LESSON 13 CC102

LESSON PROPER

Array is a kind of data structure that can store a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same
type. An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an array as a
collection of variables of the same type.

Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number0, number1, ..., and number99, you declare one
array variable such as numbers and use numbers[0], numbers[1], and ..., numbers[99] to represent
individual variables. A specific element in an array is accessed by an index.

All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address corresponds to the first element
and the highest address to the last element.

To declare an array in C, a programmer specifies the type of the elements and the number of elements
required by an array as follows − 

type arrayName [ arraySize ]; 

This is called a single-dimensional array. The arraySize must be an integer constant greater than zero and
type can be any valid C data type. For example, to declare a 10-element array called balance of type
double, use this statement − 

double balance[10]; 

Here balance is a variable array which is sufficient to hold up to 10 double numbers. 

Initializing Arrays 

You can initialize an array in C either one by one or using a single statement as follows − 

double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 7.0, 50.0}; 

The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of elements that we declare
for the array between square brackets [ ]. 

If you omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the initialization is created. Therefore, if
you write − 

double balance[] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 7.0, 50.0};

You will create exactly the same array as you did in the previous example. Following is an example to
assign a single element of the array − 

balance[4] = 50.0; 
The above statement assigns the 5th element in the array with a value of 50.0. All arrays have 0 as the
index of their first element which is also called the base index and the last index of an array will be total
size of the array minus 1. Shown below is the pictorial representation of the array we discussed above −

Accessing Array Elements

An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by placing the index of the element
within square brackets after the name of the array. For example −

double salary = balance[9];

The above statement will take the 10th element from the array and assign the value to salary variable.
The following example Shows how to use all the three above mentioned concepts viz. declaration,
assignment, and accessing arrays −

LESSON 13 CC101
DECIMAL TO BINARY

Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the number by 2 while recording
the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

The remainders are to be read from bottom to top to obtain the binary equivalent.

4310 = 1010112

Decimal to Octal

Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 8 while recording the
remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

Reading the remainders from bottom to top,

47310 = 7318

Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 16 while recording
the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

Reading the remainders from bottom to top we get,

42310 = 1A716

Binary to Octal and Vice Versa

To convert a binary number to octal number, these steps are followed −

· Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of three bits.

· If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after the most significant bit

· Convert each group into its equivalent octal number

Let’s take an example to understand this.

101100101012 = 26258

To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit binary equivalent according
to this table.

Octal Digit

Binary Equivalent

000

001

010

011

100

101

110

111

546738 = 1011001101110112
Binary to Hexadecimal

To convert a binary number to hexadecimal number, these steps are followed −

· Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of four bits.

· If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after the most significant bit.

· Convert each group into its equivalent octal number.

Let’s take an example to understand this.

101101101012 = DB516

To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit binary equivalent.

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. We'll demonstrate here the following −

· Decimal to Other Base System

· Other Base System to Decimal

· Other Base System to Non-Decimal

· Shortcut method − Binary to Octal

· Shortcut method − Octal to Binary

· Shortcut method − Binary to Hexadecimal

· Shortcut method − Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Steps

· Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

· Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base
number.

· Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

· Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base number.
Example −

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step

Operation

Result

Remainder

Step 1

29 / 2

14

Step 2

14 / 2

Step 3

7/2

Step 4

3/2

Step 5

1/2
0

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first
remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most
Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number − 2910 = Binary Number − 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Steps

· Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of
the digit and the base of the number system).

· Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.

· Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example

Binary Number − 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

111012

((1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10

Step 2

111012

(16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3

111012
2910

Binary Number − 111012 = Decimal Number − 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Steps

· Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

· Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number − 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 − Convert to Decimal

Step

Octal Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

258

((2 × 81) + (5 × 80))10

Step 2

258

(16 + 5 )10

Step 3

258

2110

Octal Number − 258 = Decimal Number − 2110

Step 2 − Convert Decimal to Binary

Step
Operation

Result

Remainder

Step 1

21 / 2

10

Step 2

10 / 2

Step 3

5/2

Step 4

2/2

Step 5

1/2

Decimal Number − 2110 = Binary Number − 101012

Octal Number − 258 = Binary Number − 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Steps

· Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

· Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example

Binary Number − 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step

Binary Number

Octal Number

Step 1

101012

010 101

Step 2

101012

28 58

Step 3

101012

258

Binary Number − 101012 = Octal Number − 258

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Steps

· Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).

· Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
Octal Number − 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step

Octal Number

Binary Number

Step 1

258

210 510

Step 2

258

0102 1012

Step 3

258

0101012

Octal Number − 258 = Binary Number − 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps

· Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

· Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example

Binary Number − 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step

Binary Number

Hexadecimal Number
Step 1

101012

0001 0101

Step 2

101012

110 510

Step 3

101012

1516

Binary Number − 101012 = Hexadecimal Number − 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Steps

· Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).
· Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

Hexadecimal Number − 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step

Hexadecimal Number

Binary Number

Step 1

1516

110 510

Step 2

1516

00012 01012
Step 3

1516

000101012

Hexadecimal Number − 1516 = Binary Number − 101012

LESSON 13 KOMFIL
Ito ay pagtutulungan ng mga bansa sa buong mundo upang malayang makaikot ang mga produkto at
serbisyo ng bawat bansa. Layunin nito na higit pang pagkaisahin ang mga bansa sa mundo, magkaroon
ng malayang kalakaran sa negosyo, teknolohiya imprastraktura at mga kompanya.

POSITIBONG EPEKTO NG GLOBALISASYON

Dumarami ang pasok ng mga banyagang mangangalakal

Mas maraming mangangalakal at investement ibig sabihin mas maraming trabaho para sa masang
Pilipino

Higit na mapadali ang pakikipag-ugnayan sa mga karatig bansa at sa mga mamamayan nito.

NEGATIBONG EPEKTO NG GLOBALISASYON

Naging talamak ang pribatisasyon, deregulaasyon, at Kontraktuwaliasyon.

Lalong tumaas ang presyo ng lahat ng bilihin

Ang bayarin sa tubig, kuryente mas tumaas dahil sa naisapribado na.

Mabilis ang pasok ng kompanya, naging Malaya ang mga ito sa pang-aabuso sa yamang-mineral sa bansa
at pang-aabuso sa ating likas yaman at lakas-paggawa.

LIPUNANG PILIPINO SA PANAHON NG GLOBALISASYON

Dahil sa layuning makasabay ang bansa sa pandaigdigang kompetisyon, marami ang isinakripisyo
ng gobyerno, kasama na rito ang kalagayan ng maralitang manggagawa at ng lipunang Pilipino. Sa loob
ng maraming taon, hindi nabawasan kundi lalo lamang lumala ang paghihirap ng lipunang Pilipino sa
iba’t ibang aspekto partikular na sa pagkilala ng gobyerno sa iba’t ibang karapatang pantao. Ito’y bunsod
ng pagpasok ng mga dayuhang kompanya sa bansa na nagresulta ng kompetisyon sa pagitan ng lokal at
ng mga inaangkat na produkto. Mas nanaig ang dayuhang kompanya dahil sa murang halaga ng mga
produkto kumpara sa lokal.

DISLOKASYON SA PAMBANSANG MINORYA

ASIA PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION (APEC) - Ito ang nilahukan o sinalihan ng Pilipinas noong 1989 na
naging dahilan upang magkaroon ng patakarang liberalisasyon, Deregulasyon, at pribatisasyon sa mga
negosyo.

ANG MGA LUMAD SA DAVAO - Sila ang direktang naapektuhan sa iregularidad ng gobyerno, sinasabing
sinunog ng military ang kanilang paaralan at mga bahay, pinatay ang mga guro, ninakaw ang mga
pananim at sinira ang kanilang kabuhayan. Sapagkat ang kanilang paaralan ay pinatakbo ng di umano ng
NPA at suportado ito ng kanilang komunidad ng NPA.

MGA URI NG MANGGAGAWA

Pangulong Elpidio Quirino - R.A 602 (1951) Minimum Wage Law - Dito nagkaroon ng siwang ng liwanag
ang mga manggagawa.

Pangulong Ferdinand Marcos - R.A. 6135 (1970) - Export Incentives Act, R.A 5186 (1976)

Investment incentives Act, PD 66 (1972), Creating Export processing Zone Authority, Batas na Neoliberal
pabor sa mga dayuhang kapitalista

Pangulong Corazon Aquino- R.A. 6272 (1989)- Wage Rationalization Act -Metro Manila Wage Rate
VSProvincial Wage Rate, R.A. 6758 (1989) Compensation and Position Classification Act. - Salary Grade
(SG)

R.A 6272 – Wage Rationalization Act nilalayon ng batas na ito ang pagtatalaga ng Regional boards ng
minimum wage rates para sa mga magagawa na sakop ng pribadong sektor.

R.A 6758 – (1989) Compensation and Position Classification Act , ay ang pagtatalaga ng salary grade (SG)
sa mga kawani ng gobyerno. Nakadepende ang sahod ng bawat kawani sa kanyang ranggo o posisyon.

KONTRAKTUWALISASYON

Panahon ng Espanyol - Cabo / negosydor (Manpower/Agency sa kasalukuyan)- na nagdala sa mga

manggagawa sa mga kompanya na ang trabaho ay pakyawan o kontrata lang.

1997- Nang ipatupad ni Noo’y Department of Labor and employment (DOLE) Secretary Leonardo
Quisimbing ang D.O 10, na pinapayagan ang kontrakwalisasyon lalo na kung ito ay “permissible” o kapag
ang trabaho ay seasonal (mall) o pakyawan (pabrika o mga pagawaan)

5-5-5 / ENDO - Pagtatanggal ng karapatan sa mga manggagawa na makakuha ng benepisyo, maging

regular at magtatag ng union upang isulong ang kanilang mga karapatan.
IBON Foundation (2016) 2010- 2016 nasa higit 780 ng kaso ang paglabag sa karapatan ng mga
manggagawa na nakaapekto sa 20,000 indibidwal.

JEEPNEY PHASE OUT

Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program layunin ng programang ito ang pagpapalit sa mga Lumang
pampublikong sasakyan na maging “environmental friendly’’

E-Jeep (Electronic Jeep) Mga makabagong sasakyang na nais ilunsad ng Pamahalaan

TRAIN LAW

Ang Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion ay ang pagbabago ng lumang sistema ng buwis sa ating
bansa.Kasama dito ang reporma sa tax administration, at pagpapalakas ng economic at social benefits
para sa mga mamamayan.

Ang mga produktong ginagamitan ng asukal ay papatawan ng dagdag na buwis gayundin ang mga alak at
tabako ay kasama sa papatawan ng buwis na taon taon.

Layunin ng Tax Reform na iangat ang Pilipinas sa middle-income economy. Ito’y magbibigay ng 206
bilyong peso na ponpondo sa mga plano ng gobyerno. Kasama ditto ang pagpapaunlad ng infrastructure,
education, health social protection, at iba pa..

KAHIRAPAN

Kodisyon ng tao kung saan mayroon siyang kakulangan sa mga pangunahing pangangailangan tulad ng
pagkain at tubig.

Ayon sa ginawang sarbey ng Social ng Social Weather Stataions (SWS) noong Ika 23-27 ng Marso 2018,
42% ang nagsabing salf-rated poverty, tinatayang 9.8 milyong pamilya na mas mababa kumpara sa
lumabas na sarbey noong Disyembre 2017 na 44% na tinatayang 10 milyong pamilya.

DAHILAN NG KAHIRAPAN

Imperyalismo - Ito ang pagsakop sa atin ng mga dayuhan sa loob ng ilang mga taon at nagdulot kung
bakit mahirap ang ating bansa.

Korapsyon - Ang walang habas na pagnanakaw ng pera sa kaban ng bayan ang isa sa mga dahilan ng
kahirapan. Mga pinunong inaabuso ang kapangyarihan at garapalan pa kung mangurakot. Ang mga buwis
na para sana sa mga mamamayan ay napupunta lamang sa bulsa ng iilang manunungkulan.

Pyudalismo - Patuloy na pagkamkam at pagdadamot ng mga lupang sakahan sa mga magsasaka sa

bansa. Sa lipunan nating mayayaman ang nagdidikta walang magawa ang mga mahihirap kundi ang
magin sunod-sunuran na lamang

Comprehensive Reform Program, ito ay reporma sa lupa kung saan hindi parin ito sapat kaya
naman hindi pa tuluyang naibabahagi ang mga lupang para sa mga magsasakang walang lupang
pagmamay-ari.

Kawalang Disiplina ng mga tao - Ang kawalang disiplina ang pinakadahilan sa kahirapan. Sa tahanan pa
lamang ay mapapansin na ang kawalang paggalang ng mga kabataan sa nakatatanda, na nagdadala sa
lipunang hanggang sa kumalat. Kaya ang pagsunod sa mga simpleng batas ay hindi kayang sundin,
katulad ng pagtawid sa tamang tawiran, pagtapon ng tamang basurahan at hindi paggamit ng sasakyan
kapag coding.

MALNUTRISYON

Ayon sa WHO (World Health Organization) ang malnutrisyon ay ang kakulangan, kalabisan at di
balanseng pagkonsumo ng enerhiya o nutrisyon sa ating pangangatawan.

UNDERNUTRITION- “Wasting” ito ang mga batang mababa sa timbang para sa kanilang taas .”stunting” o
pagkabansot kumpara sa edad.

UNDERWEIGHT- Masyadong mababa ang timbang para sa kanyang edad.

MICRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCY – Kakulangan sa mga mahahalagang bitamina at mineral

OVERWEIGHT – Labis na micronutrient at sobra sa timbang

OBESITY - Labis na katabaan, at mga di-pangkaraniwang sakit na may kaugnayan sa diyeta.

SEGURIDAD SA PAGKAIN

Isang kondisyon na may kaugnayan sa suplay ng pagkain, at ang pag-access ng mga indibidwal dito. May
katibayan ng mga kamalig na ginagamit sa mahigit 10,000 taon na ang nakalilipas, na may mga sentral na
awtoridad sa mga sibilisasyon kabilang ang sinaunang Tsina at sinaunang Ehipto na kilala na naglabas ng
pagkain mula sa pag-imbak sa mga panahon ng taggutom

Noong ika-16 ng Oktubre 2017 ay nagmartsa sa Mendiola Bridge ang mga magsasaka para sa mga pag-
alaala sa 72nd year ng deklarasyong ng World Food Day ng United Nations (UN) na sinalungat ng mga
magsasaka bilang “World Hunger Day” dahil hanggang ngayon ay wala pa rin silang sariling sinasaka at
ang pangako para sa pagsugpo ng kahirapan.

LESSON 13 NSTP
First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person suffering from either a minor or serious
illness or injury with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote
recovery. It includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help being
available, such as performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) while waiting for an ambulance, as
well as the complete treatment of minor conditions, such as applying a plaster to a cut. First aid is
generally performed by someone with basic medical training. Mental health first aid is an extension of
the concept of first aid to cover mental health, while psychological first aid is used as early treatment of
people who are at risk for developing PTSD.
There are many situations which may require first aid, and many countries have legislation, regulation, or
guidance which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain circumstances. This can include
specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace (such as an automated external
defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings, or mandatory first aid training
within schools. First aid, however, does not necessarily require any particular equipment or prior
knowledge, and can involve improvisation with materials available at the time, often by untrained
people.

Learning basic first aid techniques can help you cope with an emergency. You may be able to keep a
person breathing, reduce their pain or minimize the consequences of injury or sudden illness until an
ambulance arrives. This could mean the difference between life and death for them. It is a good idea to
take a first aid course so that you can recognize an emergency and give basic first aid until professional
help arrives.

Types of first aid which require training

There are several types of first aid (and first aider) which require specific additional training. These are
usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken.

Aquatic/Marine first aid

is usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards, professional mariners or in diver rescue, and
covers the specific problems which may be faced after water-based rescue or delayed MedEvac.

Battlefield first aid

takes into account the specific needs of treating wounded combatants and noncombatants during armed
conflict.

Conflict First Aid

focuses on support for stability and recovery of personal, social, group or system wellbeing and to
address circumstantial safety needs. Shown here is an example of a way for people to practice CPR in a
safe and reliable manner.

Hyperbaric first aid

may be practiced by underwater diving professionals, who need to treat conditions such as
decompression sickness.

Oxygen first aid

is the providing of oxygen to casualties who suffer from conditions resulting in hypoxia. It is also a
standard first aid procedure for underwater diving incidents where gas bubble formation in the tissues is
possible.

Wilderness first aid

is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the
evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available
persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days.

Mental health first aid

is taught independently of physical first aid. How to support someone experiencing a mental health
problem or in a crisis situation. Also how to identify the first signs of someone developing mental ill
health and guide people towards appropriate help.

Learn the first aid method of DRSABCD

First aid is as easy as ABC – airway, breathing and CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation). In any situation,
apply the DRSABCD Action Plan.

DRSABCD stands for:

Danger 

always check the danger to you, any bystanders and then the injured or ill person. Make sure you do not
put yourself in danger when going to the assistance of another person.

Response 

is the person conscious? Do they respond when you talk to them, touch their hands or squeeze their
shoulder?

Send for help 

Call 911. Don’t forget to answer the questions asked by the operator.

Airway

Is the person’s airway clear? Is the person breathing? If the person is responding, they are conscious and
their airway is clear, assess how you can help them with any injury. If the person is not responding and
they are unconscious, you need to check their airway by opening their mouth and having a look inside. If
their mouth is clear, tilt their head gently back (by lifting their chin) and check for breathing. If the mouth
is not clear, place the person on their side, open their mouth and clear the contents, then tilt the head
back and check for breathing.

Breathing 

check for breathing by looking for chest movements (up and down). Listen by putting your ear near to
their mouth and nose. Feel for breathing by putting your hand on the lower part of their chest. If the
person is unconscious but breathing, turn them onto their side, carefully ensuring that you keep their
head, neck and spine in alignment. Monitor their breathing until you hand over to the ambulance
officers.
CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) 

if an adult is unconscious and not breathing, make sure they are flat on their back and then place the
heel of one hand in the center of their chest and your other hand on top. Press down firmly and
smoothly (compressing to one third of their chest depth) 30 times. Give two breaths. To get the breath
in, tilt their head back gently by lifting their chin. Pinch their nostrils closed, place your open mouth
firmly over their open mouth and blow firmly into their mouth. Keep going with the 30 compressions
and two breaths at the speed of approximately five repeats in two minutes until you hand over to the
ambulance officers or another trained person, or until the person you are resuscitating responds. The
method for CPR for children under eight and babies is very similar and you can learn these skills in a CPR
course.

Defibrillator 

for unconscious adults who are not breathing, apply an automated external defibrillator (AED) if one is
available. They are available in many public places, clubs and organizations. An AED is a machine that
delivers an electrical shock to cancel any irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), in an effort get the normal
heart beating to re-establish itself. The devices are very simple to operate. Just follow the instructions
and pictures on the machine, and on the package of the pads, as well as the voice prompts. If the person
responds to defibrillation, turn them onto their side and tilt their head to maintain their airway. Some
AEDs may not be suitable for children.

OBJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AID

to prolong life

to prevent added injury or danger

to prevent suffering or death

to train people to do the proper thing at the right time

to provide proper treatment when emergency occurs

QUALITIES OF A GOOD FIRST AIDER

Gentle: He should not cause pain in handling the victim

Observant: He should notice all signs in the body of the victim

Resourceful: He should make the best use things at hand

Sympathetic: He should know how to comfort the victim

Tactful: He should not alarm the patient as it may cause a nervous breakdown

Cheerful: If the person has a happy expression, he can inspire confidence in the victim
NINE GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR FIRST AIDERS

Adjust the proper position of the victim.

Examine the victim.

Give immediately needed first aid.

Maintain the victim's body temperature.

Call a doctor.

Keep curious people away.

Make the victim happy and comfortable.

proper and comfortable transportation should be given to the victim together with tender loving care.

Don't give any liquid to an unconscious victim.

GUIDELINES FOR GIVING EMERGENCY CARE

A. Getting Started

Planning of action

Gathering of necessary materials

Initial respond as follows: (A-I-D)

a. Ask for help

b. Intervene

c. Do no further harm

Instruct helper

B. Emergency Action Principles (EAP)

Survey the scene

Do a primary survey of the victim.

Arrange for transport facility

Do a secondary survey of the victim.

C. Check for the vital body function or the ABC’s

Airways

 Is the victim conscious?

 If conscious assess as described in B.

 If unconscious, start immediately airway management (Open airway)

Breathing

 Is the victim breathing?

 If the breathing is breathing, is it shallow or deep?

 Does he/she appear to be choking

 Is he/she cyanotic, suggesting poor oxygenation

 If the victim is not breathing, provide initial ventilation

 Remember: LLF …… Look, Listen and Feel for breathing

CIRCULATION

 Is the victim hearth beating?

 Id pulseless, perform CPR

 Is the victim severely bleeding?

 If he/she is, control bleeding

THREE DETAILS TO SAY WHEN CALLING FOR A DOCTOR

Say your name clearly and tell directly your needed assistance

Exact place where the accident happened, give the landmarks so that the place can be located easily

Explain exactly what happened.

YOUR BASIC FIRST AID KIT

A basic first aid kit may contain:

o plasters in a variety of different sizes and shapes

o small, medium and large sterile gauze dressings

o at least 2 sterile eye dressings

o triangular bandages

o crêpe rolled bandages

o safety pins

o disposable sterile gloves

o tweezers

o scissors

o alcohol-free cleansing wipes

o sticky tape

o thermometer (preferably digital)

o skin rash cream, such as hydrocortisone or calendula

o cream or spray to relieve insect bites and stings

o antiseptic cream

o painkillers such as paracetamol (or infant paracetamol for children), aspirin (not to be given to children
under 16), or ibuprofen

o cough medicine

o antihistamine cream or tablets

o distilled water for cleaning wounds

o eye wash and eye bath

It may also be useful to keep a basic first aid manual or instruction booklet with your first aid kit.

Medicines should be checked regularly to make sure they're within their use-by dates.

CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure that combines chest compressions

often with artificial ventilation in an effort to manually preserve intact brain function until further
measures are taken to restore spontaneous blood circulation and breathing in a person who is in cardiac
arrest. It is recommended in those who are unresponsive with no breathing or abnormal breathing, for
example, agonal respirations.

CPR is very useful for those who become unresponsive with no breathing or abnormal breathing. Below
mentioned are some of the important CPR techniques, have a look:
High-Frequency Chest Compressions:

High-Frequency Chest Compressions is an important CPR technique that helps to improve resuscitation
from cardiac arrest.

Open-Chest CPR:

Open chest CPR is a technique in which the heart is accessed through a thoracotomy. Compressions are
performed using the thumb and fingers, or with the palm and extended fingers against the sternum. This
technique helps to generates forward blood flow and coronary perfusion pressure.

Interposed Abdominal Compression CPR:

Interposed Abdominal Compression or IAC CPR is basically a 3-rescuer technique-an abdominal

compressor, the chest compressor and the rescuer providing ventilations. This technique includes,
conventional chest compressions combined with alternating abdominal compressions. The IAC CPR helps
to increases diastolic aortic pressure and venous return, leading to improved coronary perfusion
pressure and blood flow to other vital organs.

CPR 101: THESE ARE THE CPR STEPS EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW

If a person is not breathing, his heartbeat will stop. Do CPR (chest compressions and rescue breaths) to
help circulation and get oxygen into the body. (Early use of an AED—an automated external defibrillator
—if one is available, can restart a heart with an abnormal rhythm.

First, open a person’s airway to check if they are breathing (don’t begin CPR if a patient is breathing
normally). Then, get help. If you are not alone, send someone to call for help as soon as you have
checked breathing. Ask the person to come back and confirm that the call has been made. (Check out
these emergency first-aid kit essentials.)

Position your hand (above). Make sure the patient is lying on his back on a firm surface. Kneel beside him
and place the heel of your hand on the centre of the chest.

Interlock fingers (above). Keeping your arms straight, cover the first hand with the heel of your other
hand and interlock the fingers of both hands together. Keep your fingers raised so they do not touch the
patient’s chest or rib cage.

Give chest compressions (above). Lean forward so that your shoulders are directly over the patient’s
chest and press down on the chest about two inches. Release the pressure, but not your hands, and let
the chest come back up.

Open the airway (above). Move to the patient’s head. Tilt his head and lift his chin to open the airway
again. Let his mouth fall open slightly.

Give rescue breaths (above). Pinch the nostrils closed with the hand that was on the forehead and
support the patient’s chin with your other hand. Take a normal breath, put your mouth over the
patient’s, and blow until you can see his chest rise.

Watch chest fall. Remove your mouth from the patient’s and look along the chest, watching the chest
fall. Repeat steps five and six once.

Repeat chest compressions and rescue breaths. Place your hands on the chest again and repeat the cycle
of 30 chest compressions, followed by two rescue breaths. Continue the cycle.

LESSON 13 PE
CHAPTER 13: THE PHASES OF THE GYMNASTICS PROGRAM CONDITIONING PROGRAM KINDS OF STUNTS
PYRAMID BUILDING

1. Conditioning program – involves calisthenics exercises that would prepare the body for more
complicated work. It is important to be done first before any activity because it prevents injuries to
happen. All athletes should undergo conditioning program the game or competition.

a. ARCH UPS - are the exact opposite of hollow body. Lie on your stomach with your arms above your
head and your legs straight. Lift your arms and legs so that your stomach is the only part of your body
still on the floor. Lower the ground and repeat.

b. PUSH UPS - are the simplest way to work your triceps, shoulders, and pectorals. A good push-up
requires a straight or hollow core, with the back flat and shoulders over your hands - the precise position
that you’ll need for great casts on bars and swings on pommel horse.

V- UPS - lie flat on the floor with your arms and legs extended. And then simultaneously lift your arms
and legs, touching your toes over the midsection of your body to form a “V”. At the height of the v- up,
you should be balance on your lower and back. Extend back to the floor, and re peat.

SIT UPS - lie down on the floor on your back with your knees bent or straight, and someone or
something holding your legs or not. Sit up to an Upright position.

2. Rhythmic gymnastics – the phase of the gymnastic program that combines gymnastic skills with ballet
and creative movements to music, while working with light apparatus such as ribbons, balls, hoops,
ropes, and clubs in a choreographed dance-and-tumble routine. Everything is done on the floor with far
different routines and different music.

Stunts – activities in the form of play that test the gymnasts’ strength, flexibility, power, vigor, balance,
control of movements, speed, endurance, and agility. •These are important because these are
preparatory skills to tumbling routines or exercises.

a. Beam Stunts - A routine on the balance beam begins with a mount, which can incorporate a running
flip for more advanced gymnasts. When scoring the routine, judges look for at least two flight elements,
so you should include moves such as twists and flips, if possible. Keep in mind that your jumps can reach
3 to 4 feet from the beam. You need to complete all of your rotations during these stunts.
b. Floor Stunts - While beginners complete tricks such as the forward roll, more advanced gymnasts
attempt extremely difficulty tumbling routines during the floor exercise. These maneuvers include
handsprings, flips and twists, which you must do in combination with one another and land on your feet.
The handspring holds particular importance because it helps you to gain speed as you move toward the
more difficult elements of your routine.

c. Vault Stunts - Beginners on the vault simply try to somersault from the apparatus and land on their
feet. You might then move to a handspring until you have mastered that stunt. Once you become better
at the vault, you can incorporate moves with multiple twists and flips, which have a high degree of
difficulty. You must keep your body in a straight position while in the air and land your jump without
taking steps forward or backward. Rule changes have made it illegal for gymnasts to cartwheel into their
vault, as that maneuver provided an injury risk.

d. Bar Stunts - Men and women have different bar-based events, so the moves that each sex does can
vary. Women compete on the uneven bars, making it possible for them to transition between the bars
with release moves. Judges watch these transitions carefully, as they involve gymnasts releasing one bar
and catching themselves on another bar. The horizontal bar, in which the men compete, allows
competitors to swing around the bars in a circular motion. This motion allows the men to build up
enough speed to complete larger release moves and, eventually, a dismount.

4.Tumbling – considered as the most important phase in the gymnastic program as the skills of the
gymnast are tested. Tumbling skills are regarded as the climax of a gymnastic routine. It completes the
whole package.

Round-off - A common entry skill seen in every type of gymnastics to turn horizontal speed into vertical
speed.

End Skill - The skill competed at the end of the run, this is either a double/triple somersault, a twisting
somersault or a combination somersault.

Flick - A long somersault where a gymnast moves from feet to hands to meet again in a backwards
motion.

Whip - A long, low and fast somersault done without the hands. This move is unique to tumbling and the
trademark of the discipline.

Double Somersault - The tumbler launches into the air and rotates twice vertically around before landing
on their feet. This skill is done in a tuck, pike or straight position.

Triple Somersault - The gymnasts launches into the air and rotates three times vertically before landing
on their feet. This skill is done in a tuck or pike position and has yet to be competed in the straight
position.

Twisting Somersault - A single somersault in which the tumbler rotates horizontally. This is can be done
as a single 'full' twist, a double twist or a triple twist.
Combination Somersault - A somersault that is a combination of double/triple and twisting skills. For
example in a double twisting double straight, the gymnast will rotate twice vertically and twice
horizontally before landing. The hardest combination somersaults performed would be either the full in
triple pike in which a gymnasts rotates vertically three times in a pike position with a full twist in the first
rotation or 'the miller' in which a gymnast rotates horizontally four times and vertically twice.

Transition Skill - This is where a gymnast performs either a double somersault or a combination
somersault in the middle of their run as opposed to doing it as an end skill. No triple somersaults or
combination somersaults involving a triple vertically rotation has yet to be competed.

5.Pyramid building – these are activities that involve more than 3 performers who must execute
balanced positions which resemble the pyramid. Pyramid building test, first and foremost, the gymnasts’
balance, muscle control, and strength.

LESSON 13 HISTORY
Meaning and Importance of Constitution

“A vast majority of contemporary constitutions describe the basic principles of the state, the
structures and processes of government, and the fundamental rights of the citizens in a higher law that
cannot be unilaterally changed by an ordinary legislative act. Generally, this higher law is referred to as
constitution.

The content and nature of a particular constitution, as well as how it relates to the rest of the legal
and political order, varies considerably among countries. Constitution has no universal and uncontested
definition.” (What is a Constitution?, n.d.)

Nevertheless, any broadly accepted working definition of a constitution would likely include the
following characteristics:

A constitution is a set of fundamental legal-political rules that:

are binding on everyone in the state, including ordinary law-making institutions;

are concerned with the structure and operation of the institutions of government, political principles,
and citizen rights;

are based on widespread public legitimacy;

are more challenging to change than ordinary laws (e.g., a two-thirds majority vote or a referendum is
needed); and

meets the internationally recognized criteria for a democratic system in terms of representation and
human rights at the minimum.

(What is a Constitution?, n.d.) (Constitution: Why The Constitution Is Important, n.d.)

Direct Quote:

“Reasons why the constitution is important:

These points will help answer why the constitution is important.

The constitution is an embodiment: Constitution is a written instrument that serves as the embodiment
of the rules of a political or social organization. These rules and regulations lay down the base of the
nation so that it can run without any sort of issue or dispute; in case any problem occurs in the legal and
governmental sectors or between the masses of the country and the judiciary, these provisions will help
the country to get through this phase where a regular threat of a civil war breakdown which is probably
the last thing any country can want to experience exists.

The constitution forms the basic structure of any government: The constitution of any country is
important because it lays down all the legal and cultural aspects under which its people and the
governmental bodies will be governed and when foreign interactions in the personal affairs by
international organizations exist. The executive, the legislature, and the judiciary are the main branches
of the government that the constitution has established.

The three branches of government are the sources of stability of any country; without them, the
only things that will rise are terror and corruption among the masses.

The constitution governs the power distribution: The constitution defines the powers of each branch and
lets everyone related to a country know the powers that the governmental and legal bodies have. The
constitution demarcates the responsibilities of each party, whether it is a governmental institution,
companies of the country, or the masses of the nation. The constitution regulates the relationship
between the government and the people in such a manner that no one part can miss treating the power
in any way possible.

Apex body: A constitution is superior to all the laws of the country, which indicates that any law or
provision that is circulated in the nation is passed down by the constitution itself. Every law that is
enacted by the government has to be in conventionality with the constitution, thereby indicating that no
individual or no legal body will be able to speak upon the constitution; otherwise, it will not maintain the
strength and will fall, and so will the nation.

Goals of a country: The constitution lays down the national goals of any country; by nation goals, we
refer to any aspiring objective that a country has. Given that every country has several points to reach,
the constitution will help reach goals such as democracy, secularism, socialism, and national integration.

Basic rights: The constitution of a country guarantees several rights and provisions for any individual or
group of people, on behalf of which they can ensure their well-being and dignity. The constitution helps
the people of the country avail all basic rights that they deserve. Several examples of the most basic
rights that are protected by the constitution are the right to life, right to freedom, right to property, and
right to participate freely in the democratic system.
Power transfer at the time of national emergency: The constitution is an extremely important document
for a country because it controls the transfer of power at the time of national emergencies. By national
emergencies, we refer to a disaster that can wipe out several parts of the nation or damage any part of
the nation in an extremely severe manner, civil war breakdown, etc.

Thus, this section answers why the constitution is important. The constitution is the spine of the
nation; we should respect its existence and dignity while making sure that its rules and provisions are
being followed by each citizen in the nation.” (Why Is The Constitution Important? - 7 Reasons!, n.d.)

Evolution of the Philippine Constitution

The Philippines has had six constitutions since the Proclamation of Independence on June 12, 1898.
In 1899, the Malolos Constitution, which is the first Philippine Constitution and the first republican
constitution in Asia, was drafted and adopted by the First Philippine Republic, which lasted from 1899 to
1901.

Direct Quote

“During the American Occupation, the Philippines were governed by the laws of the United States of
America. Organic acts were passed by the United States Congress for the administration of the
Government of the Philippine Islands. The first organic act was the Philippine Organic Act of 1902, which
was provided for a Philippine Assembly that was composed of Filipino citizens. The second organic act
was the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, which included the first pledge of Philippine independence.
These laws served as the constitutions of the Philippines from 1902 to 1935.

In 1934, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Independence Act, which set the
parameters for the creation of a constitution for the Philippines. This act mandated the Philippine
Legislature to call for an election of delegates to a constitutional convention to draft a constitution for
the Philippines. The 1934 Constitutional Convention was finished on February 8, 1935. This constitution
was submitted to the President of the United States for certification on March 25, 1935. This constitution
was in accordance with the Philippine Independence Act of 1934. The 1935 Constitution was ratified by
the Filipino people through a national plebiscite on May 14, 1935, and took effect on November 15,
1935, with the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Among the provisions of the 1935
Constitution was the clause stating that it would remain the constitution of the Republic of the
Philippines once independence was granted on July 4, 1946.

In 1940, the 1935 Constitution was amended by the National Assembly of the Philippines. As a
result, the legislature was changed from a unicameral assembly to a bicameral congress. The
amendment also changed the term limit of the President of the Philippines from six years with no re-
election to four years with a possibility of being re-elected for a second term.

During World War II, the Japanese-sponsored government nullified the 1935 Constitution and
appointed the Preparatory Committee on Philippine Independence to replace it. The 1943 Constitution
was used by the Second Republic, with Jose P. Laurel as the President.
 Upon the liberation of the Philippines in 1945, the 1935 Constitution came into effect again. The
constitution remained unaltered until 1947, when the Philippine Congress called for its amendment
through Commonwealth Act No. 733. On March 11, 1947, the parity amendment gave equal rights to US
and Filipino citizens to develop natural resources in the country and operate public utilities. The
Constitution, thereafter, remained the same until the declaration of martial law on September 23, 1972.

Before President Marcos declared Martial Law, a constitutional convention was already in the
process of deliberation on whether to amend or revise the 1935 Constitution.” (During the American
Occupation the Philippines were, n.d.)

Direct Quote:

“This convention finished its work and submitted it to President Marcos on December 1, 1972.
President Marcos submitted it for ratification in early January of 1973. Foreseeing that a direct
ratification of the constitution was bound to fail, Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 86 s. 1972,
thereby creating citizens assemblies to ratify the newly drafted constitution by means of a viva voce vote
in place of secret ballots. Marcos announced that it had been ratified and would take effect on January
17, 1973. Although the 1973 Constitution had been “ratified” in this manner, opposition against it
continued. Chief Justice Roberto V. Concepcion in his dissenting opinion in the case of Javellana v.
Executive Secretary exposed the fraud that happened during the citizen’s assembly ratification of the
1973 Constitution on January 10–15, 1973. However, the final decision on this case was that the
ratification of the 1973 Constitution was valid and in effect.” (The Government of the Philippines, n.d.)

When democracy was restored in 1986, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3,
suspending certain provisions of the 1973 Constitution and promulgating in its stead a transitory
constitution. A month later, President Aquino issued Proclamation No. 9, s. 1986, which created a
constitutional commission tasked with writing a new charter to replace the 1973 Constitution. The
commission finished its work at 12:28 a.m. on October 16, 1986. The National Plebiscite was held on
February 2, 1987, ratifying the new constitution. On February 11, 1987, under Proclamation No. 58,
President Aquino announced the official canvassing of the results and the ratification of the draft
constitution. The 1987 Constitution finally came into full effect on the same day, with the President,
other civilian officials and members of the Armed Forces swearing allegiance to the new charter. This
constitution is considered the “Freedom Constitution” because it embodies and safeguards liberty rights
and safeguards what is due in all aspects.

Issues and Challenges

Issues:

Economic development – how to ensure that economic growth also benefits the poor classes?

Minority rights – how to ensure multi-ethnicity and pluralism for religious and ethnic minorities?

Power deconcentration – how to reduce the considerable power of the political and economic elites and
give actual power to the people?
Better governance – how to increase the effectiveness of the government in meeting the nation’s
aspirations?

Spreading growth – how to have even regional development?

Challenges:

Corruption

Poor law enforcement and an ineffective justice system

Lack of transparency and accountability in public office

Polarization between the few who are wealthy and the many who are poor

Weak actual protection of the human rights of vulnerable groups (i.e., women, children, minorities,
journalists, and political activists)

Involvement of the military in political questions

The Muslim insurgency in southern Mindanao

LESSON 13 CONTEMP
GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY

Demography provides the necessary concepts and basic understanding of issues related to population
and the consequences it entails for a highly integrated and interconnected world. Demography is defined
as the quantitative or statistical study of populations. Hauser and Duncan in 1959 define demography as
the study of the size, territorial distribution and composition of a population, changes therein, and
components of such changes, which may be identified as natality, mortality, territorial movement
(migration), and social mobility (change of social status). According to Anderson, this definition situates
demography as the basis for all the social sciences. American demographer Frank Notestein first coined
the term in the mid-twentieth century. Notestein’s work would become the foundation of other scholar’s
work on the matter. According to Anderson, demography studies the following:

Population Size – the number of people in a country, a state, a city, a region, or the world at a given time.

Population Growth or Decline – changes in the number of people in a given geographic area over time.

Population Processes – fertility, mortality, and migration.

Factors Related to Population Processes – diseases and socioeconomic characteristics related to

mortality, family formation, labor force participation, government policies related to fertility, the
difference in income and opportunities in various areas, war and immigration policies, and economic
conditions motivating migration.
Population Distribution – geographic distribution, such as among states or between rural and urban
areas.

Population Structure – age and sex composition, the growing proportion of the population at advanced
ages, the sex ratio at birth, and the increasing proportion of the population that is female with increasing
age.

Population Characteristics – education, income, labor force participation, marital status, and race or an
ethnic group membership – anything that has a value for each member of the population and does not
have the same value for everyone.

Much of today’s works on demography focus on estimates and projections of the size and characteristics
of the population and the components of population change. According to Anderson, there are two ways
of thinking about population change: Aggregate and Causal or Micro-behavioral Approach.

The Aggregate Approach looks at the components of population change. This is where the importance of
population processes comes in. The components of population change, such as the roles of births,
deaths, and migration in population size, are dealt with in this approach. It deals with macrosocial
demographic processes. It studies how the levels of child-bearing, mortality, and population movement
impact the growth or decline of a population. Anderson explains that this perspective alerted the world
to the rapid population growth of developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s due to high birth rates
and low death rates. This scientific knowledge would lead scientists and concerned agencies to deal with
the situation by developing what we know today as contraceptives.

The Causal or Micro-behavioral Approach asks the following questions: What are the causal factors or
behavioral mechanisms that lead to people's decisions? What behaviors do individuals adopt to
implement their decisions? This approach investigates why people have children, their motivations, or
the factors that led them to such a decision. Could it be cultural or social factors such as expectations
from family or the ability to project manhood or womanhood? In the same manner, this approach
acknowledges that behavior not only influences decisions leading to natality or birth rates, the number
of annual births per one thousand people; it also affects mortality or death rates, the number of annual
deaths per one thousand people. Anderson argues that although most of us would wish to live longer,
decisions to cultivate habits that tend to shorten human life explain why the mortality rate is sometimes
high. Vices such as cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and drug addiction have a telling impact on
one’s mortality.

THEORIES ON DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION GROWTH

View on population had already been developed in the early history of humanity. Confucius in 500 BC
explained that when the population was too small, there were very few to till the land and taxes were
not paid. To Confucius, a large population is helpful for a productive society. A society that would work
well if the people were educated and trusted their rulers. He added that when the population was too
large, poverty and hardships followed. He recommended that the government maintain a balance
between the population and resources through government-enforced migration.
The ancient Greeks also had their views on demographics. Plato, in 400 BC, argued that the population
should not grow or shrink rapidly, as the rapid population could lead to social disruption. He suggested
that the population's quality is more important than its quantity and recommended that only fit men
should have children. Another Greek philosopher, Aristotle, suggested that the population should be
limited and have moderate growth. If the population is too large, it could disrupt democratic
governance. To Aristotle, infanticide and abortion could be necessary to limit population growth.

Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that was popular during the 16th until the 18th century in
Europe. Mercantilism was informed by an economic principle influenced by the actions of kingdoms,
later powerful nation-states, competing to consolidate colonies to their regional power centers through
warfare. European kingdoms and nation-states were also reliant on foreign trade and economic growth
that favored European countries by exploiting its colonies’ resources and monopolizing their economies.
From this economic theory came the belief that countries needed to increase their population if they
would have enough soldiers and colonists. Therefore, mercantilism considered a high population growth
rate as vital.

Malthusian Approaches to Population Growth – refer to Thomas Malthus, an 18th-century minister, who
maintained that although the population grows exponentially, food supply grows linearly. Malthus
explains that poverty results from population growth outstripping the availability of resources, especially
food. He believes that the source of high population growth was the lack of moral restraint due to man’s
natural tendency to reproduce. He argued that the only acceptable ways to limit fertility was refraining
from premarital sex and postponing marriage until the couple can support their offspring, referring to
these as preventive checks to population growth, otherwise known as moral restraint. Malthus added
that if preventive checks were not observed, positive checks or increased mortality could be employed.
Positive checks refer to phenomena or events that lead to premature deaths such as epidemics or
pandemics, famine, war, natural calamities, etc. The Malthusian standpoint has influenced many
societies in terms of their marriage and child-rearing practices until today.

Neo-Malthusianism – considered a belief system and movement in favor of population control programs
to ensure resources for future generations. Contrary to Malthus’ focus on poverty. Neo-Malthusians,
who are informed by a heightened sense of environmentalism, are more concerned with widespread
famine and environmental degradation, such as greenhouse accumulation due to production in favor of
a growing population’s needs results of uncontrolled population growth. Aside from influencing birth
control and family planning programs, Malthus also inspired the development of eugenics, a science that
deals with the improvement of hereditary qualities of a breed or a race, for example, through the control
of human mating or human sexual activities.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

Frank Notestein developed the Demographic Transition Theory, which discusses the history of
demographic change globally. It is based on repeated observations of consistently similar population
growth patterns in various countries as their economies developed. The demographic transition theory is
a generalized description of the changing patterns of mortality, fertility, and growth rates as societies or
groups of people move from one demographic stage to another across historical periods. The
demographic transition model identifies four, sometimes five, stages in studying demographic trends.
The stages of the demographic transition model (DTM) are the following:

Pre-Industrial Society – The death and birth rates are very high and are imbalanced. In this stage, when
the levels of technology and medicine are still low, the population growth is kept in check through
preventive and positive checks. Several factors explain the short life expectancy of people in this stage.
The death rates are high due to a poor diet, poor sanitation and hygiene, and lack of appropriate medical
care.

Early Transition – During this period, death rates are significantly reduced. Modern medicine and an
improved food supply, specifically for children, and better education reduce the number of deaths
caused by diseases and malnutrition. At the same time, the high birth rate is maintained due to lack of
contraception, which causes rapid population growth. At this stage, people have a longer life expectancy.

Late Transition – At this stage, birth rates start to fall with advances in medicine and contraception
methods and increased awareness through health education. While birth rate decline is attributed
mainly to the use of contraceptives, changes in values and motivations surrounding childbirth are
beginning to shift. Women begin to assume roles beyond the raising of children and maintenance of
households. Women are educated and eventually assume economic and social roles.

Post-Transition – At this stage, the birth and death rates are both low. Wealthier societies tend to achieve
this phenomenon resulting in a more stable society. Countries with prosperous economies, family
planning, better healthcare systems, high levels of education, and higher social and economic
enfranchisement for women tend to maintain low birth and death rates. However, when birth rates drop
to a level that limits society’s ability to supply future workers and leaders for society's economic and
political survival, there are alarming economic and political consequences.

Other political scientists have argued that the assumptions of the first model of Demographic Transition
did not really predict the present demographic status of the world. The authors of the Second
Demographic Transition (SDT), Ron Lesthaege and Dirk van de Kaa argue that the projected equilibrium
in death and birth rates under Stage 4 of the DTM did not take place and that fertility decline to a sub-
fertility level or the level below the expected number of births that can sustain activities necessary for
the survival of society. Van de Kaa argues that these shifts have been broadly linked to the following
changes:

Structural Changes – modernization, the growth of the service economy and the welfare state, the
expansion of higher education.

Cultural Changes – secularization, the rise of individualistic values, the importance of self-expression,
and self-fulfillment.

Technological Changes – the adoption of modern contraception, the advances in assisted reproduction,
the explosion of new information technologies.
Lesthaege and Van de Kaa discussed that fertility decline was influenced by advances in healthcare and
contraception and the weakening of traditional heterosexual marriage and family structure. Traditional
marriage and family structures have given way to pluralistic forms characterized by the following:

increasing age at first marriage

increases in pre-marital cohabitation (live-in)

increases in instances of divorce

practice and acceptance of same-sex marriages

increase in the rate of childbirth outside marriage

All of these contribute to a greater decline in the rate of childbirth. Further, couples or individuals have
moved from preventive contraception to self-fulfilling contraception. According to Lesthaege and Van de
Kaa, during the first demographic transition, the issue was to adopt contraception to avoid pregnancy.
However, in SDT, an individual decides to stop taking contraceptives to start a pregnancy. Lesthaege
states that the different phases of SDT are characterized as follows:

Phase I (1955-1970) – characterized by increasing divorce rates, a decline in fertility, older age of
marriage, and the contraceptive revolution, meaning more effective contraceptives and change in use.

Phase II (1971-1985) – features a rise in premarital cohabitation (live-in) and non-marital childbirth
(single parents or childbirth during live-in).

Phase III (1985-present) – shows a stagnating divorce rate, fewer remarriages, and a rise in fertility rate.

LESSON 13 UNDERSTANDING SELF

POLITICS

Kendall (1998) defines politics as a social institution through which power is acquired and
exercised by people in groups. “Man in nature is a political animal.” Politics serves as a mechanism by
which individuals develop power and understand the proper functioning of a democrat. According to
Stevens, Anglin, and Jussim (2015), politics is a central component of their identity. (Chapter 9)Political
Self and Being Filipino.pptx, n.d.)

Political self organizes one’s beliefs, attitudes, and affiliations and aids in processing politically
relevant information. Political self constitutes knowledge about the constitution, government, and
governance. Political self exemplifies the people's ideals and aspirations, embodies the rules and
principles of the state, and determines the status and power of the people. Political is often defined by
citizenship. (Chapter 9)Political Self and Being Filipino.pptx, n.d.) (It constitutes knowledge about the
Constitution government, n.d.)

Origin of Political Self

Family. The family has a hierarchical structure, that is, through a hierarchy of positions, status, and
power. For example, the parent acts as a leader and establishes rules to maintain order in the family. The
parent’s show of power can lead to the development of the political self and identity.

School. The school’s responsibility is to teach moral, spiritual, and political values that will help students
become patriotic and morally upright citizens through subjects such as UTS, GMRC, and ROTC. Like
family, teachers act as leaders in a classroom that sets the rules and regulations to maintain order in
class. (Chapter 9)Political Self and Being Filipino.pptx, n.d.)

Religious Affiliation. Religious affiliation helps shape the ideals of citizenship and democracy through
religious teachings, values, and traditions.

Peers. Interaction with peers encompasses and emphasizes the equal distribution of power, rights, and
privileges among the group members. (Understanding the Self GE UNDERSTANDING THE SELF FINALS,
n.d.)

Mass Media. Mass media is the key source of information on politics.

Theories of Political Self

Social learning theory – A person can acquire learning through observation and imitation. Observation
and imitation are essential in a process known as political socialization. Political socialization is the
lifelong process by which individuals gain knowledge about politics.

Cognitive theory – Cognitive theory suggests that individuals' mental activities (e.g., knowledge,
perceptions, and ideas) are important determinants of behavior (e.g., political attitude). “For example,
individuals interpret the meaning of politics and then choose and decide the actions they will make.”
(Theories of Political Self According to the social, n.d.)

Theory of symbolic interaction – This theory suggests that behavior is the product of communication,
meaning, and symbols. People give meanings to symbols and express these meanings through language
communication. For example, children develop their political attitudes according to the symbols and
meanings that their parents communicate with them. (Theories of Political Self According to the social,
n.d.)

Theory of political participation – This theory is defined as the citizen’s action or activities anchored in
politics. The extent and scope of political participation may be an important criterion for assessing the
value or quality symbols and meanings people ascribe to politics. An example of these actions/activities
is allowing an ordinary Filipino citizen to participate in the policy and decision-making process regarding
the country's policies, in line with the democratic nature of the Philippine society. (Theories of Political
Self According to the social, n.d.)

BEING A FILIPINO

Objectives:
develop a Filipino identity

identify different Filipino values and traits

reflect on your selfhood relative to your national identity

Who are the Filipinos?

Rodrigo Duterte, the Filipinos became highly vigilant and watchful to safeguard the democratic
process in the government and communities. The people’s assertions to peaceful and assertive means of
participation in democratic election and representation are healthy indications that the Filipinos have
matured their quest for genuine independence.

DEMOCRACY

The awareness and understanding of the self and community are the foundation of democratic
practice and its result.

Attributes of democracy:

People empowerment

Consultation

Popular decision making

Total development

Delivery of service

Fair and partial system of justice

Accountability of public officials

Promoting respect for rights

Concern for their welfare

Unity

Justice and equality

ESTABLISHING DEMOCRATIC CULTURE

Democracy is a government in which the supreme is vested in the people's exercised directly or
indirectly through a system of presentation, generally involving periodically held free elections. Although
democracy has several flaws, it also uniquely possesses several features that most people – whatever
their basic political beliefs – would consider desirable. (Political Self[1] [nl2zzyk2o5l8], n.d.)
Examples:

Democracy helps prevent cruel and vicious autocrats fr a ruling.

It fosters human development, including health education, personal income, and any other indicators,
more fully than other forms of government do.

Democracy helps protect fundamental individual rights and interests.

Democratic societies provide people the maximum opportunity to take moral responsibilities for their
choices and decisions.

Democratic societies offer a relatively high chance of political equality.

(lack of discipline characterized by our idiomatic, n.d.)

Technically, according to the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Filipino citizens are “those whose
father or mothers are citizens of the Philippines,” “those born before January 17, 1973,” “of Filipino
mothers,” and those “who elect Philippine citizenship upon the law.” Culture and history have
significantly influenced the manner Filipinos learn, live, and behave to date.

Filipino Traits and Values

The Philippines is a lush island paradise famous for its grandiose mountain views, beaches, and
rich and diverse culture changing from province to province. Tagalog phrases include “mabuhay,”
“salamat,” “po,” and “opo.” (423604607-Political-Self-and-Being-a-Filipino.pdf, n.d.)

Filipino hospitality – Filipinos welcome their guests and tourists as if they are their brothers and sisters
by always making them feel at home. Filipinos will bring out their best sets of plates for their honored
guests and would even go as far as spending a lot of money and going into debt to satisfy them.
(423604607-Political-Self-and-Being-a-Filipino.pdf, n.d.)

Respect for elders – Filipinos greet their elders by kissing their hand. Tagalogs do this while saying “Mano
po!” and constantly using “po,” “opo,” “ate,” “kuya,” “lolo,” and “lola.”

Close family ties – Filipinos maintain a tight relationship with their family regardless of whether they are
old enough and already have their own families. Filipinos are also fond of family reunions during
birthday, holidays, and fiestas.

Cheerful personality – Filipinos have a habit of smiling and laughing. Filipinos smile when they are happy,
sad, or occasionally even when angry. Smiling has been a coping mechanism for many Filipinos,
especially during trying times and calamities.

Self-sacrifice – Filipinos go out of their way to extend their help to friends, families, and loved ones. OFW
sacrifices considerably, which is why they are considered modern-day Filipino heroes. Occasionally, the
eldest among the children of the family would give up their studies to work and provide for the rest of
the family and provide for the education of his or her siblings. (Self Sacrifice Filipinos go out of their way
to extend, n.d.)

Bayanihan – Bayanihan is the spirit of giving without expecting anything in return. Filipinos are always
ready to share and help their friends and loved ones who are in need. In calamities, bayanihan is shown
by Filipinos.

“Bahala na” attitude – This is the Filipino version of the famous line “hakuna matata” from the movie
Lion King means “no worries.” This phrase is said to have originated from “bathala na,” where “bathala”
means “god.” (The Political Self and Being Filipino.pptx, n.d.)

Colonial mentality – Colonial mentality indicates the lack of patriotism and the attitude of Filipinos that
favor foreign products more than the local ones.

“Maňana” habit – “Maňana” habit is the Filipino term for procrastination. “Mamaya na” means doing
things that could have been done in the present yet executed at a later time.

“Ningas kugon” – “Ningas kugon” is the attitude of eagerly starting things but quickly losing eagerness
soon after experiencing difficulty as fast as the fire has ignited. Laziness is a common problem among
Filipinos, as shown by the fictional character “Juan Tamad.”

Pride – Most Filipinos hold on to their pride as if this is more precious than keeping a good relationship
with family and loved ones. Filipinos find it hard to apologize. (Self Sacrifice Filipinos go out of their way
to extend, n.d.)

Crab mentality – Crab mentality is a toxic trait among Filipinos. One person resents another person's
achievement instead of feeling happy for them; thus, they pull each other down and ruin each other’s
reputation.

Filipino time – Filipino times indicates the habit of Filipinos of arriving late for commitments. Filipinos
tend not to observe punctuality altogether.

FILIPINO MARKERS

The following are constant reminders of our nationality:

Proverbs/salawikain – Proverbs/salawikain are sayings that convey a lesson and reflect Filipino practices,
beliefs, and traditions. Damiana Eugenio is regarded as the mother of Philippine Folklore.

The six categories of proverbs are as follows:

A. proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and laws that govern life,

B. ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices,

C. proverbs expressing a system of values,

D. proverbs expressing general truth and observations about life and human nature,
E. humorous sayings, and

F. miscellaneous proverbs.

Superstitions – Filipinos also subscribe to their own set of superstitions passed down from generation to
generation. An example of the superstitions of Filipinos is that a woman who sings while cooking will end
a spinster.

Myths and legends – Due to the Philippines’ rich culture and history, numerous myths and legends about
things that are beyond one’s imagination have appeared.

Heroes and icons – Heroes serve as a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as they have sacrificed
their lives for the sake of their country’s freedom and progress. (Self Sacrifice Filipinos go out of their
way to extend, n.d.)

HOW TO BE A GOOD FILIPINO:

Be an active Filipino citizen – A good Filipino citizen should be aware of the current events and
participate in government programs that aim for its country’s progressions and development. You can
also become an active citizen by exercising your right to vote.

Study the Philippine history – One should study Philippine history to understand the events of the
Philippine history completely.

Support local products – Supporting our local products display our creativity, innovativeness, and
resourcefulness.

Speak Filipino languages – Speaking our native Filipino languages (Tagalog, Waray, Kinaray-a, and others)
serves as a unique identifier of being a Filipino.

Do not spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent – This behavior should be practiced
to sort out everything that one reads before actually believing it and spreading it. Think before you click!

LESSON 14 CC102
Pointers in C are easy and fun to learn. Some C programming tasks are performed more easily with
pointers, and other tasks, such as dynamic memory allocation, cannot be performed without using
pointers. So it becomes necessary to learn pointers to become a perfect C programmer. Let's start
learning them in simple and easy steps.

As you know, every variable is a memory location and every memory location has its address defined
which can be accessed using ampersand (&) operator, which denotes an address in memory. Consider
the following example, which prints the address of the variables defined −

What are Pointers?

A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable, i.e., direct address of the
memory location. Like any variable or constant, you must declare a pointer before using it to store
any variable address. The general form of a pointer variable declaration is −

Here, type is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C data type and var-name is the name of the
pointer variable. The asterisk * used to declare a pointer is the same asterisk used for
multiplication. However, in this statement the asterisk is being used to designate a variable as a
pointer. Take a look at some of the valid pointer declarations −

The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether integer, float, character, or otherwise, is the
same, a long hexadecimal number that represents a memory address. The only difference between
pointers of different data types is the data type of the variable or constant that the pointer points to.

How to Use Pointers?

There are a few important operations, which we will do with the help of pointers very frequently.
(a) We define a pointer variable, (b) assign the address of a variable to a pointer and (c) finally
access the value at the address available in the pointer variable. This is done by using unary
operator * that returns the value of the variable located at the address specified by its operand. The
following example makes use of these operations −

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −

NULL Pointers

It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case you do not have an
exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of variable declaration. A pointer that is
assigned NULL is called a null pointer.

The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard libraries. Consider
the following program −

LESSON 14 CC101
Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are performed in various
radix bases. These arithmetic operations may also use r’s complement and (r-1)’s complement
representation.

These representation techniques hold basic laws for various arithmetic operations:

(i) Unique Existence Law: The sum and product of any two numbers exist uniquely. Where 0 is the
identity element for additions and 1 is the identity element for multiplication.

(ii) Associative Law:Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are associative.

(iii) Commutative Law:Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are commutative.

(iv) Distributive Law:Multiplication of binary numbers is distributive over two or more terms in addition.

Now, arithmetic operations for various number systems are explained as following below.

Arithmetic Operations of Binary Numbers:

In the Binary System, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, i.e., 0 and 1. Represented by
any device that only 2 operating states or possible conditions. Generally, it is expressed by subscript 2 or
binary (B).

Binary arithmetic is essential part of various digital systems. You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide
binary numbers using various methods. These operations are much easier than decimal number
arithmetic operations because binary system has only two digits: 0 and 1.

Binary additions and subtractions are performed as same in decimal additions and subtractions. When
we perform binary additions, there will have two outputs: Sum (S) and Carry (C) . There are four rules for
binary addition.

With the help of above table, we can perform additions of octal numbers.

Similarly, we can perform subtraction of octal numbers same as decimal number sutractions. But you can
only take borrow of a number 7, which is maximum digit allowed in octal number systems.

In the multiplication of octal numbers, if the product is less than radix of octal (i.e, 8), then we take it as
the result, else divide it by radix of octal (i.e., 8) and take the remainder as the LSB (least significant bit).
The quotient is taken as carry in the next significant digit.

Similarly, division of octal numbers can be performed by following the rules of division of decimal
numbers but maximum allowed digit will be 7.

Arithmetic Operations of Hexadecimal Numbers:

It has base of 16 digits ranging from 0 to F (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and A, B, C, D, E, F). A, B, C, D, E,

F are equivalent single digits of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively. Generally, it is expressed by subscript
16 or Hexa (H) or (h).

Whenever divisor is 0, then result is always not defined.

Arithmetic Operations of Octal Numbers:

It has base of 8 digits ranging from 0 to 7 (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Generally, it is expressed by subscript
8 or octal (o).

Arithmetic operations of octal numbers are also performed same as decimal arithmetic operations.

LESSON 14 KOMFIL
4.1 MGA TIYAK NA SITWASYONG PANGKOMUNIKASYON

Likas na nagkakaunawaan ang mga tao dahil sa wikang ginagamit sa kanilang lugar. Inilaraan ang
sitwasyong pangkomunikasyon na wikang palaging ginagamit upang madaling magkaintindihan ang mga
taong may iisang kultura.

Ayon kay Dale (1969)

Ang Komunikasyon ay may malaking gampanin sa lipunan sa pamamagitan ng pagbabahagi ng

ideya at damdamin sa estado ng pagkakaunawaan ng lipunan. Ang paghahatid at pagbabahagi ng
impormasyon, saloobin, ideya at karanasan ay maituturing na komunikasyon.

FORUM - Ito ay isang pagtitipon o asembliya na bukas para sa publiko upang magkaroon ng talastasan o
diskusyon kung saan ang pananaw o opinyon ng mga tao tungkol sa isang isyu ay maaaring maibahagi.

LAYUNIN, PAGPAPLANO AT PANGANGASIWA

Malinaw na talakayin ang layunin kung bakit kailangan isagawa ang forum.

Ano ang nais makamit sa gagawing forum

Ilahad ang mahahalagang mensahe at makatotohanang datos na nais ikintal sa isipan ng mga
takapakinig.

Maging maingat sa pagtatakda ng oras sa pagpaplano at siguraduhing nasusunod ang mga gawain sa
itinakdang oras dahil maaari itong magdulot ng malaking epekto sa isasagawang forum.

Pag-isipang mabuti ang magiging daloy sa isasagawang forum at isulat ang nakatakdang oras para dito.

Maghanap ng maaaring maging sponsor sa gagawing forum. Maaaring makipagtulungan sa ibang mga
organisasyon na may kinalaman sa isasagawang forum.

Magtala ng mga taong mangangasiwa at mangunguna sa pagsasagawa ng iba’t ibang mga gawaing
forum.

1. TAGAPAKINIG

Alamin kung sino ang nais na maging tagapakinig

Pagpapalaganap ng impormasyon sa gaganaping forum

Maging malikhain sa pagpukaw ng atensyon sa maaaring maging tagapakinig sa gagawing forum

Gumaw ang flyers o leaflets na maaaring ipamahagi upang ipakalat ang mahahalagang impormasyon
tungkol sa gagawing forum. Maaari din magbigay ng patalastas sa mga pahayagan o magasin, sa mga
istasyon ng radyo, sa telebisyon o kilalang social networking sites upang mas mapadali at mapabilis ang
pagpapakalat ng datos.
2. TAGAPAGSALITA

Wastong pagpili sa mga tagapagsalita sa gagawing forum

Kailangan angkop sa tagapagsalita sa kaniyang magiging paksa.

Gumawa ng mga pananaliksik na makatutulong sa pagpapakilala ng mga tagapagsalita

3. IBA PANG PANGANGAILANGAN

Humanap ng lugar na magiging angkop na pagdarausan ng gagawing forum. Dapat isaalang-alang ang
kapakanan ng mga taong dadalo, kailangan ay madali lamang itong mapuntahan at komportable sa
pakikinig. Alamin kung ilang tao ang kakasya sa lugar at suriing mabuti kung ano pa ang maaaring
kakailanganin sa forum na hindi ito makikita

Kailangan ihanda ang mga bagay na kakailanganin ng mga dadalo sa forum.

Maaaring magbigay ng feedback forms matapos ang forum upang malaman kung ano ang naging
pagkukulang at dapat pang ayusin sa naganap na forum

Gumawa ng tala ng maaaring gastos sa gagawing forum upang malaman at mapaghandaan ang
kinakailangang salapi. Maaaring maghanap ng mga organisasyon na maaaring tumulong sa usaping
pinansyal.

LEKTYUR

Isang uri ng tagapagsalita na nagmula sa salitang latin na “lectura” na ibig sabihin ay pagbasa. Isa
sa mga estratehiyang pagbbahagi ng teorya, kaalaman at kuru-kuro sa mag-aaral ay ang lekytur. Batay sa
pag-aaral ng mga eksperto, ang lektyur ay kailangan bilang gabay sa pagkatuto ng mga mag-aara, dapat
ay sumunod ito sa mga tiyak na hakbang upang maisagawa nang epektibo.

Batay sa The Lecture Method (2014), upang matutunan nang mas madali at epektibo ng mga
tagapakinig ang paksang tinatalakay, may tatlong bahagi na dapat isaalang-alang; Ang introduksyon,
nilalaman at konklusyon. Ang bawat bahagi ay sumusuporta sa pagtatamo ng pagkatuto ng mag-aaral

INTRODUKSYON - Sa bahaging ito dapat na masukat ng tagapagtalakay ang lalim ng kaalaman ng

tagapakinig sa paksa at kung paano maikikintal sa isipan ng tagapakinig ang bawat impormasyon

KATAWAN O NILALAMAN - Ito ang pinakamahalagang bahagi ng lektyur dahil dito tinatalakay ang
mahahalagang impormasyon na dapat matutunan ng tagapakinig.

KONKLUSYON - Ito ay bahagi na isinantabi kaya marapat lang na gumamit ng mga istratehiya tulad ng

muling pagpapaalala at pagbibigay diin sa inilahad na mga impormasyon.

SEMINAR

Ayon kay C.N Raja at T.P Rao, ang seminar ay isang uri ng estratehiya sa pagtuturo para sa mas
mataas na antas na pagkatuto. Tinatalakay at inaalisa ang isang tiyak na paksa sa pamamagitan ng
pangkalahatang pagtalakay upang makabuo ng isang pinal na desisyono konsepto. Isasagawa ang
seminar batay sa dami ng mga taong dadalo o sa organisasyon na nais magsagawa nito, kaya inuri ang
seminar sa apat na kategorya.

URI NG SEMINAR

MINI-SEMINAR- Karaniwang maliit ang bilang ng dumadalo at simple lamang. Ang konseptong
tatalakayin. Maaaring ang paksang tatalakayin ng pangkat ng mga mag-aaral ay naituro na o ituturo pa
lang.

MEDYOR-SEMINAR - Ginagawa ito ng institusyon o kagawaran sa isang partikular na paksa. Karaniwan

itong dinadaluhan ng mga mag-aaral at guro at nagaganap ng isang beses sa isang buwan. Kailangan
pumipili ng paksa ang tagapangasiwa na tatalakayin na aangkop sa inihandang tema para sa seminar

NATIONAL SEMINAR – Inoorganisa ito ng mga asosasyon na may kinalaman sa akademya o kaya naman
ay samahan ng mga propesyonal o organisasyon at isinasagawa sa antas na pambansa. Karaniwang
inaanyayahan ang isang dalubhasa na maaaring magbahagi ng kanyang pagtalakay

INTERNASYONAL SEMINAR - Isinasagawa ito ng mga internasyonal na ahensiya o organisasyon,

karaniwang mas malawak ang tema ng pagalakbay katulad na lamang ng globalisasyon, inobasyon,
pagpapatupad ng iba’t ibang polisiya at iba pa

MGA KOMITE NG SEMINAR

Para maisagawa nang maayos at organisado ang isang seminar nangangailangan ito ng mga tao na
kikilos at mangunguna upang maisakatuparan. Nagpatalaga ng mga tao na may kaniya-kaniyang
tungkuling gagampanan. Ilan sa mga ito ay ang tagapangulo, kalihim, tagapangulo sa usaping teknikal ,
tagapagsalita at tagapakinig.

· TAGAPANGULO - Tagapanguna sa pagsasawa at pagdedesisyon sa isang seminar.

· KALIHIM - Kaagapay ng tagapangulo sa pagbalangkas ng seminar.

· TAGAPANGULO SA USAPING TEKNIKAL - Tagapangasiwa sa teknikal na mga gawain sa isang

seminar.

· TAGAPAGSALITA - Tagapaglahad ng mga impormasyong na may kinalaman sa paksa.

· TAGAPAKINIG - Mga inaasahang dadalo sa isasagawang seminar.

LESSON 14 NSTP
Social mobilization is the process of bringing together all societal and personal influences to raise
awareness of and demand for health care, assist in the delivery of resources and services, and cultivate
sustainable individual and community involvement. Social mobilization has promoted inter-sector
consensus-building around community health issues, especially those related to maternal and child
health. The promotion of the participation of representatives from various organizations via the
community IMCI social-actor methodology has led to increased civic cooperation.

How can we achieve social mobilization?

Agenda 2030 requires a new way of working, harnessing the considerable synergies across goals. The
ambitious and broad scope of Agenda 2030 will only be achieved by bringing together a range of
stakeholders, as envisioned in Goal 17.

Social mobilization is the backbone for strengthening this global partnership and ensuring that it remains
accountable to people’s overlapping needs and demands, whether in health, gender equality, labor or
otherwise. Examples of roles for stakeholders in ensuring that strategic alliances are formed to advance
the SDGs, by leveraging health promotion, include:

Government

Expand space for civil society engagement in decision-making, taking necessary precautions to protect
against the efforts of industry-backed front groups to interfere with healthy public policy making.

Civil society

Explore opportunities and innovative means to build cross-constituency partnerships for overlapping
injustices and common causes, with an emphasis on south-south and triangular cooperation amongst
CSOs.

Media (including social media)

Work with civil society to ensure that governments are committed to do as they have stated. Media
platforms both new and old can be used to engage a wide population on decision-making processes
related to health and sustainable development.

Organizations of the UN system

Support the development of win-win policies and programmes to scale up advocacy and community
mobilization for health and the SDGs, engaging as appropriate with media and civil society.

Community leaders

Mobilize affected communities and constituencies to respond to health and development injustices,
supporting their capacity to push back and organize, and build cross-cutting capacities within change
agents.

Research and academic institutions

Develop and improve methods to evaluate social mobilization using an evidence-based approach as both
a process and an outcome. Valid and reliable tools are especially needed to measure the (often complex)
social and organizational aspects of social mobilization as these pertain to a range of SDGs.

Moving forward

As we scale up efforts to implement Agenda 2030, we are by no means starting from scratch. The SDGs
are a major opportunity to bring together and build upon the range of experiences and successes that
have already accrued – whether in access to medicines, climate change action, tearing down
discriminatory laws or addressing inequities more broadly.

People Empowerment - identifies the six steps that should be followed in the planning, initiating, and
evaluating of a community initiative to extend and strengthen empowerment.

The steps are as follows:

Define and communicate the meaning of empowerment to every member of the organizations.

Set goals and strategies that become the organizing framework for people at every organizational level
as they undertake their own efforts to extend and strengthen empowerment

Train - people to fulfill their new roles and perform their functions in ways that are consistent with the
company goals for extending and strengthening empowerment.

Adjust the organization structure - so that it demands lean management, reduces bureaucracy, and
forces the creation of greater autonomy and freedom to act.

Adjust the organization system - to support the empowerment of people

Evaluate and improve - the process of empowerment by measuring improvement and the perceptions of
the organization members.

Roots of empowerment - is a proven concept which is being used to improve the way organization use
people. It is, of course, an idea which has its roots in earlier organizational development theories and
strategies.

Business and industry use only a fraction of the mental resource represented in their people

Control is not only the best way to achieve organizational goals and it is an impossible way to achieve
superior performance and continuous improvement.

Competence is not a private preserver of a few experts. Competence is widely diffused in an

organizational at all levels

People have greater personal ownership and demonstrate greater responsibility for that over which they
have influence and which they experienced.

Strategies of social Mobilization encourages beneficiaries and other stake.

Participatory holders to participate in the whole process of development from research planning down
to monitoring and evaluation.

Segmented - the stakeholders are classified into specific target groups and use need-based messages
designed to reach the groups.

Empowered - the beneficiaries are empowered to make their own plans and make their own decisions at
their own.

Decentralized - are given enough autonomy to plan and implement their own decisions at their own.

Comprehensive - several concepts which were used separately for years, due to academic
compartmentalization are now pieced together as a component of a comprehensive framework.

Action -oriented the new strategy which starts with communication finally ends up into social action.
This action is designed to meet certain social objectives and impact.

Community Organizing Principles

Trust in the people in their capacity to change and develop

Starts where the people are, in terms of their nee, resources and capabilities.

Community organizing should be based on the interest of the poor and the devastated.

Community organizing should result in the people working for a self-reliant community and society.

In working with the people, the majority rules but the minority should be respected.

Community organizing should be gender sensitive.

Principles of Effective Networking

Access - Ideally all the network members should have access to The network members should be
encouraged to - the resources of the network.

Participation participate in all network-initiated activities to encourage them to work as a team.

Common Frame of Reference - Teamwork can only be realized if the members have a common
understanding of the problem at hand, or they should have common goals and conviction to solve the
said problem

Shared Communication - Common frame of reference is brought about and maintained by shared
communication, which is necessary for decision-making processes.

Shared Leadership and Followership - Mutual respect the members is one of the vital ingredients for the
group to sustain its goals and objectives.

Coordination - is the very first step towards successful networking. Synchronization and collective actions
cannot be achieved without coordination.

Interdependence Nobody is indispensable every members is unique and has own talents to be
contributed to the success of the group.

Complementary – Stresses the network members need to reinforce each other effort in work situations

Problem- Solving Capability - Every network should be capable and skilled at problem-solving.

LESSON 14 PE
CHAPTER 14: CONDITIONING PROGRAM

ARMS SWING

NECK EXERCISES

TRUNK EXERCISES

BODY EXERCISES

1. Arm Swings

A. Lateral and vertical arm swings. Repeat 8 times.

B. Over-under horizontal arm swings. Repeat 8 times.

2.Trunk exercises

A. With your arms upwards and the feet in straddle position, do side bends left and right. Repeat 8
times.

B. With your hands on the hips and the feet in the straddle position, rotate the trunk 8 times on each
side.

1. Body Exercises

Body wave with legs together. Swing the arms upward overhead and arch the body. Swing the arms back
down and round the back, bend at the knees, and finish the arm swing. Repeat 8 times.

Static Exercises – these exercises are maintained in a certain position for a certain period of time.

A. Finger and Wrist Exercises.

1. Interlock the fingers; straighten the arms while turning the palms away from the body Stretch for 5
Seconds.

2. Press the palms on each other and stretch the wrists. Hold for 5 seconds.
B. Elbow Flex.

1. Extend and bend each elbow. Hold for 5 seconds

C. Hamstring Exercise.

1.Sit on the ground with both legs straight out in front of you, bend the left leg and place the sole of the
left foot alongside the knee of the right leg. Allow the left leg to lie relaxed on the ground, bend forward
keeping the back straight. You will feel the stretch in the hamstring of the right leg. Repeat with the
other leg.

D. Neck Exercises.

1. Lay your head on the right shoulder. Hold for 5 Seconds. Then, do the same to the left for 15 seconds.

2. Turn your chin on the right shoulder. Hold for 5 seconds. Then, do the same to the left for 5 seconds.

3. Pull your head forward and put your chin on the chest. Hold for 5 seconds. Then, bring your head
backwards for 5 seconds

E. Arm Exercises.

1. Spread arms at the sides and make circling movements clockwise and counterclockwise.

2. 8 counts Forward and 8 counts Backward.

f. Trunk Exercises.

1.Stand tall with your feet approximately two shoulder widths apart. Turn the feet and face to the right.
Bend the right leg so that the right thigh is parallel with the ground and the right lower leg is vertical.
Gradually lower the body keeping your back straight and use the arms to balance. You will feel the
stretch along the front of the left thigh and along the hamstrings of the right leg. Hold a comfortable
stretch and repeat by turning and facing to the left

2. Legs/Back Exercises, Straddle Standing Position.

- Reach and hold the right ankle with the right hand. Hold for 5 seconds. Then, do the same.

3.Leg Bending

Grab one leg and press it as close as possible to the chest. Hold position for 8 counts.

4.Ankles, Legs, Back and Sitting Position.

E1. Tuck sit. Hold the feet and pull in the middle. Hold for 5 seconds. e with left ankle and hold for 5
seconds.

E2. Hurdler’s sit. Reach out at the right ankle with both hands. Hold for 5 seconds.
5.Leg Stretches

F1. Sit on the floor on a long sitting position. Grab the feet with both hands and hold the position for 8
counts without bending either legs.

F2. Open legs in stride sitting position.

Bend sideward to the right and left. Perform the exercise for 8 counts.

6.Calf/Achilles Tendon Exercises.

Stand on the Slant board, press the hands against the wall, and flex the ankles. Hold for 5 seconds. The
exercises can also be done without a slant board. Be sure the ankles are flexed. Repeat 5 times.

7.Feet Exercise

Stand in stride standing position with arms at the side. Point one foot and then flex after 4 counts. Flex
for 4 counts then point again. Repeat the Exercise for 8 counts.

Resistance Exercises - This type of flexibility exercises is performed against varying degrees of mild
resistance provided by a partner. Start with low resistance, and then increase gradually to higher level of
resistance. Partners should be equal in height, weight and strength.

A.Anterior Leg and Hip Stretch

The performer lies in prone position. Hands by the side of the shoulder. The performer straightens her
arms and bends head to the back. Hold the position for 4 counts then go back to staring point

B. Quad Stretch

The performer lies in prone position. Then partner presses each leg four times, starting mildly and
progressing harder. On the final press, the partner tries to touch the heel to the rear.

a. Shoulder and Arms, Straight- sit Position.

Straight arms – the performer is in normal sitting position with the legs straight and feet together. The
partner standing at the back of the performer holds the arms in forward depressions and elevations, four
lateral depressions and elevations, four forward – horizontal presses and rearhorizontal presses.

LESSON 14 HISTORY
Malolos Constitution (1899)

On July 18, 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree requesting the election of delegates to the
revolutionary congress, which was followed five days later by another decree proclaiming that Aguinaldo
would select the representatives of congress because elections were not feasible at the time. 50
delegates were appointed by Aguinaldo (but this number fluctuated from time to time). On September
15, 1898, Aguinaldo convened the Revolutionary Congress at the Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan,
in compliance with the two decrees.

The Pasig Band performed the national hymn, which added to the celebratory atmosphere.
Following Aguinaldo’s address, the delegates who were present voted in a congressional election.
Among the most significant accomplishments of the Malolos Congress were:

On September 29, 1898, the Malolos Congress ratified the declaration of Philippine independence held
in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898.

The Malolos Congress passed a law allowing the Philippines to borrow P20 million from banks for
government expenses.

The Malolos Congress established Universidad Literatura de Filipinas and other schools.

The Malolos Congress drafted the Philippine Constitution.

On June 12, 1899, the Malolos Congress declared war on the United States.

Malolos Constitution

For the first time, representatives of the Filipino people produced the constitution, which was also
Asia’s first republican constitution, led by Felipe Calderon and assisted by Cayetano Arellano. The
constitution was influenced by Mexico’s, Guatemala’s, Costa Rica’s, Brazil’s, Belgium’s, and France’s
constitutions. After several minor changes (mainly due to Apolinario Mabini’s concerns), the final text of
the constitution was presented to Aguinaldo, paving the way for the foundation of the first Philippine
Republic. It was formed a democratic, republican government with three branches, namely the
executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as the separation of church and state. The president
of the republic was to execute executive powers with the support of his cabinet. Legislation has given the
Supreme Court and numerous lesser courts judicial authority. The Supreme Court’s Chief Justice was to
be chosen by the legislature, with the president and his cabinet’s approval.

The First Philippine Republic

The first Philippine Republic was founded in Malolos, Bulacan, on January 21, 1899. After being
elected president, Emilio Aguinaldo took the oath of office. The reading of the constitution, article by
article, was followed by a military parade. Prime Minister Apolinario Mabini was elected. Teodoro
Sandico was one of the other cabinet secretaries (interior). General Mariano Trias (finance and war),
Apolinario Mabini (foreign affairs), Gracio Gonzaga (welfare), Aguedo Velarde (public instruction),
Maximo Paterno (public works and communication), and Leon Mara Guerrero (agricultural, trade, and
commerce) (The Philippine Revolutionary Government, 2020).

Excerpts from Malolos Constitution

Article 3. Sovereignty is solely in the hands of the people.

Article 5. The state respects all religions’ freedom and equality, as well as the separation of church and
state.

Article 19. No Filipino shall be prevented from fully exercising his civil and political rights possible.

Article 20.1. No Filipino will be deprived of the right to freely express his views and opinions, whether
orally or in writing, through the press or other comparable means.

Article 20.2. No Filipino shall be denied the right to join any group for any of the objects of human life
that are not in violation of public morals.

Article 23. Any Filipino can establish and maintain educational or instructional establishments in
compliance with any restrictions that may be established. In the nation’s schools, popular education will
be both compulsory and optional.

Table of Titles

The Republic

The Government

Religion

The Filipinos and Their National and Individual Rights

The Legislative Power

The Permanent Commission

The Executive Power

The President of the Republic

The Secretaries of Government

The Judicial Power

Provincial and Popular Assemblies

Administration of the State

Amendment of the Constitution

Constitutional Observance, Oath, and Language

The Malolos Constitution was the first important Filipino document that was ever produced by the
people’s representatives. This constitution was based on democratic traditions that originated in the
United States. It established a government in the Philippines that was “popular, representative, and
accountable,” with three distinct branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The constitution included
safeguards against abuses and enumerated national and individual rights not only for Filipinos but also
for foreigners.

The Assembly of Representatives, which was made up of representatives elected according to the
legislation, was in charge of legislating. The paper provided for a permanent commission that would sit
as a law-making body when the congress was not in session, in order to keep the congress’ function
going. The president of the republic was chosen by the assembly. The cabinet, which consisted of
secretaries from several government agencies, reported to the parliament rather than the president. The
Supreme Court and lesser courts, which were to be established according to law, were entrusted with
the administration of justice. The assembly was to elect the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court with the
president’s and cabinet’s approval.

The constitution as a whole is a testament to the Filipino people’s ability to forge their own
democratic path. The constitution embodied the values of a people who emerged from the Dark Ages
into the Light of Reason during a time of turmoil and stress (The Malolos Congress, n.d.).

Article:

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMONWEALTH (1935 Constitution)

by: Quennie Ann J. Palafox

The constitution is acknowledged as the supreme law of the land, whether written or unwritten,
because it serves as the foundation for the validity of any governmental act that is required for its
existence. The constitution is a written document that establishes a government’s authorities and
responsibilities, as well as some people’s rights.

Following the signing of the Treaty in Paris in Washington, D.C. in 1898, which ceded the Philippines
to the United States in exchange for a payment of $20,000,000 to Spain, and the outbreak of the Filipino-
American War in 1899, our country was placed under military rule until 1901, when the Spooner
Amendment ended military rule and replaced it with a civilian government. The Jones Law in August
1916 and the adoption of the Philippine Bill of 1902, which provided for the creation of a lower
legislative branch consisted of elected Filipino legislators, gave the Filipinos the ability to govern
themselves. The First Philippine Assembly, which met on October 16, 1907, was made up of educated
Filipinos from prominent families, such as Sergio Osmeña and Manuel L. Quezon, who revived the topic
for speedy independence for the Filipinos by sending political missions to the United States Congress.

The argument over whether to accept or reject the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill, which was brought back
by the Osmeña-Roxas mission from the US Congress in 1931 and allowed for a 10-year transition period
before the establishment of Philippine independence, divided the Philippine legislature. Following the
passage of the independence bill, the Democrata Party and the Nacionalista Party were split into two
factions: pro and anti-independence. The bill was rejected by the majority in the legislature, led by
Quezon and Recto, resulting in the antis being the majority, while the pros became the minority under
Osmeña, Roxas, and others.
 Quezon and others won this battle on October 17, 1933, when the Philippine legislature rejected the
bill. Quezon finally brought in the Tydings-McDuffie Act (Public Law 73-127), a significantly altered
version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 24, 1934,
drafted by Senator Millard Tydings and Rep. John McDuffie. The bill established July 4 as the date of
Philippine independence following the commonwealth’s tenth year. On May 1, 1934, the Philippine
Legislature approved this measure.

One of the most important features of the Tydings-McDuffie Act was the establishment of a
constitutional committee to draft the nation’s fundamental legislation based on the American model.
The convention’s delegates were then elected in 1934. Claro M. Recto was unanimously elected
president of the House of Representatives at the session’s first meeting on July 30.

The 1935 Constitution establishes a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and House of
Representatives, the president and vice president are to be elected to four-year terms without the
possibility of re-election, male citizens of the Philippines who are 21 years of age or older and can read
and write have the right to vote, and the right to vote is to be extended.

The conference approved the proposed constitution on February 8, 1935, and President Roosevelt
ratified it on March 25, 1935, in Washington, D.C. In September 1935, elections were conducted. Manuel
L. Quezon was elected as the Commonwealth’s president. The Commonwealth Government, which was
regarded a transition government before the granting of Philippine independence with an American-
inspired constitution, had its legal foundation in the 1935 Constitution. The Philippine government will
eventually model its administration after that of the United States. The Philippine Constitution of 1935
was the best-written charter in Philippine history (Palafox, 2012).

Article:

VALIDITY OF MARCOS'S '73 CONSTITUTION IS CHALLENGED

The legality of the 1973 Philippine Constitution, which President Ferdinand E. Marcos’ government
governs under, has been questioned by 130 of the 311 members of the committee that produced it.

The challenge came only a week before the country was to hold a national referendum on proposed
constitutional revisions that would establish a strong president with a six-year tenure and no term limits.
Marcos announced that he intends to end his transitional status as President-Prime Minister and run for
the new post of chief of state.

Former President Diosdado Macapagal, a Marcos foe and chairman of the convention that crafted
the 1973 charter, said the group had “resumed” its proceedings and made a proclamation that the
Constitution had been wrongly ratified and hence had no legal authority, in a telephone conversation.

President Marcos did not respond immediately to the challenge, but the validity of the charter
group’s action was questioned in a statement issued by the Information Ministry, in which reconvening
was referred to as a “nuisance.”
 Before the challenge, Antonio Tupaz, who was the Minister of State for Local Affairs and a member
of the convention, made such declaration. “The reconvening of the convention bids to be a simple
irritation,” Tupaz added, even if the move was judged to be lawful. He claimed that 61 of the 110
districts in the country were not represented.

The conference was arranged at the request of 130 of the convention’s original 311 delegates and
held at the suburban house of the body’s vice president, according to Macapagal. The quorum required
for reconvening was only 109, according to Macapagal, because 50 delegates had accepted positions in
the Marcos government and so could no longer be regarded members of the charter-drafting assembly.

With today’s proclamation, the Macapagal group hoped to cast doubt on the proposed revisions
that would be voted on next Tuesday.

The legal reasoning behind the challenge, according to Macapagal, was that when martial law was
lifted last January, the 1935 Constitution was reinstated, and the Seventh Congress, which had been
suspended by Mr. Marcos, was restored to power.

The charter convention whose members were elected freely in 1970, began work in 1971 on a new
constitution to replace the 1935 charter, which had been drafted under American supervision. Marcos’
declaration of martial law in 1972 overtook the drafting of this charter. Marcos was presented with a
draft of the charter.

The legislature was recessed by its president, Macapagal, on November 30, 1972, with several
members in jail and others underground. Macapagal then submitted a draft constitution to President
Marcos.

Marcos planned to hold a plebiscite to approve the proposal, but he changed his mind and instead
presented it to citizens’ assemblies for ratification. When the government’s critics brought their case to
the Supreme Court, Chief Justice Roberto Concepcion noted in a judgment that while a majority of the
court considered the procedure followed to be invalid, “there is no judicial obstacle to it being in force
and effect.”

During the years under martial law, a subsequent vote yielded favorable responses to concerns
about the constitution’s legality, and the high court, which is now led by a new chief justice, upheld the
ratification.

President Marcos constituted a new administration and assumed the status of President-Prime
Minister for an extended duration after signing the 1973 charter (Validity of Marcos's '73 Constitution is
Challenged, 1981).

Independence to Martial Law

From the moment of independence, politics in the Philippines have been plagued by corruption and
scandals. Presidents Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957), Carlos Garcia (1957-1961), and Diosdado
Macapagal (1961-1965) were successful in stabilizing the country, implementing domestic reforms,
diversifying the economy, and strengthening ties with the United States and Asia.

Ferdinand Marcos was first elected president of the Philippines in 1965 and re-elected in 1969,
making him the first president to do so. He proclaimed martial law in 1972, just before the conclusion of
his second and final term, to stay in power beyond his lawful mandate, citing a burgeoning communist
insurrection as justification. Then, he exploited a stalled constitutional assembly to force the
development of a new constitution, the 1973 Constitution, which allowed him to rule by decree until
1978, when the 1935 Constitution’s presidential system was replaced with a parliamentary one.

Marcos clung to power under this new regime and continued to rule by fiat, repressing democratic
institutions and restricting civil liberties. Martial law was technically lifted in 1981, but he remained to
govern by the expedient of being “re-elected” to a second 6-year term in a sham of an election. He
continued to suppress dissent, and thousands of vocal objectors to his rule either mysteriously
disappeared or were incarcerated. Despite the decline in the economy, corruption allowed him and his
wife Imelda to live extravagantly, causing resentment domestically and criticism internationally (The
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance , n.d.).

Article:

1987 Philippine Constitution

Do you know that every time the Philippines’ constitution is changed, the President issues a
proclamation to mark the anniversary of the new charter’s implementation? Constitution Day is
observed on this day.

Only the 1943 Constitution lacked a corresponding proclamation out of all of the country’s
constitutional revisions.

President Corazon C. Aquino declared February 2nd of each year as Constitution Day, in accordance
with Proclamation No. 211 of 1988, to commemorate the new 1987 Constitution.

How well do you know the country’s highest law? We listed various vital information concerning one
of the country’s most important legal documents.

The five constitutions in the Philippines started with the country’s independence in 1898:

The 1899 Malolos Constitution (1899–1901)

The 1935 Constitution (1935–1943, 1945–1973)

The 1943 Constitution (1943–1945)

The 1973 Constitution (1973–1986)

The 1987 Constitution (1987–present)

According to former Aquino spokesman Teodoro Locsin Jr., the 1973 Constitution was never adopted
because then-President Ferdinand Marcos Jr.’s procedure was faced with tremendous opposition.

In terms of the law of the land, the Aquino administration had three options:

to revert to the 1935 Constitution but they had to resort to general elections because Marcos abolished
the bicameral legislature;

should keep the 1973 Constitution and be given the authority to amend it “She did not want to acquire
legitimacy and authority from the very institutions that she fought,” Aquino said;” and

to start anew and break from the ‘vestiges of a disgraced dictatorship.’

President Corazon Aquino in April 1986 created the 1986 Constitutional Commission (ConCom),
which drafted a replacement for the 1973 Constitution, through Proclamation No. 9.

‘The new constitution,’ she said, ‘should be truly reflective of the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino
people.’

Bishop Teodoro Bacani, former Supreme Court Chief Justice Roberto Concepcion, former Labor
Minister (and later Senator and Foreign Affairs Secretary) Blas Ople, Ateneo De Manila University
President Father Joaquin Bernas SJ, and University of the Philippines Student Council Chairperson (now
Connie) were among the 48 members of the 1986 ConCom.

The commission’s first meeting was conducted on June 2, 1986, when Cecilia Muoz-Palma, the first
woman to be nominated to the Supreme Court in 1973, was elected president.

The proceedings relative to the drafting of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, that is, similar to other
important legal documents in the country, were in no doubt not without conflict.

According to accounts, the members of the ConCom engaged in heated debates during various
sessions on many issues, including death penalty, economic policies, land reform, form of government,
and even the retention of the American military bases in Clark and Subic.

According to Palma, the ConCom was able to complete its work in about 111 days. The proposed
constitution was passed on October 12, 1986, with 44 delegates voting in favor and two voting against
and was delivered to Aquino three days later.

After a statewide education campaign on the draft constitution, a National Plebiscite was held on
February 2, 1987.

“Do you vote for the ratification of the proposed Constitution of the Republic with the ordinance
appended thereto?” the voters were asked.

The following are the results of the 1987 plebiscite, as determined by the Commission on Elections,
based on returns from 83,288 precincts and 21,785,216 votes cast throughout the Philippines:

Aquino announced the results of the plebiscite and declared the 1987 Philippine Constitution
adopted on February 11, 1987, through Proclamation No. 58. On the same day, the constitution went
into effect.

Lino Brocka, a filmmaker recognized for documenting socioeconomic realities, was a member of the
ConCom. However, he and other ConCom members left the sessions due to intense debates and
disapprovals of key measures.

On August 28, 1986, Brocka wrote to the panel, announcing that he had informed President Cory
Aquino of his irreversible resignation (Gavilan, 2016).

LESSON 14 Contemporary World

GLOBAL MIGRATION

Global migration can be thought of as a cause-and-effect connection, with causes as numerous as

effects. People across international borders for a variety of reasons, including (though not limited to):

Safety

Political conflict

Natural disaster

Education

Career

Family

Economic betterment

Furthermore, global movement is a protected human right that allows people to move from one place to
another. Humans have always migrated from one location to another. The freedom to migrate is so
valuable that it has been designated as a protected human right.

However, not all motions are freely decided. Some people have been compelled to relocate, including
entire families and villages. Human trafficking has pushed some people to relocate. Slavery in the
modern era is known as human trafficking. Forced displacement affects over 1% of the world’s
population, or 65 million individuals. It’s a worldwide disaster with enormous moral and ethical
ramifications.

Forced migration, in any form, is a violation of human rights and a loss of human dignity. Injustices
stemming from colonialism and racism, both historical and modern, continue to wreak havoc on the lives
of immigrants and refugees. In their transit and destination countries, they face various forms of racial
discrimination, xenophobia, and intolerance (Global Migration, n.d.).

One of the most serious global trends now is migration. Hundreds of millions of people around the world
are moving for a variety of reasons, including war, economy, persecution, and a yearning for fresh
opportunities. Many kids have been through migration, either personally or through family members or
classmates. Many more are probably familiar with media tales on worldwide migration. They may have
heard or read reports about Central American migrant families being separated at the US-Mexico border.
They may be aware of the genocide perpetrated against the Rohingya, a Muslim minority group in
Myanmar who have been persecuted by the Buddhist majority and forced to flee to congested refugee
camps in Bangladesh.

According to the United Nations’ 2017 International Migration Report, there are currently 258 million
migrants worldwide, with over 60% of them residing in Asia, Europe, and Northern America; however,
only a fraction of the stories of this rapidly growing population are covered in today’s news cycle. While
shocking sights and tales may attract the attention of viewers and readers, another global incident or
domestic crisis pulls the media’s attention away from countless people (The Many Faces of Global
Migration, n.d.).

The Push-Pull Factor

The Push-Pull factor can be used to describe some of the factors that cause worldwide migration. The
factors in the destination country that entice a person or a group to leave their home are known as pull
factors. These consideration entice people to move to a new location mostly because the opportunities
presented in the new location were previously unavailable to them. A family moving from a country
with little work possibilities to a new place with more opportunities for a successful career is an example
of a pull factor. The new country’s advantageous features motivate people to go there in search of a
better life for their families.

The term “push factor” refers to circumstances that compel people to leave their homes. When a person
feels distressed, they are more likely to move (safety, natural disaster, or political conflict). Although push
factors do not force a person to leave their home, the situations that influence the push factors
frequently have a detrimental impact on the individual’s quality of life if they choose to stay. Drought
and famine, war conflicts, and/or excessive unemployment are among push factors that cause citizens of
a country to migrate. Push factors, in particular, are frequently underestimated in terms of their
popularity and frequency, according to a survey of employees conducted by Manpower Inc. in 27
countries. In this study, 82 percent of respondents said they would relocate for a pay raise, 74 percent
said they would relocate to advance their profession, and 47 percent said they would relocate to learn a
new language. In a nutshell, individuals migrate for a variety of reasons.

On the other hand, people decide to migrate because of push factors and pull factors. People are
induced to move out of their current location by a push factor, and people are induced to move into a
new area by a pull factor. Because migrating is a huge move for most people, both push and pull
influences are usually present. When people migrate, they see their current place of residence in such a
bad light that they feel driven away, and they see another area in such a positive light that they feel
drawn to it. Economic, cultural, and environmental variables are the three basic types of push and pull
factors. People move for a variety of causes that appear to be as many as the world’s countries.
According to the UN Population Division, international migrants have made up at least 2.5 percent of the
world’s population since 1960. Because these two principles are combined, this concept is not new:
migrants have always been, are still, and will continue to be a part of our communities, which are
becoming increasingly vibrant as new cultural influences are integrated. By accepting migrants into our
communities, we assure that they will adapt to local culture more quickly and effectively, while also
enhancing the community through the exchange of fresh ideas and cultural norms (Blackman, 2017).

Reasons for Migration

There are numerous motivations for human migration over the globe. These include physical, cultural,
economic, and political reasons, as well as subsets or combinations of these reasons (for instance,
migration due to political reasons may include cultural reasons as well, such as religious persecution).
Most migration in human history has been group migration, but present-day globalization has changed
that.

Physical reasons for migration include sudden disasters. This category may include hurricanes,
tornadoes, earthquakes, and flooding. Some physical reasons may develop slowly over time. This second
category may include famine, overpopulation, prolonged drought, and, increasingly, sea level rise. The
crop failures that led to the Irish potato famine occurred over a period of a few years and resulted in
death for around a million people and migration for more than a million people from about 1845 to
1852. Today, with the slow encroachment of sea level rise, the tiny island nation of Tuvalu in the South
Pacific, comprising nine low-lying coral atolls, is being pounded by flooding, coastal erosion, and
increasing salinity. Some estimates project about 50 years before the islands are uninhabitable, and
some citizens of Tuvalu have asked Australia or New Zealand for refuge (Reasons for the Movement of
People in the World, Nation, or State, n.d.).

Political reasons are also some of the factors. Political problems are the following:

the administration is inefficient

the costs to the government are high

the program relies on aid from abroad (e.g. from the World Bank)

Economic factors relate to the labor standards of a country, its unemployment situation and the overall
health of its economy. If economic conditions are unfavorable and look to be deteriorating, a larger
proportion of people may likely emigrate to a country with a better economy. This frequently leads to
people shifting from rural to urban regions while remaining inside their state’s borders. As today’s low-
and middle-income countries continue to thrive and high-income countries see slower economic growth,
migration from the former may decrease. Economic migrants are lured to international migration by the
potential of higher income, better job possibilities, and, in many cases, a desire to flee their home
country’s domestic social and political circumstances. Most of these migrants are from middle-income
nations, where the population is growing increasingly educated. Salaries and wages, on the other hand,
are likely to remain low in comparison to those in other, higher-income nations for those with similar
educational backgrounds. Because of this discrepancy, some highly skilled individuals from
underdeveloped countries may migrate to more developed ones. South-north movement is the term for
this type of migration, which has historically been the most common type of economic migration.
Individuals from developing countries went to more developed countries for work and sent remittances
back to their home countries in south-north migration. However, in the last decade, south-to-south
movement has become more widespread. South-south migration accounted for 36% of all international
migration in 2013, while south-north migration accounted for 35%. Migration between developing
nations is based on proximity, identity networks, income differentials, and seasonal migration, according
to the Migration Policy Institute. As a result, 80 percent of south-south migration happens between
nations that share contiguous borders and are likely to share cultural identities. Because the barriers to
migration are lower in south-south migration that in south-north migration, the trend of south-south
economic mobility is likely to continue. Economic migrants have more freedom in deciding where they
want to go than humanitarian migrants. Many asylum seekers would escape to the first safe country that
will take them in, whereas economic migrants will relocate to countries that either require their skills or
provide better living conditions than their home country. As a result, pull factors within the destination
country are more likely to affect economic migrants’ decision-making.” (Kharkiv National University of
Economics, n.d.)

Technological advancement, both in communications and transport and the liberalization of labor
markets, has the potential to increase the rate of circular migration. (Kharkiv National University of
Economics, n.d.)

Individuals migrate between an origin and a destination on multiple occasions in this type of migration.
Individuals are generally motivated by economic incentives to relocate to countries with greater job
opportunities before returning to their home country (Jain, 2018).

Cultural considerations can be particularly powerful motivators for people to leave a country. Slavery and
political instability have historically been the two main cultural grounds for forced international
migration. Refugees, according to the United Nations, are persons who have been forced to migrate from
their homes and are unable to return due to fear of persecution based on their race, religion, nationality,
social group membership, or political beliefs (Migration CHAPTER 3, n.d.).

LESSON 14 Understanding self

Direct Quote:

“Social media is a term for numerous technologies that allow instantaneous communication, status
updates, and social networking among individuals. Social media platforms at present include text
messaging via cellular phones and social networking sites, such as Facebook. The use of social media by
the youth (preadolescents and adolescents) continues to increase worldwide on a yearly basis. The
youth in nearly every country uses social media to maintain nearly constant contact with their friends.
Given the importance of social media and friendships to the youth, this review examines the effect of
social media on the emotional experiences of the youth. Social media can have a positive influence upon
loneliness, intimacy, and relationship maintenance during adolescence. However, adolescents also
experience relational issues via social media and are more reckless online than in real life. Social media,
particularly Facebook, may have positive and negative effects on mood symptoms and other mental
disorders. Social media may play a role in identity formation by allowing young users to experiment with
different behavior and interactional styles. The effects of social media may lead to more positive
outcomes for boys than for girls. A research on social media use during preadolescence is needed
because existing works largely targeted adolescents. Further research should also be conducted with
potential mediators between social media and well-being (e.g., friendship).” (Wood, Bukowski, & Lis,
2016)

The digital self is the aspect of the self that is expressed or shared with others through online
interactions on the Internet, specifically on social networking sites.

Self-presentation refers to an individual’s attempts, whether conscious or unconscious, to control

how he projects himself in social interactions. Self-presentation is the process of controlling how one is
perceived by other people and the key to relationship inception and development.

Which generation are you?

● Gen Z/iGen – born: 1996–2011; age in 2017: primary, tweens, and teens

● Millennials/Gen Y – born: after 1980; age in 2017: 22–mid-30s

● Gen X – born: 1965 to 1980; age in 2017: mid 30s–50s

● Baby boomer – born: 1946–1964; age in 2017: 51–69

Generation of Digital Natives

A total of 85% of the youths in the NCR own a cellphone. In addition, teens access the Internet from
mobile devices/smartphones.

A total of 92% of the youths in the NCR use the Internet, 90% of which have at least one account on
social networking sites.

The youths in the NCR spend an average of 10 hours a week on the Internet.

Effects of Online Interaction on Self:

draw people away from meaningful and intimate communication with families and friends

limit face-to-face interaction with other people.

false information/fake news

identity theft
cyberbullying

comparison of yourself to others

may lead to depression

Positive impact on mental health: creativity, knowledge sharing, web connectivity, and social marketing

Negative implications for mental health: profile updates, depression, and insomnia

Impact of social media:

Self and social development – social connections, belongingness, identity creativity, and community
(political) engagement

Access to information – resources, information and support for schoolwork, and seeking health
information, as well as misinformation and risks (self-harm)

Risks – privacy issues, cyberbullying, body image issues, sexualization, and depression

Fear of missing out (FoMO) – “the uneasy and sometimes all-consuming feeling that you are missing out
– that your peers are doing, in the know about, or possession of more or something better than you.”
(Dykman, 2012) Under this framing of FoMO, nearly three-quarters of young adults reported they
experienced this phenomenon.

Your brain on the smartphone is not so smart – notifications, texts, “likes,” and new information on your
feed are inherently rewarding and addictive via the action of dopamine in your brain. The mere presence
of a smartphone in your environment reduces cognitive attention and capacity. Long and late-night
exposure to the blue light that the smartphone screen emits disrupts melatonin production and
circadian rhythms.

The Anti-Discrimination Act aims to protect the rights and welfare of the LGBTQ+ community in the
Philippines.

The Data Privacy Act of 2012/Republic Act 10173 aims to protect the people from the invasion of
privacy.

IDENTITIES:

Online identity – the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions.

Partial identity – a subset of characteristics that make up our identity.

Persona – the partial identity we create that represents one’s self in a specific situation.

For anything we post online, we should consider public regardless of how private it is.

Personal identity – the interpersonal level of the self that differentiates the individual as unique from
others.

Social identity – the level of self wherein the individual is identified by his or her group memberships.

Self-Sharing in Cyberspace

According to Belk’s (2013) “Extended Self in a Digital World,” sharing itself is not new and has
arguably been around as long as humankind. However, digital devices help us communicate more and in
a broader manner than ever before.

In older family albums, the photographer is often not shown in the album (Mendelson and
Papacharissi 2011), whereas with arm’s length photos, they are included. As indicated by Schwars
(2010), we have entered an unprecedented era of self-portraiture.

With blogs and webpages, this shift led to greater self-reflection and more digital bits of the
extended self to represent us, occasionally with multiple daily updates. Hence, researchers became
concerned with actively managing identity and reputation and warn against the phenomenon of
“oversharing.”

FOUCAULT’S VIEW

In Foucault’s (1978,1996) view, confessing our secret truths feels freeing, even as it binds us in a guilt-
motivated self-governance.

St. Augustine and Jean-Jacques Rousseau reinforce this imperative for self-confession in an earlier era,
similar to the function of online diaries and blogs at present.

However, the Internet has made once-private confession considerably public.

“Technologies of the Self,” through which we seek to purge and cleanse ourselves.

Exomologesis or “publishing oneself” became easier to accomplish.

Despite the tension between privacy and potential celebrity, our online confession is also part of the
“self-therapeutic” aspect of sharing.

NEEDED EXTENDED SELF UPDATES DUE TO SHARING

Self-revelation – Not only an inward turn in self, that is, consciously crafting our autobiographies, exists
(Zhao 2005); an outward turn in presenting these self-displays is also present. “Ego searching” is looking
for information about themselves.

Loss of control – What was once private is now more likely to be public? We may exercise self-control,
but it is far harder to control all-out digital self-representation.

Shared digital possessions and aggregate self – In the digital realm, we are part of imagined communities
whose members may not be personally known aside from their pseudonyms and online contributions
(Born 2011). Pirated music is a case point of profile sharers who jointly assemble and share ownership of
a set of musical files.

Shared sense of (cyber) space – Consider cyberspace as a public place. The whole point of Web 2.0 and
most digital devices is to facilitate access and information. “Reworldling” means taking us out of the
constraint of our physical space and providing us with new abilities, that is, “the ability to remodel the
virtual environment extends the identity project far beyond the body.” In reworldling, we experience the
transcendence of the body, time, and space. This aestheticization of life takes place online as the
participants soak in the digital spectacles in “window shopping” for real-world goods. “Third places” is a
place that is neither the first place of home nor the second place of work at which people hang out,
enjoy themselves, and feel accepted (e.g., pubs, cafés, and coffee shops) where regulars get to know,
accept, and support one another.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY ONLINE

According to Marwick (2013), while the terms “sex,” “gender,” and “sexuality” are often thought of as
synonymous, they are actually relatively distinct.

Sex is a biological state that corresponds to what we might call a “man” or “woman.” While sex is
often explained as biological, fixed, and immutable, it is actually socially constructed (West &
Zimmerman, 1987).

Gender is the social understanding of how sex should be experienced and how sex manifests in
behavior, personality, preference, capabilities, etc. For transgender individuals, understanding gender is
changeable or liminal, which threatens many assumptions that are considered biological or “natural.”
Gender is a system of classification that values male-gendered things more than female-related ones
(e.g., colors, academic departments, electronic gadgets, and websites). (Taylor & Francis, 2014)

Gender inequality – Heteronormativity is the presumption of heterosexuality unless explicitly stated.

“Technology has been criticized for this male normativity due to the disproportionate number of men
and women involved in technical design and engineering.” (Taylor & Francis, 2014)

Normative gender behavior – This behavior adheres to the dominant understanding of masculine
men and feminine women. Non-normative behavior does not follow these norms.

Sexuality is an individual expression and understanding of desire, often viewed as binary

(homosexual or heterosexual) similar to gender. In reality, sexuality is often fluid. (Taylor & Francis, 2014)

Queer can be used as an umbrella term for the non-normative expressions of sexuality. Originally,
queer means “strange” or “peculiar.” Unlike “gay or lesbian,” queer rejects the binary approach to
making female or gay/straight identities. (Taylor & Francis, 2014)

ROLE OF CYBER WORLD FOR PHYSICAL WORLD

Cyberworld
 “Cyber refers to the characteristics of the culture of computers, information technology, and virtual
reality.” (yadav & Gour, 2014) Collectively, the cyberworld means the world of computers and
communications; it implies today’s fast-moving, high-technology world.

Physical life refers to the life in which we live, that is, the routine life. The circumstances we face in
our life are relevant to physical life.

ROLE OF CYBER WORLD

The cyber world is being involved in our lives considerably; the person being addicted to this would
feel incomplete without it.

Cyberspace

Cyberspace refers to the virtual computer world and, specifically, an electronic medium used to form a
global computer network to facilitate online communication.

“Cyberspace allows users to share information, interact, swap ideas, play games, engage in discussions or
social forums, conduct business, and create intuitive media among many other activities.” (Nandy, 2020)

It is an extensive computer network made up of many worldwide computer networks that use TCP/IP
protocol to aid in communication and data exchange activities.

Cyberspace’s core feature is an interactive and virtual environment for a broad range of participants.
(What Does Cyberspace Mean?, n.d.)

Cyberculture

This includes the social conditions brought about by the widespread use of computer networks for
communication, entertainment, and business.

It is a unique set of habits, values, and other elements of culture that have evolved from the use of
computers and the Internet.

“Cyberculture or computer culture is the culture that has emerged or is emerging from the use of
computer networks for communication, entertainment, and business.” (Ma, 2014)

Internet culture is also the study of various social phenomena that are associated with the Internet and
other new forms of network communication, such as online communities, online multiplayer “gaming,
wearable computing, social gaming, social media, mobile apps, augmented reality, and texting, and
includes issues related to identity, privacy, and network formation.” (Ma, 2014)

The study of cyberculture is still an evolving field. The complex relationship between technology and our
use of it is changing the cultural landscape due to this complex relationship.

Cyber wellness
Cyber wellness refers to the positive well-being of Internet users and healthy cyber culture for the
Internet community.

Cyber wellness involves understanding the risks of harmful online behavior and an awareness of how to
protect oneself and others from such behavior.

It is the recognition of the power of the Internet to affect oneself and the community-at-large.

It involves understanding the norms of the appropriate, responsible behavior regarding technology use
and knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes on how to protect oneself and other internet users in the
cyber world. (Ministry of Education, n.d.)

LESSON 15 CC101
DEFINING INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Almost all programs in business require students to take a course in something called information
systems. But what exactly does that term mean? Let’s take a look at some of the more popular
definitions, first from Wikipedia and then from a couple of textbooks:

· “Information system (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software that
people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data.”

· “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications networks

that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute useful data, typically in organizational
settings.”

· “Information systems are interrelated components working together to collect, process, store, and
disseminate information to support decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in
an organization.”

As you can see, these definitions focus on two different ways of describing information systems: the
components that make up an information system and the role that those components play in an
organization. Let’s take a look at each of these.

THE COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Many students understand that an information system has something to do with databases or
spreadsheets. Others mention computers and e-commerce. And they are all right, at least in part:
information systems are made up of different components that work together to provide value to an
organization.

The first way I describe information systems is to tell that they are made up of five components:
hardware, software, data, people, and process. The first three, fitting under the technology category, are
generally what most students think of when asked to define information systems. But the last two,
people and process, are really what separate the idea of information systems from more technical fields,
such as computer science. In order to fully understand information systems, students must understand
how all of these components work together to bring value to an organization.

Technology

Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. From the
invention of the wheel to the harnessing of electricity for artificial lighting, technology is a part of our
lives in so many ways that we tend to take it for granted. As discussed before, the first three components
of information systems – hardware, software, and data – all fall under the category of technology. Each
of these will get its own chapter and a much lengthier discussion, but we will take a moment here to
introduce them so we can get a full understanding of what an information system is.

Hardware

Information systems hardware is the part of an information system you can touch – the physical
components of the technology. Computers, keyboards, disk drives, iPads, and flash drives are all
examples of information systems hardware.

Software

Software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. Software is not tangible – it cannot
be touched. When programmers create software programs, what they are really doing is simply typing
out lists of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. There are several categories of software, with
the two main categories being operating-system software, which makes the hardware usable, and
application software, which does something useful. Examples of operating systems include Microsoft
Windows on a personal computer and Google’s Android on a mobile phone.

Data

The third component is data. You can think of data as a collection of facts. For example, your street
address, the city you live in, and your phone number are all pieces of data. Like software, data is also
intangible. By themselves, pieces of data are not really very useful. But aggregated, indexed, and
organized together into a database, data can become a powerful tool for businesses. In fact, all of the
definitions presented at the beginning of this chapter focused on how information systems manage data.
Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions. These decisions can then be analyzed
as to their effectiveness and the organization can be improved.

NETWORKING COMMUNICATION: A FOURTH TECHNOLOGY PIECE?

Besides the components of hardware, software, and data, which have long been considered the core
technology of information systems, it has been suggested that one other component should be added:
communication. An information system can exist without the ability to communicate – the first personal
computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the Internet. However, in today’s hyper-
connected world, it is an extremely rare computer that does not connect to another device or to a
network. Technically, the networking communication component is made up of hardware and software,
but it is such a core feature of today’s information systems that it has become its own category.

People

When thinking about information systems, it is easy to get focused on the technology components and
forget that we must look beyond these tools to fully understand how they integrate into an organization.
A focus on the people involved in information systems is the next step. From the front-line help-desk
workers, to systems analysts, to programmers, all the way up to the chief information officer (CIO), the
people involved with information systems are an essential element that must not be overlooked.

Process

The last component of information systems is process. A process is a series of steps undertaken to
achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information systems are becoming more and more integrated with
organizational processes, bringing more productivity and better control to those processes. But simply
automating activities using technology is not enough – businesses looking to effectively utilize
information systems do more. Using technology to manage and improve processes, both within a
company and externally with suppliers and customers, is the ultimate goal. Technology buzzwords such
as “business process reengineering,” “business process management,” and “enterprise resource
planning” all have to do with the continued improvement of these business procedures and the
integration of technology with them. Businesses hoping to gain an advantage over their competitors are
highly focused on this component of information systems.

The Role of Information Systems

Now that we have explored the different components of information systems, we need to turn our
attention to the role that information systems play in an organization. So far we have looked at what the
components of an information system are, but what do these components actually do for an
organization? From our definitions above, we see that these components collect, store, organize, and
distribute data throughout the organization. In fact, we might say that one of the roles of information
systems is to take data and turn it into information, and then transform that into organizational
knowledge. As technology has developed, this role has evolved into the backbone of the organization. To
get a full appreciation of the role information systems play, we will review how they have changed over
the years.

IBM 704 Mainframe (Copyright: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory)

The Mainframe Era

From the late 1950s through the 1960s, computers were seen as a way to more efficiently do
calculations. These first business computers were room-sized monsters, with several refrigerator-sized
machines linked together. The primary work of these devices was to organize and store large volumes of
information that were tedious to manage by hand. Only large businesses, universities, and government
agencies could afford them, and they took a crew of specialized personnel and specialized facilities to
maintain. These devices served dozens to hundreds of users at a time through a process called time-
sharing. Typical functions included scientific calculations and accounting, under the broader umbrella of
“data processing.”

Registered trademark of International Business Machines

In the late 1960s, the Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP) systems were introduced. This software,
running on a mainframe computer, gave companies the ability to manage the manufacturing process,
making it more efficient. From tracking inventory to creating bills of materials to scheduling production,
the MRP systems (and later the MRP II systems) gave more businesses a reason to want to integrate
computing into their processes. IBM became the dominant mainframe company. Nicknamed “Big Blue,”
the company became synonymous with business computing. Continued improvement in software and
the availability of cheaper hardware eventually brought mainframe computers (and their little sibling,
the minicomputer) into most large businesses.

The PC Revolution

In 1975, the first microcomputer was announced on the cover of Popular Mechanics: the Altair 8800. Its
immediate popularity sparked the imagination of entrepreneurs everywhere, and there were quickly
dozens of companies making these “personal computers.” Though at first just a niche product for
computer hobbyists, improvements in usability and the availability of practical software led to growing
sales. The most prominent of these early personal computer makers was a little company known as
Apple Computer, headed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, with the hugely successful “Apple II.” Not
wanting to be left out of the revolution, in 1981 IBM (teaming with a little company called Microsoft for
their operating-system software) hurriedly released their own version of the personal computer, simply
called the “PC.” Businesses, who had used IBM mainframes for years to run their businesses, finally had
the permission they needed to bring personal computers into their companies, and the IBM PC took off.
The IBM PC was named Time magazine’s “Man of the Year” for 1982.

Because of the IBM PC’s open architecture, it was easy for other companies to copy, or “clone” it. During
the 1980s, many new computer companies sprang up, offering less expensive versions of the PC. This
drove prices down and spurred innovation. Microsoft developed its Windows operating system and
made the PC even easier to use. Common uses for the PC during this period included word processing,
spreadsheets, and databases. These early PCs were not connected to any sort of network; for the most
part they stood alone as islands of innovation within the larger organization.

Client-Server

In the mid-1980s, businesses began to see the need to connect their computers together as a way to
collaborate and share resources. This networking architecture was referred to as “client-server” because
users would log in to the local area network (LAN) from their PC (the “client”) by connecting to a
powerful computer called a “server,” which would then grant them rights to different resources on the
network (such as shared file areas and a printer). Software companies began developing applications
that allowed multiple users to access the same data at the same time. This evolved into software
applications for communicating, with the first real popular use of electronic mail appearing at this time.
Registered trademark of SAP

This networking and data sharing all stayed within the confines of each business, for the most part.
While there was sharing of electronic data between companies, this was a very specialized function.
Computers were now seen as tools to collaborate internally, within an organization. In fact, these
networks of computers were becoming so powerful that they were replacing many of the functions
previously performed by the larger mainframe computers at a fraction of the cost. It was during this era
that the first Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems were developed and run on the client-server
architecture. An ERP system is a software application with a centralized database that can be used to run
a company’s entire business. With separate modules for accounting, finance, inventory, human
resources, and many, many more, ERP systems, with Germany’s SAP leading the way, represented the
state of the art in information systems integration.

The World Wide Web and E-Commerce

First invented in 1969, the Internet was confined to use by universities, government agencies, and
researchers for many years. Its rather arcane commands and user applications made it unsuitable for
mainstream use in business. One exception to this was the ability to expand electronic mail outside the
confines of a single organization. While the first e-mail messages on the Internet were sent in the early
1970s, companies who wanted to expand their LAN-based e-mail started hooking up to the Internet in
the 1980s. Companies began connecting their internal networks to the Internet in order to allow
communication between their employees and employees at other companies. It was with these early
Internet connections that the computer truly began to evolve from a computational device to a
communications device.

In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee developed a simpler way for researchers to share information over the network
at CERN laboratories, a concept he called the World Wide Web.[4] This invention became the launching
point of the growth of the Internet as a way for businesses to share information about themselves. As
web browsers and Internet connections became the norm, companies rushed to grab domain names and
create websites.

Registered trademark of Amazon Technologies, Inc.

In 1991, the National Science Foundation, which governed how the Internet was used, lifted restrictions
on its commercial use. The year 1994 saw the establishment of both eBay and Amazon.com, two true
pioneers in the use of the new digital marketplace. A mad rush of investment in Internet-based
businesses led to the dot-com boom through the late 1990s, and then the dot-com bust in 2000. While
much can be learned from the speculation and crazy economic theories espoused during that bubble,
one important outcome for businesses was that thousands of miles of Internet connections were laid
around the world during that time. The world became truly “wired” heading into the new millenium,
ushering in the era of globalization, which we will discuss in chapter 11.

As it became more expected for companies to be connected to the Internet, the digital world also
became a more dangerous place. Computer viruses and worms, once slowly propagated through the
sharing of computer disks, could now grow with tremendous speed via the Internet. Software written for
a disconnected world found it very difficult to defend against these sorts of threats. A whole new
industry of computer and Internet security arose.

Web 2.0

As the world recovered from the dot-com bust, the use of technology in business continued to evolve at
a frantic pace. Websites became interactive; instead of just visiting a site to find out about a business
and purchase its products, customers wanted to be able to customize their experience and interact with
the business. This new type of interactive website, where you did not have to know how to create a web
page or do any programming in order to put information online, became known as web 2.0. Web 2.0 is
exemplified by blogging, social networking, and interactive comments being available on many websites.
This new web-2.0 world, in which online interaction became expected, had a big impact on many
businesses and even whole industries. Some industries, such as bookstores, found themselves relegated
to a niche status. Others, such as video rental chains and travel agencies, simply began going out of
business as they were replaced by online technologies. This process of technology replacing a
middleman in a transaction is called disintermediation.

As the world became more connected, new questions arose. Should access to the Internet be considered
a right? Can I copy a song that I downloaded from the Internet? How can I keep information that I have
put on a website private? What information is acceptable to collect from children? Technology moved so
fast that policymakers did not have enough time to enact appropriate laws, making for a Wild West–type
atmosphere.

The Post-PC World

After thirty years as the primary computing device used in most businesses, sales of the PC are now
beginning to decline as sales of tablets and smartphones are taking off. Just as the mainframe before it,
the PC will continue to play a key role in business, but will no longer be the primary way that people
interact and do business. The limited storage and processing power of these devices is being offset by a
move to “cloud” computing, which allows for storage, sharing, and backup of information on a massive
scale. This will require new rounds of thinking and innovation on the part of businesses as technology
continues to advance.

The

Eras of Business Computing

Era

Hardware

Operating System

Applications
Mainframe

(1970s)

Terminals connected to mainframe computer.

Time-sharing

(TSO) on MVS

Custom-written

MRP software

PC

(mid-1980s)

IBM PC or compatible. Sometimes connected to mainframe computer via

expansion card.

MS-DOS

WordPerfect,

Lotus 1-2-3

Client-Server

(late 80s to early 90s)

IBM PC “clone” on a Novell Network.

Windows for Workgroups

Microsoft

Word, Microsoft Excel

World

Wide Web (mid-90s to early 2000s)

IBM PC “clone” connected to company intranet.

Windows XP

Microsoft
Office, Internet Explorer

Web 2.0 (mid-2000s to present)

Laptop connected to company Wi-Fi.

Windows 7

Microsoft

Office, Firefox

Post-PC

(today and beyond)

Apple iPad

iOS

Mobile-friendly

websites, mobile apps

Can Information Systems Bring Competitive Advantage?

It has always been the assumption that the implementation of information systems will, in and of itself,
bring a business competitive advantage. After all, if installing one computer to manage inventory can
make a company more efficient, won’t installing several computers to handle even more of the business
continue to improve it?

In 2003, Nicholas Carr wrote an article in the Harvard Business Review that questioned this assumption.
The article, entitled “IT Doesn’t Matter,” raised the idea that information technology has become just a
commodity. Instead of viewing technology as an investment that will make a company stand out, it
should be seen as something like electricity: It should be managed to reduce costs, ensure that it is
always running, and be as risk-free as possible.

As you might imagine, this article was both hailed and scorned. Can IT bring a competitive advantage? It
sure did for Walmart (see sidebar). We will discuss this topic further in chapter 7.

Sidebar: Walmart Uses Information Systems to Become the World’s Leading Retailer

Registered trademark of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.

Walmart is the world’s largest retailer, earning $15.2 billion on sales of $443.9 billion in the fiscal year
that ended on January 31, 2012. Walmart currently serves over 200 million customers every week,
worldwide.[5] Walmart’s rise to prominence is due in no small part to their use of information systems.
One of the keys to this success was the implementation of Retail Link, a supply-chain management
system. This system, unique when initially implemented in the mid-1980s, allowed Walmart’s suppliers
to directly access the inventory levels and sales information of their products at any of Walmart’s more
than ten thousand stores. Using Retail Link, suppliers can analyze how well their products are selling at
one or more Walmart stores, with a range of reporting options. Further, Walmart requires the suppliers
to use Retail Link to manage their own inventory levels. If a supplier feels that their products are selling
out too quickly, they can use Retail Link to petition Walmart to raise the levels of inventory for their
products. This has essentially allowed Walmart to “hire” thousands of product managers, all of whom
have a vested interest in the products they are managing. This revolutionary approach to managing
inventory has allowed Walmart to continue to drive prices down and respond to market forces quickly.

Today, Walmart continues to innovate with information technology. Using its tremendous market
presence, any technology that Walmart requires its suppliers to implement immediately becomes a
business standard.

LESSON 15 KOMFIL
4.1 ANO ANG WORKSYAP

isang uri ng pagsasanay kasama ang isang maliit na grupo upang magpalitan ng kuro-kuro, o pag-
usapan ang solusyon sa isang partikular na problema. Makikita rin sa isang workshop ang ilang aktuwal
na paghahalimbawa o mga praktikum para sa isang partikular na paksa. Ito ay pinakamabisang paraan ng
pagbabahagi ng kaalaman at kasanayan sa ibang tao. Dito ay nabibigyan ng pagkakataon ang isang tao na
isagawa ang mga nais niyang matutuhan ngunit kailangan ng maayos na pagpaplano at pagtanggap ng
mga responsibilidad para ito ay maisakatuparan.

HAKBANGIN SA MABISANG GAWAIN NG WORKSYAP

1. Pagpili – Ito ang unang hakbang sa pagsasagawa ng worksyap, sa bahaging ito dapat isaisip kung ano
Ang tiyak na layunin ang nais makamit o ang pinakaadhikain ng isasagawang worksyap. Kailangang
isaalang-alang kung ano ang nais na makuha o matutuhan ng mga taong dumalo rito.

2. Pagplano - Matapos maitala ang layuning gagawin. Maaari nang buoin ang talaan ng mga gagawin.

Petsa, oras at haba ng gagawing wroksyap

Lugar kung saan ito isasagawa

Mga kagamitang kinakailangan

Inaasahang bilang ng mga dadalo

Paglalatag ng kakailanganing badyet

Tranportasyon
3. Pagpapatupad – tumutukoy ang hakbang na ito sa pagsasagawa ng mga nakaplanong gawain para sa
gagawing worksyap. Maaaring maghanda ng tseklist upang maging organisado at walang makalimutang
gawain sa oras na magsimula ito.

4. Set Up – tumutukoy sa lahat ng mga maaaring kakailanganin bago dumating ang mga dadalo.

Inspeksyunin ang mga audio-visual na kagamitan

Isaayos ang mga inihandang pagkain

Ihanay ang mga lamesa at upuan

Maghanda ng talaan ng mga dadalo

Siguraduhing ang lahat ng kinakailangang materyales ay nakahanda na

5. Daloy ng programa – Nakalahad dito ang magiging takbo ng kabuuang programa kasama ang mga
Iskrip ng mga isinasagawang aktibidad.

Ibalik ang mga kagamitan na ginamit

Linisin ang mga lamesa at ang buong lugar na pinagdarausan ng worksyap

Tipunin ang mga inihandang materyales sa hindi ginamit

Maghatid ng pasasalamat sa mga taong naging katuwang sa pagsasagawa ng programa

6. Pagtataya – Matapos ang ginawang worksyap mainam na magkaroon ng pagkakataon ang bawat isa
isa na balikan ang mga naging pagkukulang sa ginawang worksyap upang malaman kung ano ang naging
problema at kung paano ito maiiwasan sa susunod na magsasagawa ng parehong gawain.

SYMPOSIUM O KUMPERENSIYA

Ayon kay Dr. Cathy Key sa kanyang The Keynote to Planning a Successful Conference. Isang
Pagtitipon o kumperensya kaugnay ang isang paksa kung saan maraming tagapagsalita o magbabahagi
para sa mga imbitadong tagapakinig. Ang mga sumusunod ay mga dapat isaalang-alang para maging
matagumoay ang gagawing kumperensiya;

Bumuo ng layuning kayang makamit sa gagawing kumperensiya

Magtalaga ng mga taong mangunguna sa mga gawain at lumikha ng mga komite.

Paglalatag ng kinakailangan na badyet

Gumawa ng plano ng mga dapat gawin na nakasaad kung sino at kailan dapat tapusin

Bumuo ng daloy ng programa

Siguraduhing ang lahat ay tumutulong at sumusuporta sa takdang gawain.

Magsagawa ng pulong matapos ang komperensiya at likumin ang kanilang mga komento

Maghatid ng pasasalamat sa lahat ng mga naging bahagi ng isinasagawang gawain.

SMALL GROUP AT ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSIO

Isinasagawa ng bawat pangkat o samahan ang talakayan sa pamamagitan ng pagpapalitan

ng kaniya-kaniyang ideya at opinyon upang humantong sa napagkasunduang desisyon o plano.

SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION - Pagsasagawa ng talakayan na ang bawat kasapi , kabilang ang tagapamuno
ay may pantay na karapatan sa pagbabahagi ng ideya at opinyon; pagbibigay at pagtanggap ng positibo
at negatibong komento at pagtugon sa mga katanungan. Walang dominante sa ganitong uri ng talakayan.

ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSION - Ang pangkat ay binubuo ng 8-20 (o mas marami pa) nararapat na may
tumayong tagapamuno upang magsilbing tagapamagitan sa ideya at opinyon ng bawat isa. Mainam na
gamitinn sa ganitong talakayan ang bilog na mesa sapagkat magkakaharap ang bawat isa na
makatutulong sa lubos na pagkakaunawaan. Mainam ding gamitin ang bilog sapagkat wala itong sulok na
nagpapakita na ang lahat ng kasapi maging ang tagapamuno ay may pantay-pantay na katayuan.

Tungkulin ng Nagsisilbing Tagapamuno

Sa talakayang may malayang nagpapahayag, ang tagapamuno ang nagsisilbing tagapangasiwa ng

kaayusan at tagapamagitan ng ideya ba ibinabahagi ng bawat miyembro, Kung ang pangkat ay may 3-7
na miyembro, maaaring hindi na magtalaga ng tagapamuno at ang bawat isa ang magsasayos ng ideya na
kanilang mapagkakasunduan. Samatalang kung ang pangkat naman ay binubuo ng 8-20 at higit pa an
miyembro marapat lamang na may tumayong isang tagapamuno na maglilinaw sa ideya ng bawat
miyembro at magsisilbing tagapagpanatili ng kaayusan ng talakayan upang makamit ang layunin ng
isinasagawang talakayan. Hindi maiiwasan ang pagtatalo at hindi pag-uunawaan sa ganitong gawain , isa
sa mga responsibilidad ng tagapamuno ng talakayan ay ang sumusunod;

Panatilihing kalmado ang bawat miyembro

Tiyaking ang lahat ay nakikiisa at nagbibigay ng opinyon

Tagapaglagom ng Pinag-uusapan

Tungkulin ng mga Kalahok sa talakayan

Nakikiisa ang bawat kalahok ng pangkat upang magbigay ng ideya.

Nakikinig sa ideya ng mga kasama

Handang subukin ang ideya ng iba at magbigay ng sariling opinyon

LESSON 15 MATH
Correlation
Correlation is a statistical technique for measuring and describing a relationship between two variables.
Correlation means association - more precisely, it measures the extent to which two variables are
related. A correlational study has three possible results: a positive correlation, a negative correlation,
and no correlation. A relationship—a correlation—can exist, even though one variable does not cause or
influence the other.

To confidently conclude that X causes Y, these two requirements must be met (Heiman, 2020):

X must occur before Y; an

X must be the only variable that can influence Y

The Characteristics of a Relationship (math-stat.net, 2016)

1. The Direction of the Relationship

The sign of the correlation that is either positive or negative would describe the relationship direction.

There is a positive relationship, when one value increases, the other value also increases as well.
Meaning, the two variables move in the same direction. On the other hand, a negative correlation tends
to go in the opposite direction - as the x variable increases, the y variable decreases. This is the inverse
relationship or the negative relationship.

Example:

A drink concessioner (Schulz & Marciano, 2021). It’s positive relationship when the temperature is high,
you tend to sell a lot of beer. When the temperature is low, you sell relatively little beer. On the other
hand, it is considered negative when on cold days, you sell much more coffee than on hot days.

In a nonlinear or curvilinear relationship, as the scores change, the scores do not only increase or only
decrease: at some point, the scores change their direction of change. Nonlinear relationships come in
many different shapes, but the figure below shows two common ones (Heiman, 2020).

The scatterplot on the left graph shows the relationship between a person's age and the amount of time
required to move from one place to another. The graph reveals that the very young children move
slowly, but as age increases, movement time decreases. Beyond a certain age, however, the time scores
change direction and begin to increase; such a relationship is called U-shaped. Oppositely, the scatterplot
on the right shows the relationship between the number of alcoholic drinks consumed and the sense or
feeling of wellness. At first, people tend to feel better as they drink, but beyond a certain point, drinking
more makes them feel progressively worse.

2. The Form of the Relationship (math-stat.net, 2016)

The relationships tend to have a linear form; that is, the points in the scatter plot tend to form a straight
line. However, special correlations exist for measuring other forms. The form is specified by the type of
correlation used. The Pearson correlation measures linear form.
3. The Strength or Consistency of the Relationship (math-stat.net, 2016)

The numerical value of the correlation measures the consistency of the relationship. A correlation of
1.00 indicates a perfectly consistent relationship, and 0.00 indicates no relationship at all. For the
Pearson correlation, r = 1.00 (or – 1.00) means that the data points fit perfectly on a straight line.

A perfect relationship is one where either positive or negative relationship exists, and all of the points fall
on the line (Richardson, 2019). An imperfect relationship is one in which a relationship exists, but all of
the points do not fall on the line (Richardson, 2019).

Type of Correlation Coefficients

Correlation Coefficient

Types of Scales

Pearson Product Moment

Spearman Rank-Order

Phi

Point Biserial

Both scales Interval or ratio

Both scales Ordinal Both scales are naturally dichotomous

One scale dichotomous, one scale interval or ratio

Where and Why Correlations are Used

1. Prediction

2. Validity

3. Reliability

4. Theory Verification

A scatterplot shows each data point's location formed by a pair of X–Y scores. A data point that is
relatively far from the majority of data points in the scatterplot is referred to as an outlier—it lies out of
the general pattern.

Solution:

Here, we take these two variables for consideration:

M: The marks obtained out of 100

S: Number of students

Since the values of M is in the form of bins, we can use the center point of each class in the scatter
diagram instead. So let us first choose the axes of our diagram.

X-axis – Marks obtained out of 100

Y-axis – Number of Students

Spearman Rank Order of Coefficient Correlation (rs) (math-stat.net, 2016).

The Spearman Rho is a non-parametric test of correlation, for it does not require normality in
distribution. It is used to look into the significant relationship of two variables when using ranking.

Steps in Computing Spearman Rho

Rank the data in x from highest to lowest

(Create a temporary rank column and arrange the score from highest to lowest. The highest score gets
the rank)

In similar scores, add the RANKS (not the scores) and divide it by the number of similar scores. The
temporary ranks will guide you as to what rank is next.

Rank the data in y from highest to lowest.

Compute the difference between the rank of x and y

Square the difference of the ranks

Find the summation of the squared difference.

Determine the n

Use the formula given

Point Biserial Correlation Coefficient (rpbi) (math-stat.net, 2016)

The point biserial correlation coefficient (rpbi) is a statistics used to estimate the degree of relationship
between a dichotomous and an interval or ratio scale. If a researcher wants to determine the degree of
relationships between gender (male and female) and IQ score (scale), the point biserial correlation
coefficient is appropriate. The interpretation of which is similar to Pearson r - that can range from -1 to
+1.

The dichotomous or binomial variable is converted to numerical values to find the point biserial
correlation. We can assign a value of zero (0) to one category, and one (1) value to the other category
then use the regular Pearson Correlation formula to convert the data. It is customary to use zero (0) and
one (1) but using the other two different numbers would work equally well and would not affect the
correlation value.

Example:

A researcher wants to determine if gender is related to IQ. Since IQ is continuous data and gender is
dichotomous, the point-biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate.”

Some Examples of Dichotomous variables (math-stat.net, 2016):

1. Male vs. female

2. College graduate vs. not a college graduate

3. First-born child vs. later-born child

4. Success vs. failure on a particular task

5. Older than 30 years versus younger than 30 years.

Phi-coefficient (math-stat.net, 2016).

This statistics is used for variables that are both nominal and dichotomous. In this statistics, a
contingency table is used to present the data. It is a two-dimensional table containing frequencies by
categories. It is more appropriate for two by two since each variable only takes two values.

LESSON 15 NSTP
Recreational activities - Lopez (1993) defines it, as a worthwhile, socially accepted and socially
constructive leisure experience that provides immediate and inherent satisfaction to the individual who
voluntarily participates in the activity. It is considered as pleasurable activity with an aim of relaxation
like listening to music and watching television. Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being
discretionary time.

The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology.
Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be
"fun". Recreation is difficult to separate from the general concept of play, which is usually the term for
children's recreational activity.

Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life. It has been proposed that
play or recreational activities are outlets of or expression of excess energy, channeling it into socially
acceptable activities that fulfill individual as well as societal needs, without need for compulsion, and
providing satisfaction and pleasure for the participant.

Hereunder are the different values that can be developed during recreational activities:

Engaging in favorable sports could develop good health, muscular strength, power, agility, flexibility.
Proper conduct and behavior among participant could also develop through group activities.

Joining in the leagues, clubs and other smaller organization could give the out-of-school youth the
opportunity to socialized through group work in the form of play and other extra-curricular activities
instead of roaming in the streets to create trouble

Leisure time activities could bring happiness to a person.

Sportsmanship, teamwork, leadership and honesty could be developed in joining sports

Types of Recreational Activities

There are several types of recreational activities and different criteria can be used to categorize these
activities. Activities can be categorized based on the level of activity and interaction with others etc.
Some of the different types of recreational activities include:

Physical Activities : E.g. Sports and games like volleyball, tennis, etc.

Social Activities : This includes things like parties, picnics, carnivals etc.

Outdoor Activities : This involves activities like camping, backpacking etc.

Arts and Crafts : Examples includes activities like painting, woodwork, sculpting etc.

Musical Activities : Includes musical bands, singing, dance groups etc.

Drama and Theater : This includes acting, plays, puppetry etc.

Service Activities : awareness for causes (e.g. running for cancer), fundraising, volunteering etc.

Examples of Recreational Activities

Most recreational activities are known to be very beneficial to your total wellbeing and most of them will
help you relax and help you manage stress better. Some of the top examples of recreational activities
that you can do include:

Backpacking

Backpacking refers to an outdoor recreational activity where equipment and supplies are packed and
carried in a bag (backpack). Some of the common backpacking equipment or gear include shelter (tents,
sleeping bags etc.) These items are packed carefully such that only the very important items are carried
because of weight concerns and limited space.

Bowling

This is an indoor recreational game or activity where a player rolls or throws a bowling ball on a lane to
hit target pins at the end of the lane. The game is normally played between two to eight players per lane.
The lanes have wooden or synthetic surfaces which makes it easy for the ball to roll on it.
Camping

Camping can be described as a recreational activity that entails spending time outdoors overnight in a
temporary makeshift shelter. People w ho go camping usually tend to pick serene, undeveloped and
natural locations. The camp can be for one night or several nights depending on how long you want to
spend time outdoors.

Canoeing

Canoeing is another interesting and exciting outdoor activity that involves paddling (the act of propelling
a canoe forward using a paddle) a canoe with a single-bladed paddle. It can be combined with other
outdoor recreational activities like camping where canoes are used as a means of transportation to the
campsite.

Fishing

This is an activity that entails using different tactics to catch fish using a fishing rod and fish baits. This is
done mainly in different water bodies in the wild or in community ponds around your neighborhood.
Different tactics are usually employed to catch fish and there are a number of fishing competitions
where people can compete as individuals or in teams.

Golfing

Golf is a game that is played with clubs (Golf Clubs) where players hit the ball and try to get the ball into
several holes on the golf course (field or specially designed lawn for playing golf) with a few strokes as
possible. The golf course has different terrains and players have to play the ball across the different
landscapes to get to a hole.

Ice Skating

Ice skating is the ability to propel yourself and glide across a sheet of ice using special shoes with metal
blades known as ice skates. It is done as a recreational activity as well as a competitive sport. It can be
done both indoors and outdoors.

Kayaking

This is the use of a special kind of canoelike boat to move across the water. The kayak is different from
the canoe by the sitting position of the paddler and the type of paddle used. The paddler sits facing
forward with legs in front and straight.

Sailing/Boating

This involves leveraging the power of winds against sails to propel a sailboat on the surface of the water
and in some cases ice and even land (land yacht). The sailor needs to maneuver the boat and adjust the
sails with respect to the wind direction to propel the boat forward.

Skiing
Skiing is a good example of recreational activity that is done mostly outdoors where participants use skis
to glide on snow while moving or travelling from one location to another. Skiers use specially designed
skiing equipment and accessories like shoes with long blades for skiing and special rods known as ski
poles for support and propulsion especially when ascending a slope

Rowing

Rowing involves propelling a boat forward with the use of oars. It is different from canoeing or kayaking
because it uses oars while canoeing and kayaking use paddles. Oars are different from paddles because
they are fixed to the edge of the boat with the boat edge serving as a fulcrum.

Scuba Diving

This refers to underwater diving (often deep water diving) where the diver utilizes their self-contained
underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) that provides the oxygen they need to breathe underwater
which is independent of surface supply. Scuba divers tend to have more independence in diving since
they don’t depend on surface oxygen supply. The main Scuba diving equipment can be pricey but scuba
diving accessories are very affordable.

Skydiving

This is an exhilarating activity that involves diving from high altitudes into a free fall under the force of
gravity and then controlling your descent speed and landing with the use of a parachute. This is also
referred to as parachuting. Skydivers are usually flown to a drop zone in an aircraft and then dropped
from there where they jump out of the plane and descend under the force of gravity before using a
parachute to control their speed of descent and landing. Skydiving is a fast-growing recreational activity
in most urban areas and large cities, and competitive games are also emanating from this activity.

Surfboarding

Surfing is a water surface sport where the surfer essentially rides on the forward side or face of a moving
wave which propels the surfer forward towards the shore. Surfing is commonly done in large water
bodies like the ocean where wave tides are strong. However, there are artificial wave pools nowadays
where giant waves are created artificially for surfing.

Swimming

Swimming is one of the most common examples of recreational activities that you can find anywhere
(especially during the summer!). It basically involves self propulsion through water using coordinated
movements of the limbs and body. There are different swimming styles and techniques that you can use.

LESSON 15 PE
Chapter 15: BASIC BODY POSITION IN GYMNASTICS 

Standing Position 
Kneeling Position 

Sitting Position 

Leaning Position 

Prone Position 

Lying Position

3. Half-Kneeling Position

Setting up in half-kneeling stance: One knee is placed on the ground with the glute contracted and the
hip extended fully, while the other hip is flexed with the foot flat on the ground directly in front of the
hip (both your legs will be at 90 degrees). The spine is in a neutral position with your ribs drawn down.

C. Sitting Position

Is a basic human action and resting position. The body weight is supported primarily by the buttocks in
contact with the ground or a horizontal object such as a chair seat. The torso is more or less upright.

1. Long Sitting Position

Long sitting or sitting with the legs out in front stretches the hamstring and calf muscles and also helps
develop core strength. Chair or stool sitting is done ideally with hips, knees and ankles bent at 90
degrees and feet flat on the floor or footstool.

2. Hook Sitting Position

sit on buttocks; bend knees close to the body. Trunk erect, hands on shin of the legs. long sitting rest
position. legs and toes are extended forward; hands at the rear on the floor.

3. Long Sitting Rest Position

long sitting rest position. legs and toes are extended forward; hands at the rear on the floor. Elbow and
toe straight.

4. Tuck Sitting Position

is a form of sitting position with both legs bent at the hips and at the knees, with the knees
brought/pressed towards the chest? In some stretching exercises, sitting with one leg straight and the
other bent at knee with the sole pressed to the knee of the straight leg, is also used.

5. Stride Sitting Position

sitting on buttocks, spread legs apart, trunk erect, hands on thighs. side sitting position. sitting on
buttock, bend right or left leg in front; other leg extended sideward. Hands on knees.
6. Side Sitting Position

Sitting with your knees to the side often indicates you're a delicate, caring person with a natural
sweetness. This position can also mean you're feeling a little flirtatious! If your knees and chest point
toward your potential partner, you're showing that you're open and available

7. Hurdle Sitting Position

Sitting on buttocks, bend right leg at the back about 90 angles, the other leg extended diagonally
forward. heels sit. from kneeling position, sit on the heels, toes pointed. Hands on hips.

9. Cross Sitting Position

legged on the floor indicates that you feel open and carefree. The pose, with your knees spread to the
side, shows that you are physically open to new ideas. The flexibility it takes to sit this way indicates that
you're emotionally flexible, as well.

LESSON 15 HISTORY
History of Philippine Taxation

I. Pre colonial Era

Before the Spaniards came, taxation already existed. The datus (or rajahs) in pre-colonial kingdoms,
historically known as barangays, collected tributes from their subordinates in exchange for protection or
security. Given that barter was the leading form of trade back then, tax (called buwis or handug, with the
variant handog) came in the form of crops or goods, in which the people living under the Datu should
share a portion of their harvest or property in exchange for security and protection.

Only the timawa (free men) pay taxes because the maharlikas (nobility) and the datu offer the
protection, while the oripun or uripon (slaves) could not offer anything because they lived to serve; thus,
the highest and lowest castes were exempted from tax payment.

II. Spanish Era

The Contador de’ Resultas was the Chief Royal Accountant in the 17th and 18th centuries, with duties
similar to those of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue (CIR). He was the Chief Arbitrator, and his
financial judgements were final unless the Council of Indies reversed them. Taxes levied on the people at
the time ranged from a one-gold-maiz annual tribute to a tax on the value of jewels and gold trinkets, as
well as indirect taxes on tobacco, wine, cockpits, burlas, and powder. The Spanish Treasury had to
subsidize the Philippines with P250,000 per year from 1521 to 1821 due to the country’s poor financial
situation, which was mostly due to an inadequate revenue collection system.

The tributo, which was initially between 8 and 10 reales, was the other type of tax from the Spanish Era.
Forced labor, also known as polo y servicio, was used to pay taxes. Spain eventually replaced tribute with
cedula, allowing them to keep track of who was eligible to pay taxes. Another source of tax revenue for
the Filipinos was the encomienda system, which grants land ownership to deserving peninsulares. The
diezmos prediales was 1/10 of the produce of the encomienda that should be paid to the vice regal
government, and sanctorum was the tax paid to the local church. The vinta, a type of tax paid by
inhabitants in the provinces around Western Luzon’s coast to defend the territory against Muslim
pirates, and the donativo de Zamboanga, which was levied expressly for the conquest of Jolo, were the
other local taxes.

The following items are examples of Filipino taxes during the Spanish occupation (STI n.d.):

Tributo(encomienda tax) : 10 reales

Diezmos prediales (governmenttax) : 1 real

Commission onInternalRevenue : 1 real

Sanctorum : 3reales

III. American Era

The country was administered by American military governors during the early American dictatorship,
which lasted from 1898 until 1901. Under William H. Taft, the first civil government was founded in
1902. However, the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) was established only after the second civil governor
Luke E. Wright signed Reorganization Act No. 1189 on July 2, 1904. The Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR)
was established on August 1, 1904, under the direction of Secretary of Finance Henry Ide (author of the
Internal Revenue Law of 1904), with John S. Hord as the first Collector (Commisioner). There were 69
personnel in the first organization, including a Collector, Vice-Collector, one Chief Clerk, one Law Clerk,
one Records Clerk, and three Division Chiefs.

Three more American collectors followed John S. Hord’s tenure: Ellis Cromwell (1909-1912), William T.
Holting (1912-1214), and James J. Rafferty (1914-1918). They were all nominated by the Governor-
General after the Philippine commission and the US President gave their approval.

On January 1, 1913, during Collector Holting’s tenure, BIR underwent its first restructuring, with the
establishment of eight divisions: 1) Accounting, 2) Cash, 3) Clerical, 4) Inspection, 5) Law, 6) Real Estate,
7) License, and 8) Records. The Real Estate and License Divisions were limited to collecting revenue for
the City of Manila.

Filipino collectors were hired as part of then-US President McKinley’s Filipinization policy. Wenceslao
Trinidad (1918-1922), Juan Posadas, Jr. (1922-1934), and Alfredo Yatao (1934-1938) were the first three
BIR collectors.

The real estate, licensing, and cash divisions were abolished in May 1921 through Act No. 299, and their
powers were transferred to the City of Manila. The BIR was left with five departments as a result of this
transfer: 1) Administrative, 2) Law, 3) Accounting, 4) Income Tax, and 5) Inspection. As a result, the BIR
established the following: 1) the Examiner’s Division, formerly known as the Income Tax Examiner’s
Section that combined with the Income Tax and Secret Service Sections, was in charge of detection and
surveillance activities until January 1, 1951, when it was eliminated. From 1921 through 1941, the BIR’s
organization remained mostly unchanged, with the exception of minor adjustments including the
introduction of the Miscellaneous Tax Division in 1939.

The Secretary of Finance issued Regulation No. 95 in 1937, reforming the Provincial Inspection Districts
and establishing an Internal Revenue Office in each province, administered by a provincial agent.

IV. Japanese Era

At the onset of World War II, the BIR was merged with the Customs Office and led by a Director of
Customs and Internal Revenue under the Japanese administration (1942-1945).

V. Post War Era

BIR was re-established separately on July 4, 1946, after the Philippines gained independence from the
United States. This resulted in reorganization on October 1, 1947, as a result of Executive Order (EO) No.
94, which included the following actions (STI n.d.):

1) The Revenue Accounts and Statistical Divisions were consolidated with the Accounting Unit.

2) All records in the Administrative Division’s Records Sections were consolidated.

3) The Law Division was in charge of all legal matters.

Revenue Regulations No. V-2, dated October 23, 1947, split the country into 31 inspection units, each of
which was under the control of a provincial revenue agent (except for a few special units led by city
revenue agents or supervisors for distilleries and tobacco factories).

The BIR underwent its second major reform on January 1, 1951, when Executive Order No. 392 was
issued. Three new departments, namely, Legal, Assessment, and Collection, were created.

Memorandum Order No. V-188, issued in late January of that year, established the Withholding Tax Unit,
which was placed under the Income Tax Division of the Assessment Department. At the same time,
Republic Act (RA) 690 was passed, establishing the withholding tax system. This technique of collecting
income tax upon receipt of income resulted in approximately 25% of the total income tax received
throughout the period.

Revenue Memorandum Order (RMO) No. 41, the BIR’s third major reform, went into force on March 1,
1954. As a result of this phenomenon, the following offices were established (STI n.d.):

1) Specific Tax Division,

2) Litigation Section,

3) Processing Section,and
4) Office of the City Revenue Examiner.

Through RMO No. V-4-47, a Training Unit was established by September 1, 1954.

On July 20, 1955, the BIR established its first two regional offices in Cebu and Davao, as per RMO No. V-
536, as a first step toward decentralization. Each regional office was led by a regional director, who was
assisted by five branch chiefs, as follows (STI n.d.):

1) Tax Audit,

2) Collection,

3) Investigation,

4) Legal, and

5) Administrative.

The creation of the regional offices divides the Philippine islands into three revenue regions.

The BIR’s organizational set-up expanded beginning 1956 in line with the regionalization scheme of the
government. As a result, BIR’s regional offices grew from eight to ten in 1957. Each regional office also
had its own Acounting Machine Branch.

The title of the head of the BIR was changed from Collector to Commissioner in January 1957. Jose
Aranas was the BIR’s last Collector and first Commissioner.

In 1958, the BIR established the Tax Census Division and the corresponding Tax Census Unit for each
regional office, which was a significant step in consolidating all statements of assets, incomes, and
liabilities of all individual and resident corporations in the Philippines into a National Tax Census.

On June 19, 1959, RA No. 233, sometimes known as the Rewards Law, was passed to further enforce tax
payment and discourage tax evasion by rewarding informers with a quarter of the revenue seized from
the tax evader.

The Philippines were divided again in 1964, this time into 15 regions and 72 inspection districts. The
Tobacco Inspection Board and the Accountable Forms Committee were also established inside the
Commissioner’s Office.

Source: STI (n.d.). Philippine Taxation and the History of Bureau of Internal Revenue.
https://phlconnect.ched.gov.ph/admin/uploads/da4902cb0bc38210839714ebdcf0efc3/04-Handout-
2_2.pdf

Marcos and Aquino Administration

Taxation is a practice that dates backs to our pre-colonial ancestors, which can be characterized as a
reciprocal interaction between the governing party and the governed. The colonial regimes taxation
policies were more subjugating and coercive. It even led to the suffering of many Filipinos, particularly
during the Spanish and American Regimes, which eventually resulted to series of uprisings. Though also
oppressive, the Japanese era had only a few policies implemented due to Japan’s short occupation in the
country. Our Filipino leaders were able to establish concrete taxation strategies that were autonomous
and focused on the state’s requirements after the Philippines obtained independence from the United
States. In the contemporary period, more comprehensive and liberal taxation schemes were launched.
Some of these happened during the two most polarizing administrations in the history of the Philippine
government. These two were the Marcos and (Cory) Aquino administrations.

Marcos Administration

The “Blue Master Program” and “Voluntary Tax Compliance Program.”

During Commissioner Vera’s administration, the country was further subdivided into 20 regional offices
and 90 revenue district offices

The establishment of different offices, including the Internal Audit Department (replacing the Inspection
Department), Administrative Service, International Tax Affairs Staff, and Specific Tax Departments.

The permanent Tax Account Number in 1970 for taxpayers

The introduction of the package audit investigation by industry was one of the most important initiatives
that considerably enhanced BIR’s collection performance

During the martial law period, the President issued several tax amnesty decrees

The promulgation of the National Internal Revenue Code of 1977, which updated the 1934 Tax Code.

Aquino (Cory Aquino) Administration

Following the February 1986 People’s Revolution, BIR redoubled its efforts to improve tax administration

The “Operation: Walang Lagay” was launched to promote efficient and honest tax collection.

On January 30, 1987, BIR was reorganized under the administration of Commissioner Bienvenido Tan, Jr.
following EO No. 127

The VAT was launched to simplify tax administration and make the tax system equitable.

In 1988, the Revenue Information Systems Services Inc. was abolished and transferred back to the BIR
under a Memorandum Order from the Office of the President dated May 24, 1988

The “Tax Administration Program,” which is the expression of the BIR’s objective to increase tax
collection and simplify tax administration, was established with the arrival of Commissioner Jose Ong in
1989

Duterte Administration
 President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion (TRAIN) Law on
December 19, 2017. The law aims to fix a number of flaws in the tax system in order to make it more
simple, fair, and efficient (What is Train Law, 2018). It exempts all taxpayers with an annual income of
Php 250 000 or less from paying taxes (STI n.d.). Petroleum products and consumer goods containing
natural, aritifical, or high-fructose syrup sweeteners, with the exception of natural fruit juices and milk,
will see price increases as compensation. Though TRAIN law advocates fair and just taxation wherein it
tax the rich more than the poor, some analyst believe that TRAIN is unlikely to alleviate poverty and
answer the income inequality in the country due to its tricky or misleading provisions which still favors
the rulling elites or the upper class (Punongbayan 2019).

LESSON 15 CONTEMP
Many scholars are now expressing reservations about free-market and neoliberal economic theories.
They perceive this ideology as promoting globalization, causing great inequality, and destroying the
environment, rendering it unfit for human life. Companies extend their operations by catering to rising
computer expectations. New factories are built, resulting in urbanization and the flattening of natural
habitats. For example, firms engaging in the burning of forests in Indonesia, Mozambique, and Malaysia
to convert to palm tree plantations are responding to increased demand for palm oil in major markets
such as China, India, and other Asian countries.

It is critical to understand that how we treat the world’s finite resources has an impact on the
environment’s health, global populations, and the faunal and floral species we consume. It’s also critical
that we consider our purchasing habits. As a result, the importance of sustainable development cannot
be overstated.

STABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY

The state of being steady or in equilibrium and so resistant to change is referred to as stability. It’s the
ability to bounce back from setbacks. However, the ability to sustain something is referred to as
sustainability. A method of arranging civilization and human activity so that society, its members, and its
economies can meet their needs and express their full potential in the present while preserving
biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and planning and acting to ensure that these ideals are preserved
for future generations. In addition, sustainability is something (like action or a process) that can be
maintained/supported to continue existing into the future.

Example:

In the sentence, “The new agreement between two countries demonstrated their long-term friendship,”
a “sustainable” relationship is one that can be maintained at the same level of friendliness. Otherwise,
stable denotes a state of being unchanging or resistant to change. To be stable, something must be firm
and immovable right now.

A "stable building" will not be shaken or moved.

The Bruntland Report prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development for the
United Nations in 1987 defines the term sustainability as “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Plociennik
(2014) refers to this as the responsible use of resources. Today, many economic models are concerned
with growth or the increase in the production of economic goods and services through time and the
combination of resources that could induce production. Economic models do not consider the issues
related to the depletion of natural resources to achieve this growth. Plociennik (2014) adds that
economic theories also focus on technology as a form of escape from the sustainability dilemma, saying
new techniques of production help to expand size of output without raising necessary input. Plociennik
explains that this perspective neglects the role of sustainability in economic development since it merely
focuses on new technologies, making better use of resources instead of saving resources.

Another factor that contributes not only to the neglect of sustainability but to the degradation of the
environment is the capitalist system’s use of open/waste spaces such as agricultural lands, forests, open
seas, to sustain patterns of consumption – especially in the developed world – at the expense of poorer
countries’ environmental and economic decline. This mindset has led to western countries colonizing,
polluting, enslaving and exploiting poorer developing countries as early as the eighteenth century until
today.

It can be said that the issue of sustainability was foreseen as early as the time of Malthus, but decision-
makers and economic leaders have refused to listen to these warnings in exchange for progress that is
not only unsustainable but also predatory to the most vulnerable sectors in the world.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable Development has become a catchphrase in the development community, with various
definitions, meanings, and interpretations. To put it another way, sustainable development simply means
“development that can be perpetuated indefinitely or for a specific length of time.” Structurally, the
concept can be seen as a phrase consisting of two words, “sustainable” and “development.” Just as each
of the two words that combine to form the concept of sustainable development, that is, “sustainable”
and “development”, has been defined variously from various perspectives, the concept of sustainable
development has also been looked at from various angles, leading to a plethora of definitions of the
concept. Although definitions abound with respect to sustainable development, the most often cited
definition of the concept is the one proposed by the Brundtland Commission Report (Schaefer & Crane,
2005). According to the research, sustainable development is defined as development that meets the
requirements of the current generation without jeopardizing future generations’ ability to satisfy their
own needs.

Cerin (2006) and Abubakar (2017) suggest that sustainable development is a basic idea within global
development policy and agenda, acknowledging the pervasiveness of WCED’s definition. It provides a
means for civilization to engage with the environment without jeopardizing the resource’s long-term
viability. Therefore, it is a development paradigm and a concept that calls for improving living standards
without jeopardizing the earth’s ecosystems or causing environmental challenges such as deforestation
and water and air pollution that can result in problems such as climate change and extinction of species.

It is argued that the relevance of sustainable development deepens with the dawn of every day because
the population keeps increasing, but the natural resources available for the satisfaction of human needs
and wants do not. It implies that sustainable development is an effort at guaranteeing a balance among
economic growth, environmental integrity and social well-being. This can be accomplished, according to
Kolk in 2016, by incorporating economic, environmental, and social issues into decision-making
processes. However, while many people confuse sustainability and sustainable development, the two
notions are distinct. Sustainability, according to Diesendorf in 2000, is the goal or finish of a process
known as sustainable development. While “sustainability” refers to a condition, Gray (2010) asserts that
“sustainable development” refers to the process of obtaining that state. Additionally, sustainable
development is a development with a sustainable rate in time yet preserving the natural resources and
values for the coming generations.

The concept of sustainable development arose from a critique of development, which was primarily
defined as “economic growth,” with economic development being viewed as a series of progressive and
necessary stages. However, some misgivings arose in the early 1960s, promopting increased emphasis on
the significance of taking into consideration both social change and institutional requirements (in
addition to the growth of production and income). At the United Nations and its financial institution, the
role of education, “human capital,” and regulations for basic sanitation became relevant concerns (the
World Bank). However, environmental concerns have been made concerning two issues since the 1970s:

Because of combination of factors, including the inappropriateness of Western technologies and

unfamiliarity with local populations’ aims, priorities, and cultural references, development in the South
has resulted in severe environmental consequences (degradation of resources, biotypes, soil quality, and
reducing biodiversity), all of which have led to alarming levels of degradation.

Parallel to these worries about land, particularly the social and ecological consequences of development,
another argument erupted in the shape of a worldwide warning: the continuation of human economic
and demographic development was becoming untenable on a global scale. The Club of Rome’s study was
titled “Limits to Growth,” and Georgescu-Roegen agreed in 1979 that tomorrow would bring reduction.

Sustainability is defined as development that meets current requirements without jeopardizing future
generations’ capability, ensuring a balance of economic growth, environmental protection, and social
well-being.

MODEL OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Three Overlapping Circles Model

The overlapping-circles concept of sustainability recognizes how economic, environmental, and social
variables all interact. We resize the circles to indicate that one aspect is more dominating than the other
two, depending on our mentality. Some business leaders, for example, prefer to depict the economy as
the largest circle because it is the most vital to their success and keeps their world spinning. The concept
of sustainability appears to be positioned to continue to shape future development science debates.
According to Porter and van der Linde (1995), the optimum options are those that meet societal
demands while also being environmentally and economically viable, economically and socially equitable,
and socially and environmentally tolerable. As a result, there are three interconnected spheres or
domains of sustainability that describe the interactions between environmental, economic, and social
components of sustainable development.

Based on the figure, nearly everything man does or proposes to do on earth has consequences for the
environment, economy, or society, as well as the human race’s continued existence and well-being.
Similarly, as Wanamaker (2018) argues, the spheres are a collection of interconnected concepts that
should guide human decisions and behaviors in the pursuit of SD. Yang (2019) argues that the image
essentially indicates that good decisions on sustainable resource management will result in sustainable
growth for a sustainable society. Land use decisions, surface water management, agricultural methods,
building design and construction, energy management, education, equal opportunity, and law-making
are examples of these. For the sake of sustainability, Kahn (1995) and Basiago (1999) present a vivid
demonstration of the relationships between economic, social, and environmental sustainability,
proposing that the three domains must be linked. “If a man in a given geographical area lacks a job
(economic), he is likely to be poor and disenfranchised (social); if he is poor and disenfranchised, he has
an incentive to engage in practices that harm ecology, for example, by cutting down trees for firewood to
cook his meals and warm his home,” writes Khan (1995), as cited by Bassiago (environmental).
Deforestation will result in the loss of critical minerals from the soil if his actions are combined with
those of others in his region who are chopping down trees (environmental). Assumed important
minerals are lost from the soil, residents will be deprived of the dietary requirements required to
maintain intellectual performance required to acquire new technology, such as how to use a computer,
causing production to decrease or stagnate (economic). If economic productivity remains stagnant, poor
people will remain poor or become poorer (social), and the cycle will continue.”

PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

As a visionary and forward-looking development paradigm, sustainable development emphasizes a

positive transformation trajectory anchored essentially on social, economic and environmental factors.
The three fundamental issues of sustainable development, according to Taylor (2016), are economic
growth, environmental protection, and social equality. On this basis, it is possible to argue that the
concept of sustainable development is founded on three conceptual pillars. “Economic sustainability,”
“environmental sustainability,” and “social sustainability” are the three pillars.

Economic Sustainability = Economic sustainability refers to a production system that meets current
consumption levels without jeopardizing future requirements. Traditionally, economists who assumed
that natural resource supply was limitless placed undue emphasis on the market’s ability to efficiently
distribute resources. They also believed that the technological advancement would accompany
economic growth to replenish natural resources destroyed in the production process. There are
governing frameworks by which transactions are examined and judgments concerning economic
operations are made, according to Dernbach in 1993. Production, distribution, and consumption are the
three main activities carried out in an economy, but the accounting framework used to govern and
evaluate the economy in these areas severely distorts values, which is bad news for society and the
environment.

Social Sustainability = Social sustainability encompasses equity, empowerment, accessibility,

participation, cultural identity and institutional stability. Because development is about people, the term
suggests that people matter. A system of social structure that alleviates poverty is referred to as social
sustainability. In a broader sense, however, “social sustainability” refers to the relationship between
socioeconomic conditions like poverty and environmental devastation. According to Kolk, social
sustainability is not about ensuring that everyone’s needs are met. Instead, it attempts to create the
conditions necessary for everyone to be able to meet their own needs if they wish to. Anything that
obstructs this capacity is a barrier that must be overcome in order for individuals, organizations, or
communities to develop toward social sustainability.

Environmental Sustainability = Environmental sustainability refers to the natural environment’s ability to

stay productive and resilient in order to support human life. Environmental sustainability refers to the
natural environment’s ecosystem integrity and carrying capacity. It necessitates the long-term utilization
of natural capital as a source of economic inputs and a waste sink. However, because technological
innovation may not be able to maintain exponential expansion, the pursuit for uncontrolled growth is
putting ever greater demands on the earth system and straining these boundaries. The consequences of
climate change, for example, present a compelling case for environmental sustainability. Climate change
is defined as major and long-term changes in the climate system resulting from natural climate variability
or human activity.

ACTIONS TAKEN TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY

Today, concerted efforts to correct these practices are being made, spearheaded by international
governing agencies and civil society movements. Governments, national and international civil society
are moving toward arresting the dire effects of policies and economic practices responsible for the
rapidly deteriorating state of the global climate and environment. The United Nations came up with a set
of global targets that nation-states should strive for through policy and formal and informal efforts
involving a variety of sectors. These goals are described by the United Nations as “the roadmap for
building a better and more sustainable future for everybody.” They address the world’s problems, such
as poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, prosperity, and peace and justice.
According to UNDP, these goals are interconnected – often the key to success on one will involve tackling
issues more commonly associated with another. It enumerates 17 development goals, namely:

poverty eradication

zero hunger

good health and well-being

quality education for all

gender equality

clean water and sanitation

decent work and economic growth

affordable and clean energy

industry innovation and infrastructure

inequality reduction

sustainable cities and communities

responsible production and consumption

climate action

life below water

life on land

peace, justice and strong institutions

partnership for the goals

SIMPLE STEPS TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY

The amount of difficulties and concerns surrounding the perilous world in which we all live in may
overwhelm most of us. While there is legitimate cause for alarm, we should use this toward efforts that
can help achieve a balanced attainment of our individual and societal development goals in an
environment friendly and sustainable manner. Changing our consumerist ways can do a lot to help
improve our global condition. By changing our habits, we can help reduce our negative impact on the
environment. Below are simple steps toward sustainability:

Reduction of carbon footprint

Buy and consume only what is needed

Organize and support tree-planting projects

Reduce the use of plastic

Patronize goods and services that are sustainably produced, promote environment-friendly practices and
mitigate climate change

Petition your local leaders to adopt environment friendly measures in your locality

Share your ideas

We share one world

Change of perspective

Act

LESSON 15 Understanding Self

Many believe that the current educational system is leaving a vast number of students behind.
Therefore, it demands a lot of effort and energy in developing the education sector. However, a central
premise of this monograph is that one part of a solution involves helping students regulate their learning
through effective pedagogy. Consequently, cognitive and educational psychologists have been
developing and evaluating easy-to-use learning techniques to help students achieve their learning goals.
This monograph discusses ten learning techniques in detail and offers recommendations about their
relative utility.

What is learning?

Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through experience (Amul 2018). It
leads to personal growth and development. Learning starts from birth and continues throughout life. We
generally learn through observation and imitation.

According to behaviorists, learning can be defined as a relative change in behavior due to practice
and experience. Meanwhile, for cognitive psychologists, it is a process that leads to change as a result of
experience.

What happens in the brain during learning?

Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to evolve throughout one’s life. Neuroplasticity involves the
addition of new neurons and the reorganization of information-processing areas.

The ability of the brain to change happens in two ways:

increase the number of synapses between neurons

change in the function and structure of the neurons

Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit impulses or messages.

What are neurons made of?

Cell body (soma)

Dendrites

Axon
A synapse is a junction that helps transmit impulses or messages to another neuron.

Cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is the wrinkled layer of the brain.

The process of neuroplasticity generally happens here.

It is responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain.

The cortex is divided into four lobes:

frontal lobe

parietal lobe

temporal lobe

occipital lobe

What is cognition?

Cognition is the cerebral processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including
thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving (HealthMeasures n.d.).

What is metacognition?

Metacognition

Metacognition is the knowledge and understanding of our cognitive processes.

Metacognition is thinking about thinking (John Flavell).

It refers to the awareness of one’s thinking and the strategies one uses to learn.

The root word “meta” means “beyond.” Thus, metacognition means “beyond thinking.”

Two components of metacognition:

Metacognitive knowledge – refers to the awareness of one’s cognitive abilities and knowledge on
cognitive undertakings.

Metacognitive regulation – refers to how a person monitors and controls his/her cognitive processes.

Types of metacognition knowledge

1. Declarative knowledge

“person knowledge” or understanding one’s capabilities.

2. Procedural knowledge

“task knowledge,” including content (what do I need to know?) and length (how much space do I have to
communicate what I know?).

3. Strategy knowledge

“conditional knowledge,” which is one’s ability to use a strategy to learn information and adapt these
strategies to new situations. This is related to the age or developmental stage of the individual.

Source: https://www.learning-theories.com/metacognition-flavell.html

Key Concepts on Knowledge and Thinking

Declarative knowledge is not always accurate because an individual’s self-assessment can be unreliable.

Procedural knowledge is related to how difficult an individual perceives the task to be and their self-
confidence.

Strategy knowledge – A kindergartener can think of a strategy; however, the child needs to be reminded
to utilize them, such as sounding out words when learning to read. By contrast, an upper elementary
student understands this strategy and knows when it will be effective under different circumstances.

Thinking is a learnable skill that can also be practised, developed, and improved. However, thinking
is not the same as intelligence, which includes being “brilliant” in schoolwork, gathering considerable
information, and being good at speaking in class.

Self-regulated learning is how students systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions
toward attaining their academic goals (Zimmerman).

Components of SRL:

Planning – increases efficiency, control, and motivation.

Problem-solving – allows students to learn to think and look for solutions when faced with adversities.

Self-evaluation - increases self-awareness, leading to improved understanding of one’s own emotions,

strengths, and weaknesses.

Different learning styles:

Visual – learning through imagery and spatial understanding.

Aural/auditory – learning through listening to sound and music.

Verbal/linguistic – learning through speaking and writing.

Physical/kinesthetic – learning through hands-on, tactile interaction.

Logical/mathematical – learning through logic, reasoning, and systems.

Social/interpersonal – preference for learning in groups or working with other people.

Solitary/intrapersonal – preference for learning alone via self-study.

How to develop metacognitive and self-regulated learning behavior:

Set your short- and long-term academic goals.

Make a self-help plan.

Monitor your academic performance and progress.

Reflect.

Setting goals for success

The goal is the object toward which the behavior is directed, generally within a specified period.
According to IO Psychology, the goal is what the individual is consciously trying to do. According to Edwin
Locke & Gary Latham, goal directs attention, effort, and actions.

Two categories of goals:

Short-term goal – can be achieved in a day, weeks, or year.

Long-term goal – generally achieved over a year or more.

Factors that may influence goals:

Values – can be the basis for what is desirable, correct, and good. It directs the behavior.

Needs – motivation that is generally aroused by a need for lack of something that may propel a person to
act.

MINDSET AND EFFICACY

Self-efficacy is the person’s belief that he can successfully perform behavior that will produce the
desired effects. According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy plays a central role in people’s thoughts,
motivations, and actions.

Fixed mindset – people believe that their basic qualities, such as intelligence or talents, are fixed traits.
As a result, they worry about making mistakes.

Growth mindset – people believe that their most basic abilities can be developed through dedication and
hard work. They understand that mistakes and effort are critical to learning.

Theory of hierarchy of needs

Goal setting is the process of enhancing the work performance of individuals. For goal setting to be
successful, goals should be SMART (Michael G. Aamodf):

Specific – state what you will do by using action words.

Measurable – provide a way to evaluate. Use metrics or data targets.

Attainable – can be accomplished and within your scope.

Relevant – make sense within your job function and improves your studies in some way.

Timely – state your deadline. Be specific with the date or timeframe.

Rules of goal setting

Set goals that motivate you.

Set SMART goals.

Write your life goals – prioritize!

Develop an action plan for your future.

Start working toward your life goals.

Your goals should be personally important to you.

Goals must be clear and well-defined, wherein the degree of your success can be measured, is
attainable, and has a timeframe.

Make a list of your goals, prioritize items, and discard the unimportant ones.

Write the steps to attain your goals.

Do not just think smart; you have to take action to move forward.

LESSON 16 CC101
DATA, INFORMATION, AND KNOWLEDGE

Data are the raw bits and pieces of information with no context. If I told you, “15, 23, 14, 85,” you would
not have learned anything. But I would have given you data.

Data can be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data is numeric, the result of a measurement, count,
or some other mathematical calculation. Qualitative data is descriptive. “Ruby Red,” the color of a 2013
Ford Focus, is an example of qualitative data. A number can be qualitative too: if I tell you my favorite
number is 5, that is qualitative data because it is descriptive, not the result of a measurement or
mathematical calculation.
By itself, data is not that useful. To be useful, it needs to be given context. Returning to the example
above, if I told you that “15, 23, 14, and 85″ are the numbers of students that had registered for
upcoming classes that would be information. By adding the context – that the numbers represent the
count of students registering for specific classes – I have converted data into information.

Once we have put our data into context, aggregated and analyzed it, we can use it to make decisions for
our organization. We can say that this consumption of information produces knowledge. This knowledge
can be used to make decisions, set policies, and even spark innovation.

The final step up the information ladder is the step from knowledge (knowing a lot about a topic) to
wisdom. We can say that someone has wisdom when they can combine their knowledge and experience
to produce a deeper understanding of a topic. It often takes many years to develop wisdom on a
particular topic, and requires patience.

Examples of Data

Almost all software programs require data to do anything useful. For example, if you are editing a
document in a word processor such as Microsoft Word, the document you are working on is the data.
The word-processing software can manipulate the data: create a new document, duplicate a document,
or modify a document. Some other examples of data are: an MP3 music file, a video file, a spreadsheet,
a web page, and an e-book. In some cases, such as with an e-book, you may only have the ability to read
the data.

Databases

The goal of many information systems is to transform data into information in order to generate
knowledge that can be used for decision making. In order to do this, the system must be able to take
data, put the data into context, and provide tools for aggregation and analysis. A database is designed for
just such a purpose.

A database is an organized collection of related information. It is an organized collection, because in a

database, all data is described and associated with other data. All information in a database should be
related as well; separate databases should be created to manage unrelated information. For example, a
database that contains information about students should not also hold information about company
stock prices. Databases are not always digital – a filing cabinet, for instance, might be considered a form
of database. For the purposes of this text, we will only consider digital databases.

Relational Databases

Databases can be organized in many different ways, and thus take many forms. The most popular form of
database today is the relational database. Popular examples of relational databases are Microsoft
Access, MySQL, and Oracle. A relational database is one in which data is organized into one or more
tables. Each table has a set of fields, which define the nature of the data stored in the table. A record is
one instance of a set of fields in a table. To visualize this, think of the records as the rows of the table and
the fields as the columns of the table. In the example below, we have a table of student information,
with each row representing a student and each column representing one piece of information about the
student.

Rows and columns in a table

In a relational database, all the tables are related by one or more fields, so that it is possible to connect
all the tables in the database through the field(s) they have in common. For each table, one of the fields
is identified as a primary key. This key is the unique identifier for each record in the table. To help you
understand these terms further, let’s walk through the process of designing a database.

Designing a Database

Suppose a university wants to create an information system to track participation in student clubs. After
interviewing several people, the design team learns that the goal of implementing the system is to give
better insight into how the university funds clubs. This will be accomplished by tracking how many
members each club has and how active the clubs are. From this, the team decides that the system must
keep track of the clubs, their members, and their events. Using this information, the design team
determines that the following tables need to be created:

· Clubs: this will track the club name, the club president, and a short description of the club.

· Students: student name, e-mail, and year of birth.

· Memberships: this table will correlate students with clubs, allowing us to have any given student
join multiple clubs.

· Events: this table will track when the clubs meet and how many students showed up.

Now that the design team has determined which tables to create, they need to define the specific
information that each table will hold. This requires identifying the fields that will be in each table. For
example, Club Name would be one of the fields in the Clubs table. First Name and Last Name would be
fields in the Students table. Finally, since this will be a relational database, every table should have a field
in common with at least one other table (in other words: they should have a relationship with each
other).

In order to properly create this relationship, a primary key must be selected for each table. This key is a
unique identifier for each record in the table. For example, in the Students table, it might be possible to
use students’ last name as a way to uniquely identify them. However, it is more than likely that some
students will share a last name (like Rodriguez, Smith, or Lee), so a different field should be selected. A
student’s e-mail address might be a good choice for a primary key, since e-mail addresses are unique.
However, a primary key cannot change, so this would mean that if students changed their e-mail address
we would have to remove them from the database and then re-insert them – not an attractive
proposition. Our solution is to create a value for each student — a user ID — that will act as a primary
key. We will also do this for each of the student clubs. This solution is quite common and is the reason
you have so many user IDs!
You can see the final database design in the figure below:

Student Clubs database diagram

With this design, not only do we have a way to organize all of the information we need to meet the
requirements, but we have also successfully related all the tables together. Here’s what the database
tables might look like with some sample data. Note that the Memberships table has the sole purpose of
allowing us to relate multiple students to multiple clubs.

Normalization

When designing a database, one important concept to understand is normalization. In simple terms, to
normalize a database means to design it in a way that: 1) reduces duplication of data between tables and
2) gives the table as much flexibility as possible.

In the Student Clubs database design, the design team worked to achieve these objectives. For example,
to track memberships, a simple solution might have been to create a Members field in the Clubs table
and then just list the names of all of the members there. However, this design would mean that if a
student joined two clubs, then his or her information would have to be entered a second time. Instead,
the designers solved this problem by using two tables: Students and Memberships.

In this design, when a student joins their first club, we first must add the student to the Students table,
where their first name, last name, e-mail address, and birth year are entered. This addition to the
Students table will generate a student ID. Now we will add a new entry to denote that the student is a
member of a specific club. This is accomplished by adding a record with the student ID and the club ID in
the Memberships table. If this student joins a second club, we do not have to duplicate the entry of the
student’s name, e-mail, and birth year; instead, we only need to make another entry in the Memberships
table of the second club’s ID and the student’s ID.

The design of the Student Clubs database also makes it simple to change the design without major
modifications to the existing structure. For example, if the design team were asked to add functionality
to the system to track faculty advisors to the clubs, we could easily accomplish this by adding a Faculty
Advisors table (similar to the Students table) and then adding a new field to the Clubs table to hold the
Faculty Advisor ID.

Data Types

When defining the fields in a database table, we must give each field a data type. For example, the field
Birth Year is a year, so it will be a number, while First Name will be text. Most modern databases allow
for several different data types to be stored. Some of the more common data types are listed here:

· Text: for storing non-numeric data that is brief, generally under 256 characters. The database
designer can identify the maximum length of the text.

· Number: for storing numbers. There are usually a few different number types that can be selected,
depending on how large the largest number will be.

· Yes/No: a special form of the number data type that is (usually) one byte long, with a 0 for “No” or
“False” and a 1 for “Yes” or “True”.

· Date/Time: a special form of the number data type that can be interpreted as a number or a time.

· Currency: a special form of the number data type that formats all values with a currency indicator
and two decimal places.

· Paragraph Text: this data type allows for text longer than 256 characters.

· Object: this data type allows for the storage of data that cannot be entered via keyboard, such as
an image or a music file.

There are two important reasons that we must properly define the data type of a field. First, a data type
tells the database what functions can be performed with the data. For example, if we wish to perform
mathematical functions with one of the fields, we must be sure to tell the database that the field is a
number data type. So if we have, say, a field storing birth year, we can subtract the number stored in that
field from the current year to get age.

The second important reason to define data type is so that the proper amount of storage space is
allocated for our data. For example, if the First Name field is defined as a text(50) data type, this means
fifty characters are allocated for each first name we want to store. However, even if the first name is only
five characters long, fifty characters (bytes) will be allocated. While this may not seem like a big deal, if
our table ends up holding 50,000 names, we are allocating 50 * 50,000 = 2,500,000 bytes for storage of
these values. It may be prudent to reduce the size of the field so we do not waste storage space.

Sidebar: The Difference between a Database and a Spreadsheet

Many times, when introducing the concept of databases to students, they quickly decide that a database
is pretty much the same as a spreadsheet. After all, a spreadsheet stores data in an organized fashion,
using rows and columns, and looks very similar to a database table. This misunderstanding extends
beyond the classroom: spreadsheets are used as a substitute for databases in all types of situations
every day, all over the world.

To be fair, for simple uses, a spreadsheet can substitute for a database quite well. If a simple listing of
rows and columns (a single table) is all that is needed, then creating a database is probably overkill. In
our Student Clubs example, if we only needed to track a listing of clubs, the number of members, and
the contact information for the president, we could get away with a single spreadsheet. However, the
need to include a listing of events and the names of members would be problematic if tracked with a
spreadsheet.

When several types of data must be mixed together, or when the relationships between these types of
data are complex, then a spreadsheet is not the best solution. A database allows data from several
entities (such as students, clubs, memberships, and events) to all be related together into one whole.
While a spreadsheet does allow you to define what kinds of values can be entered into its cells, a
database provides more intuitive and powerful ways to define the types of data that go into each field,
reducing possible errors and allowing for easier analysis.

Though not good for replacing databases, spreadsheets can be ideal tools for analyzing the data stored in
a database. A spreadsheet package can be connected to a specific table or query in a database and used
to create charts or perform analysis on that data.

Structured Query Language

Once you have a database designed and loaded with data, how will you do something useful with it? The
primary way to work with a relational database is to use Structured Query Language, SQL (pronounced
“sequel,” or simply stated as S-Q-L). Almost all applications that work with databases (such as database
management systems, discussed below) make use of SQL as a way to analyze and manipulate relational
data. As its name implies, SQL is a language that can be used to work with a relational database. From a
simple request for data to a complex update operation, SQL is a mainstay of programmers and database
administrators. To give you a taste of what SQL might look like, here are a couple of examples using our
Student Clubs database.

· The following query will retrieve a list of the first and last names of the club presidents:

SELECT "First Name", "Last Name" FROM "Students" WHERE "Students.ID" = "Clubs.President"

· The following query will create a list of the number of students in each club, listing the club name
and then the number of members:

SELECT "Clubs.Club Name", COUNT("Memberships.Student ID") FROM "Clubs" LEFT JOIN "Memberships"
ON "Clubs.Club ID" = "Memberships.Club ID"

An in-depth description of how SQL works is beyond the scope of this introductory text, but these
examples should give you an idea of the power of using SQL to manipulate relational data. Many
database packages, such as Microsoft Access, allow you to visually create the query you want to
construct and then generate the SQL query for you.

Other Types of Databases

The relational database model is the most used database model today. However, many other database
models exist that provide different strengths than the relational model. The hierarchical database model,
popular in the 1960s and 1970s, connected data together in a hierarchy, allowing for a parent/child
relationship between data. The document-centric model allowed for a more unstructured data storage
by placing data into “documents” that could then be manipulated.

Perhaps the most interesting new development is the concept of NoSQL (from the phrase “not only
SQL”). NoSQL arose from the need to solve the problem of large-scale databases spread over several
servers or even across the world. For a relational database to work properly, it is important that only one
person be able to manipulate a piece of data at a time, a concept known as record-locking. But with
today’s large-scale databases (think Google and Amazon), this is just not possible. A NoSQL database can
work with data in a looser way, allowing for a more unstructured environment, communicating changes
to the data over time to all the servers that are part of the database.

Database Management Systems

Screen shot of the Open Office database management system

To the computer, a database looks like one or more files. In order for the data in the database to be read,
changed, added, or removed, a software program must access it. Many software applications have this
ability: iTunes can read its database to give you a listing of its songs (and play the songs); your mobile-
phone software can interact with your list of contacts. But what about applications to create or manage
a database? What software can you use to create a database, change a database’s structure, or simply
do analysis? That is the purpose of a category of software applications called database management
systems (DBMS).

DBMS packages generally provide an interface to view and change the design of the database, create
queries, and develop reports. Most of these packages are designed to work with a specific type of
database, but generally are compatible with a wide range of databases.

For example, Apache OpenOffice.org Base (see screen shot) can be used to create, modify, and analyze
databases in open-database (ODB) format. Microsoft’s Access DBMS is used to work with databases in its
own Microsoft Access Database format. Both Access and Base have the ability to read and write to other
database formats as well.

Microsoft Access and Open Office Base are examples of personal database-management systems. These
systems are primarily used to develop and analyze single-user databases. These databases are not meant
to be shared across a network or the Internet, but are instead installed on a particular device and work
with a single user at a time.

Enterprise Databases

A database that can only be used by a single user at a time is not going to meet the needs of most
organizations. As computers have become networked and are now joined worldwide via the Internet, a
class of database has emerged that can be accessed by two, ten, or even a million people. These
databases are sometimes installed on a single computer to be accessed by a group of people at a single
location. Other times, they are installed over several servers worldwide, meant to be accessed by
millions. These relational enterprise database packages are built and supported by companies such as
Oracle, Microsoft, and IBM. The open-source MySQL is also an enterprise database.

As stated earlier, the relational database model does not scale well. The term scale here refers to a
database getting larger and larger, being distributed on a larger number of computers connected via a
network. Some companies are looking to provide large-scale database solutions by moving away from
the relational model to other, more flexible models. For example, Google now offers the App Engine
Datastore, which is based on NoSQL. Developers can use the App Engine Datastore to develop
applications that access data from anywhere in the world. Amazon.com offers several database services
for enterprise use, including Amazon RDS, which is a relational database service, and Amazon
DynamoDB, a NoSQL enterprise solution.

Big Data

A new buzzword that has been capturing the attention of businesses lately is big data. The term refers to
such massively large data sets that conventional database tools do not have the processing power to
analyze them. For example, Walmart must process over one million customer transactions every hour.
Storing and analyzing that much data is beyond the power of traditional database-management tools.
Understanding the best tools and techniques to manage and analyze these large data sets is a problem
that governments and businesses alike are trying to solve.

Sidebar: What Is Metadata?

The term metadata can be understood as “data about data.” For example, when looking at one of the
values of Year of Birth in the Students table, the data itself may be “1992”. The metadata about that
value would be the field name Year of Birth, the time it was last updated, and the data type (integer).
Another example of metadata could be for an MP3 music file, like the one shown in the image below;
information such as the length of the song, the artist, the album, the file size, and even the album cover
art, are classified as metadata. When a database is being designed, a “data dictionary” is created to hold
the metadata, defining the fields and structure of the database.

Metadata about a camera image (Public Domain)

Data Warehouse

As organizations have begun to utilize databases as the centerpiece of their operations, the need to fully
understand and leverage the data they are collecting has become more and more apparent. However,
directly analyzing the data that is needed for day-to-day operations is not a good idea; we do not want to
tax the operations of the company more than we need to. Further, organizations also want to analyze
data in a historical sense: How does the data we have today compare with the same set of data this time
last month, or last year? From these needs arose the concept of the data warehouse.

The concept of the data warehouse is simple: extract data from one or more of the organization’s
databases and load it into the data warehouse (which is itself another database) for storage and analysis.
However, the execution of this concept is not that simple. A data warehouse should be designed so that
it meets the following criteria:

· It uses non-operational data. This means that the data warehouse is using a copy of data from the
active databases that the company uses in its day-to-day operations, so the data warehouse must pull
data from the existing databases on a regular, scheduled basis.
· The data is time-variant. This means that whenever data is loaded into the data warehouse, it
receives a time stamp, which allows for comparisons between different time periods.

· The data is standardized. Because the data in a data warehouse usually comes from several
different sources, it is possible that the data does not use the same definitions or units. For example, our
Events table in our Student Clubs database lists the event dates using the mm/dd/yyyy format (e.g.,
01/10/2013). A table in another database might use the format yy/mm/dd (e.g., 13/01/10) for dates. In
order for the data warehouse to match up dates, a standard date format would have to be agreed upon
and all data loaded into the data warehouse would have to be converted to use this standard format.
This process is called extraction-transformation-load (ETL).

There are two primary schools of thought when designing a data warehouse: bottom-up and top-down.
The bottom-up approach starts by creating small data warehouses, called data marts, to solve specific
business problems. As these data marts are created, they can be combined into a larger data warehouse.
The top-down approach suggests that we should start by creating an enterprise-wide data warehouse
and then, as specific business needs are identified, create smaller data marts from the data warehouse.

Benefits of Data Warehouses

Organizations find data warehouses quite beneficial for a number of reasons:

· The process of developing a data warehouse forces an organization to better understand the data
that it is currently collecting and, equally important, what data is not being collected.

· A data warehouse provides a centralized view of all data being collected across the enterprise and
provides a means for determining data that is inconsistent.

· Once all data is identified as consistent, an organization can generate one version of the truth. This
is important when the company wants to report consistent statistics about itself, such as revenue or
number of employees.

· By having a data warehouse, snapshots of data can be taken over time. This creates a historical
record of data, which allows for an analysis of trends.

· A data warehouse provides tools to combine data, which can provide new information and
analysis.

Data Mining

Data mining is the process of analyzing data to find previously unknown trends, patterns, and
associations in order to make decisions. Generally, data mining is accomplished through automated
means against extremely large data sets, such as a data warehouse. Some examples of data mining
include:

· An analysis of sales from a large grocery chain might determine that milk is purchased more
frequently the day after it rains in cities with a population of less than 50,000.
· A bank may find that loan applicants whose bank accounts show particular deposit and withdrawal
patterns are not good credit risks.

· A baseball team may find that collegiate baseball players with specific statistics in hitting, pitching,
and fielding make for more successful major league players.

LESSON 16 KOMFIL
4.1 ANO ANG PAGSASAGAWA NG PULONG

Mahalaga na ang isang organisasyon o samahan ay nagsasagawa ng pulong upang talakayin ang
mahahalagang agenda nito. Isinasagawa ng bawat organisasyon ang pulong para sa pagpapaunlad ng
samahan. Ang Pagsasagawa ng pulong ay May layunin na pagtibayin ang Relasyon ng bawat miyembro
ng

isang organisasyon at magbigay ng kanilang sariling opinyon sa isang pagpupulong.

ELEMENTO NA DAPAT ISAALANG-ALANG SA PAGHAHANDA NG PULONG

Agenda – nagsisilbing balangkas at gabay ng pulong na isasagawa. Mahalaga na may ideya ang bawat
kalahok sa agenda ng pulong nadadaluhan upang makapaghanda at maging maayos ang daloy ng
talakayan. Bago magsagawa ng pulong kinakailangang tiyakin ang layunin ng isasagawang pulong. Mas
mainam na may nakalaang oras sa bawat paksang tatalakayin at ilahad ang inaasahang matamo matapos
ang pagtatalakay sa bawat paksa.

Oras at Lugar – Dapat alalahanin ang oras ng mga kalahok sa pagtatakda ng oras. Tiyaking ang mga
kalahok ay makadadalo sa oras na itinalaga at makakarating sa lugar na pagdarausan ng pulong.
Alalahaning mahalaga ang bawat oras ng mga kalahok kaya kinakailangang mahusay ang paggamit ng
oras sa pulong.

Kalihim – Katuwang ng tagapangulo sa paghahanda ng agenda at pamamahagi ng imbitasyon sa mga

kalahok at tagapag-ulat. Ang inihahandang agenda ay maaari ring magsilbing imbitasyon, Kalihim ang
siyang time-keeper sa pulong.

Tagapag-ulat – mahalaga ang tungkulin ng tagapag-ulat sa isang pulong. Ito ang maghahatid ng mga
kiankailangang datos na tatalakayin sa pulong.

Tagapangulo – Tagapamagitan at tagapagtaguyod ng ideya. Tagapangulo ang nagpaplano ng pulong

kabilang ang paghahanda ng agenda.

Kalahok – Bawat kalahok ay may halaga sa pulong na isinasagawa. Tiyaking ang lahat ng kalahok sa
pulong ay may kaugnayan sa inaasahang layunin at mga paksang tatalakayin upang malayang makilahok
at magbahagi ng kani-kanilang opinyon.

Kagamitan – Mahalagang maging handa ang mga materyales na gagamitin tulad ng katitikang ng
naunang pulong, visual aids na gagamitin ng tagapag-ulat, maga kagamitan tulad ng projector at laptop
at iba pa.

PASALITANG PAG-UULAT SA MALIIT AT MALAKING PANGKAT

Layunin ng pag-uulat na maibahagi ng kaalaman, manghikayat o magganyak sa mga tagapakinig.

Ang tagapagsalita o tagapag-ulat ang pinagmumulan ng kaalaman. Kaya naman ang tagapag-ulat ang
may pinakamahalagang gampanin.

MALIIT AT MALAKING PANGKAT

Ang pag-uulat ay isang halimbawa ng interpersonal na komunikasyon. Nagaganap ang

interpersonal na komunikasyon sa pagitan ng tagapagsalita at tagapakinig.

May iba’t ibang kategorya ang Komunikasyon;

1. Komunikasyong Pangmadla o Mass Communication – nagaganap ang komunikasyong ito sa pagitan ng

isang tao tungo sa napakaraming tagapanood o tagapakinig. Ang ganitong uri ng komunikasyon ay
gumagamit ng midya gaya ng radyo, telebisyon, internet at iba pa. Samantalang ang pag-uulat sa maliit
na pangkat ay ang pagsasalita sa harap ng maraming tao nang hindi gumagamit ng midya upang mabatid
ang mga datos at impormasyon

PAGHAHANDA SA ULAT

· Alamin ang Paksa – paksa ang pangunahing kaisipan at nilalaman ng ulat kaya mahalaga na ang
tagapag-ulat ay kakikitaan ng sapat na kaalaman at karanasan sa paksa.

· Kilalanin ang mga tagapakinig – kilalanin at alamin ang katangian, interes, kakayahan at
pangangailangan ng mga tagapakinig. Ang tagapakinig, ang tagatanggap ng impormasyong ibabahagi-
mahalaga na may ideya sa kanilang hilig at kakayahan upang makuha ang kanilang atensyon.

· Itala ang mga katanungan ukol sa paksa – sumulat ng talaan ng mga tanong na nais malaman at
mga katanungang kailangang mabatid din ng mga tagapakinig.

· Mangalap ng mga datos sa mapagkakatiwalaang sanggunian – Tiyaking wasto ang mga datos na
nakalap at ibabahagi sa gagawing pag-uulat.

· Iplano ang pagkakasunod-sunod ng ideya – mainam na gumamit ng istilong bullet point pagtatala.
Maaaring mailahad ang ideya ayon sa kahalagahan ng bawat datos o maaaring bumuo ng akronim upang
mas madaling matandaan ang mga pangunahing ideya

MGA BAHAGI NG ISASAGAWANG ULAT

Panimula – mainam na magsimula sa pamamagitan ng pagbati sa mga tagapakinig at ang pagpapakilala

sa sarili.

Mahahalagang datos – matapos ang paglalahad ng paksa, layunin at mga katanungang masasagot
matapos ang ulan, simulan na ang pagbabahagi ng mga mahahalagang paksang tatalakayin kasunod ng
mga sumusuportang datos na nakalap.

Paglalagom – bilang tanda ng pagwawakas, ilahad ang lagom nh tinalakay. Sa bahaging ito

Maghanda ng Cue Card – Ilahad sa cue card ang kronolohikal na pagkakaayos ng mga ideyang tatalakayin
gayon din ang mahahalagang datos o impormasyon.

Mag-ensayo – Huwag gawing biro ang pag-ensayo sa pasalitang pag-uulat, isinasagawa ito upang
maiwasto agad ang mga pagkakamali at mga pagkukulang sa inihandang ulat. Mahalagang bigyan ng
pansin ang paraan ng pagsasalita gayon din ang tindig at tamang pagkilos ng pangangatawan.

Ihanda ang mga kagamitang kinakailangan – tulad ng hand out at visual aid, tiyaking ang mahahalagang
ideya lamang at hindi ang buong ulat ang nilalaman ng hand out na ipamamahagi.

KOMUNIKASYON SA SOCIAL MEDIA

Mabilis ang paglago ng Social Media Sites gaya nga facebook, Twitter at Instagram, laganap na
ito sa lipunan lalo na sa mga kabataan. Madali ng makasagap ngayon ng bagong balita mula sa mga post
sa social media at pagpapadala ng pribadong mensaheng gamit ito.

Ayon kay Young (1996) - May dalawang klase ng tao ang gumagamit ng social network .

1. DEPENDENT - Gumugugol ng 39 oras sa internet para sa sosyal na pakikipag-usap o

pakikihalubilo.

2. INDEPENDENT – Kumukonsumo ng liman oras lamang para sa “net surfing” o “E-mail”

SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS

Narito ang mga uri ng social media platforms na ginagamit bilang pangkalahatan sa Internet.

SOCIAL NETWORKING - Gumagamit ito ng mga websites upang magkaroon ng impormal na

komunikasyon sa mga tao na may parehong interes sa loob ng isang pangkat o networks .

Halimbawa: Facebook, Google, at LinkedIn,

FACEBOOK – Isang ekslusibong site para sa mga mag-aaral sa Harvard. Ito ang pinakasikat at
pinakaginagamit sa lahat ng social media sites dahil sa simpleng pamamaraan ay nahahanap at
nakakausap ang mga taong nasa malalayong lugar sa pamamagitan ng pag-add sa kanilang account.

GOOGLE + - itinatag nina Larry Page at Sergey Brin noong 1996 bilang hanguan ng pangkalahatang
kaalaman. Ginagamit ito upang mahanap ng mga impormasyon at datos sa pamamagitan ng Search
Engine ng google.

LinkedIN – Inilunsad ni Jeff Weiner noong 2009 upang gamitin sa paghahanap ng impormasyon sa isang
kumpanya at nais na trabaho

MICROBLOGGINGv Inilagay dito ang mga maikling impormasyon at bagong datos sa isang social media
site. Maaari ding magsubscribe, magbigay ng pribado at pampublikong mensahe ang mga gumagamit sa
ibang tao. Dito rin nauso ang paggamit ng mga HASHTAGS na naglalaman ng iba’t ibang paksa.

Halimbawa: Twitter at Tumblr

TWITTER - Itinatag nina Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass , Biz Stone at Evan Williams bilang isang instrumento ng
komunikasyon sa mga tao sa pamamagitan ng pag-follow sa kanilang account at paggamit ng mga
hashtags na may kasamang opinyon o kuro-kuro na makikita ng ibang tao kapag hinanap nila ito sa
search engine ng naturang social media site

Tumblr – Itinatag ni David Karp noong 2007 na pagmamay-ari na ng Oath Inc. Ginagamit ito upang
maglagay ng mga larawan, mensahe, bidyo, mga sipi sa libro at audio na inilagay sa kanilang blog na
tumatalakay ng kanilang nais na paksa.

BLOGGING - Inilagay dito ang mga sariling opinyon, artikulo at kwento tungkol sa nais na paksa ng mga
manunulat sa internet o blogger.

Halimbawa: Wordpress at Blogger

WORDPRESS – Binuo ng Wordpress Foundation noong 2013 ginagamit ngayon upang lumikha ng bagong
blog, website o aplikasyon na magagamit sa pagsulat ng sariling paksa.

BLOGGER – Sinimulang buoin ng Pyra Labs at pagmamay-ari ng Google noong 1999, tulad ng wordpress.
Ito rin ay lumikha ng mga website at blog na malayang nagagamit ng sinoman dahil hindi kailangan ng
anumang code sa pag-iinstall nito.

PAGBABAHAGI NG LARAWAN- Nakapagbabahagi dito ang sinuman sa pampubliko o pampribadong

account ng kahit anong larawan.

Halimbawa: Instagram, Flickr , Snapchat at Pinterest

INSTAGRAM – Binuo nina Kevin Systrom, Mike Krieger at ng Facebook ba ginagamit ngayon sa
pagbabahagi ng mga larawan o bidyo na makikita ng sinoman kung nakapampubliko ang kanilanh
account.

Flickr – Binuo nina Stewart Butterfield at Cateria Fake noong 2004 at tulad ng Instagram, maaari ding
magbahagi ng mga larawan at bidyo.

Snapchat – Binuo nina Evan Spiegel, Bobby Murphy at Reggie Brown Noong 2011, dating mga mag-aaral
ng standford University. Ginagamit ito sa pagbabahagi ng larawan ng tao na nilalagyan ng filter na
mababago ang panlabas na anyo ng sinoman na haharap sa kamera.

PINTEREST - Itinatag ni Ben Silbermaam at ginagamit ngayon upang magbahagi ng mga larawan na may
paksa upang tumulong sa mga taong magbasa nito. Halimbawa ng nilalaman nito ay mga recipe, mga tips
sa buhay,inspirasyon ng tao at iba pang ideya.

PAGBABAHAGI NG BIDYO - Nakapagbabahagi dito ang sinuman sa pampubliko o pampribadong account

ng kahit anong bidyo.

Halimbawa: YouTube, Vimeo at Periscope

YOUTUBE – Itinatag nina Jawed Karim, Chad Hurley at Steve Chen noong 2005. Ginagamit ito upang
magbahagi ng mga bidyo na makikita ng publiko, may account man o wala. Kadalasang mapapanood dito
ang trailer ng mga papalabas na pelikula at kanta.

VIMEO – Itinatag nina Jake Lodwick at Zach Klein noong 2004 at ginagamit ngayon upang magbahagi ng
mga bidyo partikular na ng mga maikling pelikulang ipinagbibili rin ng vimeo.

LESSON 16 NSTP
Entrepreneurship according to Professor Hirsh as cited by Fajardo (1994) - is more than a word. It is a
mission. We must perceive opportunities inherent in change; we must create a desire for pursuing the
opportunities that arise and we must create an environment in which success is possible and the
consequences of failure are tolerable.

Coloma & Herrera (2004) - define entrepreneurship as the capacity and quality of an individual in
effectively and efficiently managing a business towards customer satisfaction and profitability of
services. It sees opportunities and makes the best of them. It is putting good use something that
otherwise may become wasted.

An entrepreneur is an individual who is self-confident, optimistic, flexible, and respective to changes. He

prefers independent work, is creative, innovative, and versatile. He takes problems as challenges. He
likes to take moderate risks. He has persistence, perseverance, determination, drive, and a high level of
energy. (Coloma & Herrera, 2004).

An American Heritage dictionary defines an entrepreneur as a person who organizes, operates, and
assumes the risk for business ventures.

Development is a process while growth is a product. Entrepreneurship could improve the economic
condition of the Filipino people; hence growth is the result of the development.

Characteristic of Entrepreneurs

The success of the small business lies in the characteristics of the entrepreneurs; the following are the
characteristics of an extraordinary person

1. reasonable risk - taker

2. self-confident

3. hardworking

4. innovative
5. leadership

6. positive thinker

7. decision – makers

Contributions of Entrepreneurs

1. develop new markets

2. discover new sources of materials

3. introduce new technologies

4. create employment

Advantage of the Small Business

The relationship is more personalized with customers and employees, so you can call them by their
names.

1. Flexibility in management. The owner being the boss and the manager can enjoy flexible time.

2. Government incentives. The government supports the small entrepreneurs by extending financial and
technical assistance, particularly production and marketing

3. Simple record-keeping. Considering that it is a small business, the entrepreneur needs a simple set of
records.

4. Independence. He is the master of his own decisions. He is not worried about being late or absent
because he is the boss

Advantages of Being an Entrepreneur

1. As an entrepreneur, you can apply your business ideas without consulting anyone.

2. You are like the operator or driver of the bus.

3. You can earn more if you work hard

4. You can make policies and set an organizational structure which you can manage well.

5. You can help the community where you operate.

Disadvantage of Being an Entrepreneur

1. Entrepreneurs usually spend a great deal of time managing their business.

2. Greater burden on the part of the entrepreneurs

3. There is a chance of losing money

Nine different types of entrepreneurship

1. Small business entrepreneurship

2. Large company entrepreneurship

3. Scalable startup entrepreneurship

4. Social entrepreneurship

5. Innovative entrepreneurship

6. Hustler entrepreneurship

7. Imitator entrepreneurship

8. Researcher entrepreneurship

9. Buyer entrepreneurship

Small business entrepreneurship

A majority of businesses are small businesses. People interested in small business entrepreneurship are
most likely to make a profit that supports their family and a modest lifestyle. They aren't seeking large-
scale profits or venture capital funding. Small business entrepreneurship is often when a person owns
and runs their own business. They typically hire local employees and family members. Local grocery
stores, hairdressers, small boutiques, consultants and plumbers are a part of this category of
entrepreneurship.

Large company entrepreneurship

Large company entrepreneurship is when a company has a finite amount of life cycles. This type of
entrepreneurship is for an advanced professional who knows how to sustain innovation. They are often a
part of a large team of C-level executives. Large companies often create new services and products based
on consumer preferences to meet market demand. Small business entrepreneurship can turn into large
company entrepreneurship when the company rapidly grows. This can also happen when a large
company acquires them. Companies such as Microsoft, Google and Disney are examples of this kind of
entrepreneurship.

Scalable startup entrepreneurship

This kind of entrepreneurship is when entrepreneurs believe that their company can change the world.
They often receive funding from venture capitalists and hire specialized employees. Scalable startups
look for things that are missing in the market and create solutions for them. Many of these types of
businesses start in Silicon Valley and are technology-focused. They seek rapid expansion and big profit
returns. Examples of scalable startups are Facebook, Instagram and Uber.

Social entrepreneurship

An entrepreneur who wants to solve social problems with their products and services is in this category
of entrepreneurship. Their main goal is to make the world a better place. They don't work to make big
profits or wealth. Instead, these kinds of entrepreneurs tend to start nonprofits or companies that
dedicate themselves to working toward social good.

Innovative entrepreneurship

Innovative entrepreneurs are people who are constantly coming up with new ideas and inventions. They
take these ideas and turn them into business ventures. They often aim to change the way people live for
the better. Innovators tend to be very motivated and passionate people. They look for ways to make
their products and services stand out from other things on the market. People like Steve Jobs and Bill
Gates are examples of innovative entrepreneurs.

Hustler entrepreneurship

People who are willing to work hard and put in constant effort are considered hustler entrepreneurs.
They often start small and work toward growing a bigger business with hard work rather than capital.
Their aspirations are what motivates them, and they are willing to do what it takes to achieve their goals.
They do not give up easily and are willing to experience challenges to get what they want. For example,
someone who is a hustler is willing to cold call many people in order to make one sale.

Imitator entrepreneurship

Imitators are entrepreneurs who use others' business ideas as inspiration but work to improve them.
They look to make certain products and services better and more profitable. An imitator is a combination
between an innovator and a hustler. They are willing to think of new ideas and work hard, yet they start
by copying others. People who are imitators have a lot of self-confidence and determination. They can
learn from others' mistakes when making their own business.

Researcher entrepreneurship

Researchers take their time when starting their own business. They want to do as much research as
possible before offering a product or service. They believe that with the right preparation and
information, they have a higher chance of being successful. A researcher makes sure they understand
every aspect of their business and have an in-depth understanding of what they are doing. They tend to
rely on facts, data and logic rather than their intuition. Detailed business plans are important to them
and minimize their chances of failure.

Buyer entrepreneurship

A buyer is a type of entrepreneur who uses their wealth to fuel their business ventures. Their specialty is
to use their fortunes to buy businesses that they think will be successful. They identify promising
businesses and look to acquire them. Then, they make any management or structural changes they feel
are necessary. Their goal is to grow the businesses they acquire and expand their profits. This kind of
entrepreneurship is less risky because they are purchasing already well-established companies.

LESSON 16 HISTORY
On March 27, 2014, the Philippine government and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) signed
an agreement to terminate an armed war that began in 1969 and resulted in more than 120,000 deaths
and hundreds of thousands of forcibly displaced persons. Since the end of the armed war in Nepal in
2006, the Comprehensive Deal on the Bangsamoro has been the most important peace agreement
signed around the world (COL 002 READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.).

Every peace accord is tailored to a specific situation and conflict. However, because it is the most
recent peace process, the Mindanao process has become a crucial reference point for other peace
processes (COL 002 READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.).

Out of the 59-armed conflicts that have ended in the last 30 years, 44 concluded with peace
agreements (Fisas, 2015: 16). Parallel to this has been the growth of social, scholarly, and institutional
capacities to evaluate these processes and strengthen peace-building measures (Human Security Report
Project, 2012). However, no peace process has ever gone off without a hitch. Hence, all peace processes
learn from previous experiences while innovating in their practices and contributing overall to the
international experience of building peace. South Sudan, Aceh (Indonesia), and Northern Ireland all
absorbed lessons from the Mindanao peace process. Other nations with internal problems, including as
Myanmar, Thailand, and Turkey, are currently studying the Mindanao peace accord with keen interest
(COL 002 READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.).

Context

The Philippines is an archipelago comprising approximately 7,000 islands (COL 002 READINGS IN
PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.). Among these islands, the largest one is Luzon (where the capital, Manila, is
situated), and the second largest is Mindanao. Together with Timor-Leste, the Philippines is the only
Asian country with a majority Christian population. A population of around 100 million people lives in a
300,000 km2 region. The presidential system of government is in place, and executive power is limited to
a single six-year term (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

King Philip II of Spain, in whose service Magellan was sailing across the world when he arrived at the
archipelago in 1521, is responsible for the country’s name. After three centuries as a Spanish colony, the
Philippines were handed over the United States in 1898. The fact that Spain never actually acquired
possession of Mindanao has far-reaching implications. Three centuries before Magellan, Islam had
arrived, and the Spanish discovered a well-organized system of rule, primarily through the sultanates of
Maguindanao and Sulu (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

In 1946, the Philippines were the first Asian country to gain independence without an armed
struggle (1 year before India). When a nonviolent people’s movement defeated Ferdinand Marcos’
dictatorship in 1986, the Philippines became a pioneer in overthrowing a tyrannical system through
peaceful means. In 2001, a second people’s power revolution overthrew Joseph Estrada’s government,
which had been accused of corruption (Mindanao Peace Process, n.d.). However, progress has been
gradual during the last nearly three decades of democracy. Politics continues to be a family battle in
which a few families maintain power from generation to generation. Relatives of overthrown presidents
are still involved in politics (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

Several metrics suggest progress in poverty reduction, literacy, and employment, but neighboring
nations such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand are well ahead of the Philippines in these areas (UNDP,
2015). The New People’s Army, a Maoist-inspired insurgency that has been active since 1968, feeds its
ideology on the continuance of societal injustices (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

In addition to the armed conflict in Mindanao and the communist insurgency, the Philippines also
suffered from Islamist terrorist attacks linked to transnational networks in recent years.

Peace Agreements

The talks began in 1997 with an agreement on a general cease-fire. The parties outlined a
negotiation agenda in the Tripoli Agreement (2001) that included three primary elements: security
(which had already been agreed upon in 2001), humanitarian response, rehabilitation, and development
(agreed in 2002), and ancestral territories (2008) (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

The parties eventually adopted the Framework Agreement in October 2012, laying out a path for the
transition. The parties completed the annexes on transitional mechanisms (February 2013), revenue
generation and wealth sharing (July 2013), power-sharing (December 2013), and normalization (January
2014) during the next 15 months (January 2014). Finally, the Comprehensive Agreement was signed in
the Presidential Palace in March 2014 (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

The agreement’s major axis is the creation of the Bangsamoro, a new self-governing state that will
replace the existing Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao after a transition overseen by the MILF.
The accord envisions a reform process in the future autonomous area that will see a parliamentary
system replace the presidential administration that controls the rest of the country (Mindanao Peace
Process, n.d.). The goal of this pact is to encourage the formation of thematic political parties.

The government understands that insurgency must be a part of the solution and assume the
corresponding responsibilities. As a result, the insurgency’s evolution into a political movement should
include participation in municipal and regional elections.

In terms of approval, the peace accord must be translated into a statute that governs the
Bangsamoro Basic Law, which governs the Statute of Autonomy. A plebiscite will be held in the conflict-
affected districts after parliamentary authorization. Because the municipalities bordering the current
autonomous community will have the opportunity to join the new entity, this plebiscite will also help to
define the autonomous region’s territorial extent (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

Constitutional reform is a divisive topic. The MILF maintains that reform is required to consolidate
the accords. The government, on the other hand, has been hesitant to start a lengthy procedure that
could open a “Pandora’s box.” However, concerns regarding the constitution’s many agreements imply
that such a reform process may be considered in the future. Beyond the accord with the MILF, the
Mindanao peace process may help to spark a national debate regarding the country’s territorial
arrangement, since key forces in other areas urge comprehensive constitutional reform along federal
lines (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

Here are the main points of the agreement, as reported by Agence France-Presse:” (Philippines signs
historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.)

The “Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro” is what it’s called. At the time of Spanish
invasion and colonization, the Bangsamoro were considered natives or original residents of the southern
Philippines. Bangsamoro people are acknowledged as their descendants and spouses (Philippines signs
historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).

Bangsa is a local word that means nation. Moro is derived from the Spanish colonial term “Moors,”
which was used to refer to Muslims (Key points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.).

AUTONOMY: The MILF abandons its claims to a separate state in Mindanao’s southern area in favor of
parliamentary autonomy in the Bangsamoro autonomous region. By 2016, this will be established. The
Bangsamoro will take the place of another Muslim autonomous area, the MNLF, which the government
claims failed in the 1990s (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).

DISARMAMENT: The MILF will “gradually” decommission its forces and place the weapons “beyond use,”
with a local police unit taking over law enforcement tasks from the Philippine police and military (Key
points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.)

POWERS: On defense, foreign policy, money, and citizenship, the Philippine government will retain
exclusive authority (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).

TAXES/REVENUES: The autonomous administration will get 75% of all local taxes and levies, 75% of
metallic resource revenues, and control over fishing regions up to 12 nautical miles from the coast
(Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).

ISLAMIC LAW: The region will be governed by a secular administration rather than an Islamic state. Only
Muslims will be subject to Sharia law, and it will only apply to civil cases, not criminal acts. Basic rights to
life, travel, privacy, and freedom of religion and speech are guaranteed to all residents (Philippines signs
historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).

TERRITORY: To span five provinces in the south, as well as two cities, six towns, and 39 villages,
accounting for nearly 10% of the Philippines’ total land area (Philippines signs historic peace pact with
Muslim rebel, n.d.).

ENABLING LAW: By the end of the year, Aquino will seek parliament to enact a “Bangsamoro Basic Law”
for the autonomous region (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
PLEBISCITE: In a plebiscite to be held in 2015, people living in territories to be included in the
autonomous region will need to ratify the law (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel,
n.d.).

TRANSITIONAL AUTHORITY: After the plebiscite approves and ratifies the basic law, the territory will be
governed by a 15-member “Bangsamoro Transition Authority” until a regional parliament is elected. The
members of the transitional authority are appointed by Aquino, although the MILF will have a majority
and the chairmanship (Key points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.).

ELECTIONS: In May 2016, a regional parliament with 50 representatives will be elected in conjunction
with national elections (Key points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.).

Implementation Challenges

Despite the positive developments, the implementation of the peace agreement is facing multiple
obstacles (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

The first constraint is time. The government was able to link the transitional period to the conclusion
of the presidential term in May 2016 during the Framework Agreement negotiations in 2012 (Mindanao
Peace Process, n.d.). However, the negotiating teams are unable to adhere to the agreed-upon
negotiation and implementation schedule. As a result, the parties will need to agree on a longer
implementation period (Philippine Peace Process in Mindanao:, n.d.).

The delay is shared responsibility. On the one hand, the insurgency lacks enough qualified and
trustworthy people to shoulder all of the transitional obligations. The government negotiating team, on
the other hand, is dealing with a lack of buy-in for the agreement and its implementation by other parts
of the bureaucracy (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).

At the same time, Congress has been postponing the passage of the peace agreements into law,
despite the fact that the judiciary must still determine if they are constitutional (Peace Process In
Mindanao, n.d.). These state institutions will most likely raise issues that may further block the
implementation of the agreements that have been signed.

In the Philippines, prejudice against Muslims, a heritage from the colonial period, still runs deep.

With less than a year until the country’s presidential and legislative elections (May 2016), “a number
of important politicians and media outlets are shifting to populist language to agitate public sentiment
against the peace process,” according to the report. (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.)

Even among political actors with good intentions, a lack of knowledge about the Muslim population's
social, political, and cultural reality, particularly the insurgency, results in faulty diagnoses and wrong
responses. “Previous governments have linked the Moro problem to poverty and economic
marginalization, ignoring the importance of identity and esteem parity. The insurgency has been unable
to establish a political discourse that can be understood and supported by the entire population. The
peace negotiators only demolished some of these erroneous imaginaries after painstaking discourse, but
the Christian and Muslim parts of society still fear each other.” (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.)

The rise of armed groups is the most serious security issue (Peace Process in Mindanao, n.d.). One
explanation is that in the Philippines, possessing guns is legal as long as a person is at least 21 years old
and passes a background check before being awarded a Possession License. Meanwhile, successive
governments have failed in their attempts to disband paramilitary groups run by local politicians. Other
armed groups also proliferate. These armed groups can be classified into three categories: a MILF
breakaway group that is skeptical about the government's political commitment (e.g., the Bangsamoro
Islamic Freedom Fighters), extremist cells that are linked to international extremist violence (e.g., Abu
Sayyaf and Jemaa Islamiyah), and ordinary criminal organizations.

Other challenges are inherent in any process of transitioning from a state of conflict to one of peace
(Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.). In addition to political will, the government needs to prove its
capacity to transform words into deeds, which has been historically proven to be a challenge. In parallel,
the insurgency requires a radical paradigm shift from a semi-clandestine military structure to a social and
political movement, a terrain with limited experience and at a disadvantage compared with established
political actors.

Several arrangements that will most likely figure in the discussions on political systems include any or
a mix of the following:

A structure separation from the existing political system for the development of MILF communities;
integration of MILF troops into the Armed Forces of the Philippines or the Philippine National Police; and
strengthening institutions for “personal autonomy,” such as Islamic education and Sharia law.

Areas constituted as special zones, such as Swiss cantons, where Muslims can exercise a high degree of
self-determination.

A new and expanded autonomous region with additional powers.

A Muslim state under the federal system of government.

An independent state where Muslims are the majority.

Conclusion

The following components of the peace process must be strengthened:

Both sides must build a national consensus on the roadmap agreed upon during the negotiations by
conducting additional consultations on the issues discussed in the negotiations. The government must
reach out to the leaders of the Christian majority, particularly members of Congress and local officials.
The MILF must reach out to the MNLF and traditional Muslim leaders.

Christian and Muslim religious leaders must take the lead in rallying their people to support the peace
process. The Bishop-Ulama Forum, a conference of Christian and Muslim religious leaders in the
Philippines, must be actively involved in harnessing this support.
The government and MILF must provide strong and effective mechanisms for the implementation of the
peace pact. A neutral third party must be present to oversee faithful compliance of Manila and the MILF
with the terms of the agreement directly.

Funding for implementation must be identified and allocated in a way that insulates it from partisan and
personal interests of any group or party.

LESSON 16 CONTEMP
According to experts, we now live in a time when the world produces enough food to support the
world’s population of nearly 7 billion people. However, between 2010 and 2012, around 870 million
people around the world were still hungry. The traditional answer to this situation, according to
Bartthwal-Datta, is to increase food production; however, increasing food production does not always
contribute to food security. Many factors determine how a community, nation-state, or the entire world
might achieve food security. When used in a global environment, the complexity of achieving food
security grows. Ironically, the more severe and widespread hunger is, the more the concept of food
security is valued by society and their governments. However, considering that food production
resources are finite and strongly reliant on a lively and sustainable environment, the concern is how food
production will cope with the rapid growth in population.

FOOD SECURITY

“Food security occurs when all people have physical and economic access to enough, safe, and nutritious
food to suit their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life at all times”. -World
Food Summit, 1996

Food security refers to the ability of those who raise, catch, produce, process, transport, retail, and serve
our food to earn a fair living income. Human security and food security are inextricably linked. Food
security is considered a non-traditional security issue which is vital, like any other, to the survival and
stability of any nation-state (FAO Food Security_百度文库., 2014).

Food Security has four dimensions: Economic and Physical Access to Food, Physical Availability of Food,
Stability of the Other Three Dimensions Over Time, and Food Utilization.

Physical Availability of Food refers to the physical existence of food. A nation-state must ensure local or
domestic food production, commercially import and export food, food aid and domestic food stocks.
Availability of food at the household could be from own production or purchased from the market.

Economic and Physical Access to Food refers to a sufficient supply of food at the national or international
level; nevertheless, this does not guarantee food securtity at the home level. Concerns about limited
food access have prompted policymakers to place a greater emphasis on incomes, expenditures,
markets, and pricing in order to achieve food security goals.

The process by which the body utilizes various nutrients is known as Food Utilization. Individuals with
sufficient energy and nutritional intake are the consequence of adequate care and feeding practices,
food preparation, dietary diversity, and food distribution throughout the home (Khazanah Research
Institute, 2015). This, when combined with good biological utilization of the food consumed, establishes
an individual’s nutritional state (Essay on Food Utilization, n.d.).

Stability of Other Three Dimensions refers to having a regular or consistent access to food on a regular
basis in order to maintain one’s nutritional status. Weather extremes, political unrest, and economic
variables such as unemployment and increased food prices can all have an impact on your food security.

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD SECURITY

The United States Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture claims that
availability to high-quality, nutrient-dense food is essential to human survival. It goes on to say that
secure food availability has a wide range of good consequences, including enhanced economic growth,
poverty reduction, trade opportunities, global security and stability, and improved health and
healthcare. Food security brings about economic growth because well-fed and properly nourished
populations have advanced levels of human capital development, which serve as a source of workforce
for a thriving economy. Further, high levels of malnutrition and illnesses due to poor food choices or lack
thereof divert significant government funds for healthcare to other vital social services for societal
development. Malnutrition creates a generation of less functional and illness-prone people, which may
require sustained medical attention draining both private and public funds to do so.

In the same vein, food security reduces poverty since it allows families to invest their funds for needs
that lead to their development. Instead of spending their income on hospitalization due to illnesses
brought about by hunger or malnutrition, a family could spend it for the education of their children,
giving them better chances in the future.

Food security is also crucial in creating trade opportunities. As countries and their local communities can
produce enough food to ensure food security, excess supply can be traded for food supply that is not
locally grown or exported to other countries for added income and augment the food sufficiency of that
country.

Increased global security and stability is attained when there is food security. When a locality or country
can provide for the needs, among them food and water, there is less likelihood that they will revolt
against their rulers due to discontent, which could potentially and massive deprivation. It also prevents
the possibility of massive migration due to famine or conflict arising from discontent, which could
potentially strain the limited resources of their destination countries and lead to further conflicts with
the latter's local population.

Food security is also responsible for the improved health and healthcare of people. Available and
sufficient supply of nutritious food prevents malnutrition and diseases, thereby lessening the likelihood
of developing diseases that can strain public and personal funds for hospitalization and medical costs.
When a family cannot afford to buy healthy and nutritious food to provide for its members, chronic
diseases are common.
Experts argue that food security is a difficult concept to measure. However, one can argue that the
inability to attain all the dimensions of food security can lead to food insecurity. FAO defines food
insecurity as when people lack secure access to sufficient safe and nutritious food for average growth
and development and active and healthy life. According to the Utah State University Hunger Solutions
Institute, hunger and food insecurity are two different concepts related to each other. Food insecurity
refers to the inability to obtain acceptable food in socially acceptable manners due to a lack of or
uncertainty in one’s liability to obtain it (Lee, 2017). Hunger, on the other hand, refers to the restless or
painful sensation that results from a lack of nourishment. Malnutrition can also develop over time as a
result of repeated and involuntary lack of food access (Ohio Association of Second Harvest Foodbanks,
n.d.).

EFFECTS OF FOOD INSECURITY

Food insecurity has developmental severe, economic, social and medical impacts on individuals, families,
communities and countries. The unavailability of nutritious food to millions of people adversely affects
individuals and groups of people in various ways, namely:

Malnutrition and Economic Instability = According to the World Health Organization, it refers to
deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person's energy and nutrients intake. In the Philippines, the
cost of early childhood malnutrition is around P328 billion or 2.8% of the GDP. In addition, the adverse
effects of malnutrition extended to a population's reduced human capital formation, excess mortality,
additional health burden and added educations cost, which could push the cost of malnutrition in the
Philippines to 4.4% of the GDP.

Social Upheavals = When a country has a high prevalence of food insecurity, it also tends to experience
social unrest and upheavals. Mass demonstrations of dissatisfaction with the sitting government can
cause economic and political instability, even deteriorate into a full-scale armed conflict with cross-
border consequences.

Mass Migration and Displacement = Food insecurity or starvation resulting from long-standing conflict
can lead to massive and forced migratory movements of people. This, in turn, can lead to potential
conflict in their destination countries as the needs of refugees or migrants can strain the latter's
resources and food supply. It can also pose risks to the sovereignty of destination states. Criminal and
suspicious elements such as terrorists and saboteurs can pose as refugees, infiltrate and compromise the
host country's security.

10 CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

Food security occurs when all people can access enough safe and nutritious food to meet their
requirements for a healthy life in ways the planet can sustain itself into the future. However, food
security faces several challenges across production and consumption, which research will be essential to
solving this predicament. (Coursehero, n.d.).

Rising population = There will be 219,000 people at the dinner table tonight who were not there last
night, many of them with empty plates.

Rising incomes, changing diets = Today, with incomes rising fast in emerging economies, at least 3 billion
people are moving up the food chain toward Westernized diets. They consume more grain-intensive
livestock and poultry products. Today, the growth in world grain consumption is concentrated in China. It
adds over 8 million people per year, but the big driver is the rising affluence of its nearly 1.4 billion
people. As incomes go up, people tend to eat more meat. China’s meat consumption per person is still
only half that of the United States. That leaves a huge potential for future demand growth.

It is falling water tables = In India, some 190 million people are being fed with grain produced by
overpumping groundwater. For China, the number is 130 million. Aquifer depletion now threatens
harvests in the big three grain producers — China, India and the United States—that together produce
half of the world's grain.

More foodless days = In Nigeria, 27% of families experience foodless days. In India, it is 24%; in Peru,
14%. The world is in transition from an era dominated by surpluses to one defined by scarcity. On some
days, not eating is how the worlds' poorest are coping with the doubling of world grain prices since
2006. But even as we face new constraints on future production, the world population is growing by 80
million people each year.

Slowing irrigation = Water supply is now the principal constraint on efforts to expand world food
production. During the last half of the 20th century, the world’s irrigated area expanded from 250 million
acres in 1950 to roughly 700 million in 2000. This near tripling of world irrigation within 50 years was
historically unique. Since then, the growth in irrigation has come to a near standstill, expanding only 10%
between 2000 and 2010.

Increasing soil erosion = Nearly a third of the world’s cropland is losing topsoil faster than new soil is
forming. This reduces the land’s inherent fertility. Future food production is also threatened by soil
erosion. The thin layer of topsoil that covers the earth's land surface was formed over long stretches of
geological time as new soil formation exceeded the natural erosion rate.

Climate change = The generation of farmers now on the land is the first to face artificial climate change.
Agriculture as it exists today developed over 11,000 years of relatively remarkable climate stability. It has
evolved to maximize production within that climate system. Now, suddenly, the climate is changing.

Melting water reserves = At no time since agriculture began has the world faced such a predictably
massive threat to food production as that posed by the melting mountain glaciers of Asia. Mountain
glaciers are melting in the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps and elsewhere. But nowhere does
melting threaten world food security more than in the glaciers of the Himalayas and on the Tibetan
Plateau that feeds the major rivers of India and China.

Flattening yields = After several decades of rising grain yields, farmers in the more agriculturally
advanced countries have recently hit a glass ceiling. The limits of photosynthesis itself impose that
production ceiling. In Japan, the longtime leader in raising cropland productivity, the rise in the yield of
rice that began in the 1880s essentially came to a halt in 1996. Having maximized productivity, farmers
ran into the inherent limits of photosynthesis and could no longer increase the amount they could
harvest from a given plot. In China, rice yields are now just 4% below Japan’s. Unless China can raise its
yields above those in Japan, which seems unlikely, it, too, is facing a plateauing of rice yields. Corn yields
in the United States, which accounts for nearly 40% of the world corn harvest, are starting to level off.
Yields in some other corn-growing countries such as Argentina, France and Italy also appear to be
stagnating.

Little time to prepare = To state the obvious, we are in a situation both difficult and dangerous. The
world today desperately needs leadership on the food security issue. Any further progress requires a
total restructuring of the energy economy.

(Brown, 2013)

MODELS OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

The key aspects of the Food Security Conceptual Model include an understanding of:

Assets for a living (human, financial, physical, natural, and social capital)

Livelihood strategies (food or income sources, expenditures, coping mechanisms)

Various scales of study are used, including macro, meso, and intra-household dynamics

Integrated sectoral analysis

Resistance

Proximate to underlying causes

Risk management

Resilience

Other Food Security Models (found online)

https://i.pinimg.com/564x/66/15/00/66150012f87c89a166852706724f8254.jpg

LESSON 16 Understanding Self

Setting goals is an essential part of any career and is especially important in sales (The Top 10 Things
Successful People Do Differently Than The Average Joe, n.d.). Your goals tell you what you want to
achieve in a specific timeframe. Over the years, we have seen many professionals (e.g., sellers,
managers, and companies) get goal planning, action planning, and commitment to execution right. We
have also seen many fall short.

Those who fall short tend to do so in three common ways:

Action plans to achieve goals are not concrete.

Habits and behavior to achieve different results are not outlined.

They did not analyze where time should be spent to achieve goals.

For the first point, once you define your goals, you need a clear path to achieve them. Map out how
you will achieve your goals with a concrete action plan. Only when you are clear on the actions you must
take to reach your goal will you give yourself a fighting chance of achieving it.

Habit change is also an essential part of success but is rarely addressed. If you keep doing the same
things, then you will keep getting the same results. As Albert Einstein said, “the definition of insanity is
doing the same thing over and over again but expecting different results.”

If you achieve your goals, then you must do things differently. This practice requires changing your
behavior and often changing bad habits that derail your focus, priorities, and ultimately your results.

Finally, you need to be mindful of how you spend your time. Use it on activities that are most likely
to generate an outsized return. Once you have chosen where to spend your time, you need to avoid
distractions and maximize your output per work hour.

Why should we set goals?

establish the ultimate destination

identify the path you can take to get there

know when you have arrived at your goal (The Power of Formal Goal Setting, n.d.).

Why is formal goal-setting necessary?

Goals increase the levels of performance by an average of 16%.

Goals can help monitor and improve your performance.

Goals can improve the quality of your practice and play by replacing boredom with a challenge.

Goals can help you replace fear/tension with focus.

Goals can help sustain motivation during slumps, injuries, or a long career.

Goals assists in confidence development. (Goal Setting, 2012)

SMARTER Goals

Specific – the goal must be clear.

Measurable - objectively prove that you have met the goal.

Adjustable – if you achieve the goal sooner than anticipated, you can increase the intensity or scale it
down.

Realistic – believe that you can do it.

Time-bound – set a realistic date to meet the goal.

Exciting – it will be fun.

Rewarding – see the reward for achieving this goal (Goal Setting, 2012)

Example of a SMARTER Goal - “To lower my handicap factor from 3.5 on June 1 to 1.0 by September
15 and qualify for the club championship (The Power of Formal Goal Setting, n.d.).”

Types of Goals

outcome goals

physical performance goals

mental performance goals

balance goals

Outcome Goals

Focus on results or outcomes

Serve as a guide toward your overall objectives

Examples of outcome goals:

number of wins

stroke average

order of merit ranking

team selection

They should be kept in their rightful place, that is, “away from the course."

Focusing on these goals during play or practice can negatively affect your performance.

The mind needs to be quiet and clear of outcome thoughts to perform at the peak of the course.

Remember, you do not always have control over outcome goals. You can have your best tournament
ever, and someone else can still beat you.

Establish one or two “dream” goals that motivate individuals to do impossible things (Goal Setting, 2012)
Physical Performance Goals

Physical performance goals define the physical/technical skills you want to improve to accomplish your
outcome goals.

It helps you practice and train with a purpose

(Goal Setting, 2012)

Examples of physical performance goals:

Develop an improved short game – lower s.g. handicap to 0 by July 31

Improve accuracy off the tee – hit an average of 10 fairways in 2007

Hit greens in regulation – 10.5 greens per round in 2007

Learn the knockdown shot

Improve clubface position at the top of the swing

Improve my cardio to improve endurance on the back nine and the beep test score from 8 to 10

(Goal Setting, 2012)

Consult your coach and outline your strategy for achieving each stated physical performance goal (Goal
Setting, 2012).

For example, the strategy to improve your bunker play may be to have a coaching session to ensure that
your fundamentals, equipment, and technique are sound. Then, practice three times per week until you
hole five sand shots each time (Goal Setting, 2012).

Mental Performance Goals

Your mental performance goals describe the intellectual skills you will be committed to strengthening to
achieve your outcome goals (Goal Setting, 2012).

Mental performance goals should be your primary focus during competition.

They allow you to “stay in the present” and play each shot as an island unto self (The Power of Formal
Goal Setting, n.d.).

Be specific; have mental performance goals for each round.

Examples of mental performance goals for each round:

establish a written game plan, complete with targets for every competitive round, and stick to it
regardless of the outcome
Use deep breathing and other relaxation techniques to manage my tension when under pressure

Not react to terrible shots

Consistently use my mental preshot routine

To see the target 80% of the time

(Goal Setting, 2012)

Consult your coach and outline your strategy for achieving mental performance goals.

For example, the strategy to improve your tension control might be to have a session with a sport
psychologist to learn a new relaxation technique and then practice weekly during training sessions.

Balance Goals

Goals should be set to maintain quality time for all critical areas of your life.

Lifestyle/relationship management is an essential component of planning for peak performance.

A recommended guideline is as follows:

school and golf – 65%

relationship – 5%

personal – 10%

family – 10%

friends – 10%

Goal Vectors

Imagine your goal as a “vector.”

Now is the starting point.

Your ultimate goal is at the end of the vector.

What steps do you have to take?

Breakup the steps on the vector

Turn each step into a SMARTER goal.

As you reach each step, desire increases, and the ultimate goal becomes close.

Provincial-level player
(The Power of Formal Goal Setting, n.d.)

GOAL SETTING EXAMPLE

Goal #1 – Swing technique

The correct firm grip improves posture and reduces the slice to a controlled fade shot.

Work with coach and video for feedback

Correct techniques by March 30

Goal #2 – Short game

Shape putting arc correctly, install three distinct ship shots and three-pitch shots and install two
comfortable sand techniques.

Use a short game test as a benchmark to achieve an h’cap of 7

Install shots by April 31

Goal #3

Review the schedule of OOM events and enter

Place top 30% in each event

Goal #4

Stroke average of competitive rounds

Use the stats program to record

Achieve average by August 31

Goal #5 – Win City Championship

Win championship division

Tournament in July

Reward: exempted status for provincials

Goal #6 – Top 3 at Provincials

Tournament in July

Reward: provincial team to nationals

Goals #7 – Top 5 at Nationals

RCGA National AM Championships

Tournament in August

Top OOM points available

The ultimate goal – National Team

Based on 2007 OOM points

Selection made on November 1

Part of the 2008 Program

Next step – re-evaluate goals