Calculus 1 Cal 1 Teachers

CHAPTER II

Derivatives

2.1 Derivative as the Slope of the Tangent Line

2.1.1 The Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function at a Point

HOW TO DRAW TANGENT LINES TO CURVES AT A POINT

The definition of a tangent line is not very easy to explain without involving limits.
Students can imagine that locally, the curve looks like an arc of a circle. Hence, they can
draw the tangent line to the curve as they would to a circle.

One more way to see this is to choose the line through a point that locally looks most
like the curve. Among all the lines through a point (c, f (c)), the one which best ap-
proximates the curve y = f ( x ) near the point (c, f (c)) is the tangent line to the curve
at that point.

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Another way of qualitatively understanding the tangent line is to visualize the curve
as a roller coaster.The tangent line to the curve at a point is parallel to the line of sight
of the passengers looking straight ahead and sitting erect in one of the wagons of the
roller coaster.

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THE TANGENT LINE DEFINED MORE FORMALLY

The precise definition of a tangent line

relies on the notion of a secant line. Let
C be the graph of a continuous function
y = f ( x ) and let P be a point on C. A
secant line to y = f ( x ) through P is any
line connecting P and another point Q
on C. In the figure on the right, the line
PQ is a secant line of y = f ( x ) through
P.

We now construct the tangent line to y = f ( x ) at P.

Choose a point Q on the right side of P,

and connect the two points to construct
the secant line PQ.
Choose another point Q1 in between P
and Q. Connect the two points P and
Q1 to construct the secant line PQ1 .
Choose another point Q2 in between P
and Q1 . Construct the secant line PQ2 .

Consider also the case when Q is to the left of P and perform the same process. Intu-
itively, we can define the tangent line through P to be the limiting position of the secant
lines PQ as the point Q (whether to the left or right of P) approaches P.

If the sequence of secant lines to the

graph of y = f ( x ) through P ap-
proaches one limiting position (in con-
sideration of points Q to the left and
from the right of P), then we define this
line to be the tangent line to y = f ( x )
at P.

We summarize the definitions of the secant line through a point, and the tangent line at
a point of the graph of y = f ( x ).

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Definition. Let C be the graph of a continuous function y = f ( x ) and let P be a point

on C.

(1) A secant line to y = f ( x ) through P is any line connecting P and another point
Q on C.
(2) The tangent line to y = f ( x ) at P is the limiting position of all secant lines PQ
as Q −→ P.

2.1.2 The Equation of the Tangent Line

Recall: Slope of a Line

A line l passing through distinct points ( x0 , y0 ) and ( x, y) has slope .

y − y0
ml = .
x − x0

Example. Given A(1, −3), B(3, −2), and C (−1, 0), what are the slopes of the lines AB,
AC, and BC?

Solution. The slope of AB is

−2 − (−3) 1
m AB = = .
3−1 2

The slope of AC is
0 − (−3) 3
m AC = =− .
−1 − 1 2

The slope of BC is
0 − (−2) 1
m BC = =− .
−1 − 3 2

Recall: Point-Slope Form

The line passing through ( x0 , y0 ) with slope m has the equation

y − y0 = m ( x − x0 ).

Example. From Example above, since m AB = 21 ., then using A(1, −3) as our point, then

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the point-slope form of the equation of AB is

1
y − (−3) = ( x − 1)
2
1
y + 3 = ( x − 1)
2

THE EQUATION OF THE TANGENT LINE

Equation of the Tangent Line

To find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = f ( x ) at the point P( x0 , y0 ),
follow this 2-step process:
Get the slope of the tangent line by computing

y − y0 f ( x ) − f ( x0 )
m = lim or m = lim .
x → x0 x − x0 x → x0 x − x0

Substitute this value of m and the coordinates of the known point P( x0 , y0 ) into
the point-slope form to get

y − y0 = m ( x − x0 ).

Example. Find the equation of the tangent line to y = x2 at x = 2.

Solution. To get the equation of the line, we need the point P( x0 , y0 ) and the slope m.
We are only given x0 = 2. However, the y-coordinate of x0 is easy to find by substituting
x0 = 2 into y = x2 . This gives us y0 = 4. Hence, P has the coordinates (2, 4). Now, we
look for the slope:

y − y0 x2 − 4
m = lim = lim = lim ( x + 2) = 4.
x → x0 x − x0 x →2 x − 2 x →2

Finally, the equation of the tangent line with slope m = 4 and passing through P(2, 4) is

y − 4 = 4( x − 2) or y = 4x − 4.

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√
Example. Find the slope-intercept form of the tangent line to f ( x ) = x at x = 4.

√ √
Solution. Again, we find the y-coordinate of x0 = 4: y0 = f ( x0 ) = x0 = 4 = 2.
Hence, P has coordinates (4, 2). Now, we look for the slope of the tangent line. Notice
that we have to rationalize the numerator to evaluate the limit.

f ( x ) − f ( x0 )
m = lim
x → x0 x − x0
√ √
x−2 x+2
= lim ·√
x →4 x − 4 x+2
x−4
= lim √

x →4 ( x − 4 ) x+2
1 1
= lim √ = .
x →4 x+2 4

Finally, with point P(4, 2) and slope m = 14 , the equation of the tangent line is

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1
y−2 = ( x − 4)
4
x
y = + 1.
4

Example. Show that the tangent line to y = 3x2 − 12x + 1 at the point (2, −11) is hori-
zontal.

Solution. Recall that a horizontal line has zero slope. Now, computing for the slope,
we get:

y − y0
m = lim
x → x0 x − x 0

3x2 − 12x + 1 − (−11)

= lim
x →2 x−2
3x2 − 12x + 12
= lim
x →2 x−2
3 x2 − 4x + 4


= lim
x →2 x−2
3 ( x − 2) ( x − 2)
= lim
x →2 x−2
= lim (3 ( x − 2)) = 0
x →2

Since the slope of the tangent line is 0, it must be horizontal. Its equation is

y − (−11) = 0( x − 2)
y + 11 = 0
y = −11

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2.1.3 The Definition of the Derivative

Definition of the Derivative

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ⊆ R, and let x0 ∈ I. The derivative
of f at x0 is defined to be

f ( x ) − f ( x0 )
f 0 ( x0 ) = lim
x → x0 x − x0

if this limit exists. That is, the derivative of f at x0 is the slope of the tangent line at
( x0 , f ( x0 )), if it exists.
Notations: If y = f ( x ), the derivative of f is commonly denoted by

d d dy
f 0 ( x ) , Dx [ f ( x )] , [ f ( x )] , [y] ,
dx dx dx

.
Remark. Note that the limit definition of the derivative is inherently indeterminate! Hence,
0
the usual techniques for evaluating limits which are indeterminate of type 0 are applied,
e.g., factoring, rationalization, or using one of the following established limits:
x −1
(i) lim sinx x = 1 (ii) lim 1−cos
x
x
=0 (iii) lim e x = 1.
x →0 x →0 x →0

Example. Compute f 0 (1) for each of the following functions:

(1) f ( x ) = 3x − 1
(2) f ( x ) = 2x2 + 4
2x
(3) f ( x ) = x +1
√
(4) f ( x ) = x+8

Solution. Here, x0 is fixed to be equal to 1. Using the definition above,

f ( x ) − f (1)
f 0 (1) = lim .
x →1 x−1

Remember that what we are computing, f 0 (1) ,is just the slope of the tangent line to
y = f ( x ) at x = 1.

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(1) Note that f (1) = 2, so by factoring

(3x − 1) − 2
f 0 (1) = lim
x →1 x−1
3x − 3
= lim
x →1 x − 1
3 ( x − 1)
= lim
x →1 x − 1

= lim 3
x →1

=3

(2) Here, f (1) = 6, so again by factoring,

2x2 + 4 − 6


0
f (1) = lim
x →1 x−1
2x2 − 2
= lim
x →1 x − 1
2 x2 − 1


= lim
x →1 x−1
2 ( x + 1) ( x − 1)
= lim
x →1 x−1
= lim 2 ( x + 1)
x →1

= 4.

(3) We see that f (1) = 1. So, from the definition,

2x
−1
f 0 ( x ) = lim x +1
.
x →1 x−1

We multiply both the numerator and the denominator by x + 1 to simplify the

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complex fraction.

2x
−1 x+1
f 0 ( x ) = lim x +1
·
x →1 x − 1 x+1
2x − ( x + 1)
= lim
x →1 ( x − 1 ) ( x + 1 )
( x − 1)
= lim
x →1 ( x − 1 ) ( x + 1 )
1
= lim
x →1 x + 1
1
= .
2

(4) Note that f (1) = 3. Therefore, by rationalizing the numerator

√ √
x+8−3 x+8+3
f 0 (1) = lim ·√
x →1 x−1 x+8+3
( x + 8) − 9
= lim √

x →1 ( x − 1 ) x+8+3
x−1
= lim √

x →1 ( x − 1 ) x+8+3
1
= lim √
x →1 x+8+3
1
= .
6

AN EQUIVALENT DEFINITION OF THE DERIVATIVE

Recall that we have defined the derivative of a function f at x0 as follows:

f ( x ) − f ( x0 )
f 0 ( x0 ) = lim .
x → x0 x − x0

There is another definition of the derivative which is derived by using the substitution

x = x0 + ∆x

into the above limit definition of the derivative.

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Observed that ∆x measures the displacement as we move from x to x0 . Thus, in the

figure blow, the point to the right of x0 becomes x0 + ∆x, if ∆x > 0. It should be
clear algebraically from x = x0 + ∆x, and from the figure, that letting x approach x0 is
equivalent to letting ∆x approach to 0. Applying the substitution, we now have

f ( x0 + ∆x ) − f ( x0 )
f 0 ( x0 ) = lim .
∆x →0 ( x0 + ∆x ) − x0

Alternative Definition of the Derivative

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ⊆ R, and let x ∈ I. The derivative of
f at x is defined to be
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
f 0 ( x ) = lim
∆x →0 ∆x
if this limit exists. Where ∆x = x − x0

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Example. Let f ( x ) = sin x, g ( x ) = cos x, and s = e x . Find f 0 (2π ), g0 (π ), and s0 (3).

Solution. We use the alternative definition of the derivative.

(a) Here, we substitute x0 = 2π.

f (2π + h) − f (2π )
f 0 (2π ) = lim
h →0 h
sin (2π + h) − sin (2π )
= lim
h →0 h
sin (2π + h) − 0
= lim
h →0 h

Using the sum identity of the sine function: sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β,
and noting that sin (2π ) = 0 and cos (2π ) = 1, we get

sin (2π ) cos h + cos (2π ) sin h

f 0 (2π ) = lim
h →0 h
sin h
= lim
h →0 h

= 1.

(b)

g (π + h) − g (π )
g0 (π ) = lim
h →0 h
cos (π + h) − cos (π )
= lim
h →0 h
cos (π + h) − (−1)
= lim
h →0 h

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Using the sum identity of the cosine function: cos (α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β,
and noting that cos π = −1 and sin π = 0, we get

cos π cos h − sin π sin h + 1

g0 (π ) = lim
h →0 h
− cos h + 1
= lim
h →0 h
= 0.

(c)

s (3 + h ) − s (3)
s0 (3) = lim
h →0 h
e 3 + h − e3
= lim .
h →0 h

Using the exponent laws, e3+h = e3 eh . Moreover, since e3 is just aconstant, we can
factor it out of the limit operator. So,

e3 e h − e3
s0 (3) = lim
h →0 h
h
e −1
= e3 lim
h →0 h
= e3 .

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2.2 Differentiability Implies Continuity

Recall the following definitions:

Definition.

(1) (Continuity at a Number). A function f is continuous at a number c if all of the

following conditions are satisfied:
(a) f (c) is defined;
(b) lim f ( x )exists; and
x →c
(c) lim f ( x ) = f (c)
x →c
If at least one of the these conditions is not satisfied, the function is said to
be discontinuous at c.
(2) (Continuity on R). A function f is said to be continuous everywhere if f is
continuous at every real number.
(3) A function f is differentiable at the number c if

f (c + h) − f (c)
f 0 (c) = lim
x →c h

exists.

We now present several examples of determining whether a function is continuous or

differentiable at a number.

Example.

(1) 1. The piecewise function defined by


 x2 +2x−3 if x 6= 1,
x −1
f (x) =
4 if x = 1

is continuous at c = 1. This is because f (1) = 4,

( x − 1) ( x + 3)
lim f ( x ) = lim =4
x →1 x →1 x+1

and lim f ( x ) = f (1).

x →1

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(2) The function defined by


− x2 if x < 2
f (x) =
3 − x if x ≥ 2.

is not continuous at c = 2 since lim f ( x ) = −4 6= 1 = lim f ( x ), hence the

x →2− x →2+
lim f ( x ) does not exists.
x →2
√
3
(3) Consider the function f ( x ) = x.By definition, its derivative is

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f 0 ( x ) = lim
h →0 h
√ √
q √
( x + h )2 + 3 ( x + h ) ( x ) + x 2
3 3
p 3
3
x+h− x
= lim · q √
h →0 h
( x + h )2 + 3 ( x + h ) ( x ) + x 2
3
p 3

( x + h) − x
= lim q √ 
h →0 3 2 p
3 3 2
h ( x + h) + ( x + h) ( x ) + x
1
= lim q √
h →0 3 2 p 3
( x + h) + 3
( x + h) ( x ) + x2
1
= √
3 2
3 x

Since f 0 (1) = √
3
1
= 1
3, then f is differentiable at x = 1. On the other hand,
3 12
f 0 (0)does not exist. Hence f is not differentiable at x = 0.
(4) The function defined by

5x if x < 1
f (x) =
2x + 3 if x ≥ 1

is continuous at x = 1 but is not differentiable at x = 1. Indeed, f (1) = 2 (1) + 3 =

5. Now,
? If x < 1, then f ( x ) = 5x and so lim 5x = 5
x →1−
? If x > 1, then f ( x ) = 2x + 3 and so lim (2x + 3) = 5.
x →1+
Thus lim f ( x ) = 5. Hence lim f ( x ) = 5 = f (1). Thus f is continuous at x = 1.
x →1 x →1
On the other hand, computing for the derivative,

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• For x < 1, f ( x ) = 5x and

5 ( x + h) − (5x )
lim = 5.
h →0− h

• For x > 1, f ( x ) = 2x + 3 and

(2 ( x + h) + 3) − (2x + 3)
lim =2
h →0+ h

Since the one-sided limits at x = 1 do not coincide, the limit at x = 1 does not
exist. Since this limit is the definition of the derivative at x = 1, we conclude that
f is not differentiable at x = 1.

Theorem. If a function f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

Proof. Note that a function f is differentiable at a implies that f 0 ( a) exists. To prove that
f is continuous at a, we must show that

lim f ( x ) = f ( a) ,
x→a

or equivalently,
lim f ( a + h) = f ( a) .
h →0

If h 6= 0, then

f ( a + h) = f ( a) + f ( a + h) − f ( a)
f ( a + h) − f ( a)
= f ( a) + ·h
h

Taking the limit as h → 0, we get

f ( a + h) − f ( a)
 
lim f ( a + h) = lim f ( a) + lim ·h
h →0 h →0 h →0 h
0
= f ( a) + f ( a) · 0
= f ( a) .

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Remark.

(1) If f is continuous at x = a, it does not mean that f is differentiable at x = a.

(2) If f is not continuous at x = a, then f is not differentiable at x = a.
(3) If f is not differentiable at x = a, it does not mean that f is not continuous at
x = a.
(4) A function f is not differentiable at x = a if one of the following is true:
(a) f is not continuous at x = a.
(b) the graph of f has a vertical tangent line at x = a.
(c) the graph of f has a corner or cusp at x = a.

2.3 The Differentiation Rules and Examples Involving Al-

gebraic, Exponential, and Trigonometric Functions

DIFFERENTIATING CONSTANT FUNCTIONS

The graph of a constant function is a horizontal line and a horizontal line has zero slope.
The derivative measures the slope of the tangent, and so the derivative is zero.

RULE 1: The Constant Rule

If f ( x ) = c where c is a constant, then f 0 ( x ) = 0. The derivative of a constant is equal to zero.

Proof.
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f 0 ( x ) = lim = lim c − c = lim 0 = 0
h →0 h h →0 h →0

Example.

(1) If f ( x ) = 10, then f 0 ( x ) = 0.

√
(2) If h ( x ) = − 3,then h0 ( x ) =0.
(3) If g ( x ) = 5π, then g0 ( x ) = 0.

RULE 2: The Power Rule

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If f ( x ) = x n where n ∈ N, then f 0 ( x ) = nx n−1 .

Remark. : Observe that the statement of the power rule restricts the exponent to be a
natural number (since the Binomial Theorem is invoked). However, this formula holds
true even for exponents r ∈ R:

f ( x ) = xr =⇒ f 0 ( x ) = rxr−1 for all r ∈ R

Example.

(1) If f ( x ) = x3 , then f 0 ( x ) = 3x3−1 = 3x2 .

(2) If f ( x ) = x −π , then f 0 ( x ) = (−π ) x (−π −1) .
(3) If f ( x ) = 1
= x −2 , then f 0 ( x ) = −2x −2−1 = −2x −3 = −2 .
x2 x3
√ 1
(4) If f ( x ) = x, then we can write f ( x ) = x 2 . So we have,

1 1 −1
f 0 (x) = x2
2
1 1
= x− 2
2
1
= √
2 x

RULE 3: The Constant Multiple Rule

If f ( x ) = k · h( x ) where k is constant, then f 0 ( x ) = k · h0 ( x ).

Example.
3
(1) f ( x ) = 5x 4
√
(2) g ( x ) = 13 3 x
√
(3) h ( x ) = − 3x

Solution.
3 15 − 14
(1) f 0 ( x ) = 5 · 34 x 4 −1 = 4 x = 15
√
44 x
1 2
(2) g0 ( x ) = · 13 x 3 −1 = 19 x − 3 = √
1
3 3
1
9 x2
√ √ √
(3) h0 ( x ) = − 3x1−1 = − 3x0 = − 3

RULE 4: The Sum Rule

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If f ( x ) = g ( x ) + h ( x ) where g and h are differentiable functions, then f 0 ( x ) = g0 ( x ) +

h 0 ( x ).

NOTE: f ( x ) = g ( x ) − h ( x ) = g ( x ) + (−1) h ( x )

Example. Refer to the Example above and differentiate the following:

(1) f ( x ) ± g ( x )
(2) g ( x ) ± h ( x )
(3) f ( x ) ± h ( x )

Solution.
15 − 14 2
(1) 4 x ± 91 x − 3
1 − 23
 √ 
(2) 9 x ± − 3
 √ 
15 − 14
(3) 4 x ± − 3

Remark.

a. The Sum Rule can also be extended to a sum of a finite number of functions. If

f (x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x) + · · · + f n (x)

where f 1 , f 2 , . . . , f n are differentiable functions, then

f 0 ( x ) = f 10 ( x ) + f 20 ( x ) + · · · + f n0 ( x )

b. The same is true for the difference of a finite number of functions. That is,

f 0 ( x ) = f 10 ( x ) − f 20 ( x ) − · · · − f n0 ( x )

RULE 5: The Product Rule

If f and g are differentiable functions, then

Dx [ f ( x ) g ( x )] = f ( x ) g0 ( x ) + g ( x ) f 0 ( x ) .

Example. Find f 0 ( x ) if f ( x ) = 3x2 − 4 x2 − 3x .

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Solution.
       
f 0 ( x ) = 3x2 − 4 Dx x2 − 3x + x2 − 3x Dx 3x2 − 4
   
= 3x2 − 4 (2x − 3) + x2 − 3x (6x )

= 6x3 − 9x2 − 8x + 12 + 6x3 − 18x2

= 12x3 − 27x2 − 8x + 12
√
Example. Find f 0 ( x ) if f ( x ) = x 6x3 + 2x − 4 .

Solution. Using the product rule,

1
     1
f 0 ( x ) = x 2 Dx 6x3 + 2x − 4 + 6x3 + 2x − 4 Dx x 2
1
    1 1 
= x 2 18x2 + 2 + 6x3 + 2x − 4 x− 2
2
5 1 5 1 1
= 18x 2 + 2x 2 + 3x 2 + x 2 − 2x − 2
5 1 1
= 21x 2 + 3x 2 − 2x − 2

RULE 6: The Quotient Rule

Let f ( x ) and g ( x ) be two differentiable functions with g ( x ) 6= 0. Then

g ( x ) f 0 ( x ) − f ( x ) g0 ( x )
 
f (x)
Dx = .
g (x) [ g ( x )]2

Example. Let h ( x ) = 3x +5
x 2 +4
. Compute h0 ( x ).

Solution. If h ( x ) = 3x +5
x 2 +4
, then f ( x ) = 3x + 5 and g ( x ) = x2 + 4 and therefore f 0 ( x ) =
3 and g0 ( x ) = 2x. Thus,

x2 + 4 (3) − (3x + 5) (2x )

0
h (x) = 2
( x 2 + 4)
3x + 12 − 6x2 − 10x
2
= 2
( x 2 + 4)
−3x2 − 10x + 12
= 2
( x 2 + 4)

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RULE 7: Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Example. Let f ( x ) = sec x + 3 csc x. Compute f 0 ( x ).

Solution. Applying the formulas above, we get

f 0 ( x ) = sec x tan x + 3 (− csc x cot x ) = sec x tan x − 3 csc x cot x

Example. Find g0 ( x ) if g ( x ) = x2 sin x − 3x cos x + 5 sin x.
Solution. Applying again the formulas above, we get
h  i
g0 ( x ) = x2 (cos x ) + (sin x ) (2x ) − [(3x ) (− sin x ) + (cos x ) (3)] + 5 cos x

= x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 3x sin x − 3 cos x + 5 cos x

= x2 cos x + 5x sin x + 2 cos x.

Remark.

(1) Whenever Rule 7 is applied to problems where the trigonometric functions are
viewed as functions of angles, the unit measure must be in radians.
(2) Every trigonometric function is differentiable on its domain. In particular, the sine
and cosine functions are everywhere differentiable.

RULE 8: Derivative of an exponential function

If f ( x ) = e x ,then f 0 ( x ) = e x .
Example. If f ( x ) = 3e x , then f 0 ( x ) = 3e x .
Example. Find g0 ( x ) if g ( x ) = −4x2 e x + 5xe x − 10e x .
Solution. Applying the Rule 8 together with Rule 5 and Rule 3, we have
h  i
g0 ( x ) = −4x2 (e x ) + (e x ) (−8x ) + [(5x ) (e x ) + (e x ) (5)] − 10e x

= −4x2 e x − 3xe x − 5e x .

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Example. Find h0 ( x ) if h ( x ) = e x sin x − 3e x cos x.

Solution. Applying the Rule 5 to each term, we get

h0 ( x ) = [(e x ) (cos x ) + (sin x ) (e x )] − [(3e x ) (− sin x ) + (cos x ) (3e x )]

= e x cos x + e x sin x + 3e x sin x − 3e x cos x
= 4e x sin x − 2e x cos x.

Remark. Since the domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers, and
Dx [e x ] = e x , it follows that the exponential function is differentiable everywhere.

2.4 The Chain Rule

The Chain Rule below provides for a formula for the derivative of a composition of
functions.

Theorem. (Chain Rule) Let f be a function differentiable at c and let g be a function differen-
tiable at f (c). Then the composition g ◦ f id differentiable at c and

Dx ( g ◦ f ) (c) = g0 ( f (c)) · f 0 (c) .

Remark. Another way to state the Chain Rule is the following: If y is differentiable
function of u defined by y = f (u) and u is differentiable function of x defined by
u = g ( x ), then y is a differentiable function of x, and the derivative of y with respect to
x is given by
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
In words, the derivative of a composition of functions is the derivative of the outer
function evaluated at the inner function, times the derivative of the inner function .

2
Example. 1.If f ( x ) = 3x2 − 2x + 4 . Find f 0 ( x ).

2
Solution. We can write y = f ( x ) = 3x2 − 2x + 4 as y = f (u) = u2 where u =

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3x2 − 2x + 4, a differentiable function of x. Using the Chain Rule, we have

dy du
f 0 ( x ) = y0 = ·
du dx
= (2u) (6x − 2)
 
= 2 3x2 − 2x + 4 (6x − 2)

= 36x3 − 36x2 + 56x − 16

Example. 2. For the second illustration, we have y = sin (2x ). Find y0 using the Chain
Rule.

Solution. We can rewrite y = sin (2x ) as y = f (u) = sin u where u = 2x. Hence

dy du
y0 = ·
du dx
= (cos u) (2)
= 2 cos (2x ) .

5
Example. 3. What is the derivative of y = 3x2 + 4x − 5 ?

Solution.
h i5
y0 = Dx 3x2 + 4x − 5
 4  
= 5 · 3x2 + 4x − 5 · Dx 3x2 + 4x − 5
 4
= 5 3x2 + 4x − 5 (6x + 4) .

dy √
Example. 4. Find dx where y = 3x3 + 4x + 1.
√
21
Solution. Note that y = 3x3 + 4x + 1= 3x3 + 4x + 1

dy 1 3  1 −1  
2
= 3x + 4x + 1 Dx 3x3 + 4x + 1
dx 2
1 3 − 1  
2
= 3x + 4x + 1 9x2 + 4
2
9x2 + 4
= √ .
2 3x3 + 4x + 1

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dy
Example. 5. Find dx where y = (sin 3x )2 .

Solution.

dy d
= 2 (sin 3x ) · (sin 3x )
dx dx
d
= 2 (sin 3x ) · (cos 3x ) · (3x )
dx
= 2 (sin 3x ) · (cos 3x ) · 3
= 6 sin 3x cos 3x.

dy
Example. 6. Consider the functions y = 3u2 + 4u and u = x2 + 5. Find dx .
dy dy du dy du
Solution. By the Chain Rule, we have dx = du · dx where du = 6u + 4 and dx = 2x

dy
= (6u + 4) (2x )
dx h   i
= 6 x2 + 5 + 4 (2x )
 
= 6x2 + 34 (2x )

= 12x3 + 68x.

2.5 Implicit Differentiation

Most of the functions we have dealt with so far have been expressed in explicit form.
Which means functions that can be described by an equation of the form y = f ( x ) that
expresses y explicitly in terms of the variable x. Some functions, however, are only
1
implied by an equation. For instance, the function y = x is defined implicitly by the
equation xy = 1.
dy
To find dx for this equation, you can write y explicitly as a function of x and then differ-
entiate.

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This strategy works whenever you can solve for the function explicitly. You cannot,
however, use this procedure when you are unable to solve for y as a function of x. For
dy
instance, how would you find dx for the equation x2 − 2y3 + 4y = 2?
dy
For this equation, it is difficult to express y as a function of x explicitly. To find dx , you
can use implicit differentiation.
dy
To understand how to find dx implicitly, you must realize that the differentiation is
taking place with respect to x. This means that when you differentiate terms involving x
alone, you can differentiate as usual. However, when you differentiate terms involving
y, you must apply the Chain Rule, because you are assuming that y is defined implicitly
as a differentiable function of x.

GUIDELINES FOR IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

(1) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.
dy
(2) Collect all terms involving dx on the left side of the equation and move all other
terms to the right side of the equation.
dy
(3) Factor dx out of the left side of the equation.
dy
(4) Solve for dx .

dy
Example 1. Find dx given that y3 + y2 − 5y − x2 = −4.

Solution. We follow the guidelines for implicit differentiation.

(1) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

d d
y3 + y2 − 5y − x2 =
 
dx dx [−4]

d d d d d
 3  2
x2 =
 
=⇒ dx y + dx y − dx [5y] − dx dx [−4]

dy dy dy
=⇒ 3y2 dx + 2y dx − 5 dx − 2x = 0
dy
(2) Collect all terms involving dx on the left side of the equation and move all other
terms to the right side of the equation.

dy dy dy
3y2 dx + 2y dx − 5 dx − 2x = 0

dy dy dy
=⇒ 3y2 dx + 2y dx − 5 dx = 2x

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dy
(3) Factor dx out of the left side of the equation.

dy
3y2 + 2y − 5 = 2x


=⇒ dx

dy
(4) Solve for dx by dividing the equation by 3y2 + 2y − 5.

dy 2x
=⇒ dx = 3y2 +2y−5

Example 2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle x2 + y2 = 5 at the point
(−2, 1)uisng implicit differetiation.

Solution.

(1) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

d d
x 2 + y2 =


dx dx (5)

d d d
x2 + y2 =



=⇒ dx dx dx (5)

dy
=⇒ 2x + 2y dx =0

dy
(2) Collect all terms involving dx on the left side of the equation and move all other
terms to the right side of the equation.

dy
2x + 2y dx = 0

dy
=⇒ 2y dx = −2x

dy
(3) Factor dx out of the left side of the equation.

dy
=⇒ dx (2y) = −2x
dy
(4) Solve for dx by dividing the equation by 2y.

dy −2x
=⇒ dx = 2y = − yx

dy
Moreover, substituting x = −2 and y = 1in (4), we find that the slope is dx =
− yx = − (−12) = 2.

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dy 4
Example 3. Find dx for x + y3 = e xy .

Solution.

(1) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

 4

d d
x + y3 = e xy


dx dx

dy 4 d
=⇒ 1 + 3y2 dx = e xy xy4


dx

 
dy 4 dy
=⇒ 1 + 3y2 dx = e xy 4xy3 dx + y4

dy
(2) Collect all terms involving dx on the left side of the equation and move all other
terms to the right side of the equation.
 
dy dy 4 dy 4
=⇒ dx 3y2 dx − e xy 4xy3 dx = −1 + e xy y4

dy
(3) Factor dx out of the left side of the equation.
 
dy 4 4
=⇒ dx 3y2 − e xy 4xy3 = −1 + e xy y4

dy 4
(4) Solve for dx by dividing the equation by 3y2 − e xy 4xy3 .

4
dy −1+e xy y4
=⇒ dx = 4 .
3y2 −e xy 4xy3

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2.6 Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions

dy
Consider the function y = f ( x ). The derivative y0 , f 0 ( x ) , Dx y or dx is called the first
derivative of f with respect to x. The derivative of the first derivative is called the
second derivative of f with respect to x and is denoted by any of the following symbols:

d2 y
y”, f ” ( x ) , Dx2 y,
dx2
The third derivative of f with respect to x is the derivative of the second derivative and
is denoted by any of the following symbols:

d3 y
y000 , f 000 ( x ) , Dx3 y,
dx3

In general, the nth derivative of f with respect to x is the derivative of the (n − 1)st
derivative and is denoted by any of the following symbols:

dn y
y(n) , f (n) , Dxn y,
dx n

Formally, we have the following definition.

Definition. The nth derivative of the function f is defined by

f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
f 0 ( x ) = lim for n = 1 and
∆ →0 ∆x
f (n−1) ( x + ∆x ) − f (n−1) ( x )
f (n) ( x ) = lim for n > 1,
∆ →0 ∆x
provided that these limits exists. Thus the nth derivative of f is just the derivative of the
(n − 1)st derivative of f .

Remark.

(1) The function f can be written as f (0) ( x ).

(2) In the notation f (n) ( x ), n is called the order of the derivative.

Example. 1. Find the fourth derivative of the function f ( x ) = x5 − 3x4 + 2x3 − x2 +

4x − 10.

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Solution. We differentiate the function repeatedly and obtain

f 0 ( x ) = 5x4 − 12x3 + 6x2 − 2x + 4

f 00 ( x ) = 20x3 − 36x2 + 12x − 2
f 000 ( x ) = 60x2 − 72x + 12
f (n) ( x ) = 120x − 72.

Example. 2. Find the first and second derivatives of the function defined by
  
y = 3x2 − 4 x2 − 3x .

Solution. Using the Product Rule, we compute the first derivative:

       
y0 = 3x2 − 4 Dx x2 − 3x + x2 − 3x Dx 3x2 − 4
   
= 3x2 − 4 (2x − 3) + x2 − 3x (6x )

= 6x3 − 9x2 − 8x + 12 + 6x3 − 18x2

= 12x3 − 27x2 − 8x + 12

Similarly, we obtain the second derivative

 
y00 = Dx 12x3 − 27x2 − 8x + 12

= 36x2 − 54x − 8.

3x +5 d2 y
Example. 3. Let y = x 2 +4
. Find dx2
.

Solution. Using the Quotient Rule twice, we have

x2 + 4 (3) − (3x + 5) (2x )

dy
= 2
dx ( x 2 + 4)
3x2 + 12 − 6x2 − 10x
=
x4 + 8x2 + 16
12 − 10x − 3x2
= 4
x + 8x2 + 16

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and

x4 + 8x2 + 16 (−10 − 6x ) − 12 − 10x − 3x2 4x3 + 16x

d2 y
=
dx2 ( x4 + 8x2 + 16)
2

6x5 + 30x4 − 48x3 + 80x2 − 288x − 160

= 2
.
( x4 + 8x2 + 16)

Example. 4. Find the third derivative of the function defined by g ( x ) = −4x2 e x +

5xe x − 10e x .

Solution. We differentiate repeatedly (applying the Product Rule) and obtain

h  i
g0 ( x ) = −4x2 (e x ) + (e x ) (−8x ) + [(5x ) (e x ) + (e x ) (5)] − 10e x

= −4x2 e x − 3xe x − 5e x
 
= e x −4x2 − 3x − 5 .

 
g00 ( x ) = (e x ) (−8x − 3) + −4x2 − 3x − 5 (e x )
 
= e x −4x2 − 11x − 8 .

 
g000 ( x ) = (e x ) (−8x − 11) + −4x2 − 11x − 8 (e x )
 
= e x −4x2 − 19x − 19 .

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Example. 5. If f ( x ) = e x sin x − 3e x cos x, find f (5) ( x ).

Solution. We differentiate repeatedly (applying the Product Rule) and obtain

f 0 ( x ) = [(e x ) (cos x ) + (sin x ) (e x )] − [(3e x ) (− sin x ) + (cos x ) (3e x )]

= e x cos x + e x sin x + 3e x sin x − 3e x cos x
= e x (4 sin x − 2 cos x ) .

f 00 ( x ) = e x [(4 cos x ) − (−2 sin x )] + (4 sin x − 2 cos x ) (e x )

= e x (2 cos x + 6 sin x ) .

f 000 ( x ) = e x [−2 sin x + 6 cos x ] + (2 cos x + 6 sin x ) (e x )

= e x (8 cos x + 4 sin x ) .

f (4) ( x ) = e x [−8 sin x + 4 cos x ] + (8 cos x + 4 sin x ) (e x )

= e x (12 cos x − 4 sin x ) .

f (5) ( x ) = e x [−12 sin x − 4 cos x ] + (12 cos x − 4 sin x ) (e x )

= e x (8 cos x − 16 sin x ) .

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