 ;  1 conservative fields F equals the negative gradient () of the potential
x2 m2 t2 m2
energy.
(ii) If vehicle possess same kinetic momentum   
P=P So F  U (  read as Del operator or Nabla operator and
1 2

  ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
x1 E  P 2   2m  m2  i j k)
 1   1   22  x y z
x 2 E2  2m1   P2  m
 1   U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ 
 F   i j k
t1 P
 1 1  x y z 
t2 P2 where,
(iii) If vehicle possess same kinetic energy U
 Partial derivative of U w.r.t. x (keeping y and z constant)
x1 E x
 1 1 U
x2 E2  Partial derivative of U w.r.t. y (keeping x and z constant)
y
t1 P 2m1 E1 m1 U
 1    Partial derivative of U w.r.t. z (keeping x and y constant)
t2 P2 2 m 2 E2 m2 z
(3) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted between the potential
Note :  If vehicle is stopped by friction then energy of a particle and its displacement from the centre of force is called
potential energy curve. U(x)

C D
A

B
x
O
Fig. 6.19
 260 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Figure shows a graph of potential energy function U(x) for one dU
dimensional motion.  negative , then F is in positive direction
dx
As we know that negative gradient of the potential energy gives
i.e. force is repulsive in nature.
force.
In graph this is represented in region AB.
dU
  F (iii) Zero force :
dx On increasing x, if U does not change,
(4) Nature of force dU
(i) Attractive force :  0 then F is zero
dx
On increasing x, if U increases,
i.e. no force works on the particle.
dU Point B, C and D represents the point of zero force or these points
 positive, then F is in negative direction
dx can be termed as position of equilibrium.
i.e. force is attractive in nature. (5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting on a particle is zero, it
In graph this is represented in region BC. is said to be in equilibrium.
(ii) Repulsive force : dU
On increasing x, if U decreases, For equilibrium  0 , but the equilibrium of particle can be of three
dx
types :

Stable Unstable Neutral

When a particle is displaced slightly from its When a particle is displaced slightly from its When a particle is slightly displaced from its
present position, then a force acting on it present position, then a force acting on it tries position then it does not experience any force acting
brings it back to the initial position, it is said to displace the particle further away from the on it and continues to be in equilibrium in the
to be in stable equilibrium position. equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable displaced position, it is said to be in neutral
equilibrium. equilibrium.
Potential energy is minimum. Potential energy is maximum. Potential energy is constant.
dU dU dU
F 0 F 0 F 0
dx dx dx

d 2U d 2U d 2U
 positive  negative 0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
dU dU dU
i.e. rate of change of is positive. i.e. rate of change of is negative. i.e. rate of change of is zero.
dx dx dx
Example : Example : Example :

A marble placed at the bottom of a A marble balanced on top of a hemispherical A marble placed on horizontal table.
hemispherical bowl. bowl.

Elastic Potential Energy

(1) Restoring force and spring constant : When a spring is stretched or
compressed from its normal position (x = 0) by a small distance x, then a i.e. F   x
restoring force is produced in the spring to bring it to the normal position.
According to Hooke’s law this restoring force is proportional to the or F   k x …(i)
displacement x and its direction is always opposite to the displacement.
where k is called spring constant.

m If x = 1, F = k (Numerically)
or k=F
x=0
F Hence spring constant is numerically equal to force required to
produce unit displacement (compression or extension) in the spring. If
m Fext required force is more, then spring is said to be more stiff and vice-versa.
+x Actually k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of the spring.
F
F
m Fext Dimension : As k 
x

–x
Fig. 6.20
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 261

[F] [MLT 2 ]  Elastic potential energy U 

1 2
 [k ]    [MT 2 ] kx
[x ] L 2

Units : S.I. unit Newton/metre, C.G.S unit Dyne/cm. 1  F

U Fx  As k  x 
 
Note : Dimension of force constant is similar to
2

surface tension. F2  F
(2) Expression for elastic potential energy : When a spring is
U  As x  k 
2k  
stretched or compressed from its normal position (x = 0), work has to be
done by external force against restoring force. F ext   F restoring  k x 1 2 1 F2
 Elastic potential energy U  kx  Fx 
2 2 2k
Let the spring is further stretched through the distance dx, then
work done
Note : If spring is stretched from initial position
dW  F ext . d x  Fext . dx cos 0  kx dx [As cos 0 = 1]
o o x 1 to final position x 2 then work done
= Increment in elastic potential energy
Therefore total work done to stretch the spring through a distance x 1
from its mean position is given by  k (x 22  x 12 )
2
x2
x
  Work done by the spring-force on the block in various
x x 1 2
W  0 dW  0 kx dx  k    kx situation are shown in the following table
 2  0 2

This work done is stored as the potential energy in the stretched

spring.
Table : 6.2 Work done for spring
Initial state of the spring Final state of the spring Initial position (x1) Final position (x2) Work done (W)

Natural Compressed 0 –x –1/2 kx2

Natural Elongated 0 x –1/2 kx2

Elongated Natural x 0 1/2 kx2

Compressed Natural –x 0 1/2 kx2

Elongated Compressed x –x 0

Compressed Elongated –x x 0

(3) Energy graph for a spring : If the mass attached with spring
performs simple harmonic motion about its mean position then its potential
energy at any position (x) can be given by

x=0
m

O This is maximum potential energy or the total energy of mass.

x=–a 1 2
m
 Total energy E  ka …(ii)
2

A [Because velocity of mass is zero at extreme position]

x=+a
1
m  K mv 2  0 ]
2

B Now kinetic energy at any position

1 2 Fig. 6.21 1 1
U kx …(i) K  E U  k a2  k x 2
2 2 2
So for the extreme position 1
K k (a 2  x 2 ) …(iii)
1 2 2
U ka [As x =  a for extreme]
2 From the above formula we can check that
Energy

E
U

K
A O B
x =– a x=0 x = +a
Position
 262 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

1 2 maximum but through out the complete motion, total energy remains
U max  ka [At extreme x =  a] constant as shown in the figure.
2
and U min  0 [At mean x = 0]

1 2
K max  ka [At mean x = 0]
2
and K min  0 [At extreme x =  a]

1 2 Work Done in Pulling the Chain Against Gravity

E ka  constant (at all positions)
2 A chain of length L and mass M is held on a frictionless table with
(1/n) of its length hanging over the edge.
th

It means kinetic energy and potential energy changes parabolically

w.r.t. position but total energy remain always constant irrespective to M
position of the mass Let m  mass per
L
Electrical Potential Energy unit length of the chain and y is the L/ n
length of the chain hanging over the
It is the energy associated with state of separation between charged edge. So the mass of the chain of
particles that interact via electric force. For two point charge q 1 and q 2 , length y will be ym and the force
separated by distance r. acting on it due to gravity will be
mgy. Fig. 6.25
1 q q
U . 1 2 The work done in pulling the
4 0 r dy length of the chain on the table.
While for a point charge q at a point in an electric field where the dW = F(– dy) [As y is decreasing]
potential is V i.e. dW = mgy (– dy)
U = qV So the work done in pulling the hanging portion on the table.

As charge can be positive or negative, electric potential energy can be

0
positive or negative. 0 y2  mg L2
Gravitational Potential Energy
W  
L/n
mgy dy  mg  
 2  L / n

2n 2

It is the usual form of potential energy and this is the energy MgL
 W [As m = M/L]
associated with the state of separation F12 F21 2n 2
between two bodies that interact via m1 m2
gravitational force.
Alternative method :
r If point mass m is pulled
For two particles of masses m and 1
through a height h then work
m separated by a distance r Fig. 6.23
2
done W = mgh
L/2n
G m1m 2 Similarly for a chain we
Gravitational potential energy U   Centre of mass
r can consider its centre of mass at
the middle point of the hanging
(1) If a body of mass m at height h relative to surface of earth then part i.e. at a height of L/(2n) from
the lower end and mass of the Fig. 6.26
mgh
Gravitational potential energy U  M
h hanging part of chain 
1 n
R
So work done to raise the centre of mass of the chain on the table is
Where R = radius of earth, g = acceleration due to gravity at the given by
surface of the earth.
M L
(2) If h << R then above formula reduces to U = mgh. W g [As W = mgh]
n 2n
(3) If V is the gravitational potential at a point, the potential energy
of a particle of mass m at that point will be MgL
or W 
2n 2
U = mV
(4) Energy height graph : When a body projected vertically upward
Velocity of Chain While Leaving the Table
from the ground level with some initial velocity then it possess kinetic
energy but its initial potential energy is zero.
( L/ n)
As the body moves upward its potential energy increases due to
increase in height but kinetic energy decreases (due to decrease in velocity). L
At maximum height its kinetic energy becomes zero and potential energy

Fig. 6.27
Energy

K
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 263

W W
Average power (Pav. )  
t t
 
Taking surface of table as a reference level (zero potential energy) dW F. d s  
Instantaneous power (Pinst.)   [As dW  F. ds ]
Potential energy of chain when 1/n length hanging from the edge
th
dt dt
 MgL   
  ds
Pinst  F. v [As v  ]
2n 2 dt
MgL i.e. power is equal to the scalar product of force with velocity.
Potential energy of chain when it leaves the table  
2 Important Points
Kinetic energy of chain = loss in potential energy
1 MgL MgL (1) Dimension : [P]  [F][v]  [MLT 2 ][LT 1 ]
 Mv 2  
2 2 2n 2
 [P]  [ML2 T 3 ]
1 MgL  1 
 Mv 2  1 2 
2 
(2) Units : Watt or Joule/sec [S.I.]
2 n 
Erg/sec [C.G.S.]
 1 
 Velocity of chain v gL 1  2  Practical units : Kilowatt (KW), Mega watt (MW) and Horse power
 n  (hp)
Law of Conservation of Energy Relations between different units :
(1) Law of conservation of energy 1 W att  1 Joule / sec  10 7 erg / sec
For a body or an isolated system by work-energy theorem we have
  1hp  746 W att
K 2  K 1   F. dr …(i)
1 MW  10 6 W att
But according to definition of potential energy in a conservative field
 
U 2  U1   F. dr …(ii) 1 KW  10 3 W att
So from equation (i) and (ii) we have 1
(3) If work done by the two bodies is same then power 
K 2  K1  (U 2  U1 ) time
or K 2  U 2  K1  U1 i.e. the body which perform the given work in lesser time possess
more power and vice-versa.
i.e. K + U = constant.
For an isolated system or body in presence of conservative forces, (4) As power = work/time, any unit of power multiplied by a unit of
the sum of kinetic and potential energies at any point remains constant time gives unit of work (or energy) and not power, i.e. Kilowatt-hour or
throughout the motion. It does not depend upon time. This is known as the watt-day are units of work or energy.
law of conservation of mechanical energy. J
1 KW h  10 3  (60  60 sec)  3.6  10 6 Joule
(K  U)  E  0 sec
[As E is constant in a conservative field] (5) The slope of work time curve gives the instantaneous power. As
 K  U  0 P = dW/dt = tan
i.e. if the kinetic energy of the body increases its potential energy will
Work
decrease by an equal amount and vice-versa.
(2) Law of conservation of total energy : If some non-conservative
force like friction is also acting on the particle, the mechanical energy is no 
more constant. It changes by the amount equal to work done by the
frictional force.
(K  U)  E  W f Time
Fig. 6.28 dW
[where W f is the work done against friction] (6) Area under power-time curve gives the work done as P 
dt
The lost energy is transformed into heat and the heat energy developed is
exactly equal to loss in mechanical energy.
We can, therefore, write E + Q = 0
 W 
 P dt
[where Q is the heat produced]  W = Area under P-t curve
This shows that if the forces are conservative and non-conservative Position and Velocity of an Automobile w.r.t Time
both, it is not the mechanical energy which is conserved, but it is the total An automobile of mass m accelerates, starting from rest, while the
energy, may be heat, light, sound or mechanical etc., which is conserved. engine supplies constant power P, its position and velocity changes w.r.t
In other words : ‚Energy may be transformed from one kind to time.
another but it cannot be created or destroyed. The total energy in an
(1) Velocity : As Fv = P = constant
isolated system remain constant". This is the law of conservation of energy.
dv  mdv 
Power i.e. m v  P  As F  dt 
dt  
Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the body can do the
work.
 264 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
contact while in collision of alpha particle by a nucleus (i.e. Rutherford
 
P
or v dv  dt scattering experiment) there is no physical contact.
m
(1) Stages of collision : There are three distinct identifiable stages in
v2 P collision, namely, before, during and after. In the before and after stage the
By integrating both sides we get  t  C1 interaction forces are zero. Between these two stages, the interaction forces
2 m
are very large and often the dominating forces governing the motion of
As initially the body is at rest i.e. v = 0 at t = 0, so C1  0 bodies. The magnitude of the interacting force is often unknown, therefore,
1/2 Newton’s second law cannot be used, the law of conservation of momentum
 2 Pt 
 v  is useful in relating the initial and final velocities.
 m 
F
1/2
 2 Pt 
(2) Position : From the above expression v   
 m 
u1 u2 v1 v2
ds  2 Pt 
1/2
 ds  m1 m2 m1mm m1 m2
1 2m2
or    As v  dt  Fext
dt  m   
t
 2 Pt 
1/2 t

i.e. ds  

 m 
 dt Before collision During collision After collision

By integrating both sides we get (2) Momentum and energy conservation

Fig. 6.29 in collision
1/2
 2P  2 (i) Momentum conservation : In a collision, the effect of external
s  . t 3 / 2  C2 forces such as gravity or friction are not taken into account as due to small
 m  3
duration of collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for collision is
Now as at t = 0, s = 0, so C 2  0 much larger than external force acting on the system and since this
1/2 impulsive force is 'Internal' therefore the total momentum of system always
 8P  remains conserved.
s  t3/2
 9m  (ii) Energy conservation : In a collision 'total energy' is also always
conserved. Here total energy includes all forms of energy such as mechanical
Collision energy, internal energy, excitation energy, radiant energy or even mass
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between energy.
two or more bodies for a short time as a result of which the energy and These laws are the fundamental laws of physics and applicable for
momentum of the interacting particle change. any type of collision but this is not true for conservation of kinetic energy.
In collision particles may or may not come in real touch e.g. in (3) Types of collision : (i) On the basis of conservation of kinetic
collision between two billiard balls or a ball and bat, there is physical energy.

Perfectly elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic collision

If in a collision, kinetic energy after collision is equal If in a collision kinetic energy after collision is If in a collision two bodies stick together or
to kinetic energy before collision, the collision is said not equal to kinetic energy before collision, the move with same velocity after the collision,
to be perfectly elastic. collision is said to inelastic. the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
Coefficient of restitution e = 1 Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1 Coefficient of restitution e = 0
Here kinetic energy appears in other forms. In The term 'perfectly inelastic' does not
some cases (KE) < (KE) such as when initial
final initial
necessarily mean that all the initial kinetic
(KE) = (KE)
final initial
KE is converted into internal energy of the energy is lost, it implies that the loss in
product (as heat, elastic or excitation) while in kinetic energy is as large as it can be.
other cases (KE) > (KE) final
such as when
initial
(Consistent with momentum conservation).
internal energy stored in the colliding particles
is released
Examples : (1) Collision between atomic particles Examples : (1) Collision between two billiard Example : Collision between a bullet and a
(2) Bouncing of ball with same velocity after the balls. block of wood into which it is fired. When
collision with earth. (2) Collision between two automobile on a the bullet remains embedded in the block.
road.
In fact all majority of collision belong to this
category.
(ii) On the basis of the direction of colliding bodies
Head on or one dimensional collision Oblique collision
In a collision if the motion of colliding particles before and after the collision If two particle collision is ‘glancing’ i.e. such that their directions of
is along the same line, the collision is said to be head on or one dimensional. motion after collision are not along the initial line of motion, the collision
is called oblique.
If in oblique collision the particles before and after collision are in same
plane, the collision is called 2-dimensional otherwise 3-dimensional.
Impact parameter b is zero for this type of collision. Impact parameter b lies between 0 and (r1  r2 ) i.e .

0 < b < (r1  r2 ) where r1 and r2 are radii of colliding bodies.

v1
u1 u2 v1 v2 m1
m1 m2 m1 m2
u1
m1 b 
m2 u2
Before collision After collision 

Before collision After collision

m2
v
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 265

Example : collision of two gliders on an air track. Example : Collision of billiard balls.

Perfectly elastic head on collision v 2  v1

e
Let two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 moving with initial velocities u1  u 2

u 1 and u 2 in the same direction and they collide such that after collision or v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )
their final velocities are v 1 and v 2 respectively.
 For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2  v 2  v 1  u1  u 2 [As shown in eq. (vi)]

 For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0

Before collision After collision
Fig. 6.30  v 2  v1  0 or v 2  v 1
According to law of conservation of momentum
It means that two body stick together and move with same velocity.
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2 … (i)
 For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1
 m1 (u1  v1 )  m 2 (v 2  u 2 ) …(ii)
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )
According to law of conservation of kinetic energy
In short we can say that e is the degree of elasticity of collision and
1 1 1 1 it is dimensionless quantity.
m 1 u12  m 2 u 22  m 1 v12  m 2 v 22 …(iii)
2 2 2 2
Further from equation (v) we get
 m 1 (u12  v12 )  m 2 (v 22  u 22 ) …(iv)
v 2  v1  u1  u 2
Dividing equation (iv) by equation (ii)
Substituting this value of v 2 in equation (i) and rearranging
v1  u1  v 2  u 2 …(v)

 u1  u 2  v 2  v1 …(vi)  m  m2  2m 2 u 2
we get, v1   1  u1 
 …(vii)
 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2
Relative velocity of separation is equal to relative velocity of
approach. Similarly we get,

Note :  The ratio of relative velocity of separation and  m  m1 

v 2   2  u2 
2m1u1
…(viii)
 
relative velocity of approach is defined as coefficient of restitution.  1
m m 2  m1  m2

(1) Special cases of head on elastic collision

(i) If projectile and target are of same mass i.e. m = m 1 2

 m  m2  2m 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 u2 and v 2   2  u2 

 m1  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m1  m 2 we get
v1  u2 and v 2  u1
It means when two bodies of equal masses undergo head on elastic collision, their velocities get interchanged.
Example : Collision of two billiard balls
Before collision After collision
Sub case : u2  0 i.e. target is at rest
10 kg 10 kg 10 kg 10 kg
v1  0 and v 2  u1
u1 = 50m/s u2 = 20m/s v1 = 20 m/s v2 = 50 m/s
(ii) If massive projectile collides with a light target i.e. m >> m 1 2
 266 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

 m  m2  2m 2u 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 and v 2   2  u2 

 m1  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m 2  0 , we get
v1  u1 and v 2  2u1  u2
Example : Collision of a truck with a cyclist
u1 = 120 km/hr
m1 = 103 kg m2 = 60 kg
u2 = 10 km/hr

Before collision

v1 = 120 km/hr

v2 = 230 km/hr Sub case : u 2  0 i.e. target is at rest

v = u and v = 2u
After collision 1 1 2 1

(iii) If light projectile collides with a very heavy target i.e. m << m 1 2

 m  m2  2m 2 u 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 and v 2   2  u2 

 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m1  0 , we get
v1   u1  2u2 and v 2  u2
Example : Collision of a ball with a massive wall.

Sub case : u 2  0 i.e. target is at rest

u2 = 2 m/ s v2 = 2 m/s
v = – u and v = 0
1 1 2

u1 = 30 m/s v1 = – 26 m/s
i.e. the ball rebounds with same speed in opposite
direction when it collide with stationary and very massive
m1 = 50gm
wall.

m2 = 100 kg
Before collision After collision

(2) Kinetic energy transfer during head on elastic collision  m  m2  2m 2 u 2

v 1   1  u1 

1  m 1  m 2  m 1  m2
Kinetic energy of projectile before collision Ki  m1u12
2
 m  m2 
1 If the target is at rest i.e. u = 0 then v1   1  u1

Kinetic energy of projectile after collision K f  m 1 v 12  m1  m 2 
2

2
2
Kinetic energy transferred from projectile to target K = decrease in K  m  m2 
From equation (i)  1   1 
 …(ii)
kinetic energy in projectile K  m1  m 2 
1 1 1
K  m 1 u 12  m 1 v 12  m 1 (u12  v 12 )
2 2 2 K 4m1m 2
or  …(iii)
Fractional decrease in kinetic energy
K (m 1  m 2 ) 2

1 K 4m1m 2
m (u 2  v 12 ) 2 or  …(iv)
K 2 1 1 v  K (m 1  m 2 ) 2  4 m 1 m 2
  1   1 
 …(i)
K 1  u1 
m 1 u 12
2 Note :  Greater the difference in masses,
We can substitute the value of v1 from the equation lesser will be transfer of kinetic energy and vice versa
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 267

 Transfer of kinetic energy will be maximum when the

difference in masses is minimum
2m 1 u 1
 v2 
i.e. m1  m 2  0 or m 1  m 2 then m1  m 2
K
 1  100%
K 2u 1
 As u 2  0 and
1  m 2 / m1
So the transfer of kinetic energy in head on elastic collision
(when target is at rest) is maximum when the masses of particles are equal
i.e. mass ratio is 1 and the transfer of kinetic energy is 100%. m2
Assuming n
m1
 If m 2  n m 1 then from equation (iii) we get
K 4n 2u 1
  v2 
K (1  n)2 1n

 Kinetic energy retained by the projectile 2nm 1 u 1

(ii) Momentum of target : P2  m 2 v 2 
 K  1n
   1  kinetic energy transferred by projectile
 K Retained
 2u 1 
 As m 2  m 1 n and v 2  1  n 
 K   m m   m  m2 
2 2
 
    1  1   1 2
   1
 m m 

 K Retained   m  m 2    2 
 1
 1
2m 1 u 1
 P2 
1  (1 / n)
(3) Velocity, momentum and kinetic energy of stationary target after head on
elastic collision (iii) Kinetic energy of target :
(i) Velocity of target : We know
2
1 1  2u  2 m 1 u 12 n
K2  m 2 v 22  n m 1  1  
 m  m1  2m 1 u 1 2 2 1  n  (1  n) 2
v 2   2 u2 

 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2
4 (K 1 )n  1 2
  As K 1  2 m 1 u 1 
(1  n)  4 n
2
 
u1 u2=0 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
(iv) Relation between masses for maximum velocity, momentum and
kinetic energy
Before collision After collision

Fig. 6.31
Velocity For v 2 to be maximum n must be minimum
2u1 Target should be very light.
v2  m2
1n i.e. n  0  m 2  m1
m1
Momentum For P2 to be maximum, (1/n) must be minimum or n must be
2m1u1 maximum. Target should be massive.
P2 
(1  1 / n) m2
i.e. n    m 2  m1
m1
Kinetic energy For K 2 to be maximum (1  n)2 must be minimum.
4 K1 n Target and projectile should
K2  m
(1  n)2  4 n i.e. 1  n  0  n  1  2  m 2  m1 be of equal mass.
m1

Perfectly Elastic Oblique Collision

Let two bodies moving as shown in figure.
By law of conservation of momentum
v1
Along x-axis, m 1u1  m 2 u 2  m 1v1 cos   m 2 v 2 cos  ...(i)
m1
u1 Along y-axis, 0  m 1 v1 sin  m 2 v 2 sin ...(ii)
m1 
m2 u2


Before collision After collision

m2
v2
Fig. 6.32
 268 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
By law of conservation of kinetic energy v 2  v1 v 2  v1
 e 
1 1 1 1 u1  u 2 u0
m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22  m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22 ...(iii)
2 2 2 2  v 2  v 1  eu …(i)
In case of oblique collision it becomes difficult to solve problem By conservation of momentum :
unless some experimental data is provided, as in these situations more
Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision
unknown variables are involved than equations formed.
mu  mv 1  mv 2
Special condition : If m 1  m 2 and u 2  0 substituting these
values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii) we get  v1  v 2  u …(ii)

u1  v 1 cos   v 2 cos  ...(iv) u

Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get v 1  (1  e )
2
0  v 1 sin  v 2 sin ...(v)
u
and v 2  (1  e )
and u12  v 12  v 22 …(vi) 2
v1 1  e
Squaring (iv) and (v) and adding we get  
v2 1  e
u12  v 12  v 22  2v 1 v 2 cos(   ) …(vii)
(3) Loss in kinetic energy
Using (vi) and (vii) we get cos(   )  0 Loss in K.E. (K) = Total initial kinetic energy

    / 2 – Total final kinetic energy

1 1  1 1 
i.e. after perfectly elastic oblique collision of two bodies of equal masses (if =  m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22    m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22 
the second body is at rest), the scattering angle    would be 90 o .  2 2   2 2 

Substituting the value of v1 and v 2 from the above expressions

Head on Inelastic Collision
(1) Velocity after collision : Let two bodies A and B collide 1  m1m 2 
Loss (K) =   (1  e 2 ) (u1  u2 )2
inelastically and coefficient of restitution is e. 2  m1  m 2 
Where
v 2  v 1 Relativevelocityof separation By substituting e = 1 we get K = 0 i.e. for perfectly elastic collision,
e  loss of kinetic energy will be zero or kinetic energy remains same before
u1  u 2 Relativevelocityof approach
and after the collision.
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )
Rebounding of Ball After Collision With Ground
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 ) …(i) If a ball is dropped from a height h on a horizontal floor, then it
strikes with the floor with a speed.
From the law of conservation of linear momentum
m 1 u1  m 2 u 2  m 1 v 1  m 2 v 2 …(ii) v 0  2gh0 [From v 2  u 2  2 gh]

By solving (i) and (ii) we get and it rebounds from the floor with a speed

 m  em 2   (1  e ) m 2 
v 1   1  u1  
  m m
u2

 m1  m 2   1 2 
h0
h1 h2
 (1  e ) m 1   m 2  e m1 
Similarly v 2    u 1   u2
 v0 v1 v2
 m 1  m 2   m1  m 2  t0 t1 t2
By substituting e = 1, we get the value of v1 and v 2 for perfectly Fig. 6.34
elastic head on collision. v 1  e v 0  e 2gh0
(2) Ratio of velocities after inelastic collision : A sphere of mass m
 velocityafter collision 
moving with velocity u hits inelastically with another stationary sphere of  Ase  
same mass.  velocitybefore collision

u1 = u u2 = 0 v1 v2 v 12
(1) First height of rebound : h1   e 2 h0
m m m m 2g

Before collision After collision  h = eh

1
2

(2) Height of the ball after n rebound : Obviously, the velocity of

th

Fig. 6.33 ball after n rebound will be

th
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 269

vn  e nv0 m 1u1  m 2 (u 2 )  (m 1  m 2 )v comb

Therefore the height after n rebound will be
th
(Taking left to right as positive)
v n2 m 1 u1  m 2 u 2
hn   e 2n h0  v comb 
2g m1  m 2
 hn  e 2 n h 0 u1 u2
m1 m2
(3) Total distance travelled by the ball before it stops bouncing
H  h0  2h1  2h2  2h3  ...  h0  2e 2h0  2e 4 h0  2e 6 h0  ... Before collision

H  h0 [1  2e (1  e  e  e ....)]
2 2 4 6 Fig. 3.36
when m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (positive)
  1 
 h0 1  2e 2   i.e. the combined body will move along the direction of motion of
 1  e2 
mass m 1 .
 1 
 As 1  e  e  .... 
2 4
 when m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (negative)
 1e2 
1  e 2  i.e. the combined body will move in a direction opposite to the
 H  h0  2  motion of mass m 1 .
 1  e 
(4) Total time taken by the ball to stop bouncing (3) Loss in kinetic energy
K = Initial kinetic energy – Final kinetic energy
2h0 2h1 2h2
T  t0  2t1  2t2  2t3  ..  2 2  ..
g g g 1 1  1 
  m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22    (m 1  m 2 ) v comb
2

2h0 2 2  2 
 [1  2e  2e 2  ......] [As h1  e 2 h0 ; h 2  e 4 h0 ]
g 1 m 1m 2
 (u1  u 2 )2
2 m1  m 2
2h 0
 [1  2e (1  e  e 2  e 3  ......)]
g Collision Between Bullet and Vertically
2h 0   1  2h 0  1  e  Suspended Block
 1  2e     
 1  e  g 1  e  A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally with velocity u in block of
g 
mass M suspended by vertical thread.
 1  e  2h 0 After the collision bullet gets embedded in block. Let the combined
 T  
1  e  g system raised upto height h and the string makes an angle  with the
vertical.
Perfectly Inelastic Collision
(1) Velocity of system
In such types of collisions, the bodies move independently before
collision but after collision as a one single body. Let v be the velocity of the system (block + bullet) just after the
collision.
(1) When the colliding bodies are moving in the same direction
By the law of conservation of momentum
m 1 u1  m 2 u 2  (m 1  m 2 )v comb L–h 
L

m 1 u1  m 2 u 2
 v comb  M
m1  m 2 m h
u
vcomb M
u1 u2
m1 m2 m1 m2
Fig. 3.37
Momentum + Momentum = Momentum
bullet block bullet and block system

Before collision After collision

mu  0  (m  M )v
Fig. 6.35
Loss in kinetic energy mu
 v …(i)
1 1  1 (m  M )
K   m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22   (m 1  m 2 )v comb
2

2 2  2 (2) Velocity of bullet : Due to energy which remains in the bullet-

1  m1m 2  block system, just after the collision, the system (bullet + block) rises upto
K    (u 1  u 2 ) 2 height h.
2  m 1  m 2


By the conservation of mechanical energy
[By substituting the value of v ] comb

1
(2) When the colliding bodies are moving in the opposite direction (m  M )v 2  (m  M )gh  v  2 gh
2
By the law of conservation of momentum
 270 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Now substituting this value in the equation (i) we get done.

2 gh 
mu  When work is done on a body, its kinetic or potential energy
mM increases.

 (m  M ) 2 gh   When the work is done by the body, its potential or kinetic energy
 u  decreases.
 m 
 According to the work energy theorem, the work done is equal to
(3) Loss in kinetic energy : We know that the formula for loss of the change in energy. That is W  E .
kinetic energy in perfectly inelastic collision
 Work energy theorem is particularly useful in calculation of
1 m1m 2 minimum stopping force or minimum stopping distance. If a body is
K  (u1  u2 )2 (When the bodies are moving in brought to a halt, the work done to do so is equal to the kinetic energy
2 m1  m 2
lost.
same direction.)
 Potential energy of a system increases when a conservative force
1 mM does work on it.
 K  u2
2 mM
 The kinetic energy of a body is always positive.
[As u1  u , u 2  0 , m 1  m and m 2  M ]  When the momentum of a body increases by a factor n, then its
(4) Angle of string from the vertical kinetic energy is increased by factor n .2

 If the speed of a vehicle is made n times, then its stopping distance

 (m  M ) 2 gh  becomes n times.
From the expression of velocity of bullet u    we
2

 m   The total energy (including mass energy) of the universe remains

2 constant.
u  m 
2
can get h     One form of energy can be changed into other form according to
2g  m  M 
the law of conservation of energy. That is amount of energy lost of one
2 form should be equal to energy or energies produced of other forms.
Lh h u  m  2
From the figure cos   1  1    Kinetic energy can change into potential energy and vice versa.
L L 2 gL  m  M 
When a body falls, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
 1  mu  
2
 Pendulum oscillates due to conversion of kinetic energy into
or   cos 1 1    
 2 gL  m  M   potential energy and vice versa. Same is true for the oscillations of mass
attached to the spring.
 Conservation laws can be used to describe the behaviour of a
mechanical system even when the exact nature of the forces involved is
not known.
 Although the exact nature of the nuclear forces is not known, yet
we can solve problems regarding the nuclear forces with the help of the
 The area under the force-displacement graph is equal to the work conservation laws.
done.  Violation of the laws of conservation indicates that the event cannot
take place.
 Work done by gravitation or electric force does not depend on the
path followed. It depends on the initial and final positions of the body.
 The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a height h above
Such forces are called conservative. When a body returns to the starting mgh
the surface of the earth (radius R) is given by U  . When h <<
point under the action of conservative force, the net work done is zero 1  h/R
R, we find U=mgh.
that is  dW  0 . 1
 Electrostatic energy in capacitor - U  CV 2 , where C is
 Work done against friction depends on the path followed. Viscosity 2
and friction are not conservative forces. For non conservative forces, the capacitance, V = potential difference between the plates.
 Electric potential energy of a test charge q at a place where electric
work done on a closed path is not zero. That is  dW  0 . potential is V, is given by : U =q V.
P 0
0

 Electric potential energy between two charges (q and q ) separated

 Work done is path independent only for a conservative field. 1 2

1 q1q 2
 Work done depends on the frame of reference. by a distance r is given by U  . Here  0 is permittivity of
4 0 r
 Work done by a centripetal force is always zero.
2 2
vacuum and 1 / 4  0  9  10 Nm C .
9
 Energy is a promise of work to be done in future. It is the stored
ability to do work.  Magnetic energy stored in an inductor –
 Energy of a body is equal to the work done by the body and it has 1 2
nothing to do with the time taken to perform the work. On the other U LI , where L = inductance, I = current.
2
hand, the power of the body depends on the time in which the work is
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 271
   
 Energy gained by a body of mass m, specific heat C, when its where u1 and u 2 are initial velocities and v1 and v 2 are the velocities
temperature changes by  is given by : Q  mC  . of the colliding bodies after the collision. This is called Newton's law of
impact.
 The Potential energy associated with a spring of constant k when
1 2  The collision is said to be inelastic when the kinetic energy is not
extended or compressed by distance x is given by U  kx . conserved.
2
 In the perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding bodies stick
 Kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is given by : together. That is the relative velocity of the bodies after the collision is
1 zero.
K  m  2 (a 2  y 2 ) where m = mass,  = angular frequency, a=
2  In an elastic collision of two equal masses, their kinetic energies are
amplitude, y = displacement. exchanged.
 Potential energy of a particle executing SHM is given by :  If a body of mass m moving with velocity v, collides elastically with
1 a rigid wall, then the change in the momentum of the body is 2mv.
U  m 2 y 2 .  
2 v 2  v1
 e    is called coefficient of restitution. Its value is 1 for
 Total energy of a particle executing SHM is given by : u1  u 2
1 elastic collisions. It is less than 1 for inelastic collisions and zero for
E  K U  m  2a2 .
2 perfectly inelastic collision.
1  During collision, velocity of the colliding bodies changes.
 Energy density associated with a wave   2 a 2 where
2  Linear momentum is conserved in all types of collisions.
 =density of medium,  = angular frequency, a = amplitude of the of  Perfectly elastic collision is a rare physical phenomenon.
the wave.
 Collisions between two ivory or steel or glass balls are nearly
 Energy associated with a photon : elastic.
E  h  hc /  , where h = planck’s constant,  = frequency of the  The force of interaction in an inelastic collision is non-conservative
light wave, c = velocity of light,  = wave length. in nature.
 Mass and energy are interconvertible. That is mass can be  In inelastic collision, the kinetic energy is converted into heat
converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass. energy, sound energy, light energy etc.
 A mass m (in kg) is equivalent to energy (in J) which is equal to  In head on collisions, the colliding bodies move along the same
mc where c = speed of light.
2
straight line before and after collision.
 A stout spring has a large value of force constant, while for a  Head on collisions are also called one dimensional collisions.
delicate spring, the value of spring constant is low.
 In the oblique collisions the colliding bodies move at certain angles
 The term energy is different from power. Whereas energy refers to before and/or after the collisions.
the capacity to perform the work, power determines the rate of
performing the work. Thus, in determining power, time taken to perform  The oblique collisions are two dimensional collisions.
the work is significant but it is of no importance for measuring energy  When a heavy body collides head-on elastically with a lighter body,
of a body. then the lighter body begins to move with a velocity nearly double the
 Collision is the phenomenon in which two bodies exert mutual velocity of the heavier body.
force on each other.  When a light body collides with a heavy body, the lighter body
 The collision generally occurs for very small interval of time. returns almost with the same speed.
 Physical contact between the colliding bodies is not essential for the  If a light and a heavy body have equal momenta, then lighter body
collision. has greater kinetic energy.
 The mutual forces between the colliding bodies are action and  Suppose, a body is dropped form a height h and it strikes the
0

reaction pair. In accordance with the Newton’s third law of motion, they ground with velocity v . After the (inelastic) collision let it rise to a
0

are equal and opposite to each other. height h . If v be the velocity with which the body rebounds, then
1 1

 The collision is said to be elastic when the kinetic energy is 1/2 1/2
v1  2 gh1  h 
conserved. e    1
v0  2 gh0   h0 
 In the elastic collisions the forces involved are conservative.
 In the elastic collisions, the kinetic or mechanical energy is not  If after n collisions with the ground, the velocity is v and the height
n

converted into any other form of energy. to which it rises be h , thenn

 Elastic collisions produce no sound or heat. vn  hn 

1/2

en   
 There is no difference between the elastic and perfectly elastic v0  h0 
collisions.   
 In the elastic collisions, the relative velocity before collision is equal  P  F . v  F v cos  where v is the velocity of the body and
     
to the relative velocity after the collision. That is u1  u 2  v 2  v1  is the angle between F and v .
 272 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

 Area under the F  v graph is equal to the power dissipated.

 Power dissipated by a conservative force (gravitation, electric force
etc.) does not depend on the path followed. It depends on the initial and
final positions of the body. That is  dP  0 .

 Power dissipated against friction depends on the path followed.

That is  dP  0 .

 Power is also measured in horse power (hp). It is the fps unit of

power. 1 hp = 746 W.
 An engine pulls a train of mass m with constant velocity. If the rails
are on a plane surface and there is no friction, the power dissipated by
the engine is zero.
 In the above case if the coefficient of friction for the rail is  , the
power of the engine is P   mgv .

 In the above case if the engine pulls on a smooth track on an

inclined plane (inclination  ), then its power P  (mg sin ) v .

 In the above case if the engine pulls upwards on a rough inclined

plane having coefficient of friction  , then power of the engine is
P  ( cos   sin )mg v .
 If the engine pulls down on the inclined plane then power of the
engine is
P  ( cos   sin )mg v .
 Gravitation 389

Chapter

8
Gravitation
 Gm1m 2  Gm1m 2  Gm m 
Introduction F12  2
r̂21  3
r21   1 2 r21
r r | r21 | 3
N ewton at the age of twenty-three is said to have seen an apple

falling down from tree in his orchid. This was the year 1665. He started Here negative sign indicates that the direction of F 12 is opposite to that
thinking about the role of earth's attraction in the motion of moon and
other heavenly bodies. of r̂21 .
 Gm1m 2  Gm1m 2   Gm m 
Similarly F 21  2
r̂12  3
r12   1 2 r12
r r | r12 | 3
Gm1m 2
 r̂21 [ rˆ12  rˆ21 ]
r2
 
 It is clear that F12 = – F 21 . Which is Newton's third law of
motion.
Here G is constant of proportionality which is called 'Universal
gravitational constant'.
Fig. 8.1 due to gravity due to earth with the
By comparing the acceleration If m1  m 2 and r  1 then G  F
acceleration required to keep the moon in its orbit around the earth, he was
able to arrive the Basic Law of Gravitation. i.e. universal gravitational constant is equal to the force of
attraction between two bodies each of unit mass whose centres are placed
Newton's law of Gravitation unit distance apart.
(i) The value of G in the laboratory was first determined by
Newton's law of gravitation states that every body in this universe Cavendish using the torsional balance.
attracts every other body with a force, which is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the (ii) The value of G is 6.67×10 N–m kg in S.I. and 6.67×10 dyne-
–11 2 –2 –8

distance between their centres. The direction of the force is along the line cm -g 2 – t–––– in C.G.S. system.
2 –2

joining the particles. (iii) Dimensional formula [M 1 L3 T 2 ] .

Thus the magnitude of the gravitational force F that two particles of
(iv) The value of G does not depend upon the nature and size of the
masses m 1 and m 2 are separated by a distance r exert on each other is bodies.
m1 m 2 A B (v) It also does not depend upon the nature of the medium between
given by F   
r2 m1
F
12 F
21
m2
the two bodies.
m1m 2 (vi) As G is very small, hence gravitational forces are very small,
or F  G r unless one (or both) of the mass is huge.
r2
Fig. 8.2
Vector form : According to Newton's law of gravitation Properties of Gravitational Force
 390 Gravitation
(1) It is always attractive in nature while electric and magnetic force or F = mg …(ii) m
can be attractive or repulsive.
GMm
(2) It is independent of the medium between the particles while From (i) and (ii) we have mg  mg
R2 R
electric and magnetic force depend on the nature of the medium between
the particles. Earth
GM
(3) It holds good over a wide range of distances. It is found true for  g 2
…(iii)
R Fig. 8.4
interplanetary to inter atomic distances.
(4) It is a central force i.e. acts along the line joining the centres of G 4 3 
two interacting bodies.  g  R  
R2 3 
(5) It is a two-body interaction i.e. gravitational force between two
particles is independent of the presence or absence of other particles; so the 4
principle of superposition is valid i.e. force on a particle due to number of
[As mass (M) = volume ( R 3 ) × density ()]
3
particles is the resultant of forces due to individual particles i.e.
    4
F  F1  F 2  F 3  ........  g GR …(iv)
3
While nuclear force is many body interaction
(6) It is the weakest force in nature : As F > F >F . GM 4
nuclear electromagnetic gravi ta tional (i) From the expression g  2
GR it is clear that its

(7) The ratio of gravitational force to electrostatic force between two R 3
value depends upon the mass radius and density of planet and it is
electrons is of the order of 10 43 .
independent of mass, shape and density of the body placed on the surface
(8) It is a conservative force i.e. work done by it is path independent of the planet. i.e. a given planet (reference body) produces same acceleration
or work done in moving a particle round a closed path under the action of in a light as well as heavy body.
gravitational force is zero.
(9) It is an action reaction pair i.e. the force with which one body (say (ii) The greater the value of (M / R 2 ) or R, greater will be value
earth) attracts the second body (say moon) is equal to the force with which of g for that planet.
moon attracts the earth. This is in accordance with Newton's third law of
motion. (iii) Acceleration due to gravity is a vector quantity and its direction
is always towards the centre of the planet.
Note :  The law of gravitation is stated for two (iv) Dimension [g] = [LT ] –2

point masses, therefore for any two arbitrary finite size bodies, as shown in
the figure, It can not be applied as there is not unique value for the (v) it’s average value is taken to be 9.8 m/s or 981 cm/sec or 32
2 2

separation. feet/sec , on the surface of the earth at mean sea level.

2

(vi) The value of acceleration due to gravity vary due to the

m1 m2 m1 m2 following factors : (a) Shape of the earth, (b) Height above the earth
surface, (c) Depth below the earth surface and (d) Axial rotation of
r
the earth.
r=?
Fig. 8.3 Variation in g Due to Shape of Earth
But if the two bodies are uniform spheres then the separation r may be
taken as the distance between their centres because a sphere of uniform mass
behave as a point mass for any point lying outside it. Earth is elliptical in shape. It is gp
flattened at the poles and bulged out at
Acceleration Due to Gravity the equator. The equatorial radius is Rp
The force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body is called about 21 km longer than polar radius, ge
gravitational pull or gravity. GM Re
from g  2
We know that when force acts on a body, it produces acceleration. R
Therefore, a body under the effect of gravitational pull must accelerate. Fig. 8.5
GM
The acceleration produced in the motion of a body under the effect At equator ge 
Re2
of gravity is called acceleration due to gravity, it is denoted by g.
…(i)
Consider a body of mass m is lying on the surface of earth then
gravitational force on the body is given by GM
At poles g p  …(ii)
R p2
GMm
F  …(i)
R2 R p2
ge
From (i) and (ii)  2
Where M = mass of the earth and R = radius of the earth. gp Re
If g is the acceleration due to gravity, then the force on the body
Since Requator  R pole
due to earth is given by

Force = mass  acceleration  g pole  gequator and g p  ge  0.018 ms 2

 Gravitation 391

Therefore the weight of body increases as it is taken from equator to So it is clear that if d increase, the value of g decreases.
the pole. (ii) At the centre of earth d  R  g  0 , i.e., the acceleration due
to gravity at the centre of earth becomes zero.
Variation in g With Height (iii) Decrease in the value of g with depth
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth dg
Absolute decrease g  g  g 
R
GM
g …(i) g g  g  d
R2 Fractional decrease  
g g R
Acceleration due to gravity at height h from the surface of the earth g d
Percentage decrease  100%   100%
g g R
GM h (iv) The rate of decrease of gravity outside the earth ( if h  R ) is
g'  …(ii)
(R  h)2 r g double to that of inside the earth.
R
2 Variation in g Due to Rotation of Earth
 R  O
From (i) and (ii) g'  g  …(iii) As the earth rotates, a body placed
 Rh 
on its surface moves along the circular path
Fig. 8.6 and hence experiences centrifugal force, due P
R2 to it, the apparent weight of the body
r Fc
=g …(iv) 
r2 decreases. mg mg 

[As r = R + h] Since the magnitude of centrifugal

force varies with the latitude of the place,
(i) As we go above the surface of the earth, the value of g decreases therefore the apparent weight of the body
1 varies with latitude due to variation in the
because g   2 . magnitude of centrifugal force on the body.
Fig. 8.8
r
If the body of mass m lying at point P, whose latitude is , then due
(ii) If r   then g  0 , i.e., at infinite distance from the earth,
to rotation of earth its apparent weight can be given by m g  mg  Fc
the value of g becomes zero.

(iii) If h  R i.e., height is negligible in comparison to the radius or m g  (mg )2  (Fc )2  2mg Fc cos(180  )
then from equation (iii) we get
 m g  (mg )2  (m  2 R cos )2  2mg m  2 R cos  ( cos )
2 2
 R   h  2h  [As Fc  m  2r  m  2 R cos  ]
g  g   g1    g 1  
 R  h   R   R
By solving we get g  g   2 R cos 2 
[As h  R ]

(iv) If h  R then decrease in the value of g with height :

Note :  The latitude at a point on the surface of the
earth is defined as the angle, which the line joining that point to the centre
2hg of earth makes with equatorial plane. It is denoted by  .
Absolute decrease g  g  g 
R  For the poles   90 o and for equator   0 o
g g  g  2h (i) Substituting   90 o in the above expression we get
Fractional decrease  
g g R g pole  g   R cos 90
2 2 o

g 2h  g pole  g …(i)
Percentage decrease  100%   100%
g R
i.e., there is no effect of rotational motion of the earth on the value
Variation in g With Depth of g at the poles.
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth (ii) Substituting   0o in the above expression we get
GM
g  2  GR
4
…(i) geqator  g   R cos 0
2 2 o

R 3
Acceleration due to gravity at depth d from the surface of the earth  gequator  g   2 R …(ii)
4 g i.e., the effect of rotation of earth on the value of g at the equator
g  G(R  d ) …(ii) d
3 P g is maximum.
R
r
 d From equation (i) and (ii)
From (i) and (ii) g   g 1  
 R O
g pole  gequator  R 2  0.034 m / s 2
(iii) When a body of mass m is moved from the equator to the
(i) The value of g decreases on going below the surface
Fig. 8.7of the earth. poles, its weight increases by an amount
From equation (ii) we get g  (R  d ) .
 392 Gravitation

m(g p  ge )  m  2 R F  m ia or m i 
F
a
(iv) Weightlessness due to rotation of earth : As we know that apparent
weight of the body decreases due to rotation of earth. If  is the angular Hence inertial mass of a body may be measured as the ratio of the
velocity of rotation of earth for which a body at the equator will become magnitude of the external force applied on it to the magnitude of
weightless acceleration produced in its motion.
g  g   2 R cos 2  (i) It is the measure of ability of the body to oppose the production of
acceleration in its motion by an external force.
 0  g   2 R cos 2 0 o [As   0 o for equator]
(ii) Gravity has no effect on inertial mass of the body.
 g  R  0
2
(iii) It is proportional to the quantity of matter contained in the
body.
g
  (iv) It is independent of size, shape and state of body.
R
(v) It does not depend on the temperature of body.
2 R (vi) It is conserved when two bodies combine physically or
or time period of rotation of earth T   2
 g chemically.
(vii) When a body moves with velocity v , its inertial mass is given
Substituting the value of R  6400  10 3 m and g  10m / s 2
by
we get
m0
1 rad m , where m = rest mass of body, c = velocity of light
  1.25  10  3 and T  5026.5 sec  1.40 hr. 0

800 sec v2
1 2
c
Note :  This time is about 1
17
times the present time in vacuum,
period of earth. Therefore if earth starts rotating 17 times faster then all (2) Gravitational Mass : It is the mass of the material of body, which
objects on equator will become weightless. determines the gravitational pull acting upon it.
 If earth stops rotation about its own axis then at the If M is the mass of the earth and R is the radius, then gravitational
equator the value of g increases by  R and consequently the weight of
2 pull on a body of mass m g is given by
body lying there increases by m  2 R . GMm g F F
F or m g  
 After considering the effect of rotation and elliptical R2 GM /R 2 I
shape of the earth, acceleration due to gravity at the poles and equator are
related as Here m g is the gravitational mass of the body, if I  1 then
g p  ge  0.034  0.018m / s 2
 g p  ge  0.052m / s 2 mg  F

Mass and Density of Earth Thus the gravitational mass of a body is defined as the gravitational
pull experienced by the body in a gravitational field of unit intensity,
Newton’s law of gravitation can be used to estimate the mass and
density of the earth. (3) Comparison between inertial and gravitational mass
(i) Both are measured in the same units.
GM gR 2
As we know g  , so we have M  (ii) Both are scalar.
R2 G
(iii) Both do not depend on the shape and state of the body
9 .8  (6.4  10 6 )2
 M  5 .98  10 24 kg  10 25 kg (iv) Inertial mass is measured by applying Newton’s second law of
6.67  10 11
motion where as gravitational mass is measured by applying Newton’s law
4 3g of gravitation.
and as we know g  GR , so we have  
3 4GR (v) Spring balance measure gravitational mass and inertial balance
measure inertial mass.
3  9.8
   5478.4 kg / m 3 (4) Comparison between mass and weight of the body
4  3.14  6.67  10 11  6.4  10 6

Mass (m) Weight (W)

Inertial and Gravitational Masses
It is a quantity of matter It is the attractive force exerted
(1) Inertial mass : It is the mass of the material of the body, which contained in a body. by earth on any body.
measures its inertia. Its value does not change with g Its value changes with g.
If an external force F acts on a body of mass m, then according to
i
Its value can never be zero for At infinity and at the centre of
Newton’s second law of motion any material particle. earth its value is zero.
Its unit is kilogram and its Its unit is Newton or kg-wt and
 Gravitation 393

dimension is [M]. dimension are [ MLT 2 ] Gm1 Gm 2

For point P, I1  I2  0   0
It is determined by a physical It is determined by a spring x2 (d  x )2
balance. balance.
m1 d m2 d
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity. By solving x and (d  x ) 
m1  m 2 m1  m 2

Gravitational Field (ix) Gravitational field line is a line, straight or curved such that a
unit mass placed in the field of another mass would always move along this
The space surrounding a material body in which gravitational force line. Field lines for an isolated mass m are radially inwards.
of attraction can be experienced is called its gravitational field.
Gravitational field intensity : The intensity of the gravitational field
of a material body at any point in its field is defined as the force
experienced by a unit mass (test mass) placed at that point, provided the m
unit mass (test mass) itself does not produce any change in the field of the
body.
GM GM
So if a test mass m at a point in a gravitational field experiences a (x) As I  2
and also 
Fig.g8.12  Ig
r R2
force F then
Thus the intensity of gravitational field at a point in the field is
equal to acceleration of test mass placed at that point.
F
I  Gravitational Field Intensity for Different Bodies
m
(i) It is a vector quantity and is always directed towards the centre (1) Intensity due to uniform solid sphere
of gravity of body whose gravitational field is considered.
R
(ii) Units : Newton/kg or m/s 2

(iii) Dimension : [M LT ] 0 –2

(iv) If the field is produced by a point mass M and the test mass I
m is at a distance r from it then by Newton’s law of gravitation GM/R 2

GMm
F , then intensity of gravitational field r
r2 O r=R
Test mass Fig. 8.13
F GMm / r 2 Outside the surface On the surface Inside the surface
I  r m
m m r>R r=R r<R
M
GM
 I Source point I
GM
I
GM
I
GMr
r2
Fig. 8.9 r2 R2 R3
(v) As the distance (r) of test mass from the point mass (M ) ,
(2) Intensity due to spherical shell
increases, intensity of gravitational field decreases M2
M1 I1 R
GM I2
I 2
;
r
I3
1 I
 I M3
r2
Fig. 8.10
(vi) Intensity of gravitational field I  0 , when r   . r
O r=R
(vii) Intensity at a given point (P) due to the combined effect of
Fig. 8.14
different point masses can be calculated by vector sum of different Outside the surface On the surface Inside the surface
intensities
r>R r=R r<R
Inet  I1  I2  I3  ........
GM GM I=0
(viii) Point of zero intensity : If two bodies A and B of different I I
r2 R 2

masses m 1 and m 2 are d distance apart.

(3) Intensity due to uniform circular ring
Let P be the point of zero intensity i.e., the intensity at this point
is equal and opposite due to two bodies A and B and if any test mass a
placed at this point it will not experience any force. P I
d
r
A P B
x d–x
Fig. 8.15
m1 I1 I2 m2
Fig. 8.11
 394 Gravitation

At a point on its axis At the centre of the ring

GMr I=0
I
(a  r )
2 2 3/2

(4) Intensity due to uniform disc WA  B 1 1 

 V  VB  VA   GM   
r 
m  B rA 
a
P (vi) Potential due to large numbers of particle is given by scalar
 I
addition of all the potentials.
r M2
V  V1  V2  V3  .......... M1 r1
P r2
r5
At a point on its axis Fig. 8.16 At the centre of the disc GM GM GM M5 r4
   ........ r3
I=0 r1 r2 r3 M3
2GMr  1  M4
1
I    in Fig. 8.18
a 2  r  Mi
r  a2
2
 G 
i 1 ri
2GM
or I  (1  cos  ) Gravitational Potential for Different Bodies
a2
(1) Potential due to uniform ring
Gravitational Potential
At a point in a gravitational field potential V is defined as negative a
of work done per unit mass in shifting a test mass from some reference P
point (usually at infinity) to the given point i.e., r

W F.d r F
V       I .d r [As I]
m m m Fig. 8.19
dV At a point on its axis At the centre
 I
dr
GM GM
i.e., negative gradient of potential gives intensity of field or V  V 
a r
2 2 a
potential is a scalar function of position whose space derivative gives
intensity. Negative sign indicates that the direction of intensity is in the
direction where the potential decreases.
(i) It is a scalar quantity because it is defined as work done per unit (2) Potential due to spherical shell
mass.
R
(ii) Unit : Joule/kg or m /sec 2 2

(iii) Dimension : [M L T ] 0 2 –2

(iv) If the fieldproduced is by a point mass then V

r=R
 GM  GM O r
V   I dr      2  dr [As I   2 ]
 r  r
– GM/R
GM Fig. 8.20
 V  c [Here c = constant of integration]
r Outside the surface On the surface Inside the surface
Assuming reference point at  and potential to be zero there we r>R r=R r<R
get
GM GM GM GM
0  c c  0 V V V
 r R R
GM
 Gravitational potential V   (3) Potential due to uniform solid sphere
r
(v) Gravitational potential difference : It is defined as the work done
to move a unit mass from one point to the other in the gravitational field. R
The gravitational potential difference in bringing unit test mass m from
point A to point B under the gravitational influence of source mass M is
V
r=R
VA VB O r
M m m
A B – 3GM/2R
rA
Fig. 8.21
rB
Fig. 8.17
 Gravitation 395

Outside the On the surface Inside the surface (ix) Relation between gravitational potential energy and potential
surface GMm  GM 
r=R r<R U  m 
r>R r  r 
GM GM  GM   r 2   U  mV
V Vsurface  V 3    
r R 2R   R   (x) Gravitational potential energy at the centre of earth relative to
infinity.
at the centre (r = 0)  3 GM  3 GMm
Ucentre  m Vcentre  m    
3 GM  2 R  2 R
Vcentre 
2 R
(max.) (xi) Gravitational potential energy of a body at height h from the
earth surface is given by
3
V = Vsurface
centre

2 GMm gR 2 m mgR
Uh    
Rh Rh h
1
Gravitational Potential Energy R
The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is defined as Work Done Against Gravity
the amount of work done in bringing the body from infinity to that point If the body of mass m is moved from the surface of earth to a
against the gravitational force.
point at distance h above the surface of earth, then change in potential
r GMm 1 
r energy or work done against gravity will be

M
W  dx  GMm   r
m
 x 2
 x  1 1 
W  U  GMm   
GMm  r1 r2 
W  Fig. 8.22
r
1 1 
This work done is stored inside the body as its gravitational potential  W  GMm    [As r1  R and r2  R  h ]
energy R R  h
GMm GMmh mgh GM
U    W  [As  g]
r 2 h h R2
R 1   1 
(i) Potential energy is a scalar quantity.  R R
(ii) Unit : Joule (i) When the distance h is not negligible and is comparable to radius
(iii) Dimension : [ML T ] 2 –2
of the earth, then we will use above formula.
(iv) Gravitational potential energy is always negative in the
 n 
gravitational field because the force is always attractive in nature. (ii) If h  nR then W  mgR  
n 1
(v) As the distance r increases, the gravitational potential energy
becomes less negative i.e., it increases. 1
(iii) If h  R then W  mgR
(vi) If r   then it becomes zero (maximum) 2
(vii) In case of discrete distribution of masses
(iv) If h is very small as compared to radius of the earth then term
Gravitational potential energy
h / R can be neglected
 Gm1m 2 Gm 2 m 3 
U   ui      ........  mgh  h 
 r12 r23  From W 
1  h/R
 mgh  As R  0 
 
(viii) If the body of mass m is moved from a point at a distance r1
Escape Velocity
to a point at distance r2 (r1  r2 ) then change in potential energy
The minimum velocity with which a body must be projected up so
r2 GMm 1 1 as to enable it to just overcome the gravitational pull, is known as escape
U   dx  GMm   
r1 2 velocity.
x  r2 r1 
The work done to displace a body from the surface of earth (r = R)
1 1  to infinity ( r   ) is
or U  GMm   
 r1 r2 
 GMm  1 1
As r1 is greater than r2 , the change in potential energy of the body
W R x 2 dx  GMm    R 

will be negative. It means that if a body is brought closer to earth it's
potential energy decreases. GMm
W
R
 396 Gravitation
This work required to project the body so as to escape the 1 GMm 1
gravitational pull is performed on the body by providing an equal amount mv 2   m(v)2  0
2 R 2
of kinetic energy to it at the surface of the earth.
2GM 2GM
If v e is the required escape velocity, then kinetic energy which i.e., (v)2  v 2   v'2  v 2  ve2 [As  v e2 ]
R R
1
should be given to the body is mv e2
2  v  v 2  ve2

1 GMm 2GM i.e, the body will move in interplanetary or inter stellar space with
 mv e2   ve 
2 R R velocity v 2  ve2 .
 v e  2 gR [As GM  gR 2 ]s (viii) Energy to be given to a stationary object on the surface of earth so
that its total energy becomes zero, is called escape energy.
4 8
or v e  2  GR  R  v e  R G GMm
3 3 Total energy at the surface of the earth  KE  PE  0 
R
4
[As g  GR ] GMm
3  Escape energy 
R
(i) Escape velocity is independent of the mass and direction of
projection of the body. (ix) If the escape velocity of a body is equal to the velocity of light
then from such bodies nothing can escape, not even light. Such bodies are
(ii) Escape velocity depends on the reference body. Greater the value called black holes.
of (M / R) or (gR) for a planet, greater will be escape velocity. The radius of a black hole is given as
(iii) For the earth as g  9.8 m / s 2 and R  6400 km 2GM
R
C2
 v e  2  9.8  6.4  10 6  11.2km / sec
2GM
(iv) A planet will have atmosphere if the velocity of molecule in its [As C  , where C is the velocity of light]
R
 3 RT 
atmosphere v rms   is lesser than escape velocity. This is why Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
 M 
Planets are large natural bodies rotating around a star in definite
earth has atmosphere (as at earth v rms  v e ) while moon has no orbits. The planetary system of the star sun called solar system consists of
atmosphere (as at moon v rms  v e ) nine planets, viz., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune and Pluto. Out of these planets Mercury is the smallest and closest
(v) If a body projected with velocity lesser than escape velocity to the sun and so hottest. Jupiter is largest and has maximum moons (12).
( v  v e ), it will reach a certain maximum height and then may either move Venus is closest to Earth and brightest. Kepler after a life time study, work
in an orbit around the planet or may fall down back to the planet. out three empirical laws which govern the motion of these planets and are
(vi) Maximum height attained by body : Let a projection velocity of known as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. These are,
body (mass m ) is v , so that it attains a maximum height h . At maximum (1) The law of Orbits : Every planet moves around the sun in an
height, the velocity of particle is zero, so kinetic energy is zero. elliptical orbit with sun at one of the foci.
By the law of conservation of energy (2) The law of Area : The line joining the sun to the planet sweeps
Total energy at surface = Total energy at height h . out equal areas in equal interval of time. i.e. areal velocity is constant.
According to this law planet will move slowly when it is farthest from sun
GMm 1 GMm and more rapidly when it is nearest to sun. It is similar to law of
  mv 2   0
R 2 Rh conservation of angular momentum.

v2 1 1  dA 1 r(vdt ) 1
  GM  
GMh Areal velocity    rv
   R(R  h) dt 2 dt 2
2  R R h 
dA L
2GM R  h R   Sun
  1 dt 2m
v2R h h dA v dt
r
R R  v2  [As L  mvr ; rv 
L
]
 h  2 R  2 2 m
 2GM  ve  ve  v  Fig. 8.23
 2  1  1
 v R  v2 (3) The law of periods : The square of period of revolution (T ) of
any planet around sun is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major
2GM 2GM
[As v e    v e2 ] axis of the orbit.
R R 3
r r 
(vii) If a body is projected with velocity greater than escape velocity T 2  a 3 or T 2   1 2 
 2 
(v  ve ) then by conservation of energy.
Total energy at surface = Total energy at infinite Proof : From the figure AB  AF  FB
 Gravitation 397

r1  r2
2a  r1  r2 a 
2
E

Perigee Apogee Velocity of a Planet in Terms of Eccentricity

Sun F r2
A C a B Applying the law of conservation of angular momentum at perigee
r1
and apogee
D mv p rp  mv ara
where a = semi-major axis
Fig. 8.24
vp ra a  c 1  e
r1  Shortest distance of planet from sun (perigee).    
va rp a  c 1  e
r2  Largest distance of planet from sun (apogee).
c
Important data [As rp  a  c, ra  a  c and eccentricity e  ]
a
Planet Semi-major Period T /a 2 3
Applying the conservation of mechanical energy at perigee and
axis T(year) (10 year /meter )
–34 2 3
apogee
a (10 meter)
10

1 GMm 1 GMm
mv p   mv a 
2 2
Mercury 5.79 0.241 2.99 2 rp 2 ra
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00
Earth 15.0 1.00 2.96 1 1
 v p  v a  2GM   
2 2

Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98  rp ra 

Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01
 ra 2  rp 2  r  r  v ara
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98  va 2    2 GM  a p  [As v p  ]
 rp 
2
Uranus 287 84.0 2.98  rarp  rp

Neptune 450 165 2.99

2 GM  rp  2 GM  a  c  GM  1  e 
Pluto 590 248 2.99  va 2     va 
2
   
ra  rp  ra  a ac a 1e 

Note :  Kepler's laws are valid for satellites also. Thus the speeds of planet at apogee and perigee are
Solar System GM 1e 
va   ,
a 1e 

GM  1  e 
vp   
a 1e 

Note ::  The gravitational force is a central force so torque

on planet relative to sun is always zero, hence angular momentum of a
planet or satellite is always constant irrespective of shape of orbit.
Some Properties of the Planet
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
Mean distacne from sun, 10 km 6
57.9 108 150 228 778 1430 2870 4500 5900
Period of revolution, year Fig. 8.250.241 0.615 1.00 1.88 11.9 29.5 84.0 165 248
Orbital speed, km/s 47.9 35.0 29.8 24.1 13.1 9.64 6.81 5.43 4.74
Equatiorial diameter, km 4880 12100 12800 6790 143000 120000 51800 49500 2300
Mass (Earth =1) 0.0558 0.815 1.000 0.107 318 95.1 14.5 17.2 0.002
Density (Water =1) 5.60 5.20 5.52 3.95 1.31 0.704 1.21 1.67 2.03
Surface value of g, m/s 2
3.78 8.60 9.78 3.72 22.9 9.05 7.77 11.0 0.5
Escape velocity, km/s 4.3 10.3 11.2 5.0 59.5 35.6 21.2 23.6 1.1
Known satellites 0 0 1 2 16+ring 18+rings 17+rings 8+rings 1
 398 Gravitation

Orbital Velocity of Satellite (vi) If the gravitational force of attraction of the sun on the planet
Satellites are natural or artificial bodies describing orbit around a 1 1
varies as F  n then the orbital velocity varies as v  .
planet under its gravitational attraction. Moon is a natural satellite while r r n 1
INSAT-1B is an artificial satellite of earth. Condition for establishment of
artificial satellite is that the Satellite
Time Period of Satellite
centre of orbit of satellite must It is the time taken by satellite to go once around the earth.
coincide with centre of earth or h
satellite must move around Circumfere nce of the orbit
great circle of earth.
r  T
orbital velocity
Orbital velocity of a R
satellite is the velocity required v 2r r GM
to put the satellite into its orbit Earth T  2r [As v  ]
around the earth. v GM r
For revolution of
satellite around the earth, the r3 r3
gravitational pull provides the  T  2  2 [As GM  gR2 ]
GM gR 2
required centripetal force. Fig. 8.26
mv 2 GMm
  T  2
R  h3  2
R h
1  
3/2
[As r  R  h ]
r r2 g R2 g R

GM r3
 v (i) From T  2 , it is clear that time period is independent
r GM
of the mass of orbiting body and depends on the mass of central body and
gR 2 g radius of the orbit
v R
Rh Rh
r3
(ii) T  2
[As GM  gR2 and r  R  h ] GM

(i) Orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the orbiting body 4 2 3

 T2  r i.e., T 2  r 3
and is always along the tangent of the orbit i.e., satellites of diferent masses GM
have same orbital velocity, if they are in the same orbit.
This is in accordance with Kepler’s third law of planetary motion r
(ii) Orbital velocity depends on the mass of central body and radius becomes a (semi major axis) if the orbit is elliptic.
of orbit. (iii) Time period of nearby satellite,
(iii) For a given planet, greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be the
 
r3 R3 R
orbital velocity of the satellite v  1 / r . From T  2  2 2
 2
GM gR g
(iv) Orbital velocity of the satellite when it revolves very close to the [As h  0 and GM  gR2 ]
surface of the planet
For earth R  6400km and g  9.8 m / s 2
GM GM GM
v   v  gR T  84.6 minute  1.4 hr
r Rh R
(iv) Time period of nearby satellite in terms of density of planet can
[As h  0 and GM  gR2 ] be given as

For the earth v  9.8  6.4  10 6  7.9 k m / s  8 km / sec T  2

r3
 2
R3

 
2 R 3
1/2


3
GM GM  4 3 
1/2
G 
GM G. 3 R  
(v) Close to the surface of planet v   
R
(v) If the gravitational force of attraction of the sun on the planet
n 1
2GM 1
[As v e  ] varies as F  then the time period varies as T  r 2
R rn
(vi) If there is a satellite in the equatorial plane rotating in the
ve
 v i.e., v escape  2 v orbital direction of earth’s rotation from west to east, then for an observer, on the
2 earth, angular velocity of satellite will be ( S   E ) . The time interval
It means that if the speed of a satellite orbiting close to the earth is between the two consecutive appearances overhead will be
made 2 times (or increased by 41%) then it will escape from the 2 T T  2 
T  S E  As T   
gravitational field.  s   E TE  TS  
If  S   E , T   i.e. satellite will appear stationary relative to
earth. Such satellites are called geostationary satellites.
 Gravitation 399

Height of Satellite (i) In case of satellite motion, force is central so torque = 0 and
hence angular momentum of satellite is conserved i.e., L  constant
As we know, time period of satellite
r 3
(R  h) 3
T  2  2
GM gR 2 Sun
dA v dt
g R 2T 2 r
By squaring and rearranging both sides  R  h 3
4 2 (ii) In case of satellite motion as areal velocity
Fig. 8.27
1/3 dA 1 (r)(vdt ) 1
T gR 2 2    rv
 h   
 R dt 2 dt 2
 4
2

dA L
By knowing the value of time period we can calculate the height of   [As L  mvr ]
satellite from the surface of the earth. dt 2m

Geostationary Satellite But as L  constant,  areal velocity (dA/dt) = constant which is

Kepler’s II law
The satellite which appears stationary relative to earth is called
geostationary or geosynchronous satellite, communication satellite. i.e., Kepler’s II law or constancy of areal velocity is a consequence of
A geostationary satellite always stays over the same place above the conservation of angular momentum.
earth such a satellite is never at rest. Such a satellite appears stationary due
to its zero relative velocity w.r.t. that place on earth. Energy of Satellite
The orbit of a geostationary satellite is known as the parking orbit. When a satellite revolves around a planet in its orbit, it possesses both
potential energy (due to its position against gravitational pull of earth) and
(i) It should revolve in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the
equatorial plane. kinetic energy (due to orbital motion).

(ii) Its sense of rotation should be same as that of earth about its  GMm  L2
own axis i.e., in anti-clockwise direction (from west to east). (1) Potential energy : U  mV  
r mr 2
(iii) Its period of revolution around the earth should be same as  GM 2 
 As V  r , L  m GMr
2
that of earth about its own axis.
 
 T  24 hr  86400 sec
1 GMm L2
(iv) Height of geostationary satellite (2) Kinetic energy : K  mv 2  
2 2r 2 mr 2

r3 (R  h) 3  GM 
As T  2  2  24 hr  As v  
GM GM  r 

Substituting the value of G and M we get (3) Total energy :

R  h  r  42000 km  7 R
 GMm GMm  GMm  L2
E U  K    
 height of geostationary satellite from the surface of earh r 2r 2r 2mr 2
h  6 R  36000 km (i) Kinetic energy, potential energy or total energy of a satellite
depends on the mass of the satellite and the central body and also on the
(v) Orbital velocity of geo stationary satellite can be calculated by
radius of the orbit.
GM
v (ii) From the above expressions we can say that
r
Kinetic energy (K) = – (Total energy)
Substituting the value of G and M we get Potential energy (U) = 2 (Total energy)
v  3.08 km / sec Potential energy (K) = – 2 (Kinetic energy)
Angular Momentum of Satellite (iii) Energy graph for a satellite
(iv) Energy distribution in elliptical orbit
Angular momentum of satellite L  mvr
+
GM GM
 Lm r [As v  ] Satellite
r r
r
K Perigee Focus a Apogee
 L  m GMr 2
Energy

K.E. = max K.E. = min

O P.E. = min Semi major
P.E. = max
axis
i.e., Angular momentum of satellite depends on both the mass of E r
U
orbiting and central body as well as the radius of orbit.
r min
rmax

– (B)
(A) Fig. 8.28
 400 Gravitation

Weightlessness
The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted towards
(v) If the orbit of a satellite is elliptic then the centre of earth. When a body is stationary with respect to the earth, its
weight equals the gravity. This weight of the body is known as its static or
GMm true weight.
(a) Total energy (E)   constant ; where a is semi-major
2a We become conscious of our weight, only when our weight (which is
axis . gravity) is opposed by some other object. Actually, the secret of measuring
the weight of a body with a weighing machine lies in the fact that as we
(b) Kinetic energy (K ) will be maximum when the satellite is place the body on the machine, the weighing machine opposes the weight of
closest to the central body (at perigee) and minimum when it is farthest the body. The reaction of the weighing machine to the body gives the
from the central body (at apogee) measure of the weight of the body.
(c) Potential energy (U) will be minimum when kinetic energy = The state of weightlessness can be observed in the following
situations.
maximum i.e., the satellite is closest to the central body (at perigee) and
maximum when kinetic energy = minimum i.e., the satellite is farthest from (1) When objects fall freely under gravity : For example, a lift falling
the central body (at apogee). freely, or an airship showing a feat in which it falls freely for a few seconds
during its flight, are in state of weightlessness.
(vi) Binding Energy : Total energy of a satellite in its orbit is negative.
Negative energy means that the satellite is bound to the central body by an (2) When a satellite revolves in its orbit around the earth :
attractive force and energy must be supplied to remove it from the orbit to Weightlessness poses many serious problems to the astronauts. It becomes
infinity. The energy required to remove the satellite from its orbit to infinity is quite difficult for them to control their movements. Everything in the
called Binding Energy of the system, i.e., satellite has to be kept tied down. Creation of artificial gravity is the answer
to this problem.
GMm
Binding Energy (B.E.)   E  (3) When bodies are at null points in outer space : On a body
2r
projected up, the pull of the earth goes on decreasing, but at the same time
Change in the Orbit of Satellite the gravitational pull of the moon on the body goes on increasing. At one
particular position, the two gravitational pulls may be equal and opposite
When the satellite is transferred to a higher orbit (r2  r1 ) then
and the net pull on the body becomes zero. This is zero gravity region or
variation in different quantities can be shown by the following table the null point and the body in question is said to appear weightless.
Quantities Variation Relation with r Weightlessness in a Satellite
Orbital velocity Decreases 1 A satellite, which does not produce its own gravity moves around
v the earth in a circular orbit under the action of gravity. The acceleration of
r
GM
Time period Increases satellite is 2 towards the centre of earth.
T  r3 / 2 r
Linear momentum Decreases 1 If a body of mass m placed on a surface inside a satellite moving
P around the earth. Then force on the body are
r
Angular momentum Increases Satellite
L r
ma
Kinetic energy Decreases 1 h m
K r
r
R GMm
Potential energy Increases 1
U 2 v
r Earth r

Total energy Increases 1

E
r
Binding energy Decreases 1
BE  Fig. 8.30 GMm
r (i) The gravitational pull of earth 
r2
(ii) The reaction by the surface  R
Note::  Work done in changing the orbit
GmM
W  E2  E1 By Newton’s law R m a
r2
 GMm   GMm 
W        GmM  GM 
 2r2   2r1  r2 M R m  2 
Earth
r2  r 
r1
GMm  1 1  R=0
W    
2  r1 r2 
Fig. 8.29
 Gravitation 401

Thus the surface does not exert any force on the body and hence its feels weightlessness in the artificial satellite but not on the moon.
apparent weight is zero.
 The planets are heavenly bodies revolving around the sun. The sun
A body needs no support to stay at rest in the satellite and hence all and the nine planets, revolving around it, constitute the solar system.
position are equally comfortable. Such a state is called weightlessness.
 All other planets except mercury and pluto revolve around the sun
(i) One will find it difficult to control his movement, without weight in almost circular orbits.
he will tend to float freely. To get from one spot to the other he will have
to push himself away from the walls or some other fixed objects.  If the radius of planet decreases by x% keeping the mass constant.
The acceleration due to gravity on its surface increases by 2x%.
(ii) As everything is in free fall, so objects are at rest relative to each
other, i.e., if a table is withdrawn from below an object, the object will  If the mass of a planet increases by x% keeping radius constant, the
remain where it was without any support. acceleration due to gravity on its surface increases by x%.

(iii) If a glass of water is tilted and glass is pulled out, the liquid in  If the density of the planet decreases by x%, keeping the radius
the shape of container will float and will not flow because of surface constant, the acceleration due to gravity decreases by x%.
tension.  If the radius of the planet decreases by x%, keeping the density
(iv) If one tries to strike a match, the head will light but the stick constant, the acceleration due to gravity decreases by x%.
will not burn. This is because in this situation convection currents will not  For the planets orbiting around the sun, angular speed, linear
be set up which supply oxygen for combustion
speed, kinetic energy etc. change with time but angular momentum
(v) If one tries to perform simple pendulum experiment, the remains constant.
pendulum will not oscillate. It is because there will not be any restoring
 The ratio of inertial mass to gravitational mass is 1.
torque and so T  2 (L / g )   . [As g   0 ]
 Inertial mass m becomes infinite if the body moves with velocity of
(vi) Condition of weightlessness can be experienced only when the light.
mass of satellite is negligible so that it does not produce its own gravity.  Intensity of gravitational field inside a shell is zero.
e.g. Moon is a satellite of earth but due to its own weight it applies  If two spheres of same material, mass and radius are put in contact,
gravitational force of attraction on the body placed on its surface and hence the gravitational attraction between them is directly proportional to the
weight of the body will not be equal to zero at the surface of the moon.
fourth power of their radius.
 (a) There is no atmosphere on the moon because escape velocity on
the moon is less than the rms velocity of the gas molecules.
(b) Two satellites are orbiting in circular orbits of radii r and r . Their
1 2

orbital speeds are in the ratio : v1 / v2  (r2 / r1 )

1/2
. It is independent to
their masses
 The reference frame attached to the earth is non-inertial, because
the earth revolves about its own axis as well as about the sun.  Planets describe equal area around the sun in equal intervals of
time.
 Gravity holds the atmosphere around to the earth.
 If the gravitational attraction of the sun on the planets varies as nth
 If the earth were at one fourth the present distance from the sun, power of distance (of the planet from the sun), then year of the planet
the duration of the year will be one eighth of the present year. will be proportional to R . ( n+1)/2

 If a packet is just released from an artificial satellite, it does not fall  An object will experience weightlessness at equator, if the angular
to the earth. On the other hand it will continue orbiting along with the speed of the earth about its axis becomes more than (1/800) rad s . –1

satellite.
 Orbital velocity very near the surface of the earth is about 7.92
 Astronauts orbiting around the earth cannot use a pendulum clock. kms .
–1

however, they can use spring clock

 Greater the height of the satellite, smaller is the orbital velocity.
 To the astronauts in space, the sky appears black due to the
absence of atmosphere above them.  Orbital velocity independent of the mass of the satellite.
 The gravitational force is much smaller than the electrical force  Orbital velocity is depends on the mass of the planet as well as
because the value of G is very very small. radius of the orbit.
 The dimensional formula of gravitational field is same as that of  If the altitude of the satellite is n times the radius of the earth, then
acceleration due to gravity.
the orbital velocity will be (1/ 1  n ) times the orbital velocity near the
 A body in gravitational field has maximum binding energy when it
surface of the earth.
is at rest.
 The moon is the natural satellite of the earth, but a man does not  If the radius of the orbit of a sattelite is n times the radius of the
feel weightlessness on the surface of the moon. This is because, the mass earth, then its orbital velocity will be (1/ n ) the orbital velocity near
of the moon is very large and it exerts a gravitational force on the man. the surface of the earth.
On the other hand, the mass of the artificial satellite is very small and it
exerts negligible or no gravitational force on the astronaut, so astronaut  The centripetal acceleration of the satellite is equal to the
 402 Gravitation
acceleration due to gravity.  The escape velocity from the moon is 2.4 kms . –1

 The gravitational potential energy of a satellite of mass m is  When a projectile is fired with velocity less than the escape velocity,
U p  GMm / r, where r is the radius of the orbit of satellite. the sum of its gravitational potential and kinetic energy is negati ve.

 Kinetic energy of the satellite  If ratio of the radii of two planets is r and the ratio of the
acceleration due to gravity on the their surface is a, then ratio of escape
GMm
 velocities is ar .
2r
 Total energy of the satellite  If the radius of the earth is doubled keeping the mass unchanged,
GMm GMm GMm the escape velocity will becomes (1 / 2 ) times the present value
E UK   
2r r 2r  If a body falls freely from infinite height, then it reaches the surface
 When velocity of the satellite increases, its kinetic energy increases of the earth with velocity 11.2 km/s
and hence total energy becomes less negative. That is the satellite begins  When a body falls from a height h to the surface of the earth, its
to revolve in orbit of greater radius. velocity on reaching the surface of the earth is given by
 If the total energy of the satellite becomes +ve, the satellite escapes 1/2
from the gravitational pull of the earth.   h 
  2 gR 
 When the satellite is taken to greater height the potential energy   R  h 
increases (becomes less negative) and kinetic energy decreases.
When h << R, we find : v  2 gh
 For the orbiting satellite, the kinetic energy is less than potential
energy. When KE = PE, the satellite escapes away from the gravitation  The tail of the comets points away from the sun due to the
pull of the earth. radiation pressure the sun.
 No energy is dissipated in keeping the satellite in orbit around a
planet
 Time period of the satellite very near the surface of the earth is
about 84.6 minutes or 1.4 hr.
 Geo-stationary satellite is a satellite which appear stationary to the
observers on the earth. It is also called geosynchronous satellite.
 The orbit of a geostationery satellite is known as the parking orbit.
 To throw an ant or an elephant out of the gravitational field, the
required velocity of projection is same !
 Escape velocity depends on the mass and size of the planet. That is
why escape velocity on the planet Jupiter is more than on the earth and
escape velocity on the Moon is less than that on the earth.
 If a body is orbiting around the earth, then it will escape away,
when its velocity is increased by 41.8%.
 If the radius of earth is doubled keeping the density unchanged the
escape velocity will be doubled.

 Escape velocity  2  orbital velocity.

 If the body is at a height h above the surface of the earth, then
escape velocity is given by

v es  2 g(R  h)

 It is the least velocity required by a body to escape away from the

gravitational pull of the earth.
 Escape velocity from the surface of the earth
1
 2 gR  11.20kms

 Body does not return to the earth when fired with escape velocity,
irrespective of the angle of projection