AMPLITUDE MODULATION

(AM)
INTRODUCTION TO AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Objectives

•Explain the need for modulation

•Explain the process of amplitude

modulation.

•Explain the term “modulation index” as

applied to AM.
Key terms in modulation
Carrier signal

• A high frequency signal which has a certain

amplitude, frequency and phase.

• It contains no information and is only used to

carry the information signal to the receiver.

• It can be generated by a suitable oscillator.

Modulating (baseband) signal

• A low frequency signal which contains the

message to be transmitted, but has to undergo
the process of modulation to get transmitted
properly over a long distance.

• An example of a modulating signal may be

audio (sound) or video (picture) signals, etc.
Modulated signal

•The resultant signal after the process of

modulation, a combination of the
modulating signal and the carrier signal.
Introduction
• Audio frequencies corresponding to sound
waves range from about 15Hz to 20 kHz.

𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞
• Using the formula; 𝛌 = ;
where the
𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞
velocity of a radio wave is about 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐦/𝐬;
𝟖

• We see that the wavelengths of these

frequencies range from 200km to 150km
respectively.
Introduction
• Such frequencies cannot be transmitted by a
transmitter directly.

• This is because to transmit a radio wave, the antenna

of a transmitter must be almost of the same size as
the waves to be radiated.

• The minimum height of the transmitting antenna must

be at least one quarter of the wavelength of the
signal.
• However, it is impractical (not impossible) to
construct antennas thousands of kilometers long.
Introduction
• Therefore, if long distance transmission of radio waves is
required, the only practical solution is to superimpose an
information signal (also known as a modulating signal)
onto a high frequency sinusoidal wave known as a
carrier.

• Then, one characteristic of the carrier signal is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the
information signal.

• This process is known as modulation.

Modulation

• This is a process of producing a wave in which some

characteristic, usually amplitude, frequency or phase of a
sinusoidal voltage( called a carrier) is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the information
signal voltage.

• Note that only one of these characteristics (amplitude,

frequency or phase) of the carrier can be varied at a time
while keeping the other characteristics constant.
Modulation
• The result of modulation is a modulated wave which is basically a
high frequency carrier, altered in accordance with the information
signal so as to carry intelligence (voice in this case).

• Modulation is a critical process in transmission for all

communication systems.

• Different communication system uses different modulation schemes.

• Modulation schemes can be analog or digital.

• In this course, we will only focus on analog modulation schemes.

Expression for a sinusoidal carrier
• The general expression for a sinusoidal carrier wave is given by:
• 𝐯 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + ∅)
• 𝐯 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 𝐭 + ∅
• Where;
• 𝐯 - is the instantaneous carrier voltage
• 𝐯𝐜 - is the peak amplitude of the carrier wave
• 𝐟𝐜 - is the frequency of the carrier
• ∅ - is the phase angle of the carrier wave
• Note: The frequency of the carrier is always higher than that of
the information signal.
Analog modulation schemes

Amplitude modulation (AM) – Modulation scheme where the

amplitude of the carrier, 𝐕𝐜 is varied in accordance with the
information signal.

Frequency modulation (FM) − Modulation scheme where the

frequency of the carrier, 𝐟𝐜 is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal.

Phase modulation (PM) – Modulation scheme where the phase of the

carrier, ∅ is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

Note: FM & PM are sometimes lumped together and referred to as

angle modulation.
Why is modulation needed?
Reason 1 – Modulation helps in long distance
transmission of low frequency (baseband)
signals
• Modulation shifts or changes the lower frequencies into
higher frequencies for long distance transmission.

• Radio frequencies are in the LF – MF band and the

frequencies are too low and their energies are too low for
long range transmission.
Analogy for reason number 1

• Imagine trying to throw a light material, such as paper/cloth etc.

100metres away. This would be equivalent to trying to transmit a raw
baseband signal over a long distance. Of course it wouldn’t go very
far.

• Now, if you wrap the paper/cloth around a heavier material such as

a stone, small sheet of metal etc., it becomes easy to throw the
paper/cloth 100 metres away. This would be equivalent to
superimposing a low frequency signal on a high frequency carrier
and then transmitting them together. This signal can be transmitted
over a long distance.
Reason 2 - To reduce the effective length of
transmitting antennas

• To effectively transmit a signal, the minimum length of an

antenna must be at least one quarter of the wavelength of
the modulating signal (information).

• That is;
𝟏
• 𝐇𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝝺
𝟒

• Where 𝞴 is the wavelength of the information signal.

Example
• Consider a scenario where a 20 kHz radio wave is required
to be transmitted. What should be the minimum height of
the antenna?
𝐯 𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟖
• Wavelength of the radio wave; 𝛌 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐦
𝐟 𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑
• Therefore, the minimum height of the transmitting antenna
must be at least a quarter of the wavelength of this wave,
i.e.;
𝟏
• 𝐇𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟎𝐦 𝐨𝐫 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓𝐤𝐦
𝟒
• This antenna height is not very practical. As a solution, we
can superimpose this 20 kHz radio wave onto a 3MHz
carrier (just as an example)
If the 20 kHz radio wave is superimposed
onto a 3MHz carrier…

• In this case, the wavelength of the carrier is:

𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟖
•𝛌 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐦
𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟔
• The minimum length of the antenna required to
transmit this carrier is:
𝟏
• 𝐇𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓𝐦
𝟒
• This is a more reasonable antenna height than
𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟎𝐦.
Reason 3 - Prevent interference and overlapping
of adjacent frequencies

• If two different transmitting stations transmit

signals of the same frequency, they will
interfere with each other or overlap.

• To avoid this, we need to modulate these

signals with different carrier frequencies.
Amplitude modulation

• In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave

is varied in accordance with the amplitude characteristics
of the signal being transmitted (also known as the
modulating signal) while keeping the frequency and phase
of the carrier constant.

• The information signal (also known as the modulating or

baseband signal) modifies the amplitude of the carrier
wave and determines the envelope of the modulated
waveform as shown on the next slide.
Example

• Given a carrier voltage; 𝐯𝐜 = 𝟏𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 𝐭 + ∅) and a

modulating signal; 𝐯𝐦 = 𝟓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐦 𝐭. Determine, for the
envelope of the modulated waveform

• 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱

• 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
Solution

• From; 𝐯𝐜 = 𝟏𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 𝐭 + ∅); 𝐯𝐜 = 𝟏𝟎𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬

• From; 𝐯𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐦 𝐭; 𝐯𝐦 = 𝟓 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬

• 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐯𝐜 + 𝐯𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬

• 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝐯𝐜 − 𝐯𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓 = 𝟓 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
Modulation index (factor) - m
• The modulation index is the measure of the degree/extent to which the
carrier is modulated by the information signal.

• Mathematically, it is defined as:

𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐦=
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧

𝐯𝐜 + 𝐯𝐦 − 𝐯𝐜 − 𝐯𝐦
𝐦=
𝐯𝐜 + 𝐯𝐦 + 𝐯𝐜 − 𝐯𝐦

𝟐𝐯𝐦 𝐯𝐦
𝐦= =
𝟐𝐯𝐜 𝐯𝐜

• Range of the modulation index; 𝟎 < 𝐦 ≤ 𝟏

Percentage modulation (depth)

• When expressed as a percentage, the modulation index

is also known as the modulation depth.

• The modulation depth is a measure of the degree of

change in the amplitude of the carrier when it is
modulated

• Mathematically, it is given as:

𝐕𝐦
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐕𝐜
Modulation index (factor) - m

• When 𝐦 = 𝟎; No modulation

• When 𝟎 < 𝐦 < 𝟏; Under modulation

• When 𝐦 = 𝟏; 100% modulation

• When 𝐦 > 𝟏; Over modulation

100% modulation (𝐦 = 𝟏)
• This scenario occurs when the carrier amplitude, 𝐕𝐜 is equal
to the amplitude of the modulating signal, 𝐕𝐦 , such that the
percentage Modulation index;
𝑽𝐦
• × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝐜
• The modulated wave amplitude sometimes reaches twice
the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier and then drops to
zero amplitude.

• This represents full modulation using standard AM and is

often a target (in order to obtain the highest possible signal-
to-noise ratio) but mustn't be exceeded.
Under modulation - 𝟎 < 𝐦 < 𝟏

• If less than 100% modulation is applied, then the carrier

will not fall to zero, or rise to twice the level of the
unmodulated carrier.

• But the deviation will be less than this from the reference
level.

• The diagram below shows a level of 50% modulation,

but the principle holds true for any value between 0 and
100% modulation.
Over modulation (𝐦 > 𝟏)

• This results if the level of modulation is raised up

above a modulation index of 1, i.e. more than 100%
modulation, i.e 𝐯𝐦 > 𝐯𝐜 .

• The carrier experiences 180° phase reversals where

the carrier level would try to go below the zero point.

• These phase reversals give rise to additional

sidebands resulting from the phase reversals (phase
modulation).
Over modulation (𝐦 > 𝟏)

• These sidebands caused by the phase reversal extend

out, in theory to infinity.

• This can cause serious interference to other

frequencies if not filtered.

• AM broadcast stations using AM take measures to

ensure that the carriers or signals for their transmissions
never become over modulated.
Measures used to avoid over modulation

•Limiters

•Automatic gain control (AGC)

•Audio clippers
Peak to peak voltages

• The unmodulated carrier will have a peak to peak

voltage midway between the maximum voltage
(𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 ) and the minimum voltage (𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧 ) and is given
by:
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
• 𝐕𝐂 =
𝟐

• The peak to peak message signal, 𝐕𝐦 is given by:

𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
• 𝐕𝐦 =
𝟐
Example

• A modulated carrier is viewed on an oscilloscope

and has a crest voltage of 50 Volts peak to peak. The
trough of the wave measures 12 Volts peak to peak.

• Find;

• The modulation factor

• The percentage modulation

Solution - modulation factor
• The modulation index (factor) is given by:
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐦=
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧
• Where;
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟓𝟎𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟏𝟐𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝟎−𝟏𝟐
•𝐦 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟗
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝟎+𝟏𝟐
• Therefore, percentage of modulation is 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟗 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟑% (under modulated)
Exercise
A sinusoidal carrier with an amplitude of 100
Volts with a frequency of 2MHz is amplitude
modulated by an audio signal of 5KHz,
producing 55% modulation.

•Determine the amplitude of the audio signal.

•Sketch the envelope of the resulting AM wave.

Mathematical expression of the sinusoidal
carrier

• The general mathematical representation for a sinusoidal

carrier is given as:
• 𝐯𝐜 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐜 𝐭
• Where:
• 𝐕𝐜 = 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫
• 𝛚𝐜 = 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜

• The carrier can also be represented as a cosine function as:

• 𝐯𝐜 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭
Mathematical expression of the modulating
signal

• The general mathematical representation for a sinusoidal

modulating signal is:
• 𝐯𝐦 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭
• Where;
• 𝐕𝐦 = 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥
• 𝛚𝐦 = 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐦

• Note: The modulating signal can also be represented as a

cosine function as: 𝐯𝐦 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭
Expression for the AM wave
• General expression for the voltage of the AM wave is given
by: This is after modulation process
• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 + 𝐕𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭

• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐕𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭

• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐯𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭

• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭

• Where m is the modulation index
Expression for the AM wave

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 can be expressed as a sum using the

trigonometric identity;

𝟏
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐁 = [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐀 + 𝐁 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐀 − 𝐁 ]
𝟐

𝟏
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐜 𝐭 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭)
𝟐
Expression for the AM wave

𝟏
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝟐

• Therefore; the AM wave can be expressed as follows:

𝟏
• 𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝟐

𝐦𝐕𝐜 𝐦𝐕𝐜
• 𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝟐 𝟐
Am sidebands
• From the AM wave expression;
𝐦𝐕𝐜 𝐦𝐕𝐜
• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝟐 𝟐

• We can see that when a purely sinusoidal analog signal

amplitude-modulates a sinusoidal carrier signal, the result is a
modulated signal consisting of three components:

• The carrier frequency - 𝛚𝐜

• The upper sideband frequencies (USF) - 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦

• The lower sideband frequencies (LSF) - 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦

Am sidebands

• But since 𝛚𝐜 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 and 𝛚𝐦 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐦 ;

• we can modify the Am wave equation as follows:

𝐦𝐕𝐜 𝐦𝐕𝐜
• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 + 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 − 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐦 𝐭
𝟐 𝟐

𝐦𝐕𝐜 𝐦𝐕𝐜
• 𝐯𝐀𝐌 = 𝐕𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛑 𝐟𝐜 + 𝐟𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝛑 𝐟𝐜 − 𝐟𝐦 ]𝐭
𝟐 𝟐
• These frequencies can be represented on a spectrum as follows:
Spectrum of an AM wave
Bandwidth of an AM wave
• The bandwidth of a signal is the difference between
the highest and lowest frequency in that signal.

• In this case;

𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐰𝐢𝐝𝐭𝐡 = 𝐟𝐂 + 𝐟𝐦 − (𝐟𝐂 − 𝐟𝐦 )

= 𝐟𝐂 + 𝐟𝐦 − 𝐟𝐂 + 𝐟𝐦

= 𝟐𝐟𝐦
Practical implication of AM bandwidth

• The information mainly transmitted by AM systems is

music and speech which falls in the audio spectrum.

• The full audio spectrum ranges up to 20 kHz, but AM

radio limits the upper modulating frequency to 5 kHz.

• This results in a maximum bandwidth of 10 kHz for

AM.
Common variants of AM

• Double sideband transmitted carrier (DSB-TC) AM

• Single sideband (SSB) AM

• Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB – SC) AM

• Vestigial sideband (VSB) AM

Example
• A sinusoidal carrier voltage of frequency 2MHz and
amplitude 100 volts is amplitude modulated by an
audio signal of 5KHz producing 55% modulation.

• Calculate:
i. The frequencies of the sidebands
ii. The amplitude of the sidebands
iii. Amplitude of the modulating signal
iv. The bandwidth of the AM signal
Solution
• The spectrum of the AM wave is as follows;

• In this case; 𝐯𝐜 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬, 𝐟𝐜 = 𝟐𝐌𝐇𝐳, 𝐟𝐦 = 𝟓𝐊𝐇𝐳, 𝐦 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓

• Frequencies of the sidebands are as follows;
• Lower sideband frequency; 𝐟𝐜 − 𝐟𝐦 = 𝟐𝐌𝐇𝐙 − 𝟓𝐊𝐇𝐙 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝐌𝐇𝐳
• Upper sideband frequency; 𝐟𝐜 + 𝐟𝐦 = 𝟐𝐌𝐇𝐙 + 𝟓𝐊𝐇𝐙 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝐌𝐇𝐙
Solution (cont’d)

• The amplitude of the sidebands is given as:

𝐦𝐕𝐂
• Amplitude of the LSB=Amplitude of the USB =
𝟐

𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
=
𝟐

= 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
Solution (cont’d)
𝐯𝐦
• From the formula for modulation index; 𝐦 =
𝐯𝐜
• The modulating signal;
𝐯𝐦 = 𝐦𝐯𝐜
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟓𝟓𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
• The bandwidth of the AM signal is given by:
𝐁𝐖 = 𝟐𝐟𝐦
= 𝟐 × 𝟓𝐊𝐇𝐳
= 𝟏𝟎𝐊𝐇𝐳
Exercise
• Given that a 15KHz audio signal amplitude
modulates a 10MHz carrier to produce sidebands
with an amplitude of 25volts.

• Determine:
• Sideband frequencies
• Amplitudes of the carrier and the modulating signal
for 100% modulation
• Bandwidth of the AM signal.
AM spectrum of a complex AM wave
• In practice, the modulating signal is composed of a
number of frequencies.

• Forexample, an audio signal has frequencies in the

range 15Hz – 20KHz.

• When such a signal amplitude-modulates a carrier,

each modulating frequency produces a pair of lower
and upper sidebands, centered about the same
carrier frequency.
AM power

• For an AM wave, the total power radiated is obtained by

summing up the powers of the three components of an AM
wave.

• That is: 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 + 𝐏𝐋𝐒𝐁 + 𝐏𝐔𝐒𝐁

• Power dissipated by each of these components through an

aerial or in a resistive load (dummy antenna) is proportional
to the square of the amplitude(in terms of voltage and
current)
AM power
• Carrier power is given as:
• 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 ∝ 𝐯𝐜𝟐
• 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 = 𝐤𝐯𝐜𝟐
• Lower sideband power is given as:
𝐦𝐯𝐜 𝟐
• 𝐏𝐋𝐒𝐁 ∝
𝟐
𝐤𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝐜𝟐
• 𝐏𝐋𝐒𝐁 =
𝟒
• Upper sideband power is given as:
𝐦𝐯𝐜 𝟐
• 𝐏𝐔𝐒𝐁 ∝
𝟐
𝐤𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝐜𝟐
• 𝐏𝐔𝐒𝐁 =
𝟒
AM power
• Therefore, the total transmitted power is given as:
𝐤𝐦𝟐𝐯𝟐 𝐤𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝐜𝟐
𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐤𝐯𝐜 + 𝐜
+
𝟒 𝟒

𝟐𝐊𝐦𝟐𝐯𝟐
𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐤𝐯𝐜 + 𝐜
𝟒

𝐊𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝐜𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐤𝐯𝐜𝟐 +
𝟐

𝐦𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐤𝐯𝐜𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟐
AM power

• Recall that: 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 = 𝐤𝐯𝐜𝟐

• Therefore, the total transmitted power in AM is given by:

𝐦𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝟏 +
𝟐

• For 100% modulation (i.e. m=1); the total power is:

𝟏 𝟑
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝟏 + = 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
• In terms of carrier power; 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 = 𝐏𝐓
𝟑
AM efficiency with 𝐦 = 𝟏
𝟐
• Two thirds of total AM power 𝐏 is contained in the carrier
𝟑 𝐓
(which is empty).

𝟏
• This means only one third of total AM power 𝐏𝐓 is carried in
𝟑
the sidebands(which contain information).

• This limits AM transmission efficiency to only 33.3% for the best

case scenario.

• The efficiency can be improved by raising the modulation

index; but this could cause distortion due to over modulation.
Example 1

• A transmitter supplies 8kw • Given;

to the aerial (antenna) 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 = 𝟖𝐤𝐰
when unmodulated. %𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝟑𝟎%
𝟑𝟎
• Therefore; 𝐦 = = 𝟎. 𝟑
𝟏𝟎𝟎
• Determine the total power • The total power radiated is
radiated when modulated given by:
to 30% • 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝟏 +
𝐦𝟐
𝟐
𝟎.𝟑𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝟖 𝟏 +
𝟐
• 𝐏𝐓 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟔𝐤𝐰
Example 2

• If a wireless transmitter radiates 4kw with an

unmodulated carrier wave and 4.8kw when the
carrier wave undergoes a sinusoidal variation of
amplitude.

• Calculate the percentage of modulation employed,

assuming distortion to be negligible.
Solution
• Given;
• Carrier power; 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 = 𝟒𝐤𝐰
• Total power radiated; 𝐏𝐓 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝐤𝐰

𝐦𝟐
• Therefore, using: 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐏𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝟏 +
𝟐
𝟐
𝐦
𝟒. 𝟖 = 𝟒 𝟏 +
𝟐
𝟒. 𝟖 𝐦𝟐
=𝟏+
𝟒 𝟐
Solution (cont’d)
𝐦𝟐
• 𝟏. 𝟐 = 𝟏+
𝟐
𝟐+𝐦𝟐
• 𝟏. 𝟐 =
𝟐
• By cross multiplication; it can be shown that:
𝟐. 𝟒 = 𝟐 + 𝐦𝟐
𝐦𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒 − 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒
𝐦 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐
• Therefore, percentage modulation is given by:
• 𝐦 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟐%
Exercise

• The RMS value of an aerial current before modulation

is 10Amps and after modulation is 12Amps.
Calculate the modulation factor used.

𝐦𝟐
• Hint: 𝐈𝐓 = 𝐈𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝟏 +
𝟐
Review questions - Modulators

• With the aid of diagrams;

I. Explain the working of a DSB-SC balanced modulator.

I. Explain theoretically how SSB is obtained from a

balanced modulator by the phase shift method.

II. Explain mathematically how SSB is obtained from a

balanced modulator using the phase shift method.