61 Physics Notes Physics: Branch of science dealing withthe interaction of matter and energy. It can be classified as classical (mechanics, thermodynamics, etc.) and modern (Cquantum’ and “relativity theory") physic. Basic and Derived Quantities > Basic Quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, luminosity > Derived Quantities: Quantties defined in terms of {wo or more of the basic quantities. Examples of which are velocity, acceleration, force and work. ‘Scalar and Vector Quantities > Scalar: Has magritude and unit only (e. speed, time, energy) > Vector: Has magnitude, unit, and direction (e.9., displacement. velocity, force and acceleration) » distance, Kinematics Motion: Change in poston of a body Distance: a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ‘ground an object has covered" during its mation Displacement: a vector quantity that refers to "how far cut of place an object is; itis the object's overall change in poston. ‘Speed (s) is the scalar quantity that measures the distance travelled (d) over time (¢). The unit used is ©. ad : rd Velocity (v) is the vector quantity that measures the displacement (d) over time (¢). The unit used is ~. a 7 ‘Acceleration (a) is the rate of change in velocity with respect to time, ay i where: Av = Yyint ~ Piieiat At = tyimat ~ facet Free-Fall > Motion along the vertical axis only > The acceleration in the y-coorcinate is due to gravity: g= 9915 > vertical distance or height (h) covered by a free-faling object: ‘A body dropped from rest ‘An object starts from rest, initial velocity is 0, falls with increasing velocity. (Acceleration and velocity have the ‘same direction.) The object will progressively increase its velocity and distance covered as it falls ‘A body thrown upward ‘An object is given an intial upward velocity vp. While in flight, the ball is pulled downward by gravity. Velocity decreases as the object goes up. There is negative acceleration or “deceleration”. (Acceleration and velocity have opposite directions.) Upon reaching the maximum height, the object will ‘The object then falls with increasing velocity. There is Positive acceleration. (Acceleration and velocity have the ‘same direction.) Projectile Motion > Mation of a body thrown horizontally and affected by Earth's gravitational pull > Trajectory is the path taken by an object in projectile motion f ree ‘The key to analyzing Projectile Motion is to treat the x- ‘and y-coordinates separately. * The acceleration in the x-coordinate is zero: + The acceleration in the y-coordinate is due to gravity: a, oa A body thrown horizontally > Notion along the vertical and horizontal axes. As an object fs thrown horizontally, an initia, horizontal force, F,& applied. Once the object is released, no more horizontal force acis ont. But it maintain its horizontal velodty, vg. This objec being’ puled. downward. by gravity, so it moves vertically downward with acceleration ue to greviy, 9 =10. “Thus, the object moves in two directions at the same ‘time, both horizontally (y-axis) and vertically (x-axis). ‘The resultant velocity is given by: \eoo? +(0,)° vp Components are obtained using trigonometric functions: LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER‘The range (1) of the projectile is given by: wheres + > vertical distance or height () covered by an object thrown horizontally gt > Time to reach the highest point or lowest point of the trajectory (half parabola): Uniform Circular Motion Consider an object of mass, m, while moving in a circular path at constant speed. The magnitude of the centripetal ‘acceleration, ac, in relabon with the angular velocity v and radius of the circular path r, is glven by a= > Forces and Interactions Force: push or pull; vector quantity. Tt is measured i unit of Newton. {tis an interaction between two bodies or between a body and its environment. Major Types of Forces Contact Forces ‘* Normal Force: It is a force exerted on an object by any surface with which it is in contact. This force is always perpendicular to the seid surfece. 2 ee ‘+ Friction Force: A force exerted on an object parallel to the surface, in the direction that ‘opposes sliding Motion Different Types of Friction Forces Beatie |FS= Fis | nora Force roto Siding? |Fa= Fam | Sis Kinetic mote =. Force E-=J Rolling Fwttr | Rolling Fore, 7T Force motion Fim 62 ‘+ Tension: The puling force exerted by a stretched Tope or cord on an abject to which itis attached. Long-range Forces * Gravitational For tracts bodies toward each other. Law of Universal Gravitation F, «G23 where G (Gravitational constant) = 667 x 10-8 St my and ny = mass of bodies r= distance between the bodies ‘+ Electromagnetic Force: Attraction or repulsion between electric charges or magnetic poles. ‘Coulomb's Law of Magnetism Freaks where k (Coulomb's constant) = 99 x 109 Nim? C-? 4, and q, = magnitudes of the charges or strength of the poles: ‘r= distance between the charges Weight: The gravitational force that the earth exerts on the body. F.. = Mass (9) where g = acceteration'aue to gravity Newton's Laws of Motion + Law of Inertia: “Bodies at rest will remain at rest ‘and bodies in motion will continue moving at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a net force’. This law implies that objects will remain at rest (or moving at a constant rate if the sum of all forces acting on them is zero. + DF =0:a o ‘+ Law of Motion and Mass (or Law of Acceleration): “an unbalanced force acting on an abject will cause the object to accelerate in the direction of the force’ ‘Acceleration is directly proportional to the net force: ‘and inversely proportional to its mass. F=ma + Law of Interaction: “For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. Stress and Strain Elasticity: Property of matter that enables it to return to its original size and shape when the applied external force is removed ‘Stress: A component of a force perpendicular to the area itacts on. Itis mathematically written as: Stress = Strain: A measure of deformation, usually it is the object's change in length, AL LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER:Hooke’s Law: Strain is directly proportional to the cause Of deformation (stress). Hence, Y Flepe where: Young’s Modulus of Elasticity the original length of the material the change in length ‘Young's modulus measures the resistance of a material to elastic (recoverable) deformation under load. {A stiff material has a high Young's modulus and changes its shape only slightly under elastic loads (e.9., diamond). A fiexible material has a low Young's modulus and ‘changes its shape considerably (e.9., rubbers). beaut: Peeve hire tng a tn are rei ‘The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) 1pa= 1 Increase in moeoder colsins causes increase posure Pressure can be exerted by fluids (gauge pressure): P= pgh Where p = density of fluid ‘9 = aravitational acceleration f= fluid height Absolute Pressure: sum of the atmospheric and gauge pressures. Pane = Paem + gH Pascal's Principle [An extemal pressure exerted on a static, enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the Mud Aa ‘Archimedes’ Principle The magnitude of buoyant force, Fo, is equal to the ‘weight of fluid displaced by the object. Fa = 10/9 y= volume of displaced fluid y= density of uid ‘po density of suomerged object Fiy= Force weight of the object ‘Object Densities Frees. Float Po

By Fy > Fa ‘Suspended Bo = by 63 Impulse and Momentum Momentum: Tendency of a moving object to continue moving and the difficulty encountered in reducing that motion Linear Momentum (3s gen by B= mo where mis mass ands veloc. The uni is kg. ‘Angular Momentum (L) is given by: [>to where 1is the moment of Inertia (product of mass and cistance from the center of rotation) and « is angular velocity Impulse ())of a force on an object for a time tis: "at I ‘The unitis Ns. Its also given by the change in momentiim: ami This states that the sum of the impulses of all forces acting on an object for a certain time is equal to the ‘change in momentum of the object during that time, Conservation of Momentum IF no external force (like friction) acts on a body, the momentum of the body will not change. In any type of colision (elastic or inelastic), the total momentum is always conserved ‘The law of conservation of momentum states that: ‘my V4, + Mz V2, = My V4, + M2 V2, ‘Work, Power and Mechanical Energy Work: measure of energy transfer done when 2 force ‘causes displacement. The unit of work is joule. W = Fx Power: the rate at which work is done; expressed in Watt. aw Paar Torque: a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate “The unit of torque is Nem, not Joule since torque is not an ‘energy quantity. rare LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERMechanical Energy Kinetic Energy: energy of an object due to its movement + its motion. KE where m = mass and v = velocity Potential Energy: energy stored in an abject due to its position or arrangement. Gravitational Potential Energy PE = mgh where m = mass of the object, g = 991%, and h = height of the object Elastic Potential Energy PE = ke here k ~ clastic constont, x = aisplocement Conservation of Mechanical Energy KE, + PE; ~ KE, + PE 3 mot + mghy = Smnt+mghz Wave and Energy Energy Transfer + Waves are classified as mechanical and electromagnetic waves. They either move in circular or straight motion. + There are two types of waves: © Transverse - Movement of the particles of the medium are perpendicuiar to the direction of the wave motion. © Longitudinal - Movement is paralel to the direction of the wave. + Waves have different characteristics © Wavelength: Distance between two corresponding points on a wave train. © Wave Frequency: Expressed in hertz which corresponds to the number of times the wave ‘source completes a vibration in one second. ‘© Period: Time it takes the wave source to make ‘one complete vibration. It is the reciprocal of frequency. © Amplitude: Highest or lowest displacement from @ Wave's equilibrium position. Increase in ‘amplitude causes a transfer of more energy. © Speed: Directly proportional to frequency and wavelength, =f Doppler Effect ‘Occurs when the speed of the wave is greater than the speed of the source. ‘Overview: Sound vs. Light Sound Waves Light Waves Longitudinal Transverse Mechanical Electromagnetic Propagated with medium | Can be propagated without 2 medium (vacuum) ‘Gas (slowest Gas (fastest) Liquid Liquid ‘Solid (Fastest) Solie( slowest) 6a Sound Characteristics of Sound Waves © Intensity: loudness (amplitude) © Pitch: Highness or lowness of sound (frequency) Light Reflection in Plane Mirrors ‘The image is reversed in a plane mirror. The virtual image is of the same size as the object in front of the mirror. Reflection in Curved Mirrors. ‘A curved mirror has a vertex V, a center of curvature c, ‘and a principal focus F, The focal length, fis the distance from V to F. ‘Summary of Lens and Mirrors ‘Type of Image Diverging Mirror | Convex Mirror | Virtual, Upright Reduced [-Diveraina Lens | Concave Lens Converging Mior | Concave Virtual Upright Enlarged Mirror Real Inverted Enlarged Converging Lens | Convex Lens] RealjInverted,Same size Real Inverted,Reduced Convex Mirror Concave Lens Concave Mirror Convex Lens ‘Additional notes ‘+ When object is placed at an infinite distance, image is a point at F. + When object is placed at F, the image is at infinity. Tt will be perceived as a point in space. Application of Convex Mirrors. Convex Mirror Uses: Inside Buildings Large hosptals, sores and oftee bulkings often se convex mirrors to allow people to see what is ‘around 2 corner to help keep people from running Into one another. Convex Mirror Uses: Vehicles ‘* Convex mirrors are often found on the passenger sides of motor vehicles. These mirrors make objects ‘appear smaller than they really are. Due to this ‘compression, these mitrors to reflect a wider image area, oF field of vision. Convex Mirror Uses: Magnifying Glass ‘© Two convex mirrors placed back-to-back are used to make a magnifying glass. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER‘Application of Concave Mirrors ‘Concave Mirror Uses: Vehicle ‘© Concave mirrors are used in vehicle headlights to focus the light from the headlight. The light is not as diffused, and the driver can see better at night. Concave Mirror Uses: Light Concentration ‘* Concave mirrors are used to focus light for heating urposes.(2.g. solar cooker) Application of Lens Convex Lens Uses: Eye defects ‘Convex lens is used in eyeglass prescribed for individuals with hyperopia (farsightedness). Concave Lens Uses: Eye defects ‘© Convex lens is used in eyeglass prescribed for Individuals with myopia (near-sightedness). Refraction Bending of light at the boundary between afferent medi. The index of refraction i as where n = index of refraction, ¢ = speed of ight (3% 10"), and v= speed of ght nthe medium Law of Reflection ~ “It states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.” = Insymbols, @.= @ where: ©'— angle of incidence ©,~ angle of reflection The normal ine is always drawn perpendicular with the reflecting surface, Angle of incidence and reflection is. measured from the normal lin, Multiple Reflection of Light When light hits reflecting surfaces several times, multiple images will be formed. Ifthe angle between two reflecting surfaces such as mirror decreases, the number of images formed increases, To determine Ure munber of inayes that can be formed between two mirrors hinged together at an angle is| rumsero mages = 2 vine = rl tetveen nino Refraction of ight Light bends when it travels obliquely from one transparent medium to another. Light is bent toward or avy from the Normal as it changes its speed when traveling through different optical media. A measure of how fast or slow light travels from one medium to another is called the Index of refraction (optical density). index of refraction(n) speed of light in a vacuum Speed of light na.given medium Index of refraction is a dimensionless quantity, and its value is always greater or equal to 1 since light travels fastest in a vacuum than any other media. When the first medium has greater index of refraction than the second 65 medium, light bends away from the normal. If medium 2 is Genser than mecium 1, light bends towards the normal. Snell's law is the basic law of refraction that shows the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction 1 sind, = m,sin0, Where, ny ~ index of refraction ofthe first medium 1 index of refraction of the second medium (8; — angle of incidence 2 angle of refraction Interference of Light Interference of wave is the meeting or superimposing of fone wave on another wave. ‘Types of interference: + Constructive Interference ~ At points where the waves arrive in phase. When a crest meets another crest or a ‘trough meets another trough (waves are in phase), the resulting wave is being reinforced forming a supercrest cr supertrough. + Destructive Interference ~ At points where the waves arrive in opposite phase. The meeting of waves with the same amplitude which are out of phase (crest ‘meets trough) resulted to a cancellation of wave. ‘Sign Conventions for Mirrors and Lenses scription of Image Viral or Fecal Erector vength | RS, | _nvertea | Seme/Men/Dim Real (positive | tmverted | oe ion Conversing | a). | (negatve ny | Same (t=) (| vituat | erect | Het? 8 (negative | (positive h) d) Witual Diverging | (Mitel | erect | im onc © | CRM | (oostve ny | Dem = D Eye Defects Farsightedness (Hyperopia): is the inablity to see nearby objects clearly. Since the images is formed behind the retina, 2 converging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to focus the image on the retina, the converging lens refracts more the incoming rays toward the principal axis before entering the eye, Nearsightedness (Myopia): is the inability to see far objects clearly. Since the image is formed in front of the retina, a diverging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to focus the image on the retina, the diverging lens refracts more the incoming rays towerd the principal axis before entering the eye. Light and Colors White light is not a color rather it is the presence of all frequencies of visible light wihile Black is the absence of the visible light spectrum. White is capable of reflecting all visible light spectrum and black Is capable of absorbing all Visible light spectrum and converted it to heat energy. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERWhen the colors of light with varying degrees of intensity ‘are mixed/added, another color will be produced, Primary Colors of Light Secondary Colors of Light 1. Red (R) 1. Yellow (Y) =R +6 2. Blue (8) 2 cyan (C) = +6 3. Green (G) 3. Magenta (M) = B +R White light can also be formed when the three primary colors with same intensity are added. W=R+B4+G ‘Complementary Colors of Light 1. Red + Cyan = White 2. Green + Magenta = White 3. Blue + Yellow = White ‘The color of objects is not in the object but rather in the light which reflects off or transmits through the object. In ccolor subtraction, the ultimate color appearance of an ‘object is determined by beginning with a single color or mixture of colors and identifying which color or colors of light are subtracted from the original set. W-B = (R+G+8)-B8 R+G=¥ ‘The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the White light. The object appears Yellow to the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy. R-B=R The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the Red light. The object appears Red to the observer since blue light cannot be cancelled and transformed to heat energy from Red light. M-B (R+B)-B R ‘The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the Magenta light. The object appears Red to the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy. Electromagnetic Wave Electromagnetic waves consist of a changing electric field ‘and a changing magnetic field. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) theorized that electromagnetic induction happens in space even without the presence of a conductor. Electromagnetic Spectrum LAKRRARA een - tre | oO fe | SIBLE SPECTRUM RO ¥Y @ BI Vv he" 66 Nature of Matter and Energy ‘The photon’s having energy and momentum is expressed ye a B=hf where A=Planck’s constant (6.63x10%J-s) ‘and f= frequency @ p where p = momentum, A= wavelength and c= speed of light Radioactivity ‘The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nuclei of atoms of certain substances termed as. radicactive. Radiation is of three main types: alpha (fast-moving holium nucle; beta (fact moving electron); gamma (high-energy, highly penetrating protons). Beta and ‘gamma radiation are both damaging to body tissues but ‘are especially dangerous if a radioactive substance is, ingested or inhaled. When radiation takes place, there is loss of energy. Magnetic Fi Magnetic field is a region in space where the magnet affects another magnet. Magnetic fields can affect current= ‘carrying conductors and moving charges in vacuum. ‘On Current- Carrying Conductors If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, moves to a direction at right angle to both the direction of Tand B Magnetic Force: Magnetic force (F) is maximized when current I and magnetic field directions are perpendicular tp each other. The magnitude of the force F depends on the following: a) Current (1); b) Strength of magnetic field (B); ©) Length of the conductor that lies in magnetic feld(L). {In equation, magnetic force is: FOB tek ‘on moving Charges in Vacuum Peas here: a = no of charges; v = vlocty = £ Electromagnetic Induction Current is induced when a conductor moves across a magnetic field or when a magnetic field moves with respect to a stationary conductor. Factors of Induced Current ‘© Relative velocity of the conductor and magnetic fields ‘©The strength of the magnetic field. ‘+ Lenath of the conductor in the field © Current is produced when 2 potential difference between two points in a circuit exis. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER‘+ Can magnetism induce current? This is shown by the following equation. Venn Note that the current () is proportional to voltage (V). ‘Thus, as current increases, v, B, and L increases. yi 7 ‘The induced voltage is numerically equal to the rate of cchange of the magnetic flux. As the flux changes, current is induced. Electricity Electromagnetic Energy Any arrangement of materials that permits electrons to flow. It is composed of ‘a source of electrical energy, load, and connecting wires. Electric Current: The net flow changes along a material ‘The unit used Is ampere. The electron charge’s unit Is, ‘coulomb. In equation form, electric current is: Tod where I = electric current, q = number of charges passing through a perpendicular cross section of a conductor, and t= time ampere = 1 St 6.3 x 10"* electrons pass a cross-section of a conductor in 1 second. Voltage: Potential diference between points when work is done to move charge between points. The unit is. In equation form, w ve @ Resistance: Tendency of the unit to resist the passage of electric current. The unit is ohm (2). Ohm's Law Current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. V=IR where V = voltage, I = current, and R = resistance ‘Note: Ohm's law applies only to metallic conductors and Not to transistors or electrolytes. Factors of Wire Resistance ‘© Length of Material: Longer path for electric current results to greater resistance © Wire Diameter: Greater cross-sectional area of ‘conductor results to lesser resistance. © Kind of Material © Temperature: Higher temperature results to ‘greater resistance. © Resistivity: Ablity of the substance to conduct ‘electric current. The resistance is equal to the product of resistivity and length of wire divided by its cross-sectional area, 1k ae where L = length of conductor and A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, and p (rho) = resistivity of the material. 67 Electrical Power and Energy Pawar Tart: Rate at which an anplianre vss 1 electrical energy. It is measured in watts. PaVI Circuits Series Circuits: Current passes to only one route from the source through the several loads and back to the source. The current is the same in every part of the circuit Parallel Circuits: General loads are connected to the ‘same voltage source and current is divided among these loads. Series Parallel Voltage () Vat V2 ou Vn Current iy) Resistance (Rr) Rie Ratt Re Diagram LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER: