Part II MODULE 3 : Quantum Computing & Quantum GatesChapter 4 Principles of Quantum Information & Quantum Computing 4.1 Introduction to Quantum Com- puting ‘Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing methods based on the principle of ‘quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the prin- ciple of quantum superposition. In Quantum computing, the information is encoded in quantum system such as atoms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule in par- ticular ereates an enormous incentives to apply quantum mechanics to computing, ‘The algorithms are also written based on quantum prin- ciples in which, Shor’s algorithm for factorization and Grover's search algorithm ate basic, (Grover is an Indian born Physicist working in Bell Labs), The process of com- pptation is incredibly fast but it has to be done by the help of quantum computers which are yet to be realized in prac- tice. Itis expected that 140 digit log number could be fac toted a billion (10°) times faster that is possible with clas- sical computation. It is so powerful that a search engine ‘can search every part of internet in half an hour. 4.2 Moore’s law & its end Tn the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing per- formance in the first few generations of the integrated- circuit ([C) technology. Moore predicted that it would ‘continue to improve at an exponential rate with the per- formance per unit cost ineeasng by a factor oF two every 18 months are so. The computer industry has followed this prediction since then. But actually the doubling was oc- ‘curring im every 24 months or 2 years. The following plot shows the 50 years of Moore's lv ‘The question that arises is how long can Moore's law continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations? According to the semiconductor size data the size has reached 5 nanometer in 2021, The Demise of the Transis- tor in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimen- sions decrease farther. Quantum elfects can cascade into the micro scale realm causing problems for current micro- electronics. The most typical effects are electron tunneling among the circuit lines. Thus Quantum Computation is the ‘option for the further generation Table 2.3. Semiconductor Sze Data for Figure 2-2 var Stein nanometers 1095 00 2001 10 a0 2 2021 5 4.3 Differences Between Classical and Quantum Computing 4.3.1 Classical Computing 1. Used by lage seale multipurpose and devices, 2, Information is stored in bits 3. There is a discrete number of possible states. Fither 0 orl Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream 4, Calculations are deterministic. This means repeating the same inputs results in the same output, 5, Data processing is carried out by logic and in sequen- tial order, 6, Operations are governed by Boolean Algebra. 7. Circuit behavior is defined by Classical Physics. 43.2 Quantum Computing 1. Used by high speed, quantum mechanies-based com- puters. Information is based on Quantum Bits, 3. The is an infinite, continuous number of possible states. They are the result of quantum superposition 4, The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there are ‘multiple possible outputs to the same inputs. 5, Data processing is carried out by quantum logic at parallel instances. 6, Operations are defined by linear algebra by Hilbert Space, 7, Citeuit behavior is defined by Quantum Mechanics, 4.4 Concept of Qubit and its proper- ties 4.4.1 Concept of Qubit ‘The counterpart ofa classical bitin quantum computing is (Qubit. Its the basic unit in which of information in a quan- ‘tum computer, Superposition, Entanglement, and Tunnel- ing are all special properties that define a qubit 4.4.2 Properties of Qubits 1, A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states Oand | If measurements are carried out with a qubit in super- posed slate then the results that we get will be prob- abilistic unlike how it's deterministic in a classical computer. 3, Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its state at once when subjected to measurement. This ‘means, one cannot copy information from qubits the way we do in the present computers and is known as “no cloning principle". A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states of an electton or horizontal and vertical polarizations of photons as |) and [7) Department of Physics 30 Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 4.5 Representation of Qubits by Bloch Sphere The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Me- chanical Systems) can be visualized using an imaginary sphere called Bloch Sphere. I¢has a unit radius ‘The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the Qubit. The north an south poles are used to represent the ‘basis states [0) and |1) respectively. The other locations axe the superpositions of [0) and |!) states and represented by o 0) +2) with o* + 6? = 1. Thus a Qubit can be any point on the Bloch Sphere. “The Bloch sphere allows the state ofthe qubit to be ep- resented unit spherical co-ordinates. They are the polar an- gle 6 and the azimuth angle 4. The block sphere is repre- sented by the equation 6 e IW) = co JO) + e"4sin II) ay here 0 < @ < wand 0 < $ < 2x, The normalization constraint is given by (42) 4.6 Single and Two qubits and Ex- tension to N qubits 4.6.1 Single qubit A Single Qubit has two computational basis states 0) and II). the pictorial representation of the single qubit is as follows. a [0) + 81) Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream 4.6.2. Two qubit A we system has 4 comptatinal acs states d= noted as |00), |01), |10),|11). The pictorial representation ‘of two qubit is as follows. a |00) +8 JO1) + y|10) +511} 4.6.3 Extension to N qubits ‘A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2% computational basis states, For example a state with 3 qubits has 2° com- putational basis states. ‘Thus for N qubits the computa- tional basis states are denoted as (00-00), [00+ 01), 100: ++ 10), {00-++11) +++ [11+ 11). The block diagram of representation of N qubits is as follows. Department of Physics 31 D Engineering Physies-22PHYS 12/22 Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 Department of Physics 32Chapter 5 Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations 5.1. Linear Algebra Linear Algebrajs the study of vector spaces and operations on vector spaces. The Standard quantum mechanical no- tation for a quantum state y in a vector space is |y). The notation [) indicates that the object isa vector rand is called a ket vector. The examples of ket vectors are |¥), |) and IW) ete 5.2 Matrix Representation of 0 and 1 States “The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as IW) (ket Vector), is the wave function, The ly) = (2) “The matrix for of the states [0) and |1). [0) = (i) and We (i) 5.2.1 Identity Operator 1 _(l The operator of type I = (5 ‘ator. When an identity operator acts on a state vector its keeps the state intact. By analogy we study identity opera- tor as an identity matrix, 9 scat det ope Let us consider the operation of Mentity operator on [0) and |) states. As per the principle of identity operation TO) = |0) and 1) = |1) v 0 vo 0) 6 I)-0 Thus the operation of identity matrix(operator) on [0) and U1) leaves the states unchanged, 6) (5.2) 33 5.2.2 Pauli Matrices Pauli Matrices and Their operation on |0) and |1) States There are four exireamly useful matrices called Pauli Ma- trices. The Pauli matrices of the following form wb lo 1 63) This is an identity matrix i) 4) (5) 6.6) + to=(b 0-6) aan Com aesp=(} a)(}=(i)=m en=( l)-()-m vonm=(° 3) (um ain=() a) (i) -(c) =~ sne( 9) ()-()=0 a-(6 8)-Q)-(S)--» Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream 5.3. Conjugate of a Matrix Conjugate of «Matix Tis possible to find the conjugate fora given matix by replacing each element ofthe matrix wit ts complex conjugate for example consider a matrix ‘as given below 4 ae(s a's) « welt o's) os ‘Thus AT is the conjugate of A 5.4 Transpose of a Matrix “The transpose of a matuix is found by interchanging its rows into columns or columns into rows. The Transpose of a matrix A is denoted by using the superscript as A. ‘Consider a matrix A as given below. i ae(s 4s) «9, walt 59] 10 ‘Thus AT is the Transpose of A 5.5 The Conjugate Transpose of a Matrix ‘The complex conjugate transpose of a matrix interchanges the row and column index for each element, reflecting the elements across the main diagonal. The operation also negates the imaginary part of any complex numbers. IL is denoted by a # symbol as a super script. it a=(5 2's) ony ‘The Transpose ofthe matrix A is given by A sasr(7 2a) 6.12) ‘Thus A is the Conjugate-Transpose of A 5.6 Hermitian ‘The matrix that is equal to ils conjugate-transpose is called Hermitian. Thus If At = A then it is called Her- amnitian or Self-Adjoint matrix. Department of Physics 4 Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 a(3 3p) ew we (3, a “The transpose of U" is given by aQ3, 08) «an Hence A’ = A 5.7 Unitary Matrix A matrix is said to be Unitary if the condition U'U = is, satisfied, Thus an operator is said to be Unitary if each of its matrix representations are unitary. Consider an operator in matrix form U. 14 u=|¥o 6.16) Va Va, Then ule f 6.17) Ya vo-[ Bf G] ww Ya Vall¥a Vo Thos soft o , ve=|p t]=1 6.19) Hence U is unitary. 5.8 Column and Row Matrices The Column Vectors ae called ket Vectors denoted by |Z) and are represented by Column Matrices, The Row Vec- tors are called Bra Vectors denoted by (¢| and are rep- resented by Row Matrices. Let us consider a ket vector represented inthe form of a column matrix. y= |e (5.20) \ fa en) The Row Matrix is represented as wl= le; si] 21) Here ' | ex Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream ‘Thus the Bra is the complex conjugate of ket and vice- ‘versa, For example 6.23) Flipping between kets and bras is called "Taking the Dual" ‘Thus for [0) state the corresponding (0| is given by o=[9] col=[1 9] and similarly for and |1) states we have (1 as follows. 5.24) 6.25) pel 526 al=[o 1 627) 5.9 Inner Product - Multiplication of Row and Column Matrices Let us consider two states |) and |g) as follows jen , w-| lat 6.28) =| 5.29) w=|p (5.29) here Wl= [oy Bi] (630) ‘The multiplication of the |¥) and |4) is possible only by taking the inner product and is given by (¥Id) wled= loz #3] | 631) (ld) = ofan + Bipr ‘The inner product always results in a sealar product. (6.32) 5.10 Probability Let us consider a Quantum State Ww) = e10) +A 1) 6.33) ‘The above equation represents the Quantum Superposition of states [0) and [1). elle -b Department of Physics (5.34) Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 Using equation 5.31 the inner product (UIW) is given by. (5.35) Thus aa" + pp" (6.36) This could also be writen as WP =v" 637) Thus the above equation represents Probability Density {As per the principle of Normalization WP=vu"=(WW)=1=leP [6h 38) Thus it implies [¥) is normalized 5.11 Orthogonality ‘Two states |¥) and |) are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is Zero. Mathematically (ly) =0 (539) The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually ex- clusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron, ‘Consider (01) coy =[1 9] []-e0-0 (6.40) 5.12 Orthonormality The states |p) and |p) are said tobe orthonormal if 1. 1) and |6) are normalized 2. |p) and [#) are orthogonal to cach other. Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 Department of Physics 36Chapter 6 Quantum Gates 6.1 Introduction to Quantum Gates In quantum computing a quantum logic gate is a basic ‘quantum circuit operating on a small number of qubits. A qubit is useless unless itis used to carry out a quan- tum calculation. The quantum calculations are achieved by performing a series of fundamental operations, known as quantum logic gates. ‘They are the building blocks of ‘quantum circuits similar to the classical logic gates in con- ventional digital circuits 6.2 Single Qubit Gates 6.2.1 Quantum Not Gate Jn Quantum Computing the quantum NOT gate for qubits takes the state |0) to |1) and vice versa. It is analogous to the classial not gate ‘The Matrix representation of Quantum Not Gate is given " (oO 1 x) wy xo JQ-Qem a x=(0 )Q)-()- — «» A Quantum State is given by a’|0) + 1) and its ma- | ‘Quantum Not Gate on quantum state is given by oJ (0 3/0) (8 1] \1 0} \a) =o) Thus the quantum state becomes o|1) +30). Simi ‘The input a |1) + 10) to the quantum not gates chan the state to a |0) +81). The quantum not gate cireuit and the truth table are as shown below. trix representation is given by | | Hence the operation of (64) al0)a1) SX | ain BI) )I0) Quantum NOT gate Truth able of NOT gate ape np vo) iy ny io) at) + 0) any + pro) 6.2.2 Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates Gate ‘The Pauli-X Gate is nothing but Quantum Not Gate, 62.3 Y Gate Y Gate is represented by Pauli matrix oy or ¥. ‘This gate ‘Maps |0) state to |1) state and |1) state to ~i 0) state. The Y Gate and its operation is as given below rin=(? o) (i) = (2) =2m+8 =a 65) rire(? Z)0)-(6)--mm--m 60 ¥(a|0)+8 1) = a¥ [0)+A¥ |1) = i [0)+ie|L) 6.7) — y Dr. Nityonand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream Truth Tay Taput (0) i} #10) 62.4 Z-Gate ‘The Z-gate is represented by Pauli Matrix o~ or Gate maps input state [k)t0 (=1)*[k). 1. For input [0) the output remains unchanged. 2. For input |1) the ourput is ~|1). ‘The Matrix representation and the operation of Z-Gate on {0} ancl [1 ure xs follows, z10=(i ‘) ()=()-» b8)09-(2)-» ae Za |0)+ Bl) = aZ |0) + BZ|1) = a0) -BI1) (6.10) ‘The circuit symbol and the truth table of Z-Gate are as fol- lows. (68) ZIl ao) + 3) ai Truth table of Z gate Tipu Output ») 0) ny =) a0) +n) aio) ) 6.2.5 Hadamard Gate ‘The Hadamard Gate is a truly quantum gate and is one of the most important in Quantum Computing. It is has similar characteristics of YNOT Gate. It isa self inverse ‘gate. It is used to create the superpositions of 0) and |1) intee, Th Mitsine nepresmmtation sf Eldar Gaim Sst follows sh al (6.1) The Hadamard Gate and the output states for the [0) and. |1) input states are represented as follows. The Hadamard Gate satisfies Unitary Condition. HHI 12) ‘The truth-table for the Hadamard Gate is as follows. Department of Physics Engineering Physies-22PHYS 12/22 0) {I Yo 10) + Jp 11) foe ve oy oF om) | # [ers 6.2.6 Phase Gate or $ Gate ‘The phase gate turns a |0) into |0) and a |1) into é|1) The Matrix representation of the S gate is given by Lo s=[p | (613) ‘The effect of $ gate on input [0 is given by 50) lo ‘lol={al m 6H Similarly the effect of S gate on input |1) is given by The effect of S gate on input |0} is given by otf ‘The transformation of state |) is given by SI) = S (e 10) +B 11)) = eS |0) + BS|1) = @ 0) +iB 1) 6.16) ‘The $ Gate and the Truth table are given by For $ gate Sil) It) G15) Input ny wy * ry S18 = Fund hence iis Unitary 62.7 TGateor { Gate ‘The T Gate is represented by the matrix as follows, 17 Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream Its also called $ gate as it could be represented in the following form a lee ¥ 6.18) o Pree slo on g| Another Important Feature of T gate is it could be related wS gaeas P=s (6.19) “Te Operation uF gate uJ) and |1) we give ro-[h cal s|-[o]- + all l-Ca» ©» (6.20) T\l)= ‘he Gate and the Truth ‘able are as follows. Tapa] up 0) o hy exptix/n) aio) + it) | ait) + Bexptin/ony T 20) =Aly) ‘a|0)+ Boxotn’4) 6.3 Multiple Qubit Gates Multiple Qubit Gates operate on Two or More input ‘Qubits. Usually on of them is a control qubi. 6.3.1 Controlled Gates A Gate with operation of kind “If °4” is True then do*B™* is called Conttolled Gate, The *|4)” Qubit i called Con- ‘rol qubit and °[B)’ is the Target qubit. ‘The target q is altered only when the control gubit is 1). ‘The control ‘qubit remains unaltered during the transformations. 6.3.2 Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate ‘The CNOF gate is a typical multi-qubit logic gate and the sitcuit is as follows. The Matrix representation of CNOT " 4) ae, CNOT gate Depart of sis » Engineering Physies-22PHYS 12/22 Gate is given by 10 0 0 ven 329 iéasy lo 0 1 0 The Tansfomain could be express [Am 1204) 625 Consider the operations of CNOT gate on the four inputs [00),|01),|10) and |. Operation of CNOT Gate for input [00) Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is JO). Hence no elinage is ne state of Taayet qubit [0) [00 — Joo) 62H Operation of CNOT Gate for input (01) Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0). Hence no change in the state of Target quot |1) [oly = Jor) (6.25) Operation of CNOT Gate for input |10) Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubi [1). Hence the state of Target qubit flips from [0) to [1). |10) = |11) 6.26) Operation of CNOT Gate for input [11) ‘ere in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1). Hence the state of Target qubit flip from |1) to |0). 11) oy 627) ‘The Truth Table of operation of CNOT gate is as fol- lows. Input | Output. (00) j00) jo1) | Jou) {10) {11) {u1) {10) Dr. Nityanand ChoudbaryApplied Physies for CSE Stream Engineering Physies-22PHYS 12/22 6.3.3 Swap Gate ‘The SWAP gate is ewo-qubit operation. Expressed in basis states, the SWAP gate swaps the state of the two qubits involved in the operation. Ths Metrix representation of the z Swap Gate is as follows 1009 porto 5 Uswap = lo 1 0 Ol (6.28) poe F Input_ Ouput ‘The schematic symbol of swap gate circuit is as follows loo) 00) jo) fon) ” w) fro) fro i m4 » 63.5 Toffoli Gate Which is equivalent wo The swap gate is combined ci — rset: Gate is also known av CCNOT Gate (Controtled-Controlled-No®), It has three inputs out of 7 Wd ‘which two are Control Qubits and one isthe Target Qubit. ‘The Target Oubit fips only when both the Control Qubits are |1). The two Control Qubits are not altered during the » operation ‘The matrix representation, Gate Circuit and the Truth Table of Toffoli Gate are as follows, lw cuit of 3 CNOT gates and the over all effect is that two input qubits are swapped at the output. The Action and fi o> 00 oo w truth table ofthe swap gate is as follows. yh on otto fel gine = — mpavi Joo 1 0 0 0 w of T ory 428 nel? 2 2 1.9 0 0 of 3 aon non jo 0 0 0 1 0 0 of ‘the of SWAP Be [eee eee | a 00000001 7% oy 0 0 0 0 0 O21 Of o 0 . ho ) it ? 6.3.4 Controlled Z Gate In Comvlled Z Gate; The ypsration uf Z Gate i contivlled 88988e ow —- \) by 4 Control Qubit. If the control Qubit is |A) = |1) then o10{o10 , ‘only the Z gate transforms the Target Qubit |B) as per the oriforr 2 \) aull-Z operation, rhe action ot Controtted Z-Vate could a 9,012 018 is specified by a matrix as follows, AO ac le le)=le@ar) 1iliio 1000 lo 100 x U2=\, 01 0 629) ie ‘The Toffolli matrix is unitary, ‘The Toffolli Gate is its ‘The controlled Z gate and the truth table are as follows. cown inverse. It could be used for NAND Gate Simulation, Department of Physics 40 Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream 6.4 Question Bank and Numerical Problems 6.4.1 Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing 1. Deseribe briefly the Quantum Computing and its im- portance, 2. Elucidate the differences between classical and quan- tum computing. 3, Define a bit and qubit and explain the differences be- ‘ween them. Mention the properties of Qubit 4, Discuss the representation of qubit by Bloch Sphe 5, Explain single, two qubits and extension to N qubits. 6.4.2 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op- erations 1. Mention the matrix representation of [0) and |1) states and apply the Identity operator to show there is no change in states. State the Pauli matrices and apply Pauli matrices on the states [0) and [1). 3. Explain conjugate and Transpose of a matrix. 4, Describe unitary matrix and along with an example. 5, Describe row and column matrices and the inner product. 6, Discuss probability and quantum superposition. 7. Explain the conditions for orthogonality and or thonormality. 6.4.3 Quantum Gates 1, Musteace the prin Gate iple and working of Quantum 2, Discuss the Pauli X,Y and Z gates and their opera- tions on quantum states. 3. Describe the Phase gate along with matrix represen- tation and truth table, 4, Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation on four dif {erent input states, 5. explain the matrix form and operation of Toffoli gate. 6. Desoribe the Swap gate with the matrix and uth ta- ble. 7. Elucidate the working of controlled-Z. gate mention- ing its matrix representation and truth table. Department of Physics Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 8. Distinguish between single qubit and multiple qubit gates. 9, Describe Quantum Gates with three examples, 10. Discuss the functioning of Hadamard gate with ma- \Wix representation and truth table. 11, Explain the working of T gate with its matrix and ‘ruth table. 6.5 Numerical Problems 6.5.1 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op- erations 1. A Linear Operator "X" operates such that X JO) = [1) and X|1) = |0). Find the matrix representation of 5. Show atthe Mauix v=[V V5 is nity ve. Via 4, Find the inner product of states [1) and JO) and draw conclusions on the result 5 en v= (0) ant 4) = (rove Wid) = (oly 65.2 Quantum Gates 1. Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying Hadamard gate twice to a JO) results in its original state, 2, Using two X-gates in series show that ewo not gates in series are equivalent to a quantum wire, 3. Show the Hadamard Gate is Unitary. 4, Two Qubits are passed through CNOT gate If the first ubit is the control gubit then what is the output for the following initial states 1. 00), 2. 01), and 3,11) 5. Show that $ gate can be formed by connecting two T gates in Series. Dr. Nityanand ChoudharyApplied Physies for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 Department of Physics 2