CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

Chapter 2 Thermal Physics

2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

▪ Matter exist in one of four different states.

State Characteristics
Solid • Fixed shape and volume.
• Strong forces of attraction
between particles.
• Have a fixed pattern (lattice)
• Atoms vibrate but cannot change position.
Liquid • Fixed volume but changes shape depending on
container
• Weaker attractive forces that solids
• No fixed pattern
• Particles slide past each other
Gases • No fixed shape volume, gases fill up their
containers
• Almost no intermolecular forces
• Particles are far apart, and move quickly,
gases spread out to fill up the container and
exert equal pressure on all surfaces.
• They collide with each other and bounce in all
directions.

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

▪ Matter can change from solid to liquid via melting and liquid to solid via freezing.
▪ These changes occur at the melting point.
▪ Liquid can also change to gas via boiling and gas to liquid via condensing.
▪ These occur at the boiling point.

• Molecules in a gas move around randomly and very quickly.

• The temperature of a gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.
• The higher the KE of the molecules, the higher its temperature.

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

• For example, the average KE of a glass of water at 80 oC is higher than the

average KE of a glass of water at 30 oC.
• Hence, the lowest possible temperature that can be achieved in this universe is -
273 oC (not infinity!)
• At this temperature all molecules cease moving hence, the average KE = 0
• The motion of the molecules often cause them to collide with the surface of
nearby walls.
• This collision causes a change in momentum when the molecule bounces off the
wall (recall from previous chapter change in momentum over time gives you force).
• Each collision applies a force across a surface area of the walls.
• Recall from previous chapter force per unit area is pressure.
• Recall Brownian motion is the erratic motion of small particles when observed
through a microscope which is caused by collision between said particles and the
molecules of the gas (liquid).
• The SI unit of temperature is in Kelvin. However, Celsius is more frequently used.
• You can convert Celsius to Kelvin by using

K = TOC + 273

Convert the following to Kelvin

a) -273 OC

b) 0 OC

c) 100 OC

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

• When the temperature of a gas in a fixed container is increased, the KE (speed)

of molecules increase.
• This causes the molecules to collide more frequently against the container thus
increasing pressure.

• However, if you decrease the volume while keeping the temperature of the gas
constant (as in the case of the piston below) the pressure will increase.
• This is due to more collisions of the molecules with the container.

• This phenomenon can be described using Boyle’s Law

P1V1 = P2V2

• The graph above shows the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of
an ideal gas at constant temperature.

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

• When most substance is heated, they expand due to higher average KE.
• The molecules start knocking into each other and push each other apart.
• Solids expand a little due to the stronger bonds holding each molecule.
• Liquids expand more than solid but less that gas since the molecular bond
strength holding them is between solid and gas.
• Gas expands the most due to it have the weakest molecular bonds.
• Best example of this phenomenon is a thermometer.

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

• As the temperature of thermometer increases, the liquid inside of the

thermometer expands.
• To do well in this chapter you must first understand the difference between
temperature and heat.
• Temperature is related to the average speed (or KE) of individual molecules.
• The SI unit for temperature is in Kelvin.
• Heat is a form of energy (not a force).
• As such its SI unit is Joules.
• Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change the temperature
by 1oC or 1K for a mass of 1kg of the substance.
• A lower heat capacity means the object heats up easier, while a higher heat
capacity means an object heats slower.
• The specific heat capacity (c) can be calculated by using

𝑄
𝑐=
𝜃𝑚

Here Q is the thermal energy (heat), θ is the change in temperature and m is the
mass of the substance.
• The SI unit of c is Joules OC-1kg-1 (definitely the longest unit in physics so far!)

Temperature

Time

• The above is a familiar plot of temperature vs time

• When a substance is heated its temperate would normally increase due to the
average KE increasing (sloped part of the graph)
• However, when the substance is changing phase either solid to liquid or liquid to
gas, the temperature stays the same (flat part of the graph)
• This happens because the energy is being used to break the bonds between the
molecules instead of increasing the KE (hence temperature)

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

• Liquid can change to gas through either boiling or evaporation.

• The difference between both is as follows:

Boiling Evaporation

Occurs at fixed temperature Occurs at any temperature

Quick process Slow process

Takes place throughout the liquid Takes place only at the surface of the
liquid

Bubbles are formed in the liquid No bubbles are formed

Temperature remains constant Temperature may change

Thermal energy supplied by an energy Heat supplied by surroundings

source

• Evaporation constantly occurs on the surface of liquids.

• It is the escape of the more energetic particles.
• If the more energetic particles escape, the liquid contains fewer high energy
particles and lower energy particles so the average temperature decreases.
• Evaporation can be accelerated by:
-increasing temperature: more particles have enough energy to escape
-increasing surface area: more molecules are close to the surface
-reduce the humidity level in the air: if the air is less humid, fewer particles are
condensing.
-blow air across the surface: removes molecules before they can return to the
liquid
• Evaporation can cool objects down if the surface of the object is in contact with
the liquid.
• Best example is sweating.

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

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• Thermal energy is transferred via 3 mechanisms:

Mechanism Method
Conduction • In non-metals - when heat is
supplied to something, its atoms
vibrate faster and pass on their
vibrations to the adjacent atoms.
• In metals – conduction happens in
the previous way and in a quicker
way – some electrons are free to
move, they travel randomly in the
metal and collide with atoms and
pass on the vibrations
Convection • As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up,
the particles which are warmer
become less dense and rise.
• They then cool and fall back to the
heat source, creating a cycle called
convection current.
• As particles circulate they
transfer energy to other particles.
Radiation • Thermal radiation is mainly infra-
red waves (chapter 3) but very hot
objects also give out light waves.
• Infra-red radiation is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

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CIE IGCSE Physics Notes

• Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot objects also give out light
waves.
• Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Unlike the other two mechanism, thermal radiation can travel through a vacuum and
does not need a medium.
• An emitter sends out thermal radiation.
• A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad absorber.
• An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat up more quickly and a
reflector will not heat up quickly
• The color of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal
radiation as shown below:

Matt Black White Silver

Emitter Best Worst
Reflector Worst Best
Absorber best worst

• Factors affecting thermal radiation is

-temperature of the object (hotter = more radiation)
-color of the object (black = more radiation)
-surface area of the object (greater surface area = more area for radiation to
emit from)

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