Fundamentals of Computer and IT Unit 11

Unit 11 Software Development, Design and Testing

Structure:
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Software Development
11.3 Analysis and Design
11.4 Coding
11.5 Software Testing
11.6 Software Paradigms
11.7 Programming Methods
Structured Programming
Object Oriented Programming
11.8 Software Applications
11.9 Summary
11.10 Terminal Questions
11.11 Answers

11.1 Introduction
Computer software has become a driving force. It is the engine that drives
business decision making. It serves as the basis for modern scientific
investigation and engineering problem solving. It is a key factor that
differentiates modern products and services. It is embedded in systems of
all kinds: transportation, medical, telecommunications, military, industrial
processes, entertainment, office products etc. Software is virtually
inescapable in the modern world. And as we move into the twenty-first
century, it will become the driver for new advances in everything from
elementary education to genetic engineering.
Computer software is the product that software engineers design and build.
It encompasses programs that execute within a computer of any size and
architecture, documents that encompass hard-copy and virtual forms and
data that combine numbers and text but also include representations of
pictorial, video and audio information.
Software is a set of application programs that are built by software
engineers and are used by virtually everyone in the industrialized world
either directly or indirectly. Software is important because it affects nearly

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every aspect of our lives and has become pervasive in our commerce, our
culture and our everyday activities.
Software is generally built like you build any other successful product, by
applying a process that leads to a high quality result that meets the needs of
the people who will use the product. We apply a software engineering
approach to develop this product.
From the point of view of a software engineer, the work product is the
programs, documents and data that are computer software. But from the
user’s point of view, the work product is the resultant information that
somehow makes the user’s world better.
Objectives:
 explain software development methodology and process
 explain the analysis and design of software
 describe various steps involved in software testing
 list software paradigms
 discuss on various programming methods
 list some software applications

11.2 Software Development

Software is a logical rather than a physical system element. Therefore
software has characteristics that are considerably different than those of
hardware:
a) Software is developed or engineered; it is not manufactured in the
classical sense.
b) Software doesn’t “wear out”.
c) Although the industry is moving toward component-based assembly,
most software continues to be custom built.
Software Development Methodology is a series of processes that, if
followed, can lead to the development of an application.
Niklaus Wirth, the inventor of Pascal says:
Algorithms + Data structures = Programs
‘A software system is a set of mechanisms for performing certain
action on certain data’. Traditional development techniques focus on the
functions of the system.
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The software development process: System development can be viewed

as a process. Furthermore, the development itself, in essence, is a process
of change, refinement, transformation, or addition to the existing product.
The process can be divided into small, interacting phases – sub processes.
Each sub process must have the following:
 A description in terms of how it works
 Specification of the input required for the process
 Specification of the output to be produced
Generally, the software development process can be viewed as a series of
transformations, where the output of one transformation becomes the input
of the subsequent transformation:
 Transformation 1 (analysis) – translates the users’ needs into system
requirements and responsibilities.
 Transformation 2 (design) – begins with a problem statement and
ends with a detailed design that can be transformed into an operational
system.
 Transformation 3 (implementation) – refines the detailed design into
the system deployment that will satisfy users’ needs.
An example of the software development process is the waterfall approach,
which starts with deciding what is to be done (what is the problem). Once
the requirements have been determined, we must next decide how to
accomplish them. This is followed by a step in which we do it, whatever “it”
has required us to do. We then must test the result to see if we have
satisfied the users’ requirements. Finally, we use what we have done.
In the real world, the problems are not always well-defined and that is why
the waterfall model has limited utility.

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Figure 11.1: Software process reflecting transformation from needs to a

software product that satisfies those needs

Figure 11.2: The waterfall software development process

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Building quality software: To achieve quality software we need to be able

to answer the following questions:
 How do we determine when the system is ready for delivery?
 Is it now an operational system that satisfies users’ needs?
 Is it correct and operating as we thought it should?
 Does it pass an evaluation process?
Four quality measures are:
 Correspondence – measures how well the delivered system matches
the needs of the operational environment, as described in the original
requirements statement.
 Validation – task of predicting correspondence.
 Correctness – measures the consistency of the product requirements
with respect to the design specification.
 Verification – exercise of determining correctness.
Verification: Am I building the product right?
Validation: Am I building the right product?
Validation begins as soon as the project starts, but verification can begin
only after a specification has been accepted.

Figure 11.3: Four quality measures for software evaluation.

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Self Assessment Questions

1. A process can be divided into small, interacting phases called
________.
2. ________ measures the consistency of the product requirements with
respect to the design specification.
3. ________ measures how well the delivered system matches the needs
of the operational environment, as described in the original
requirements statement.
4. ________ is a series of processes that, if followed, can lead to the
development of an application.
5. Algorithms + Data structures = ________________.

11.3 Analysis and Design

This section describes about software analysis and design. A more
methodical approach to software design is proposed by structured methods,
these structured methods are sets of notations and guidelines for software
design. Budgen (1993) describes some of the most commonly used
methods such as structured design and structured systems analysis, he also
described the Jackson System Development and various approaches to
object-oriented design.
The use of structured methods involves producing large amounts of
diagrammatic design documentation. CASE tools have been developed to
support particular methods. Structured methods have been applied
successfully in many large projects. They can deliver significant cost
reductions because they use standard notations and ensure that standard
design documentation is produced.
A mathematical method (such as the method for long division) is a strategy
that will always lead to the same result irrespective of who applies the
method. The term structured methods suggests that the designers should
normally generate similar designs from the same specification. A structured
method includes a set of activities, notations, report formats, rules and
design guidelines. So structured methods often support some of the
following models of a system:
1. A data-flow model where the system is modeled using the data
transformations, which take place as it, is processed.

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2. An entity-relation model, which is used to describe the logical data,

structures being used.
3. A structural model where the system components and their
interactions are documented.
4. If the method is object-oriented it will include an inheritance model of the
system, a model of how objects are composed of other objects and,
usually, an object-use model which shows how objects are used by
other objects.
Particular method supplement these with other system models such as state
transition diagrams, entity life histories that show how each entity is
transformed as it is processed and so on. Most methods suggest a
centralized repository for system information or a data dictionary should be
used.
Design description: A software design is a model system that has many
participating entities and relationships. This design is used in a number of
different ways. It acts as a basis for detailed implementation; it serves as a
communication medium between the designers of sub-systems; it provides
information to system maintainers about the original intentions of the system
designers, and so on.
Designs are documented in a set of design documents that describes the
design for programmers and other designers. There are three main types of
notation used in design documents:
1. Graphical notations: These are used to display the relationships
between the components making up the design and to relate the design
to the real-world system is modeling. A graphical view of a design is an
abstract view. It is most useful for giving an overall picture of the
system.
2. Program description languages these languages (PDLs) use control
and structuring constructs based on programming language constructs
but also allow explanatory text and (sometimes) additional types of
statement to be used. These allow the intention of the designer to be
expressed rather than the details of how the design is to be
implemented.
3. Informal text much of the information that is associated with a design
cannot be expressed formally. Information about design rationale or

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non-functional considerations may be expressed using natural language

text.
All of these different notations may be used in describing a system design.
Design strategies: The most commonly used software design strategy
involved decomposing the design into functional components with system
state information held in a shared data area. Since from late 1980s that this
alternative, object oriented design has been widely adopted.
Two design strategies are summarized as follows:
1. Functional design: The system is designed from a functional viewpoint,
starting with a high-level view and progressively refining this into a more
detailed design. The System State is centralized and shared between
the functions operating on that state. Methods such as Jackson
Structured Programming (extension of the Jackson Structured
Programming (JSP) method. JSP, developed by Michael Jackson) and
the Warnier-Orr method (The technique is based on only a few simple
principles of design that are very easy to learn and to apply) are
techniques of functional decomposition where the structure of the data is
used to determine the functional structure used to process that data.
2. Object-oriented design: The system is viewed as a collection of
objects rather than as functions. Object-oriented design is based on the
idea of information hiding and has been described by Meyer, Booch, and
Jacobsen. And many others. JSD is a design method that falls
somewhere between function-oriented and object-oriented design.
In an object-oriented design, the System State is decentralized and each
object manages its own state information. Objects have a set of attributes
defining their state and operations, which act on these attributes. Objects
are usually members of an object class whose definition defines attributes
and operations of class members. These may be inherited from one or
more super-classes so that a class definition need only set out the
differences between that class and its super-classes. Objects communicate
by exchanging messages; an object calling a procedure associated with
another object achieves most object communication.
There is no ‘best’ design strategy, which is suitable for all projects and all
types of application. Functional and object-oriented approaches are

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complementary rather than opposing techniques. Software engineers select

the most appropriate approach for each stage in the design process. In fact,
large software systems are complex entities that different approaches might
be used in the design of different parts of the system.
An object-oriented approach to software design seems to be natural at the
highest and lowest levels of system design. Using different approaches to
design may require the designer to convert his or her design from one
model to another. Many designers are not trained in multiple approaches so
prefer to use either object-oriented or functional design.
Design quality
A good design might be a design that allows competent code to be
produced; it might be a minimal design where the implementation is as
compact as possible; or it might be the most maintainable design.
A sustainable design can be adapted to modify existing functions and add
new functionally. The design must therefore be understandable and
changes should be local in effect. The design components should be
cohesive which means that all parts of the component should have a close
logical relationship. They should be loosely coupled which means that they
should not be tightly integrated. Coupling is a measure of the independence
of components. The looser the coupling, the easier it is to adapt the design
as the effects of change are localized.
Quality characteristics are equally applicable to object-oriented and function-
oriented design. Because of the nature of object-oriented design, which
encourages the development of independent components, it is usually
easier to achieve maintainable designs as information is concealed within
objects.
Object Oriented Design Characteristics:
Object–oriented design is a design strategy based on information hiding. It
differs from the functional approach to design in that it views a software
system as a set of interacting objects, with their private state, rather than as
a set of functions that share a global state.
The characteristics of an object-oriented design (OOD) are:
1. Objects are abstraction of system entities, which are responsible for
managing their own private state and offering services to other objects.

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2. Objects are independent entities that may readily be changed because

state and representation information is held within the objects. Changes
to the representation may be made without reference to other system
objects.
3. System functionality is expressed in terms of operations or services
associated with each object.
4. Shared data areas are eliminated. Objects communicate by calling on
services offered by other objects rather than sharing variables. This
reduces overall system coupling. There is no possibility of unexpected
modifications to shared information.
5. Objects may be distributed and may execute either sequentially or in
parallel. Decisions on parallelism need not be taken at an early stage of
the design process.
Object-oriented systems are easier to maintain as the objects are
independent. They may be understood and modified as stand-alone entities.
Changing the implementation of an object or adding services should not
affect other system objects. There is a clear mapping between real-world
entities and their controlling objects in the system. This improves the
understandability and hence maintainability of the design.
Self Assessment Questions
6. In which model system is modeled using the data transformations,
which take place as it, is processed?
7. Which model is used to describe the logical data, structures being
used?
8. A software design is a model system that has many participating
entities and ___________
9. ___________ is easier to maintain as the objects are Independent.

11.4 Coding
Once the design is complete, most of the major decisions about the system
have been made. The goal of the coding phase is to translate the design of
the system into code in a given programming language. For a given design,
the aim of this phase is to implement the design in the best possible
manner. The coding phase affects both testing and maintenance profoundly.
A well written code reduces the testing and maintenance effort. Since the

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testing and maintenance cost of software are much higher than the coding
cost, the goal of coding should be to reduce the testing and maintenance
effort. Hence, during coding the focus should be on developing programs
that are easy to write. Simplicity and clarity should be strived for, during the
coding phase.

11.5 Software Testing

Software Testing is the process of executing a program or system with the
intent of finding errors. Testing presents a stimulating variance for the
software engineer. During earlier software engineering activities, the
engineer attempts to build software from an abstract concept to a tangible
product. Now comes testing. The engineer creates a series of test cases
that are intended to 'demolish' the software that has been built. In fact,
Testing is the one step in the software process that could be viewed
(psychologically, at least) as destructive rather than constructive.
Software engineers are by their nature constructive people. Testing requires
the developer discard preconceived notions of the 'correctness' of software
just developed and overcome a conflict of interest that occurs when errors
are uncovered. Beizer describes this situation effectively when he states:
There's a myth that if we were really good at programming, there would be
no bugs to catch.
Testing Objectives
In an excellent book on software testing, Glen Myers states a number of
rules that can serve well as testing objectives:
1. Testing is a process of executing a program with the intent of finding an
error.
2. A good test case is one that has a high probability of finding an as-yet-
undiscovered error.
3. A successful test is one that uncovers an as-yet-undiscovered error.
These objectives imply a dramatic change in viewpoint. They move counter
to the commonly held view that a successful test is one in which no errors
are found. Our objective is to design tests that systematically uncover
different classes of errors and to do so with a minimum amount of time and
effort.

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If testing is conducted successfully (according to the objectives stated

previously), it will uncover errors in the software. As a secondary benefit,
testing demonstrates that software functions appear to be working according
to specification, that behavioral and performance requirements appear to
have been met. In addition, data collected as testing is conducted provide a
good indication of software reliability and some indication of software quality
as a whole. But testing cannot show the absence of errors and defects, it
can only that software errors and defects are present. It is important to keep
this (rather gloomy) statement in mind as testing is being conducted.
Software Testing Strategy
Software testing strategy is explained in figure 11.4. This strategy defines
the role of software and leads to software requirements analysis, where the
information domain, function, behavior, performance, constraints, and
validation criteria for software- are established. Moving inward along the
spiral, we come to design and finally to coding. To develop computer
software, we spiral inward along streamlines that decrease the level of
abstraction on each turn.

Figure 11.4: Software Testing Strategy

A strategy for software testing may also be viewed in the context of the
spiral shown in figure 5.4. Unit testing begins at the vortex of the spiral and
concentrates on each unit (i.e., component) of the software as implemented
in source code. Testing progresses outwards along the spiral to integration

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testing, where the focus is on design and the construction of the software
architecture. Taking another turn outward on the spiral, we encounter
validation testing, where requirements established as part of software
requirements analysis are validated against the software that has been
constructed. Finally, we arrive at system testing, where the software and
other system elements are tested as a whole. To test computer software, we
spiral out along stream-lines that broaden the scope of testing with each
turn.
Considering the process from a procedural point of view, testing within the
context of software engineering is actually a series of four steps that are
implemented sequentially. The steps are shown in Figure 11.4. Initially, tests
focus on each component individually, ensuring that it functions properly as
a unit. Hence, the name is unit testing. Unit testing makes heavy use of
white-box testing techniques, exercising specific paths in a module's control
structure to ensure complete coverage and maximum error detection. Next,
components must be assembled or integrated to form the complete software
package. Integration testing addresses the issues associated with the dual
problems of verification and program construction. Black-box test case
design techniques are the most prevalent during integration, although a
limited amount of white-box testing may be used to ensure coverage of
major control paths. After the software has been integrated (constructed), a
set of high-order tests are conducted. Validation criteria (established during
requirements analysis) must be tested. Validation testing provides final
assurance that software meets all functional, behavioral, and performance
requirements. Black-box testing techniques are used exclusively during
validation.
Self Assessment Questions
10. _________ begins at the vortex of the spiral and concentrates on each
unit (i.e., component) of the software as implemented in source code.
11. _____________ addresses the issues associated with the dual
problems of verification and program construction.
12. ___________ provides final assurance that software meets all
functional, behavioral, and performance requirements.

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11.6 Software Paradigms

The meaning of Paradigm
Paradigm (a Greek word meaning example) is commonly used to refer to a
category of entitles that share a common characteristic. Numerous authors
have examined the concept of a paradigm. Perhaps the foremost user of the
word has been Thomas Kuhn (1996), who wrote the seminal book “the
structure of Scientific Revolution’. Kuhn used the notion of paradigm in the
scientific of his assumptions and theories, which affects that view. In his
definition, he included the concepts of law, theory, application, and
instrumentation; in effects, both the theoretical and the practical.
Kuhn saw a “paradigms” as emerging as the result of social processes in
which people develop new ideas and create principles and practices that
embody these ideas. Large software development is a social process,
because it is often a team effort. Each new software application is a unique
creation in its own right. Rarely, if ever, does team of programmers set out
to create a program that exactly mimics the code and structure of some
other program. Kuhn’s definition has been applied beyond his original
application to the history of physical science. Other believe that paradigms
are the basis of normal sciences; indeed, the basics of established scientific
tradition. In this view, the formation of a paradigm is a sign of maturity for a
given science. The notion of a paradigm for programming was first
expressed by Floyd (1979) as far as I have been able to discern.
We are going to apply the notion of paradigm to the investigation of
programming language and software architecture to determine how well we
can solve different types of problems. The question we would like to answer
takes the forms: Is there taxonomy within a particular domain that serves to
organize the element of that domain? In programming languages, most
computer scientists would answer “yes.” In software architecture, the
answer is more likely a definite ‘maybe’.
The paradigms are not exclusive, but reflect the different emphasis of
language designers. Most practical languages embody features of more
than one paradigm.

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11.6.1 Classification of Paradigm

1. Imperative Paradigms
It is constructed on commands that update variables in storage. The Latin
word imperium means “to command”. The language provides statements,
such as assignment statements, which explicitly change the state of the
memory of the computer. This model closely matches the actual executions
of computer and usually has high execution efficiency. Many people also
find the imperative paradigm to be a more natural way of expressing
themselves.
2. Functional programming Paradigms
In this paradigm we express computations as the evaluation of
mathematical functions. Functional programming paradigms treat values as
single entities. Unlike variables, values are never modified. Instead, values
are transformed into new values. Computations of functional languages are
performed largely through applying functions.
3. Logic programming Paradigms
In this paradigm we express computation in exclusively in terms of
mathematical logic. While the functional paradigm emphasizes the idea of
a mathematical function, the logic paradigm focuses on predicate logic, in
which the basic concept is a relation. Logic languages are useful for
expressing problems where it is not obvious what the functions should be.
For example consider the uncle relationship: a given person can have many
uncles, and another person can be uncle to many nieces and nephews.
4. The Object-Oriented Paradigm
OO programming paradigm is not just a few new features added to a
programming language, but it a new way of thinking about the process of
decomposing problems and developing programming solutions. Alan Kay
characterized the fundamental of OOP as follows: Everything is modeled as
object. Computation is performed by message passing: objects
communicate with one another via message passing. Every object is an
instance of a class where a class represents a grouping of similar objects.
Inheritance: defines the relationships between classes. The Object Oriented
paradigm focuses on the objects that a program is representing, and on
allowing them to exhibit "behavior". Unlike imperative paradigm, where data
are passive and procedures are active, in the O-O paradigm data is

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combined with procedures to give objects, which are thereby rendered

active. Table 11.1 shows the classification of paradigms explained above.
Table 11.1: Classification

11.7 Programming Methods

Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the
process of designing, writing, testing, debugging / troubleshooting, and
maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is
written in a programming language. The purpose of programming is to
create a program that exhibits a certain desired behavior. The process of
writing source code often requires expertise in many different subjects,
including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and
formal logic.
11.7.1 Structured programming
It is a subset of procedural programming that enforces a logical structure on
the program being written to make it more efficient and easier to understand
and modify. Certain languages such as Ada, Pascal, and dBASE are
designed with features that encourage or enforce a logical program
structure.
Structured programming frequently employs a top-down design model, in
which developers map out the overall program structure into separate
subsections. A defined function or set of similar functions is coded in a
separate module or sub module, which means that code, can be loaded into
memory more efficiently and that modules can be reused in other programs.

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After a module has been tested individually, it is then integrated with other
modules into the overall program structure.
Program flow follows a simple hierarchical model that employs looping
constructs such as "for," "repeat," and "while." Use of the "Go To" statement
is discouraged.
Structured programming was first suggested by Corrado Bohm and
Guiseppe Jacopini. The two mathematicians demonstrated that any
computer program can be written with just three structures: decisions,
sequences, and loops. Edsger Dijkstra's subsequent article, Go to
Statement Considered Harmful was instrumental in the trend towards
structured programming. The most common methodology employed was
developed by Dijkstra. In this model (which is often considered to be
synonymous with structured programming, although other models exist) the
developer separates programs into subsections that each has only one point
of access and one point of exit.
Virtually any language can use structured programming techniques to avoid
common pitfalls of unstructured languages. Unstructured programming must
rely upon the discipline of the developer to avoid structural problems, and as
a consequence may result in poorly organized programs. Most modern
procedural languages include features that encourage structured
programming. Object-oriented programming can be thought of as a type of
structured programming, uses structured programming techniques for
program flow, and adds more structure for data to the model.
11.7.2 Object-oriented programming (OOP)
It is a programming language model organized around "objects" rather than
"actions" and data rather than logic. Historically, a program has been viewed
as a logical procedure that takes input data, processes it, and produces
output data.
The programming challenge was seen as how to write the logic, not how to
define the data. Object-oriented programming takes the view that what we
really care about are the objects we want to manipulate rather than the logic
required to manipulate them. Examples of objects range from human beings
(described by name, address, and so forth) to buildings and floors (whose

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properties can be described and managed) down to the little widgets on

your computer desktop (such as buttons and scroll bars).
The first step in OOP is to identify all the objects you want to manipulate and
how they relate to each other, an exercise often known as data modeling.
Once you've identified an object, you generalize it as a class of objects
(think of Plato's concept of the "ideal" chair that stands for all chairs) and
define the kind of data it contains and any logic sequences that can
manipulate it. Each distinct logic sequence is known as a method. A real
instance of a class is called (no surprise here) an "object" or, in some
environments, an "instance of a class." The object or class instance is what
you run in the computer. Its methods provide computer instructions and the
class object characteristics provide relevant data. You communicate with
objects - and they communicate with each other - with well-defined
interfaces called messages.
The concepts and rules used in object-oriented programming provide these
important benefits:
 The concept of a data class makes it possible to define subclasses of
data objects that share some or all of the main class characteristics.
Called inheritance, this property of OOP forces a more thorough data
analysis, reduces development time, and ensures more accurate coding.
 Since a class defines only the data it needs to be concerned with, when
an instance of that class (an object) is run, the code will not be able to
accidentally access other program data. This characteristic of data
hiding provides greater system security and avoids unintended data
corruption.
 The definition of a class is reusable not only by the program for which it
is initially created but also by other object-oriented programs (and, for
this reason, can be more easily distributed for use in networks).
 The concept of data classes allows a programmer to create any new
data type that is not already defined in the language itself.
Simula was the first object-oriented programming language. Java, Python,
C++, Visual Basic .NET and Ruby are the most popular OOP languages
today. The Java programming language is designed especially for use in
distributed applications on corporate networks and the Internet. Ruby is

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used in many Web applications. Curl, Smalltalk, Delphi and Eiffel are also
examples of object-oriented programming languages.
OOPSLA is the annual conference for Object-Oriented Programming
Systems, Languages and Applications.
Self Assessment Questions
13. Name few Structured Programming Languages?
14. What is the first step in object oriented Programming?
15. In Logic programming paradigms we express computation exclusively
in terms of _________________

11.8 Software Applications

Software may be applied in any situation for which a pre specified set of
procedural steps has been defined. Information content and determinacy
are important factors in determining the nature of a software application.
Content refers to the meaning and form of incoming and outgoing
information. Software that controls an automated machine accepts discrete
data items with limited structure and produces individual machine
commands in rapid succession.
Information determinacy refers to the predictability of the order and timing of
information. An engineering analysis program accepts data that have a
predefined order, executes the analysis algorithm without interruption and
produces resultant data in report or graphical format. Such applications are
determinate.
A multi-user operating system, on the other hand, accepts inputs that have
varied content and arbitrary timing, executes algorithms that can be
interrupted by external conditions, and produces output that varies as a
function of environment and time. Applications with these characteristics are
indeterminate.
Software applications can be neatly compartmentalized into different
categories.
System software: System software is a collection of programs written to
service other programs. Some system software processes complex
information structures. Other systems applications process largely
indeterminate data. It is characterized by heavy interaction with hardware,

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heavy usage by multiple users, concurrent operation that requires

scheduling, resource sharing, and sophisticated process management,
complex data structures and multiple external interfaces.
Real time software: Software that monitors / analyzes / controls real-world
events as they occur is called real time.
Business Software: Business information processing is the largest single
software application area. Discrete systems like payroll, accounts
receivable/payable have evolved into management information systems
(MIS) software that accesses one or more large databases containing
business information. Applications in this area restructure existing data in a
way that facilitates business operations or management decision making.
Engineering and scientific software: Engineering and scientific software
has been characterized by “number crunching” algorithms. Applications
range from astronomy to volcano logy, from automotive stress analysis to
space shuttle orbital dynamics and from molecular biology to automated
manufacturing.
Embedded software: Embedded software resides only in read-only
memory and is used to control products and systems for the consumer and
industrial markets. Embedded software can provide very limited and esoteric
functions or provide significant function and control capability.
Personal computer software: Day to day useful applications like word
processing, spreadsheets, multimedia, database management, personal
and business financial applications are some of the common examples for
personal computer software.
Web-based software: The web pages retrieved by a browser are software
that incorporates executable instructions and data. In essence, the network
becomes a massive computer providing an almost unlimited software
resource that can be accessed by anyone with a modem.
Artificial Intelligence software: Artificial Intelligence software makes use
of non numerical algorithms to solve complex problems that are not
amenable to computation or straightforward analysis. Expert systems, also
called knowledge based systems, pattern recognition, game playing are
representative examples of applications within this category.

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Fundamentals of Computer and IT Unit 11

Software crisis: The set of problems that are encountered in the

development of computer software is not limited to software that does not
function properly rather the affliction encompasses problems associated
with how we develop software, how we support a growing volume of existing
software, and how we can expect to keep pace with a growing demand for
more software.
Self Assessment Questions
16. Software that controls real-world events as they occur is called
_______________.
17. ____________ software is a collection of programs written to service
other programs.

11.9 Summary
In this unit you learnt about the various concepts of Communication.
Let’s recap the important points covered in the unit:
 Software is a logical rather than a physical system element.
 Software Development Methodology is a series of processes that, if
followed, can lead to the development of an application.
 ‘A software system is a set of mechanisms for performing certain action
on certain data’.
 A software design is a model system that has many participating entities
and relationships.
 This design is used in a number of different ways. It acts as a basis for
detailed implementation; it serves as a communication medium between
the designers of sub-systems; it provides information to system
maintainers about the original intentions of the system designers, and so
on.
 Testing presents an interesting anomaly for the software engineer.
During earlier software engineering activities, the engineer attempts to
build software from an abstract concept to a tangible product.
 The engineer creates a series of test cases that are intended to
'demolish' the software that has been built. In fact, Testing is the one
step in the software process that could be viewed (psychologically, at
least) as destructive rather than constructive.

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Fundamentals of Computer and IT Unit 11

 System engineering defines the role of software and leads to software

requirements analysis, where the information domain, function,
behavior, performance, constraints, and validation criteria for software-
are established.
 Structured programming (sometimes known as modular programming) is
a subset of procedural programming that enforces a logical structure on
the program being written to make it more efficient and easier to
understand and modify is a programming language model organized
around "objects" rather than "actions" and data rather than logic.
 Software may be applied in any situation for which a pre specified set of
procedural steps has been defined. Information content and determinacy
are important factors in determining the nature of a software application.
Content refers to the meaning and form of incoming and outgoing
information.
 Object-oriented programming is a programming language model
organized around "objects" rather than "actions" and data rather than
logic. Historically, a program has been viewed as a logical procedure
that takes input data, processes it, and produces output data.

11.10 Terminal Questions

1. Briefly explain software development process.
2. What is analysis and design?
3. Explain different stages in Software Testing.
4. Explain various methods of Programming.
5. Name few Software Applications

11.11 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Sub Process
2. Correctness
3. Correspondence
4. Software Development Methodology
5. Programs
6. Data-flow Model
7. Entity-relation model
8. Relationships
9. object-oriented systems

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Fundamentals of Computer and IT Unit 11

10. Unit testing

11. Integration testing
12. Validation testing
13. Ada, Pascal, and dBASE
14. Is to identify all the objects you want to manipulate and how they relate
to each other, an exercise often known as data modeling.
15. Mathematical logic
16. Real time
17. System
Terminal Questions
1. System development can be viewed as a process. Furthermore, the
development itself, in essence, is a process of change, refinement,
transformation, or addition to the existing product. (Refer section 11.2)
2. A more methodical approach to software design is proposed by
structured methods, these structured methods are sets of notations and
guidelines for software design. (Refer section 11.3)
3. The software engineering process may be viewed as the spiral. Initially,
system engineering defines the role of software and leads to software
requirements analysis, where the information domain, function,
behavior, performance, constraints, and validation criteria for software-
are established. (Refer section 11.4)
4. To general methods of programing are Structured programming and
Object-oriented programming (Refer section 11.6)
5. Software applications can be neatly compartmentalized into different
categories. System software Real time, software Business, Software is
few to be mentioned (Refer section 11.7)
Book References:
 A Practitioner's Guide to Software Test Design by Lee Copeland (Jan
2004)
 Testing Computer Software, 2nd Edition by Cem Kaner, Jack Falk and
Hung Q. Nguyen (Apr 12, 1999)
 Software Requirements by Karl E. Wiegers (Mar 26, 2003)
 Systematic Software Testing (Artech House Computer Library) by Rick
D. Craig and Stefan P. Jaskiel (May 2002)
E-References
 www.seas.gwu.edu
 www.searchsoa.techtarget.com
 www.searchcio-idmarket.techtarget.com

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