UNIT 5 BASIC NOTIONS OF GROUP

THEORY
Structure

5.1 Introduction
Object~ves
5.2 Symmetry in Real Systems
Symmetry In Microscop~cSystems
5.3 What is a Group?
5.4 Elementary Group Theory
Symmetry Group of a System
Multiplication Table of a Group
Classes, Subgroups, Cyclic Groups and Permutation Groups
Abstract Groups and Realisations
5.5 Summary
5.6 Terminal Questions
5.7 Solutions and Answers
-

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Group theory began as a branch of pure mathematics in the beginning of the nineteenth
century. The outstanding French mathematician Evariste Galois (1 8 11-1832) introduced
the term "groups" to the specially worked out mathematical theory of symmetry. In
mathematics, one generally encounters groups in linear algebra along with other concepts
such as ring, field, vector space, inner product space, etc. Physicists soon found uses of
group theory in the study of natural systems.

From the point of view of physics, it turned out that group theory could appropriately be
applied to study the symmetrypropertres ofphysrcal systems. Materials scientists had
known that natural crystals exhibit certain definite symmetries. In the middle of the
nineteenth century several scientists and mathematicians developed an elegant theory, based
on group theory, to enumerate all possible arrangements of atoms in a crystal. We shall
discuss some of these concepts in the next unit.

With the development of quantum mechanics in the twent~ethcentury, the applications of

group theory to study microscopic physical systems knew no bounds. It was used to study
crystals, molecules, atoms, nuclei and so on, with tremendous success. In fact, many
physicists enriched group theory during the period from 1930 onwards. These days any
serious studies in the field of quantum mechanics, particle physics and solid state physics
use the procedures of group theory.

From the point of view of physics, one can say that group theory is the branch of
mathematrcs used m the study of invariance andsymmetry ofphysrcal systems. So in this
unit we should begin by studying symmetry in the physical world around us. Then we shall
acquaint you with the basic definitions and concepts of group theory.

In the next unit you will learn about some applications of group theory in physics.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
define a group;
discuss the connection between group theory ahd symmetry in physical systems; and
determine the multiplication table, conjugate elements, classes and subgroups of a
group.
P
Basic Notions of
5.2 SYMMETRY IN REAL SYSTEMS Crnl~nThenw

We encounter symmetry almost everywhere in the world around us - in nature, in arts, in

engineering and in science. Imagine for example, the symmetry of a butterfly and a
snowflake, the symmetry in paintings, patterns and borders, the symmetry of a bus, a plane

- . -
calledphysical symmetry.-~hissymmetry is fundamental to nature.
Now that we want to study a theory of symmetry, we would like to know: what is
symmetry? To answer this question we first consider some concrete examples of classical
objects. Suppose that you have before you a round circular plate. If the plate is empty, you
have no way of saying which point on the rim of the plate faces you (see Fig. 5.1). Now if

If the plate is replaced by a completely flat disc, there is no way of saying which side is up
and which is down. In addition to the rotational symmetry, this disc also has a reflection
symmetry about a plane passing through its centre and parallel to the plane of the disc.
(b)
I

Fig.5.2: A laree maneo grove with identical trees olanted in a reeular att tern. I

symmetry is exhibited by this system? The symmetry here is called (two-dimensional)

translation symmetry.

You should notice that in each of these examples, the system remains unchanged (or
invariant) under a certain transformation - rotation, reflection or translation. This is the
defining notion of symmetry:

When a n operation performed on a system results in a n equivalent system with the same set
ofproperties, the system is said to possess symmetry with respect to that operation.

A similar symmetry prevails in the microscopic world. You will learn about it now.
I
I
5.2.1 Symmetry in Microscopic Systems
I

Let us first examine some examples of geometrical symmetry in microscopic systems. 127
Some common examples are the structural patterns of microscopic systems such as crystals,
 Group Theory
molecules, atoms, electrons, nuclei etc. Let us consider two simple molecules CO2 and NH3,
and try to enumerate their symmetries.

You may recall that carbon dioxide is a linear molecule when in equilibrium, with carbon
(C) atom at the centre and one oxygen (0) atom on each sides at equal distances (Fig. 5.3a).
Now imagine a line AB passing through the centres of these atoms and consider a rotation
of the molecule about this line through any angle (Fig. 5.3b). Can you distinguish the new
state of the molecule from the old? Obviously, you cannot. Similarly, consider a plane
perpendicular to the molecular axis passing through the C atom. A reflection at this plane
leaves the molecular geometry, including the structure and orientation of the molecule,
unchanged. Therefore, these are the symmetry elements of the C 0 2molecule.

Fig.5.3: The geometrical symmetry of a Cot molecule

Next, take a look at the ammonia molecule (Fig. 5.4a). In equilibrium, the three H atoms
form the comers of an equilateral triangle, with all three H-H bonds of equal length. The N
x atom lies on the line perpendicular to the HHH plane passing through the centroid of the
,.f triangle, on either side of it. It is then clear that this molecule has the following symmetries:
(a) A rotation about this line, called the symmetry mis, through 120" (Fig. 5.4b); and (b) A
reflection in a plane passing through the symmetry axis and the midpoint of any H-H

As yet another example, consider the shape of the charge cloud of an electron in a hydrogen
atom. Fig. 5.5 shows the shape of the charge cloud (absolute square of the wave function) in
the s and the p, state. In the s state the charge cloud has a complete spherical symmetry. If
we rotate it through any angle about any axis passing through the nucleus, no change can be
noticed. In the p, state, there are two symmetrical lobes along +z and -z directions. Thus it
Fig.5.4: Tbe geometrical symmetry has rotational symmetry about the z-axis and reflection in the x-y plane (normal to the
of N& molecule
z-axis).

(a) (dl
Fig.S.5: The shape of the electron charge cloud in a hydrogen atom in (a) s state and in (b)p, state.

Incidentally, notice that the C02 molecule (Fig. 5.3) and the p, state electron charge cloud
(Fig. 5.5b) have the same symmetries - arbitrary rotation about an axis and reflection in a
plane normal to that axis.

In this manner, we can say that each system has a specific symmetry. The properties of a
macroscopic (bulk) system do not depend much on the shape and symmetry. For example,
rectangular, circular, square or octagonal tables may have different symmetries and may
differ in their visual and aesthetic appeal, but basically they have the same properties and
can be put to the same functional uses. On the other hand, the properties of microscopic
 . . .- . . .

systems depend on, and are, in fact, governed by, their symmetries. Let us understand this Basic Notions of
with the help of an example -the emission of electromagnetic radiations by nuclei, atoms ,

and molecules.

Do you know how a microscopic physical system (such as a molecule, atom, nuclqs etc.)
exhibits its existence? This is mainly by virtue of the emitted radiation, which is detected by
our senses or instruments. For example, the radiation emitted by a molecule may fall in the
infrared and visible range, that by an atom in the infrared to X-ray regions, and that by a
nucleus in the X-ray and gamma-ray regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. You know
that this radiation consists of specific lines of definite frequencies and intensities. Now the
relative intensities of various lines in nuclear, atomic and molecular spectra a r e
decided by the symmetry of the system.

You know from your study of PHE-I 1 that every microscopic system is governed by
quantum mechanics and has various energy levels. The radiation emitted by the system
arises due to transitions of the system from one state to another under the action of an
electromagnetic field or some other perturbatjon. Whether a system can make a
transition between two given states under the action of a perturbation depends on the
symmetries of the two states as well as of the perturbation.

You also know from Unit 10 of PHE-1 1 that there are certain selection rules which tell us
whether or not a transition can take place between two states under a perturbation. Thus a
system may make a transition between two states under some perturbations but not under
others. For example, electric dipole transition is possible between s a n d p states of an
electron in a hydrogen atom but not between s and d or between s and f states (Recall the
selection rule A1 = kl .)

It is not our intention to discuss the selection rules in detail here. We have mentioned these
examples merely to indicate the role of symmetry in physics. And, as we have said in the
introduction, the study of symmetry is best done through group theory. Suffice it to say that
today there is hardly any branch of physics or physical chemistry which does not use group
theory. We therefore proceed to discuss some elementary concepts and ideas of group
theory. But before that you may like to answer an SAQ based on the ideas presented so far.

SAQ 1 Spend
5 min
Enumerate all the symmetries of (a) a water molecule and (b) an isosceles triangle.

5.3 WHAT IS A GROUP?

So far we have discussed the types of symmetry and their role in physical systems. We have
. also pointed out that the proper mathematical theory to deal with symmetry is the theory of
groups. We now consider a couple of examples of a group which wil! help you to grasp the
concepts given later.

endowed with the law of addition, satisfy four properties:

(b) for any three elements x, y and z of R, the associative law is satisfied, that is
x+~~+z)=(x+y)+z;

element x E R;

(d) for eve& x E R, there exists a unique element y in R such that x + y = y + x = 0. Note
that this gives us y = -x.
Similarly considerpother set O(1) = (z : Izl = I}, the set of all complex numbers of unit
(b) for any three elements x, y and z of U(l), the associative law is satisfied, that is,
~ ( Y z=) (x7Y)a;

(c) there exists an element 1 + Oi when (i = f i )or,just I for short, in U (1) such that
XI = Ir = x for every element x of U (1);

(d) for every x E U(1), there exists a unique element y in U(1) such that xy = yx = 1. Note
that this allows us to write y = x*, where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate.

We note that the four properties satisfied by the two sets are similar in nature. In fact, both
the sets considered above are examples of a group. We now state the definition of a
group.

Definition of a Group

In general, a group is defined as a set G = {x,y, z, ...) endowed with a binary law of
compositjon for its elements such that it satisfies the following four requirements:

x o y ~ G y, o x ~ G

Here the symbol o stands for the binary law of composition.

(b) Associative Property: The binary law of composition is associative, that is,

x o(y o z ) = ( x o y) o z Vx,y€G (5.2)

for any three elements in the set.

(c) Existence of Identity: There exists an element in the set G (let us denote it by e or E)
whose composition with any other element x of G results in x itself, that is,

e o x = x o e = e foreveryxinG, (5.3)

where e is called the identity element under the given law of composition.

(d) Existence of Inverse: For any element x in G there exists an element, say y, also in G
such that

xoy=yox=e, (5.4)

where e is the identity element defined in (c) above. The elements y and x are then said
to be inverse of each other under the given law of composition.

If the set G fails to satisfy any of these requirements, it cannot be called a group.

We shall soon consider several examples of groups. But before that it is necessary to clarify
a few concepts.
 happen if x and y are matrices). But if it so happens that x o y = y o x for any two elements Basic Notions of
of a group then it is said to be an abelian group, otherwise a non-abelian group. Group Theory

The law of associativity described in Eq. (5.2) is a requirement on the law of combination of
two elements. For example, addition satisfies this requirement because

a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c, (5.5a)

where a, b, c are any numbers (or matrices). But it is easy to see that subtraction does not
satisfy it:

a-(b-c) t (a-6)-c. (5.5b)

Moreover, a set may be a group under one law of composition but not under another.

The number of elements in a group is called its order. A group containing a finite number of
elements is called afinite group;a group containing an infinite number of elements is called
an infinite group.An infinite group may further be either discrete or continuous; if the
number of elements in a group is denumerably infinite (such as the number of all integers),
the group is discrete; if the number of the elements in a group is nondenumerably infinite
(such as the number of all real numbers), the group is continuous.

You can understand these ideas better with the help of examples of groups and counter

Examples and Counterexamples

We have already considered two examples of a group right in the beginning of this section.
Let us now consider some more examples.
I

(i) The set containing the four complex numbers 1, i, 1 , -i(whcrei = &) forms a group
under multiplication (but not under addition). The multiplication of any two of these
numbers results in a number belonging to the same set; for example,

(i) (- 1) = (-i), (-i) ( 4 ) = - 1. (5.6)

and so on. You can easily see that the element 1 is the identity because
.<

l(i)=i, I(-I)=(-I), I(-i)=-i. (5.7)

Notice also that

(i) ( i ) = I, (- 1) (- 1) = 1, (1) (1) = 1 (5.8)

so that i and -i are inverse of each other, while -1 is its own inverse, and so is 1.
Finally, multiplication is associative. This shows that the set under consideration is a
group. The order of this group is 4 and it is a finite group.

ii) We have seen in the beginning of Section 5.3 that the set R of real numbers is a group
under addition. Let us examine whether it is a group under multiplication. When two
real numbers are multiplied, it results in a real number which belongs to R. So the set R
is closed under multiplication. The law of multiplication is associative, as remarked
earlier. The number 1 belonging to R is the identity element because it satisfies
equations such as 1.x = x for any number x belonging to R; see Eq. (5.3). Now let us
examine the requirement of inverse. If x belongs to R, we may have another element llx
belonging to R such that x. (Ilx) = I; see Eq. (5.4). For example, 5.0 is the inverse of
0.2 because (5) (0.2) = 1, the inverse of 3.542009 is 0.2823263 ..., etc. But can we find
an inverse for every element of R? What about the element 0 (zero)? There is no
element in R which satisfies (0) (?) = 1. So merely because of the presence of this one
element (bad element?), the set R is not a group under multiplication.
Matrices, Tensors and
Group Theory
Let us now do a trick - consider the set of all real numbers excluding zero, and let us
examine all four requirements. We now see that closure is satisfied, association is of
course satisfied, the identity element (this is 1) exists in the set, and every element of
I1
the set has an inverse which also belongs to the set. So this set (excluding zero) is a I
group under multiplication. But then it is not a group under addition!

Thus we have derived a result of great significance: The set of all real numbers is a
continuous group under addition, and the set of all real numbers excluding the element ,

zero is a group under multiplication. I

We will now consider examples of some groups important in theoretical physics.
I1
Example 1: The groups U(N) and SU (N)
I
The group U (N) for N 2 1 is defined to be the set of all N x N unitary matrices U with 1
matrix multiplication as the binary law of composition. Let us verify if U (N) is a group. I
Now we know t h a t ( U , ~ , ) =~ U ~ U :and(U,U2)-' = u;'u;~. SO ifU, and U2 are unitary
(i.e.,U:U, = IN and U: U2 = th then so is UlU2,since

The associative law is valid for matrix multiplication. Since the unit matrix is a member of
UN, it provides the identity element. Finally, if U is a member of UN,so is U-' since
u = u - I . Thus U (N) is a group.
The group SU (N) for N > 2 is defined to be the subset of all N x N unitary matrices U for
which det U = I with matrix multiplication as the law of composition.

For SU (N), the same considerations apply. In addition if det UI = I and det U2 = 1, then
det(UIU2)=1 since det(U1U2)=det U, det U2. Moreover, IN is a member of SU (N), so it
is its identity element. Finally, if U is a member of SU (N), so is U -I. Therefore, SU (N) is
a group.

The set of groups SU (N), N 2 2 is particularly important in particle physics. SU (2) is

intimately related to angular momentum and isotop'ic spin. SU (3) is important for the
classification of elementary particles.

Now that you have learnt the basic definition of a group, you may like to work out an SAQ
to idehtify whether a set is a group or not.

SAQ 2.
~
I

(a) Show that the set of all matrices of order m x n is a group under addition of matrices. Is
this group abelian?
Spend
15 min (b) Does the set of all non-singular square matrices of order n form a group under matrix
multiplication?

(c) Show that the set of all non-negative integers (0, 1,2, ...) is not a group under
addition. Which requirement(s) does it fail to satisfy?

In the above examples and SAQ, you have learnt two basic laws of composition - addition
and multiplication -each referring to numbers and matrices. When the law of composition
of a group is addition, the inverse of an element is called the additive inverse; when it is
multiplication, the inverse is called the multiplicative inverse. Thus, ifx is a number, -x is
its additive inverse and l/x the multiplicative inverse provided x # 0. If A is a matrix, -A is
its additive inverse and A-' the multiplicative inverse provided A is non-singular. Similarly,
in the case of a group of numbers, 0 is the additive identity and 1 the multiplicative identity;
132
in the case of a group of matrices, the null matrix (of appropriate or -_., .-..._ . -
identity while the unit matrix (of appropriate order) is the multiplicative identity. Group Theory

So far we have discussed the definition of a group followed by examples of groups whose
elements are numbers or matrices. Let us now learn some elementary concepts of group
theory relevant from the point of view of physics.

5.4 ELEMENTARY GROUP THEORY

You learnt the role of symmetry in physics in Section 5.2. In Units 1 and 4 of this block, we
have discussed transformations of coordinates. A transformation which leaves a physical
system invariant is called a symmetry transformation of the system. For example, the
rotation of a circle through any angle about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to the plane of the circle is a symmetry transformation for it. A permutation
of two identical atoms in a molecule is a symmetry transformation for the molecule.

- rotation about an axis

- reflection in a plane

- inversion

- translation

- permutation of identical objects

All symmetry transformations of a system form a group called the symmetry group of a
system. Let us study this concept in some detail.

5.4.1 Symmetry Group of a System

Let us first show that the set of all symmetry transformations of a system is a group. Let
us see wheth'er it satisfies the definition of a group:

First we observe that if we perform two symmetry transformations of the system

successively, the system remains invariant. Thus the composition of any two symmetry
transformations of the system is again a symmetry transformation of the system. That
is, the set considered is closed under the law of successive transformations.

We can define an identity transformation which leaves the system unchanged; and this
obvious1.y belongs to the set.

Given a symmetry transformation, we seethat there exists an inverse transformation

which also belongs to the set.

Finally, the successive transformations of the system obey the associative law.

This proves that the set of symmetry transformations is a group.

I
To illustrate this concept let us take the example of a square and examine its symmetry
group.

You should carry out these transformations as an activity for a better understanding. For
this, cut out a square from a piece of cardboard. Label the various points of the square as
shown in Fig. 5.6: the comers by a, b, c, d; the centres of the edges by e,J g, h; and the
centre of the square by 0. Mark points 1,2, ..., 8 on a piece of paper (they are not to be
marked on the square).
 Matrices, Tensors and
Group Theory
What happens when you rotate the square through a right angle about a line perpendicular
to the square and passing through O? But for the labelling a, b, ..., h, you would not notice
any change in the square. Consider all such symmetry transformation of the square (such as
rotating or reflecting it, without bending or stretching) which leave the position of the
boundaries of the square unchanged but give a distinct labeling of the marked points
a, b, ..., h. How many symmetry transformations did you arrive at? Do your results agree

I h 2
with ours? Check with Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Symmetry transformations of a square

Symbol Operation Result

.
E The identity

II
4 8 J
A clockwise rotation through 90" about an axis
c
4
Fie.5.h: The axes and olanes of normal to the square and passing through its centre
symmetry of a square

I C: A clockwise rotation through 180' about the above axis

I c4' A clockwise rotation through 270' about the same

axis

I mx Reflection in the line 5-7

m, Reflection in the line 6-8

(Ju Reflection in the line 1-3

D.. Reflection in the line 2-4

Before continuing further, it would be proper to say a few words about the notation we shall
use.

If a clockwise rotation through an angle 2nln (n a positive integer) about some axis leaves
the system invariant, the axis is known as an n-foldsymmetry axis of the system and the
corresponding operation is denoted by Cn.Irs integral powers, which will also be symmetry
transformations of the system will be denoted by c:;this represents k successive
operations of Cnon the system, or a rotation of 2nkln about the axis. A reflection in a plane
will be denoted by m or o with a subscript specifying the plane of reflection. The identity Basic Notions or
transformation will be denoted by E. Croup Theory

While enumerating all the symmetry transformations of a square listed in Table 5.1, we
shall use the shorthand notation 'reflection in a line' to mean 'reflection in a plane
perpendicular to the square passing through the line'.

You can see that the o~erationslisted in Table 5.1 exhaust the symmetrv transfoni~ationsof

inversion through the centre 0; but it can be readily verified that it is identical to c ~ ~ .

You can readily verify that the set of eight transformations listed in Table 5.1 is the group of
symmetries of a square. For example, consider the operation of C4(i.e., clockwise rotation
by 90") followed by that of o,,on the square. This can be found as follows:

Although, we have operated by the product here on the square, it can be proved that the
product a,,C4operating on any system is the same as m, operating on that system. We state
this result (without proof) in the operator notation as

meaning thereby that the operations of a,,C4and of m, on the square or, in fact, on any
system, give the same result.

The inverse of an operator is that operator which nullifies the effect of the first one. Thus,
consider the successive operation C ~ C on
, the square:

The same result would be obtained if we operated by C4and C: in the reverse order. Thus,
by (5.4),C4is the inverse of C: and vice versa. In the operator notation, we may write this
as

Finally, the transformations obey the associative law. Hence the set of the symmetry
transformations of a square is a group. This symmetry group of a square of order eight is
denoted by C4"in crystallography in the Schoenflies notation.

You should.trv an SAO to further understand these ideas. I

5 min
In the set of symmetry transformations of a square listed in Table 5: 1, show that each I
element has an inverse which is just one of these elements. I
 Mutriees, Tensors and When we work with the symmetry group of a physical system, we are often required to,find
Group Theory
the result of successive transformations of the system, or to find the inverse of an element.
Instead of working these out every time, it would be convenient to write all such successive
transformations (or 'multiplications') in a table like a ready-reckoner. This is what we are
going to do n8w.

5.4.2 Multiplication Table of a Group

Referring again to the symmetry group of a square of Example 1, let us consider some
op-ations like

2
C4mx = o U , o , ~=:m y , o,,o,,= C 4 , andsoon.

All such products of the group elements can be represented by a table known as the
group multiplication table. It is shown in Table 5.2 for the symmetry group of a square, C4%..

Table 5.2: The Multiplication table for the group C4,

Second First Operation
Operation -
c4 cf c: ms 011 01,

c4
c:
E E mx my
cf 0 1 , 0%)

c: c: E c4 0" 01, mx
c,Z

cf c,Z c: E c4 m>, m* 0, 0 ,

c4 c4 c: c: E =I, o,, ms

mx E C4
011 01,
cf c:
c4 c:
01, mx 0" E
0,l
c,Z
UV 0,' 011 m~
c: c4 C: E

Note that in a successive operation such as ABC ..., the order of operation isfrom right to
left. Thus, in the product C4mx, m, is thefirst operation as it acts on the physical system

The order of the rows and columns in writing down the multiplication table of a group is
immaterial. We have chosen a different ordering for the rows and for the columns; the
ordering is such that an element in the first column (second operation) is the inverse of the
corresponding element in the first row (first operation). If the multiplication table is written
in this way, the principal diagonal contains only the identity element E.

The entire information about a group is contained in its multiplication table.

With the group multiplication table at hand, we can study several interesting features of a

.-
 5.4.3 Classes, Subgroups, Cyclic Groups and Permutation Groups - Basic Notions or
Group Theory
Consider a relation such as

x - l Y x = Z, (5.13)

where x. v and z are elements of a ErouD. When such a relation exists between two elements

xzx-l = y . (5.14)

which is a similarity transformation of z by x.

You will not find difficult to discover such relationships among the elements of the group
C4,,.For example,

c q 1 m x c 4= m y , (5.15)

showing that m, and my are conjugate to each other.

You can easily show that ify is conjugate to z and y is also conjugate top, then z and p are

fact, such sets of elements are called the conjugacy classes or simply the classes of a group.
The identity element e always constitutes a class by itself in any group, since, for any
element x of the group, x-' e x = e. The classes of C4vare

*
(El, ( 4 1 (c:) ( m x , m y ) (o,,,o12) (5.16)

I
Why don't you prove some of these results?

SAQ 4
Spend
5 min
Verify that (m, ,m y ) is a class of C4,,.

Sometimes, a set of elements belonging to a group is itself a group. This gives rise to the

As an example, consider the four elements (E,Cq,c ~ C:~ ) ,of C4,,. YOUcan verify that this

,
set satisfies all the axioms defining a group; hence it is a subgroup of Cdv.Some more
1
examples of the subgroups of C,,, are (E,C: ,m, ,m, (E,ou), etc.
I

I
Another important concept in group theory is that of cyclic groups.

If x is an element of a group G, all integral powers of x such as x 2 , x 3 ,..., must also be in

G. If G is a finite group then there must exist a finite positive integer n such that

X" =,e, (5.17) 137

Matrices, Tensors and the identity element. The smallest positive (non-zero) integer n satisfying (5.17) is called
Croup Theory
the order of element x.

The g o u p (x, x 2 , x' ,...,x" I e) has the property that each of its elements is some power of
one particular element. Such groups are called cyclic groups A group generated by a single
element is a cyclic group.

The group (1, z, -1, -i) consisting of 4 elements wh~chwe mentioned as an example in
Section 5.3 is a cyclic group of order 4 each of whose elements is a power of the element i
because (i)4 )
= (-,)' = 1 The group (E,C, ,C: ,C: which contains successive rotations of a
system through 90" about some axis, is also a cyclic group.

Permutation groups are of considerable importance m the quantum mechanics of identical

particles. Consider a system of n identical objects. If we interchange any two or more of
these objects, the resulting configuration is indistinguishable from the original one. We can
consider each interchange as a transformation of the system and then all such possible
transformations form a group under which the system is invariant. Since there are altogether
n! permutations on n objects, the group has order n!. It is known as the permutation group
of n objects or the symmetric group of degree n and is usually denoted by S,.

Let us take a specific example of three identical objects. We see that there are six possible
permutations which may be denoted as:

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

E=[~ 2 J3 A = [ ~ 3 j p B=[~ 1 J?

la quantum mechanics, it is tktile

= 2
2

1
3

I,*=('
3 3
2

2 13 ] , F = I
1 2

The labels 1 , 2 and 3 refer to the positions of the three objects rather than to the objects
3

]
2

to try to label ~dentlcalparticles!

themselves. The system itself has six possible 'states' which may be denoted by

v, =(1 2 3), yJ2=(2 3 I), yJ3=(3 1 21

(5.19)
yl4=(2 1 3) yl,=(3 2 11 yl,=(l 3 2).

The six operators of Eq. (5.18) then act on any of the above six states and we can interpret
their operations as follows. The operation C, for example, on any state yl, means that the
object in position 1 is to be put in position 2 and the object in position 2 is to be put in
position 1, while the object in position 3 is to be left where it is. Thus,

Cv2=[1 : 1](2 3 1)=(3 2 1)=v5. (5.20)

We can readily show that the six permutations of Eq. (5.18) constitute a group. We can
easily work out the successive operation of two permutations on a state. Operating on
Eq. (5.20) from the left, say, by A, we find

2 3
A(Cyl2)=[' 1](3 2 l)=(l 3 2 ) ~ ~ ~ (5.2
. 1)
2 3

But we also have

 1 2 3 Basic Notions of
Dv2=( 3 l)=(l 3 2)=v6. (5.22) Group Tbcory
3 2

Thus, we have

ACv2 =D v 2 . (5.23)

You can see that if we start from any other state, the result is the same. Thus

ACv,=Dv,, 1IiI6.

Therefore, in the operator notation, we can write

We leave it as an exercise for you to prove that S3 is a group.

You may like to know whether you have grasped these concepts. Try the following SAQ.

SAQ 5

a) Show that each element in an abelian group is a class by itself. Spend

b) If m be thg imaginary cube root of unity show that the set (1, m, m 2 ] is a cyclic group of 15 min
order 3 with respect to mu1)iplication.
c) Show that (1, -1 ) is a subgroup of the multiplicative group {1, i, - 1, - i}.

5.4.4 Abstract Groups and Realisations

What is true about the relationship between any branch of pure mathematics and physics is
also true about group theory. The elements of a group may be numbers, matrices,
permutations, or coordinate transformations. They can be treated in an abstract manner, by
denoting them by algebraic symbols like x, y, ..., without attaching any meaning to them.
Once the rule of binary combination of elements is specified, the combination of any pair of
elements can be worked out. Notice that the whole theory of groups is based on the four
fundamental axioms (or requirements) listed in Sec. 5.3 and is quite independent of any
particular interpretation given to the group elements. This part of the purely mathematical
theory is therefore called abstract group theory.

When it comes to applying group theory in physics, we must attach a meaning to group
elements. This meaning or interpretation depends on the physical system which we wish to
study. We may put in a suitable interpretation for the group elements demanded by the
physical situation at hand and take out the corresponding results. We can find the symmetry ,
group of any physical system. Every such group is a realisation of the abstract concept, and
the results emanating from it are applicable in that particular situation. We have already
considered some examples and indicated some applications in Section 5.2.

Application of group theory has become extremely essential in studying the properties of
crystals, molecules, atoms, nuclei and all such microscopic systems. In fact, the application
of group theory to elementary particles in 1964 has even led to the prediction of a new
elementary particle along with its properties (such as electric charge, baryon number,
strangeness). It was a great triumph of this theory when this elementary particle (known as
omega-minus) was soon discovered in the laboratory. We shall consider some applications

Let us now summarise the contents of this unit.

 A set of elements endowec

the associative law, closure, existence of identity, and existence of inverse.

The composition of an element with every other element can be worked out and listed
in the form of a table called the group multiplication table. The entire information
about the group is contained in this table.

A transformation of a physical system which takes it to a position or orientation

indistinguishable from the earlier one is called its symmetry transformation.

All the symmetry transformations of a system, including the identity element (no
change), constitute a group known as the symmetry group of the system.
Particularly in the case of a microscopic system, the properties depend on its symmetry
group. A knowledge of the symmetry group helps in understanding these properties.

As a purely mathem;

symmetry transformations as group elements, revealing many properties of the system.

A group of elements can be split into subsets such that all the elements are conjugate
to each other, the similarity transformation being done by some element of the group
itself, but no two elements belonging to two different subsets are conjugate to each
other. Such subsets are called classes of the group.
I
A subset of a group whose elements satisfy all the four aximos is called a subgroup.
Obviously, a subgroup must contain the identity element. A group generated by a single
element and containing powers of that element is called a cyclic group. The group of
order n! formed by the n! permutations on n objects is called the permutation group.

The use of group theory has become very essential in understanding the properties of
crystals (electron energy bands, lattice vibrations, etc.), of molecules and atoms, of
nucleons and other elementary paiticles.

I. h o r n Table 5.2, fmd the result of successive products au( m , ~ :)and (0.m,)~:.
Ch.-.,.r th-t tho., -,.....-:-
---,.-A,.--- --.:&I. &I... ---.-c -----
1 :-A:--

3. Find the classes of the group (1, i,-1,-i)with multiplication as the binary law of
composition.

4. Constrixt the multiplication table of the permutation group Sj .

Self-assessment Questions
1. See Fig. 5.7. Note that boththe systems shown in Fie. 5.7 have the same svmmetrv.
 Baric Notions of
Group Theory

Fig.5.7: (a) The H 2 0 molecule (with two equal 0 - H bonds not in the same line); (b) An isosceles triangle with
equal sides AB and AC. (Line AD is the bisector of the angle BAC.)

The triangle ABC has these symmetries.

(a) A rotation through 180" about the line AD.

(b) The plane of the triangle is reflection symmetry plane.

I

(c) Finally, there is reflection symmetry in a plane passing through line AD and normal
to the plane of the triangle. .

2. a) We note that the addition of two matrices of order m x n is also a matrix of the
same order. Matrix addition is associative, that is, if A, B, C are any three matrices
of order m x n, then A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C. The null matrix 0 (with all
elements zero) is the identity element because A + 0 =A. Finally, A + (-A) = 0 , so
that -A is the 'inverse' of A. Thus the set is a group. The group is abelian because
for any two matrices, A + B = B + A.
'
b) The multiplication of two square matrices of the same order gives a square matrix
of the same order. Matrix multiplication is associative. The unit matrix I of order
n x n is the identity element. Finally, by definition, a nonsingular matrix A has an
inverse denoted by A-' such that AA-' =I.The group is non-abelian because for
two arbitrary matrices, A B # B A.

c) The set is closed under addition. The associative law is satisfied. The identity
-1ement is 0 which exists in the set. But none of the elements other than 0 possess
an 'inverse' within the given set. (For example, the 'inverse' of 6 under addition is
-6, but it does not belong to the set.)

3. By the method illustrated in Eq. (5.1 I), you can see that, while C4 and C: are inverse of
each other, each of the remaining six elements is its own inverse. For example,
(E)-I = E, (m,)-' = m,, etc.

4. We perform similarity transformations of m, with respect to all the elements of Cbv.We

find the following result:

(E)-' m, E = Em, = m,, (C4)-'mXC4 = c:ov = my,

T

2. We have remarked in the text following Eq. (5.9) that operator equations are valid Basic lotions of
irrespective of the system on which they operate. This question illustrates this concept. Group Theory
Thus we see that

-- x =

\ -
\u 'u \' u

Thus Fig. 5.8 shows that C4m, = a,. Notice that neither C4nor cr,, is a symmetry
A transformation for the rectangle. But the operator equation remains valid.

3. We perform similarity transformations of each element with respect to every other

element in the group. For example, the similarity transformation of i with respect to
other elements gives

(I)-' i(1) = i, (-I)-' i(-1) = i, (-i)-I i(-i) = i.

Thus the element i in the given group is conjugate to itself and not to any other
element. Therefore it forms a class by itself. For the other elements, we find:

(I)-' (-1) (1) = -1, (i)-I (-1) (i) = -1, (-i)-I (-1) (-i) = -1; I
I

(I)-' (-i) (1) = -i, (i)-l (-i)(i) = -i, (- I)-' (-i)(- 1) = -i.

a
Thus each of the four elements in the group is a class by itself.

4. Multiplication table of S3:

Second First Operation

Operation E B A C D F
I
E E A B C D F

A A E B D F C

1 The calculations are as follows:

Matrices, Tensors and
Group Theory